id
stringlengths 33
45
| content
stringlengths 95
98.7k
| url
stringlengths 18
263
|
|---|---|---|
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_310742063#2_349729594 | Title: Motivation - Wikipedia
Headings: Motivation
Motivation
Contents
Definition
Motivation and mental states
Strength of desire and action
Content theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Herzberg's two-factor theory
Alderfer's ERG theory
Self-Determination Theory
Behaviorist theories
Classical and operant conditioning
Incentive motivation
Motivating operations
Motivation and psychotherapy
William McDougall's purposive psychology
Drives
Cognitive dissonance theory
Types of motivation
Intrinsic and extrinsic
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Unconscious and conscious
Unconscious
Conscious
Neuroscience
Motivational reasons and rationality
Practical applications
Applications in business
Job characteristics model
Employee recognition programs
Applications in education
Indigenous education and learning
Self-determination in education
Applications in game design
Applications in the military
See also
References
Further reading
Content: They are known as content theories and aim to describe what goals usually or always motivate people. Abraham Maslow 's hierarchy of needs and the ERG theory, for example, posit that humans have certain needs, which are responsible for motivation. Some of these needs, like for food and water, are more basic than other needs, like for respect from others. On this view, the higher needs can only provide motivation once the lower needs have been fulfilled. Behaviorist theories try to explain behavior solely in terms of the relation between the situation and external, observable behavior without explicit reference to conscious mental states. Motivation may be either intrinsic, if the activity is desired because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, or extrinsic, if the agent's goal is an external reward distinct from the activity itself. It has been argued that intrinsic motivation has more beneficial outcomes than extrinsic motivation. Motivational states can also be categorized according to whether the agent is fully aware of why he acts the way he does or not, referred to as conscious and unconscious motivation. Motivation is closely related to practical rationality. A central idea in this field is that we should be motivated to perform an action if we believe that we should perform it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivate |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_310742063#4_349734470 | Title: Motivation - Wikipedia
Headings: Motivation
Motivation
Contents
Definition
Motivation and mental states
Strength of desire and action
Content theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Herzberg's two-factor theory
Alderfer's ERG theory
Self-Determination Theory
Behaviorist theories
Classical and operant conditioning
Incentive motivation
Motivating operations
Motivation and psychotherapy
William McDougall's purposive psychology
Drives
Cognitive dissonance theory
Types of motivation
Intrinsic and extrinsic
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Unconscious and conscious
Unconscious
Conscious
Neuroscience
Motivational reasons and rationality
Practical applications
Applications in business
Job characteristics model
Employee recognition programs
Applications in education
Indigenous education and learning
Self-determination in education
Applications in game design
Applications in the military
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Failing to fulfill this requirement results in cases of irrationality, known as akrasia or weakness of the will, in which there is a discrepancy between our beliefs about what we should do and our actions. Research on motivation has been employed in various fields. In the field of business, a central question concerns work motivation, for example, what measures an employer can use to ensure that his employees are motivated. Motivation is also of particular interest to educational psychologists because of its crucial role in student learning. Specific interest has been given to the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in this field. Contents
1 Definition
2 Motivation and mental states
2.1 Strength of desire and action
3 Content theories
3.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs
3.2 Herzberg's two-factor theory
3.3 Alderfer's ERG theory
3.4 Self-Determination Theory
3.5 Behaviorist theories
3.5.1 Classical and operant conditioning
3.5.2 Incentive motivation
3.5.3 Motivating operations
3.5.4 Motivation and psychotherapy
3.6 Drives
3.7 Cognitive dissonance theory
4 Types of motivation
4.1 Intrinsic and extrinsic
4.1.1 Intrinsic
4.1.2 Extrinsic
4.2 Unconscious and conscious
4.2.1 Unconscious
4.2.2 Conscious
5 Neuroscience
6 Motivational reasons and rationality
7 Practical applications
7.1 Applications in business
7.1.1 Job characteristics model
7.1.2 Employee recognition programs
7.2 Applications in education
7.2.1 Indigenous education and learning
7.2.2 Self-determination in education
7.3 Applications in game design
7.4 Applications in the military
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
Definition
Motivation is commonly defined as what explains why people or animals initiate, continue or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. Motivational states come in various degrees of strength. The higher the degree, the more likely it is that the state has an influence on behavior. This is often linked to forces acting from within the agent that result in goal-directed behavior. One problem with defining motivation in terms of internal forces is that it is very difficult to measure them, which is why empirically-minded theorists often prefer definitions that are more closely linked to observable behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivate |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_310742063#5_349737877 | Title: Motivation - Wikipedia
Headings: Motivation
Motivation
Contents
Definition
Motivation and mental states
Strength of desire and action
Content theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Herzberg's two-factor theory
Alderfer's ERG theory
Self-Determination Theory
Behaviorist theories
Classical and operant conditioning
Incentive motivation
Motivating operations
Motivation and psychotherapy
William McDougall's purposive psychology
Drives
Cognitive dissonance theory
Types of motivation
Intrinsic and extrinsic
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Unconscious and conscious
Unconscious
Conscious
Neuroscience
Motivational reasons and rationality
Practical applications
Applications in business
Job characteristics model
Employee recognition programs
Applications in education
Indigenous education and learning
Self-determination in education
Applications in game design
Applications in the military
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Contents
1 Definition
2 Motivation and mental states
2.1 Strength of desire and action
3 Content theories
3.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs
3.2 Herzberg's two-factor theory
3.3 Alderfer's ERG theory
3.4 Self-Determination Theory
3.5 Behaviorist theories
3.5.1 Classical and operant conditioning
3.5.2 Incentive motivation
3.5.3 Motivating operations
3.5.4 Motivation and psychotherapy
3.6 Drives
3.7 Cognitive dissonance theory
4 Types of motivation
4.1 Intrinsic and extrinsic
4.1.1 Intrinsic
4.1.2 Extrinsic
4.2 Unconscious and conscious
4.2.1 Unconscious
4.2.2 Conscious
5 Neuroscience
6 Motivational reasons and rationality
7 Practical applications
7.1 Applications in business
7.1.1 Job characteristics model
7.1.2 Employee recognition programs
7.2 Applications in education
7.2.1 Indigenous education and learning
7.2.2 Self-determination in education
7.3 Applications in game design
7.4 Applications in the military
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
Definition
Motivation is commonly defined as what explains why people or animals initiate, continue or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. Motivational states come in various degrees of strength. The higher the degree, the more likely it is that the state has an influence on behavior. This is often linked to forces acting from within the agent that result in goal-directed behavior. One problem with defining motivation in terms of internal forces is that it is very difficult to measure them, which is why empirically-minded theorists often prefer definitions that are more closely linked to observable behavior. One approach is to define motivation in terms of the flexibility of the animal's behavior. This flexibility involves goal-directed behavior that changes as the animal learns through new experiences. Rats, for example, can learn to traverse through complicated mazes in order to satisfy their hunger. The feeding behavior of flies, on the other hand, is not flexible in this sense. On this view, we are justified to ascribe motivational states to rats but not to flies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivate |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_310912016#3_349829243 | Title: Motivation - Wikipedia
Headings: Motivation
Motivation
Contents
Definition
Neuroscience
Motivation and mental states
Strength of desire and action
Content theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Herzberg's two-factor theory
Alderfer's ERG theory
Self-Determination Theory
Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Behaviorist theories
Classical and operant conditioning
Incentive motivation
Motivating operations
Motivation and psychotherapy
William McDougall's purposive psychology
Drives
Cognitive dissonance theory
Unconscious Motivation
Priming
Conscious Motivation
Practical applications
Applications in business
Job characteristics model
Employee recognition programs
Applications in education
Indigenous education and learning
Self-determination in education
Applications in game design
Applications in the military
See also
References
Further reading
Content: An individual's motivation may be inspired by outside forces (extrinsic motivation) or by themselves (intrinsic motivation). The difference between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation depends on the actions behind it. Intrinsic motivation has to do with having an internal desire to perform a task and extrinsic motivation has to do with performing a task in order to receive some kind of reward. According to research, intrinsic motivation has more beneficial outcomes than extrinsic motivation. Motivation has been considered one of the most important reasons to move forward. Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors. Mastering motivation to allow sustained and deliberate practice is central to high levels of achievement, e.g. in elite sport, medicine, or music. Motivation governs choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity. Contents
1 Definition
2 Neuroscience
3 Motivation and mental states
3.1 Strength of desire and action
4 Content theories
4.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs
4.2 Herzberg's two-factor theory
4.3 Alderfer's ERG theory
4.4 Self-Determination Theory
4.5 Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
4.5.1 Intrinsic motivation
4.5.2 Extrinsic motivation
4.6 Behaviorist theories
4.6.1 Classical and operant conditioning
4.6.2 Incentive motivation
4.6.3 Motivating operations
4.6.4 Motivation and psychotherapy
4.7 Drives
4.8 Cognitive dissonance theory
4.9 Unconscious Motivation
4.9.1 Priming
4.9.2 Conscious Motivation
5 Practical applications
5.1 Applications in business
5.1.1 Job characteristics model
5.1.2 Employee recognition programs
5.2 Applications in education
5.2.1 Indigenous education and learning
5.2.2 Self-determination in education
5.3 Applications in game design
5.4 Applications in the military
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
Definition
Motivation is commonly defined as what explains why people or animals initiate, continue or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_310912016#4_349832410 | Title: Motivation - Wikipedia
Headings: Motivation
Motivation
Contents
Definition
Neuroscience
Motivation and mental states
Strength of desire and action
Content theories
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Herzberg's two-factor theory
Alderfer's ERG theory
Self-Determination Theory
Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Behaviorist theories
Classical and operant conditioning
Incentive motivation
Motivating operations
Motivation and psychotherapy
William McDougall's purposive psychology
Drives
Cognitive dissonance theory
Unconscious Motivation
Priming
Conscious Motivation
Practical applications
Applications in business
Job characteristics model
Employee recognition programs
Applications in education
Indigenous education and learning
Self-determination in education
Applications in game design
Applications in the military
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors. Mastering motivation to allow sustained and deliberate practice is central to high levels of achievement, e.g. in elite sport, medicine, or music. Motivation governs choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity. Contents
1 Definition
2 Neuroscience
3 Motivation and mental states
3.1 Strength of desire and action
4 Content theories
4.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs
4.2 Herzberg's two-factor theory
4.3 Alderfer's ERG theory
4.4 Self-Determination Theory
4.5 Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
4.5.1 Intrinsic motivation
4.5.2 Extrinsic motivation
4.6 Behaviorist theories
4.6.1 Classical and operant conditioning
4.6.2 Incentive motivation
4.6.3 Motivating operations
4.6.4 Motivation and psychotherapy
4.7 Drives
4.8 Cognitive dissonance theory
4.9 Unconscious Motivation
4.9.1 Priming
4.9.2 Conscious Motivation
5 Practical applications
5.1 Applications in business
5.1.1 Job characteristics model
5.1.2 Employee recognition programs
5.2 Applications in education
5.2.1 Indigenous education and learning
5.2.2 Self-determination in education
5.3 Applications in game design
5.4 Applications in the military
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
Definition
Motivation is commonly defined as what explains why people or animals initiate, continue or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. Motivational states come in various degrees of strength. The higher the degree, the more likely it is that the state has an influence on behavior. This is often linked to forces acting from within the agent that result in goal-directed behavior. One problem with defining motivation in terms of internal forces is that it is very difficult to measure them, which is why empirically-minded theorists often prefer definitions that are more closely linked to observable behavior. One approach is to define motivation in terms of the flexibility of the animal's behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_342870714#3_390488892 | Title: Multicultural counseling - Wikipedia
Headings: Multicultural counseling
Multicultural counseling
Contents
History
Why people saw a need for multicultural counseling
Multicultural counselor competencies
Ways of assessing those competencies
Multicultural Therapy In Action
Four innovative programs
Recommendations for future research on multicultural counseling
References
Content: Being a minority can be an impediment to counseling. The belief in ‘rugged individualism’ and the implications that the person is responsible for his or her own lot in life hinders a more realistic understanding of the influence of culture. Multicultural counselor competencies
In 1982, Sue published a paper that described how traditional counseling approaches were irrelevant to the minorities, and that there needs to be a push for new ways of counseling that are more appropriate to the culturally different. He realized that minority experiences have been analyzed from a Eurocentric point of view, and that the field needed universal competencies that all multicultural counselors should have, which are certain beliefs/attitudes, knowledge, and skills. Beliefs/attitudes: Counselors are culturally aware, sensitive to their own ethnicity and value other cultures. They're aware of their own biases and are comfortable with their differences from their client. Every counselor has their own implicit biases, even if they have high self-reported multicultural competencies. Knowledges: Counselors should have a thorough understanding of the sociopolitical system, especially of how it treats minorities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicultural_counseling |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_360276524#5_410798291 | Title: Muscle cell - Wikipedia
Headings: Muscle cell
Muscle cell
Contents
Structure
Microanatomy
Internal
Myofibrils
Development
Muscle fiber growth
Function
Muscle contraction
Kinds of contraction
Fiber typing
Fiber color
Twitch speed
Type distribution
See also
References
External links
Content: This network is composed of groupings of two dilated end-sacs called terminal cisternae, and a single transverse tubule, or T tubule, which bores through the cell and emerge on the other side; together these three components form the triads that exist within the network of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, in which each T tubule has two terminal cisternae on each side of it. The sarcoplasmic reticulum serves as reservoir for calcium ions, so when an action potential spreads over the T tubule, it signals the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions from the gated membrane channels to stimulate a muscle contraction. The sarcolemma was historically synonymous with the cell membrane of a striated muscle fiber or muscle cell. However, there are two other components which form the sarcolemma - basal lamina and reticular fibers. The cell membrane of the sarcolemma receives and conducts stimuli. In skeletal muscle, at the end of each muscle fiber, the outer layer of the sarcolemma combines with tendon fibers. Within the muscle fiber pressed against the sarcolemma are multiple flattened nuclei; embryologically, this multinuclear condition results from multiple myoblasts fusing to produce each muscle fiber, where each myoblast contributes one nucleus. Internal
The cell membrane of a muscle fiber has several specialized regions, which may include the intercalated disc (in cardiac muscle cells ), and the transverse tubular system (in skeletal and cardiac cells). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_cell |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_362265931#0_413280081 | Title: Mush (cornmeal) - Wikipedia
Headings: Mush (cornmeal)
Mush (cornmeal)
See also
References
Content: Mush (cornmeal) - Wikipedia
Mush (cornmeal)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Boiled cornmeal pudding
This article is about the food item. For other uses, see Mush. This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. ( September 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Mush
Alternative names
Coosh
Type
Porridge or pudding
Main ingredients
Cornmeal, water or milk
Cookbook: Mush
Mush is a type of cornmeal pudding (or porridge) which is usually boiled in water or milk. It is often allowed to set, or gel into a semisolid, then cut into flat squares or rectangles, and pan fried. Usage is especially common in the eastern and southeastern United States. It is customary in the midwestern United States to eat it with maple syrup or molasses. In Eastern Europe, milk is poured over the meal once served and cooled down, rather than being boiled in it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mush_(cornmeal) |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_362265931#1_413281446 | Title: Mush (cornmeal) - Wikipedia
Headings: Mush (cornmeal)
Mush (cornmeal)
See also
References
Content: Mush
Mush is a type of cornmeal pudding (or porridge) which is usually boiled in water or milk. It is often allowed to set, or gel into a semisolid, then cut into flat squares or rectangles, and pan fried. Usage is especially common in the eastern and southeastern United States. It is customary in the midwestern United States to eat it with maple syrup or molasses. In Eastern Europe, milk is poured over the meal once served and cooled down, rather than being boiled in it. Cornmeal mush is often consumed in Latin America and Africa. See also
Food portal
Cornbread
Grits
Gruel
Hasty pudding
Hominy
Hushpuppy
Johnnycake
List of maize dishes
List of porridges
Mămăligă
Polenta
Pudding corn
Samp
Ugali
References
Fussell, Betty Harper (1992). The Story of Corn. New York: Knopf. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mush_(cornmeal) |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_362265931#2_413282533 | Title: Mush (cornmeal) - Wikipedia
Headings: Mush (cornmeal)
Mush (cornmeal)
See also
References
Content: Cornmeal mush is often consumed in Latin America and Africa. See also
Food portal
Cornbread
Grits
Gruel
Hasty pudding
Hominy
Hushpuppy
Johnnycake
List of maize dishes
List of porridges
Mămăligă
Polenta
Pudding corn
Samp
Ugali
References
Fussell, Betty Harper (1992). The Story of Corn. New York: Knopf. p. 231. ISBN 0-394-57805-8. "American Civil War Recipes and Cooking". AmericanCivilWar.com. 15 May 2009. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mush_(cornmeal) |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_362265931#4_413283785 | Title: Mush (cornmeal) - Wikipedia
Headings: Mush (cornmeal)
Mush (cornmeal)
See also
References
Content: Retrieved 2009-07-16. Willie Crawford (17 December 2002). " More Soulful Recipes". The Chitterling Site. Archived from the original on 3 January 2010. Retrieved 2009-07-15. v
t
e
Maize and corn
Varieties
Amylomaize
Baby
Blue
Dent
Field
Flint
Flour
Genetically modified
List
MON 810
MON 863
Purple
Quality Protein Maize
Shoepeg
Sweet
Varieties
Waxy
By origin
Bolivia
Ecuador
Italy
Peru
Parts
Cob
Kernel
Stover
Processing
Corn construction
Maize milling
Nixtamalization
Wet-milling
Popcorn maker
Pathology
BBCH-scale
Corn allergy
Corn smut
Maize streak virus
Production
Biofuel
Cornstalk fiddle
Production in the U.S.
List of popcorn brands
Three Sisters (agriculture)
Culture
Corn Palace
Corn School
Field of Corn (1994 sculpture)
National Cornbread Festival
Sweet Corn Festival
Zea (film)
Maize dishes
Ingredients
Cornmeal
Masa
Mielie-meal
Oil
Samp
Starch
Steep liquor
Syrup
Glucose syrup
High-fructose
Public relations
High-maltose
Soups, stews,
and porridge
Akple
Banku
Bulz
Cocoloși
Corn chowder
Corn crab soup
Corn pudding
Corn soup
Corn stew
Cou-cou
Creamed corn
Fufu
Ginataang mais
Grits
Hasty pudding
Kačamak
Mămăligă
Mămăligă în pături
Mush
Pashofa
Polenta
Pozole
Sagamite
Suam na mais
Ugali
Xarém
Tamales
Acaçá
Tamale
Binaki
Guanime
Hallaca
Humita
Nacatamal
Pamonha
Pasteles
Fried dishes
Battered sausage
Corn fritter
Corn chip
Corn dog
Corn nut
Cornick
Hushpuppy
Milho frito
Sorullos
Other foods
Alivenci
Binatog
Conkies
Corn flakes
Corn on the cob
Corn relish
Corn sauce
Gofio
Hominy
Huitlacoche
Kenkey
Kuymak
Maíz con hielo
Maja maíz
Maque choux
Mote
Pinole
Popcorn
Succotash
Beverages
Atole
Bourbon whiskey
Cauim
Champurrado
Chicha
Chicha de jora
Chicha morada
Colada morada
Corn beer
Corn tea
Corn whiskey
Mazamorra
Pinolillo
Pozol
Tejate
Tejuino
Tesgüino
This food -related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v
t
e
Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mush_ (cornmeal)&oldid=995344719 "
Categories: Cuisine of the Southern United States
Maize dishes
Porridges
Food stubs
Hidden categories: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mush_(cornmeal) |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_362265931#5_413286363 | Title: Mush (cornmeal) - Wikipedia
Headings: Mush (cornmeal)
Mush (cornmeal)
See also
References
Content: Retrieved 2009-07-15. v
t
e
Maize and corn
Varieties
Amylomaize
Baby
Blue
Dent
Field
Flint
Flour
Genetically modified
List
MON 810
MON 863
Purple
Quality Protein Maize
Shoepeg
Sweet
Varieties
Waxy
By origin
Bolivia
Ecuador
Italy
Peru
Parts
Cob
Kernel
Stover
Processing
Corn construction
Maize milling
Nixtamalization
Wet-milling
Popcorn maker
Pathology
BBCH-scale
Corn allergy
Corn smut
Maize streak virus
Production
Biofuel
Cornstalk fiddle
Production in the U.S.
List of popcorn brands
Three Sisters (agriculture)
Culture
Corn Palace
Corn School
Field of Corn (1994 sculpture)
National Cornbread Festival
Sweet Corn Festival
Zea (film)
Maize dishes
Ingredients
Cornmeal
Masa
Mielie-meal
Oil
Samp
Starch
Steep liquor
Syrup
Glucose syrup
High-fructose
Public relations
High-maltose
Soups, stews,
and porridge
Akple
Banku
Bulz
Cocoloși
Corn chowder
Corn crab soup
Corn pudding
Corn soup
Corn stew
Cou-cou
Creamed corn
Fufu
Ginataang mais
Grits
Hasty pudding
Kačamak
Mămăligă
Mămăligă în pături
Mush
Pashofa
Polenta
Pozole
Sagamite
Suam na mais
Ugali
Xarém
Tamales
Acaçá
Tamale
Binaki
Guanime
Hallaca
Humita
Nacatamal
Pamonha
Pasteles
Fried dishes
Battered sausage
Corn fritter
Corn chip
Corn dog
Corn nut
Cornick
Hushpuppy
Milho frito
Sorullos
Other foods
Alivenci
Binatog
Conkies
Corn flakes
Corn on the cob
Corn relish
Corn sauce
Gofio
Hominy
Huitlacoche
Kenkey
Kuymak
Maíz con hielo
Maja maíz
Maque choux
Mote
Pinole
Popcorn
Succotash
Beverages
Atole
Bourbon whiskey
Cauim
Champurrado
Chicha
Chicha de jora
Chicha morada
Colada morada
Corn beer
Corn tea
Corn whiskey
Mazamorra
Pinolillo
Pozol
Tejate
Tejuino
Tesgüino
This food -related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v
t
e
Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mush_ (cornmeal)&oldid=995344719 "
Categories: Cuisine of the Southern United States
Maize dishes
Porridges
Food stubs
Hidden categories: Articles with short description
Short description is different from Wikidata
Articles lacking in-text citations from September 2014
All articles lacking in-text citations
All stub articles | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mush_(cornmeal) |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_372782173#5_423622535 | Title: Music of the United Kingdom (1980s) - Wikipedia
Headings: Music of the United Kingdom (1980s)
Music of the United Kingdom (1980s)
Contents
Rock
New wave and New Romantics
Post-punk
Gothic rock
Indie rock
Heavy metal
Grindcore
Folk punk
Pop
Synthpop
Hi-NRG
UK soul
Hip hop
Electronic music
House music
Jazz fusion
2 Tone and reggae
Indian music in the UK
Second British Invasion
See also
References
Content: The second generation of British post-punk bands that broke through in the early 1980s, in, tended to move away from dark sonic landscapes. Some, such as Gang of Four, shifted to a more commercial new wave sound, while others moved into gothic rock or became early examples of indie rock. Gothic rock
Main article: Gothic rock
The Cure on stage in 2008. Gothic rock, often shortened to goth, developed out of the post-punk scene in the early 1980s. It combines dark, often keyboard-heavy music with introspective and depressing lyrics. Notable early gothic rock bands include Bauhaus (whose " Bela Lugosi's Dead " is often cited as the first goth record), Siouxsie and the Banshees (who may have coined the term), The Cure, The Sisters of Mercy, and Fields of the Nephilim. Gothic rock gave rise to a broader goth subculture that included clubs, various fashion trends and numerous publications that grew in popularity in the 1980s, gaining notoriety by being associated by several moral panics over suicide and Satanism. Indie rock
Main articles: Indie rock and Alternative rock
Morrissey of The Smiths performing in 2006. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1980s) |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_372782173#6_423624288 | Title: Music of the United Kingdom (1980s) - Wikipedia
Headings: Music of the United Kingdom (1980s)
Music of the United Kingdom (1980s)
Contents
Rock
New wave and New Romantics
Post-punk
Gothic rock
Indie rock
Heavy metal
Grindcore
Folk punk
Pop
Synthpop
Hi-NRG
UK soul
Hip hop
Electronic music
House music
Jazz fusion
2 Tone and reggae
Indian music in the UK
Second British Invasion
See also
References
Content: It combines dark, often keyboard-heavy music with introspective and depressing lyrics. Notable early gothic rock bands include Bauhaus (whose " Bela Lugosi's Dead " is often cited as the first goth record), Siouxsie and the Banshees (who may have coined the term), The Cure, The Sisters of Mercy, and Fields of the Nephilim. Gothic rock gave rise to a broader goth subculture that included clubs, various fashion trends and numerous publications that grew in popularity in the 1980s, gaining notoriety by being associated by several moral panics over suicide and Satanism. Indie rock
Main articles: Indie rock and Alternative rock
Morrissey of The Smiths performing in 2006. Indie or independent rock (often described as alternative rock in the U.S.), was a scene that emerged from post-punk and new wave eschewing the major record labels for control of their own music and relying on local scenes or national sub-cultures to provide an audience. Having enjoyed some success a number of indie acts were able to move into the mainstream, including early indie bands Aztec Camera, Orange Juice and The Smiths, followed by The Housemartins and James. The C86 cassette, released in 1986 by NME and featuring such bands as The Wedding Present, Primal Scream, The Pastels, and the Soup Dragons, was a major influence on the development of indie pop and the British indie scene as a whole. Other forms of alternative rock developed in the UK during the 1980s. The Jesus and Mary Chain wrapped their pop melodies in walls of guitar noise, while New Order emerged from the demise of post-punk band Joy Division and experimented with techno and house music, forging the alternative dance style. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1980s) |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_374251201#3_424865270 | Title: Musical ensemble - Wikipedia
Headings: Musical ensemble
Musical ensemble
Contents
Classical chamber music
Four parts
Strings
Wind
Five parts
Six or more instruments
Jazz ensembles
Three parts
Four parts
Larger ensembles
Rock and pop bands
Two parts
Three parts
Four parts
Five parts
Larger rock ensembles
Electronic music groups
Role of women
Musical drama
Other western musical ensembles
See also
References
External links
Content: In both popular music and classical music, there are ensembles in which both instrumentalists and singers perform, such as the rock band or the Baroque chamber group for basso continuo ( harpsichord and cello) and one or more singers. In classical music, trios or quartets either blend the sounds of musical instrument families (such as piano, strings, and wind instruments) or group together instruments from the same instrument family, such as string ensembles (e.g., string quartet) or wind ensembles (e.g., wind quintet ). Some ensembles blend the sounds of a variety of instrument families, such as the orchestra, which uses a string section, brass instruments, woodwinds and percussion instruments, or the concert band, which uses brass, woodwinds and percussion. In jazz ensembles or combos, the instruments typically include wind instruments (one or more saxophones, trumpets, etc.), one or two chordal "comping" instruments ( electric guitar, piano, or Hammond organ ), a bass instrument ( bass guitar or double bass ), and a drummer or percussionist. Jazz ensembles may be solely instrumental, or they may consist of a group of instruments accompanying one or more singers. In rock and pop ensembles, usually called rock bands or pop bands, there are usually guitars and keyboards (piano, electric piano, Hammond organ, synthesizer, etc.), one or more singers, and a rhythm section made up of a bass guitar and drum kit . Music ensembles typically have a leader. In jazz bands, rock and pop groups and similar ensembles, this is the band leader. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_ensemble |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_374251201#7_424874076 | Title: Musical ensemble - Wikipedia
Headings: Musical ensemble
Musical ensemble
Contents
Classical chamber music
Four parts
Strings
Wind
Five parts
Six or more instruments
Jazz ensembles
Three parts
Four parts
Larger ensembles
Rock and pop bands
Two parts
Three parts
Four parts
Five parts
Larger rock ensembles
Electronic music groups
Role of women
Musical drama
Other western musical ensembles
See also
References
External links
Content: Quartet
Strings
A string quartet consists of two violins, a viola and a cello. There is a vast body of music written for string quartets, as it is seen as an important genre in classical music . Wind
A woodwind quartet usually features a flute, an oboe, a clarinet and a bassoon. A brass quartet features two trumpets, a trombone and a tuba. A saxophone quartet consists of a soprano saxophone, an alto saxophone, a tenor saxophone, and a baritone saxophone . Five parts
Main article: Quintet
The string quintet is a common type of group. It is similar to the string quartet, but with an additional viola, cello, or more rarely, the addition of a double bass. Terms such as " piano quintet " or "clarinet quintet" frequently refer to a string quartet plus a fifth instrument. Mozart 's Clarinet Quintet is similarly a piece written for an ensemble consisting of two violins, a viola, a cello and a clarinet, the last being the exceptional addition to a "normal" string quartet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_ensemble |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_374251201#8_424875697 | Title: Musical ensemble - Wikipedia
Headings: Musical ensemble
Musical ensemble
Contents
Classical chamber music
Four parts
Strings
Wind
Five parts
Six or more instruments
Jazz ensembles
Three parts
Four parts
Larger ensembles
Rock and pop bands
Two parts
Three parts
Four parts
Five parts
Larger rock ensembles
Electronic music groups
Role of women
Musical drama
Other western musical ensembles
See also
References
External links
Content: Five parts
Main article: Quintet
The string quintet is a common type of group. It is similar to the string quartet, but with an additional viola, cello, or more rarely, the addition of a double bass. Terms such as " piano quintet " or "clarinet quintet" frequently refer to a string quartet plus a fifth instrument. Mozart 's Clarinet Quintet is similarly a piece written for an ensemble consisting of two violins, a viola, a cello and a clarinet, the last being the exceptional addition to a "normal" string quartet. Some other quintets in classical music are the wind quintet, usually consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon and horn; the brass quintet, consisting of two trumpets, one horn, a trombone and a tuba; and the reed quintet, consisting of an oboe, a soprano clarinet, a saxophone, a bass clarinet, and a bassoon. Six or more instruments
Main articles: Orchestra and Concert band
London Symphony Orchestra, Barbican Hall
A concert band. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_ensemble |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_374251201#9_424877295 | Title: Musical ensemble - Wikipedia
Headings: Musical ensemble
Musical ensemble
Contents
Classical chamber music
Four parts
Strings
Wind
Five parts
Six or more instruments
Jazz ensembles
Three parts
Four parts
Larger ensembles
Rock and pop bands
Two parts
Three parts
Four parts
Five parts
Larger rock ensembles
Electronic music groups
Role of women
Musical drama
Other western musical ensembles
See also
References
External links
Content: Some other quintets in classical music are the wind quintet, usually consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon and horn; the brass quintet, consisting of two trumpets, one horn, a trombone and a tuba; and the reed quintet, consisting of an oboe, a soprano clarinet, a saxophone, a bass clarinet, and a bassoon. Six or more instruments
Main articles: Orchestra and Concert band
London Symphony Orchestra, Barbican Hall
A concert band. Classical chamber ensembles of six (sextet), seven (septet), or eight musicians (octet) are fairly common; use of latinate terms for larger groups is rare, except for the nonet (nine musicians). In most cases, a larger classical group is referred to as an orchestra of some type or a concert band. A small orchestra with fifteen to thirty members (violins, violas, four cellos, two or three double basses, and several woodwind or brass instruments) is called a chamber orchestra. A sinfonietta usually denotes a somewhat smaller orchestra (though still not a chamber orchestra). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_ensemble |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_391420677#5_444955400 | Title: Muscle cell - Wikipedia
Headings: Muscle cell
Muscle cell
Contents
Structure
Microanatomy
Cardiac muscle cells
Myofibrils
Development
Muscle fiber growth
Function
Muscle contraction
Kinds of contraction
Fiber typing
Fiber color
Twitch speed
Type distribution
See also
References
External links
Content: This network is composed of groupings of two dilated end-sacs called terminal cisternae, and a single T-tubule (transverse tubule), which bores through the cell and emerge on the other side; together these three components form the triads that exist within the network of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, in which each T-tubule has two terminal cisternae on each side of it. The sarcoplasmic reticulum serves as reservoir for calcium ions, so when an action potential spreads over the T-tubule, it signals the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions from the gated membrane channels to stimulate a muscle contraction. The sarcolemma was historically synonymous with the cell membrane of a striated muscle fiber or muscle cell. However, there are two other components which form the sarcolemma - basal lamina and reticular fibers. The cell membrane of the sarcolemma receives and conducts stimuli. In skeletal muscle, at the end of each muscle fiber, the outer layer of the sarcolemma combines with tendon fibers. Within the muscle fiber pressed against the sarcolemma are multiple flattened nuclei; embryologically, this multinuclear condition results from multiple myoblasts fusing to produce each muscle fiber, where each myoblast contributes one nucleus. Cardiac muscle cells
The cell membrane of a cardiac muscle fiber has several specialized regions, which may include the intercalated disc, and transverse tubules. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myoblast |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_392944856#0_447247033 | Title: Myrrh - Wikipedia
Headings: Myrrh
Myrrh
Contents
Extraction and production
Etymology
Attributed medicinal properties
Medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine
Ayurvedic medicine
Religious ritual
In Ancient Egypt and Punt (Horn of Africa)
In the Hebrew Bible
In ancient Nabataea
In the New Testament
In contemporary Christianity
In Islam
Ancient myrrh
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Myrrh - Wikipedia
Myrrh
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Aromatic resin from the Commiphora myrrha tree
For other uses, see Myrrh (disambiguation). Myrrh resin
Myrrh ( / mɜːr /; from Semitic, but see § Etymology) is a gum - resin extracted from a number of small, thorny tree species of the genus Commiphora. Myrrh resin has been used throughout history as a perfume, incense and medicine. Myrrh mixed with posca or wine was common across ancient cultures, for general pleasure, and as an analgesic. Contents
1 Extraction and production
2 Etymology
3 Attributed medicinal properties
3.1 Medicine
3.2 Traditional Chinese medicine
3.3 Ayurvedic medicine
4 Religious ritual
4.1 In Ancient Egypt and Punt (Horn of Africa)
4.2 In the Hebrew Bible
4.3 In ancient Nabataea
4.4 In the New Testament
4.5 In contemporary Christianity
4.6 In Islam
5 Ancient myrrh
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Extraction and production
Commiphora myrrha tree, one of the primary trees from which myrrh is harvested
When a wound on a tree penetrates through the bark and into the sapwood, the tree secretes a resin. Myrrh gum, like frankincense, is such a resin. Myrrh is harvested by repeatedly wounding the trees to bleed the gum, which is waxy and coagulates quickly. After the harvest, the gum becomes hard and glossy. The gum is yellowish and may be either clear or opaque. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrrh |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_392944856#1_447249081 | Title: Myrrh - Wikipedia
Headings: Myrrh
Myrrh
Contents
Extraction and production
Etymology
Attributed medicinal properties
Medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine
Ayurvedic medicine
Religious ritual
In Ancient Egypt and Punt (Horn of Africa)
In the Hebrew Bible
In ancient Nabataea
In the New Testament
In contemporary Christianity
In Islam
Ancient myrrh
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Contents
1 Extraction and production
2 Etymology
3 Attributed medicinal properties
3.1 Medicine
3.2 Traditional Chinese medicine
3.3 Ayurvedic medicine
4 Religious ritual
4.1 In Ancient Egypt and Punt (Horn of Africa)
4.2 In the Hebrew Bible
4.3 In ancient Nabataea
4.4 In the New Testament
4.5 In contemporary Christianity
4.6 In Islam
5 Ancient myrrh
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Extraction and production
Commiphora myrrha tree, one of the primary trees from which myrrh is harvested
When a wound on a tree penetrates through the bark and into the sapwood, the tree secretes a resin. Myrrh gum, like frankincense, is such a resin. Myrrh is harvested by repeatedly wounding the trees to bleed the gum, which is waxy and coagulates quickly. After the harvest, the gum becomes hard and glossy. The gum is yellowish and may be either clear or opaque. It darkens deeply as it ages, and white streaks emerge. Myrrh gum is commonly harvested from the species Commiphora myrrha. Another commonly used name, Commiphora molmol, is now considered a synonym of Commiphora myrrha. Commiphora myrrha is native to Somalia, Oman, Yemen, Eritrea, ( Somali Region of) Ethiopia and parts of Saudi Arabia. Meetiga, the trade-name of Arabian Myrrh, is more brittle and gummy than the Somali variety and does not have the latter's white markings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrrh |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_438500763#11_494634537 | Title: Napier Deltic - Wikipedia
Headings: Napier Deltic
Napier Deltic
Contents
History and design
Uses
Naval service
Railway use
Fire department use
Reliability in service
Turbo-compound Deltic
Comparable engines
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Railway use
Napier Deltic powered British Rail Class 55 D9009 Alycidon, at the National Railway Museum, York, UK
Main articles: British Rail Class 55 and British Rail Class 23
Napier Deltic engine at the National Railway Museum, York, UK
The "Deltic" engines were used in two types of British rail locomotive: the 1961–62 built class 55 and the 1959 built class 23. These locomotive types were known as "Deltics" and "Baby Deltics", respectively. The Class 55 used two D18-25 series II type V Deltic engines: mechanically blown 18-cylinder engines each rated at 1,650 hp (1,230 kW) continuous at 1500 rpm. The Class 23 used a single less powerful nine-cylinder turbocharged T9-29 Deltic of 1,100 hp (820 kW). Six out of the original 22 "Deltic" locomotives survive, four of which have, at various times since 1996, returned to work on the main line, operating both service trains and charter trains. D9000 "Royal Scots Grey", the doyen of the class, was returned to main line serviceable status in 1996 and continued to work throughout the UK for nearly twenty years. Following a power unit failure this locomotive was fitted, for a time, with an ex-Norwegian Navy T18-37K type, after various modifications were cleverly designed to make the new unit compatible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napier_Deltic |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_440772452#1_497284035 | Title: Narco-state - Wikipedia
Headings: Narco-state
Narco-state
Contents
Usage
Examples
Guinea-Bissau
Honduras
Lebanon
Mexico
Suriname
Syria
United Kingdom
Venezuela
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Content: The overall description would consist of illegal organisations that either produce, ship or sell drugs and hold a grip on the legitimate institutions through force, bribe or blackmail. This situation can arise in different forms. For instance, Colombia, where drug lord Pablo Escobar ran the Medellín Cartel (named after his birthplace) during most of the 1970s and 1980s, producing and trafficking cocaine to the United States of America. Escobar managed to take over control of most of the police forces in Medellín and surrounding areas due to bribery, allowing him to expand his drug trafficking business. Nowadays scholars argue that the term “narco-state” is oversimplified because of the underlying networks running the drug trafficking organisations. For example, the Guadalajara cartel in Mexico, led by Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, who managed to combine several small drug trafficking families into one overarching cartel controlling the marijuana production in the rural areas of Mexico while trafficking Colombian cocaine to the U.S.A at the same time. Over time the cocaine market expanded to Europe, leading to new routes being discovered from Colombia through Brazil or Venezuela and Western Africa. These new routes proved to be more profitable and successful than shipping from North-America and turned African states such as Nigeria, Ghana and (later on) Guinea-Bissau into actual narco-states. While cocaine was transported through Western Africa, the Taliban produced opium in the rural areas of Afghanistan using the revenues to fund their guerrilla war. Despite American and NATO efforts to impose laws on the Afghan opium production, the early 2000s incumbent Afghan governments shielded the opium trade from foreign policies as much as possible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narco-capitalism |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_440772452#9_497299387 | Title: Narco-state - Wikipedia
Headings: Narco-state
Narco-state
Contents
Usage
Examples
Guinea-Bissau
Honduras
Lebanon
Mexico
Suriname
Syria
United Kingdom
Venezuela
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Content: During the 1980s and 1990s the drug scene in Mexico accelerated. Before the 1980s most of Mexico's drug production yielded marijuana and small bits of heroin. Cocaine mostly reached the U.S.A. through the Bahamas and the Caribbean. After the U.S.A. shut down the routes that entered the state from Florida, Colombian drug cartels established a partnership with Mexican traffickers and cartels, finding new routes smuggling cocaine over land into North-America. A few small Mexican cartels merged into the Guadalajara cartel, led by Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, increasing the volumes of marijuana production and drug trafficking. The Guadalajara cartel trafficked the cocaine produced by the Colombian Calí cartel, while expanding the marijuana production in the rural areas of Mexico at the same time. The U.S.A. established a special force, named the Drug Enforcement Administration (D.E.A.), to fight the war on drugs within their own borders and beyond. The D.E.A. office situated in Mexico received extra resources to investigate the murder of one of their own; Enrique "Kiki" Camarena, who was abducted, tortured and murdered by a state police officer paid by members of the cartel. These insights confirmed the corruption rate that grasped Mexico during the 1980s and 1990s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narco-capitalism |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_440793850#1_497308411 | Title: Narco-state - Wikipedia
Headings: Narco-state
Narco-state
Contents
Usage
Examples
Guinea-Bissau
Honduras
Lebanon
Mexico
Suriname
Syria
United Kingdom
Venezuela
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Content: The overall description would consist of illegal organisations that either produce, ship or sell drugs and hold a grip on the legitimate institutions through force, bribe or blackmail. This situation can arise in different forms. For instance, Colombia, where drug lord Pablo Escobar ran the Medellín Cartel (named after his birthplace) during most of the 1970s and 1980s, producing and trafficking cocaine to the United States of America. Escobar managed to take over control of most of the police forces in Medellín and surrounding areas due to bribery, allowing him to expand his drug trafficking business. Nowadays scholars argue that the term “narco-state” is oversimplified because of the underlying networks running the drug trafficking organisations. For example, the Guadalajara cartel in Mexico, led by Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, who managed to combine several small drug trafficking families into one overarching cartel controlling the marijuana production in the rural areas of Mexico while trafficking Colombian cocaine to the U.S.A at the same time. Over time the cocaine market expanded to Europe, leading to new routes being discovered from Colombia through Brazil or Venezuela and Western Africa. These new routes proved to be more profitable and successful than shipping from North-America and turned African states such as Nigeria, Ghana and (later on) Guinea-Bissau into actual narco-states. While cocaine was transported through Western Africa, the Taliban produced opium in the rural areas of Afghanistan using the revenues to fund their guerrilla war. Despite American and NATO efforts to impose laws on the Afghan opium production, the early 2000s incumbent Afghan governments shielded the opium trade from foreign policies as much as possible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narco-state |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_440793850#8_497322000 | Title: Narco-state - Wikipedia
Headings: Narco-state
Narco-state
Contents
Usage
Examples
Guinea-Bissau
Honduras
Lebanon
Mexico
Suriname
Syria
United Kingdom
Venezuela
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Since 1929, the dominant party of Mexico, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) forged ties with various groups in order to gain political influence. Among them were the drug traffickers. The ties between the PRI and the drug lords became so close that the PRI even went so far as to have an alliance with the drug traffickers and sanctioned their activities. During the 1980s and 1990s the drug scene in Mexico accelerated. Before the 1980s most of Mexico's drug production yielded marijuana and small bits of heroin. Cocaine mostly reached the U.S.A. through the Bahamas and the Caribbean. After the U.S.A. shut down the routes that entered the state from Florida, Colombian drug cartels established a partnership with Mexican traffickers and cartels, finding new routes smuggling cocaine over land into North-America. A few small Mexican cartels merged into the Guadalajara cartel, led by Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, increasing the volumes of marijuana production and drug trafficking. The Guadalajara cartel trafficked the cocaine produced by the Colombian Calí cartel, while expanding the marijuana production in the rural areas of Mexico at the same time. The U.S.A. established a special force, named the Drug Enforcement Administration (D.E.A.), to fight the war on drugs within their own borders and beyond. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narco-state |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_440793850#9_497323751 | Title: Narco-state - Wikipedia
Headings: Narco-state
Narco-state
Contents
Usage
Examples
Guinea-Bissau
Honduras
Lebanon
Mexico
Suriname
Syria
United Kingdom
Venezuela
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Cocaine mostly reached the U.S.A. through the Bahamas and the Caribbean. After the U.S.A. shut down the routes that entered the state from Florida, Colombian drug cartels established a partnership with Mexican traffickers and cartels, finding new routes smuggling cocaine over land into North-America. A few small Mexican cartels merged into the Guadalajara cartel, led by Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo, increasing the volumes of marijuana production and drug trafficking. The Guadalajara cartel trafficked the cocaine produced by the Colombian Calí cartel, while expanding the marijuana production in the rural areas of Mexico at the same time. The U.S.A. established a special force, named the Drug Enforcement Administration (D.E.A.), to fight the war on drugs within their own borders and beyond. The D.E.A. office situated in Mexico received extra resources to investigate the murder of one of their own; Enrique "Kiki" Camarena, who was abducted, tortured and murdered by a state police officer paid by members of the cartel. These insights confirmed the corruption rate that grasped Mexico during the 1980s and 1990s. Although, not only police officers on payroll obeyed to Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo and his cartel. Investigations show transactions to high officers in federal government, such as the Federal Directorate of Security and the Mexican Federal Judicial Police. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narco-state |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_440899830#6_497418111 | Title: Narcoculture in Mexico - Wikipedia
Headings: Narcoculture in Mexico
Narcoculture in Mexico
Contents
Origin
Drug production in Mexico
Expulsion of Chinese producers
US morphine demand
Mexican production and the birth of narcoculture
Rise of Mexican drug cartels and consolidation of narcoculture
Coining the term narcoculture
Rise of the Mexican Mafiosos
Mafioso Poseurs and modern narcoculture
Narcoculture lifestyle
Narco music
Narco corridos
Narco Hip-Hop
Narco juniors
Narco religion
Narco propaganda
Narco western
Narco cinema
Social media
See also
References
Content: US morphine demand
Once the Chinese were expelled from Sinaloa, the production of narcotics was then controlled by the rural Mexican farmers. The narcotics production in Mexico was still small, but the demand for morphine in the United States created by the disruption in its morphine supply from Europe during the World Wars led to the temporary legalization of narcotics in Mexico. Mexican production and the birth of narcoculture
Scholars like Sanchez Godoy and Luis Astorga state that narcotics were temporarily legalized in Sinaloa in order to supply the United States' demand during the world war. The period when the production of narcotics was temporarily legalized, shaped and created the drug trafficking identity in the region. This is when narcoculture first begins to appear. It is also the period when Mexico entered the large-scale production of narcotics. Rise of Mexican drug cartels and consolidation of narcoculture
The 1950s in Mexico were marked by the term " narcotráfico " (narco traffic) that began to appear in the media. During the 1940s through 1970s drug trafficking in Mexico was considered to be a "small family business" with a relatively simple organization and division of labor. It is not until after the 1970s with the growth of demand from the United States and alliances with Colombian drug traffickers that cartels in Mexico were formed to control the production and distribution of narcotics. Mexico then became a producer and distributor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoculture_in_Mexico |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_440899830#7_497420378 | Title: Narcoculture in Mexico - Wikipedia
Headings: Narcoculture in Mexico
Narcoculture in Mexico
Contents
Origin
Drug production in Mexico
Expulsion of Chinese producers
US morphine demand
Mexican production and the birth of narcoculture
Rise of Mexican drug cartels and consolidation of narcoculture
Coining the term narcoculture
Rise of the Mexican Mafiosos
Mafioso Poseurs and modern narcoculture
Narcoculture lifestyle
Narco music
Narco corridos
Narco Hip-Hop
Narco juniors
Narco religion
Narco propaganda
Narco western
Narco cinema
Social media
See also
References
Content: It is also the period when Mexico entered the large-scale production of narcotics. Rise of Mexican drug cartels and consolidation of narcoculture
The 1950s in Mexico were marked by the term " narcotráfico " (narco traffic) that began to appear in the media. During the 1940s through 1970s drug trafficking in Mexico was considered to be a "small family business" with a relatively simple organization and division of labor. It is not until after the 1970s with the growth of demand from the United States and alliances with Colombian drug traffickers that cartels in Mexico were formed to control the production and distribution of narcotics. Mexico then became a producer and distributor. In previous decades, Mexico served as the route of entrance for the cocaine arriving to the United States from Colombia. With Mexico supplying the United States with heroin and morphine during World War II, it became a producer. The alliance between Mexican cartels and Colombian cartels meant that Mexico was now a distributor and producer. As drug trafficking expanded in Mexico, so did narcoculture. Narcoculture expanded into the urban sector of society and began the process of legitimization and moved away from a subculture into a part of the dominant culture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoculture_in_Mexico |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_440899830#8_497422422 | Title: Narcoculture in Mexico - Wikipedia
Headings: Narcoculture in Mexico
Narcoculture in Mexico
Contents
Origin
Drug production in Mexico
Expulsion of Chinese producers
US morphine demand
Mexican production and the birth of narcoculture
Rise of Mexican drug cartels and consolidation of narcoculture
Coining the term narcoculture
Rise of the Mexican Mafiosos
Mafioso Poseurs and modern narcoculture
Narcoculture lifestyle
Narco music
Narco corridos
Narco Hip-Hop
Narco juniors
Narco religion
Narco propaganda
Narco western
Narco cinema
Social media
See also
References
Content: In previous decades, Mexico served as the route of entrance for the cocaine arriving to the United States from Colombia. With Mexico supplying the United States with heroin and morphine during World War II, it became a producer. The alliance between Mexican cartels and Colombian cartels meant that Mexico was now a distributor and producer. As drug trafficking expanded in Mexico, so did narcoculture. Narcoculture expanded into the urban sector of society and began the process of legitimization and moved away from a subculture into a part of the dominant culture. Coining the term narcoculture
The term "narcoculture" was first coined in the 1970s. Narcoculture defines the way of life and ideas of drug traffickers. Its existence depends on the acceptance of drug traffickers and drug trafficking, becoming a transnational network of production, transportation, and commercialization of illegal drugs. Drug trafficking has political, economic, ideological, and cultural implications. Drug traffickers interact with the rest of society and as this daily interaction progresses, some of the drug traffickers' mannerisms are adopted by society and this leads to cultural change and legitimization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoculture_in_Mexico |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_441157163#0_497556096 | Title: Narcoterrorism - Wikipedia
Headings: Narcoterrorism
Narcoterrorism
Contents
Examples
Narcoterrorism in Colombia
History
See also
References
External links
Content: Narcoterrorism - Wikipedia
Narcoterrorism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: " Narcoterrorism" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2020) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Narcoterrorism, in its original context, is understood to refer to the attempts of narcotics traffickers to influence the policies of a government or a society through violence and intimidation, and to hinder the enforcement of anti-drug laws by the systematic threat or use of such violence. Pablo Escobar 's violence in his dealings with the Colombian government is probably one of the most known and best documented examples of narcoterrorism. The term itself was coined by former President Fernando Belaúnde Terry of Peru in 1983 when describing terrorist -type attacks against his nation's anti-narcotics police. As with most definitions of terrorism, it typically only refers to non-state actors . The term has become a subject of controversy, largely due to its use in discussing violent opposition to the US government's War on Drugs . The term is being increasingly used for terrorist organizations that engage in drug trafficking activity to fund their operations and gain recruits and expertise. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoterrorism |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_441157163#1_497557924 | Title: Narcoterrorism - Wikipedia
Headings: Narcoterrorism
Narcoterrorism
Contents
Examples
Narcoterrorism in Colombia
History
See also
References
External links
Content: Pablo Escobar 's violence in his dealings with the Colombian government is probably one of the most known and best documented examples of narcoterrorism. The term itself was coined by former President Fernando Belaúnde Terry of Peru in 1983 when describing terrorist -type attacks against his nation's anti-narcotics police. As with most definitions of terrorism, it typically only refers to non-state actors . The term has become a subject of controversy, largely due to its use in discussing violent opposition to the US government's War on Drugs . The term is being increasingly used for terrorist organizations that engage in drug trafficking activity to fund their operations and gain recruits and expertise. Such organizations include FARC, ELN, AUC in Colombia, PCP-SL in Peru, Hamas and the Taliban. A 2013 Congressional Research Service report noted that in 2003, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) reported that 14 of 36 (39%) of the groups designated by the U.S. as foreign terrorist organizations "were involved 'to some degree' in illicit narcotics activity" while in fiscal year 2010, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) "reported that 29 of the top 63 international drug syndicates, identified as such on the consolidated priority organization target (CPOT) list, were associated with terrorists." In 2000 the U.S. began funding, continued under the U.S. Bush administration, of Plan Colombia, intending to eradicate drug crops and to act against drug lords accused of engaging in narcoterrorism, including among them the leaders of the Marxist FARC and the AUC paramilitary forces. The U.S. government is funding large-scale drug eradication campaigns and supporting Colombian military operations, seeking the extradition of commanders. Although al-Qaeda is often said to finance its activities through drug trafficking, the 9/11 Commission Report notes that "while the drug trade was a source of income for the Taliban, it did not serve the same purpose for al Qaeda, and there is no reliable evidence that bin Laden was involved in or made his money through drug trafficking." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoterrorism |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_441157163#2_497560381 | Title: Narcoterrorism - Wikipedia
Headings: Narcoterrorism
Narcoterrorism
Contents
Examples
Narcoterrorism in Colombia
History
See also
References
External links
Content: Such organizations include FARC, ELN, AUC in Colombia, PCP-SL in Peru, Hamas and the Taliban. A 2013 Congressional Research Service report noted that in 2003, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) reported that 14 of 36 (39%) of the groups designated by the U.S. as foreign terrorist organizations "were involved 'to some degree' in illicit narcotics activity" while in fiscal year 2010, the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) "reported that 29 of the top 63 international drug syndicates, identified as such on the consolidated priority organization target (CPOT) list, were associated with terrorists." In 2000 the U.S. began funding, continued under the U.S. Bush administration, of Plan Colombia, intending to eradicate drug crops and to act against drug lords accused of engaging in narcoterrorism, including among them the leaders of the Marxist FARC and the AUC paramilitary forces. The U.S. government is funding large-scale drug eradication campaigns and supporting Colombian military operations, seeking the extradition of commanders. Although al-Qaeda is often said to finance its activities through drug trafficking, the 9/11 Commission Report notes that "while the drug trade was a source of income for the Taliban, it did not serve the same purpose for al Qaeda, and there is no reliable evidence that bin Laden was involved in or made his money through drug trafficking." The organization gains most of its finances through donations, particularly those by "wealthy Saudi individuals". Critics of the prohibition of drugs say that it is this prohibition itself which funds terrorism. Contents
1 Examples
2 Narcoterrorism in Colombia
2.1 History
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Examples
Areas or countries that have active or historical narcoterrorism or narco-war include: Afghanistan, to fund operations with sales of opium and heroin in the Afghanistan War
Brazil, has several organized and trained groups that dominate territories, carry out offensives against state and federal security forces, control the clandestine market for drugs, weapons and ammunition and apply violence through psychological, communal and indiscriminate terrorism against the civilian population. Colombia which have influential right-wing paramilitary "narco-terrorists", Clan del Golfo, Los Rastrojos, The Black Eagles and left-wing revolutionary guerrillas Popular Liberation Army. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoterrorism |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_441157163#5_497566619 | Title: Narcoterrorism - Wikipedia
Headings: Narcoterrorism
Narcoterrorism
Contents
Examples
Narcoterrorism in Colombia
History
See also
References
External links
Content: According to a research conducted by the Abba Eban Institute as part of an initiative called Janus Initiative, Hezbollah makes a profit in the cocaine smuggling market to leverage it for terrorist activities. Hezbollah operatives are overseeing illicit finance and drug trafficking activities, moving about $200 million a month. Mexico, drug cartels and gangs Sinaloa Cartel - Gente Nueva, Los Zetas, Jalisco New Generation Cartel, La Línea (gang), La Resistencia (gang), Los Mexicles, Los Pelones, Artistas Asesinos, Barrio Azteca
United Kingdom ( Northern Ireland ), where loyalist paramilitaries like the Ulster Volunteer Force are known to be involved in drug dealing. Peru left-wing revolutionary guerrillas Shining Path
The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan is said to fund itself through heroin trafficking. Venezuela, in the form of the Cartel of the Suns, among others. See generally Illegal drug trade in Venezuela. Narcoterrorism in Colombia
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. ( July 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
During the 1984–1993 period Colombia was known as one of the countries that suffered a number of terrorist attacks at the hands of narcotic traffickers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoterrorism |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_441157163#9_497573436 | Title: Narcoterrorism - Wikipedia
Headings: Narcoterrorism
Narcoterrorism
Contents
Examples
Narcoterrorism in Colombia
History
See also
References
External links
Content: Additionally, numerous bombs detonated across the country, the most memorable bomb being the one that brought down Avianca Flight 203 during its flight over Soacha Cundinamarca resulting in 107 dead in 1989. In Colombian history, the FARC were initially major enemies of the drug cartels. The MAS (Muerte a los secuestradores - Death to the kidnappers) was a group created by the most eminent members of the Cali cartel, including Escobar and Ochoa against the guerrillas who had kidnapped one of Ochoa's sister. The MAS was responsible for the deaths of 500 members of the Patriotic Union, a political party that emerged from the demobilization of part of the FARC in the 1990s. Significantly, it is worth recalling that Medellin cartel refused to buy coca from peasants living in areas under FARC control. From then on, even when there was evidence of collaboration between FARC and the drug traffickers, these connections were described as « temporary alliances ». President Alvaro Uribe, who was elected on the idea of waging an all-out war against the FARC, over-emphasized the link between drugs and the FARC as well as the terrorist nature of the guerilla group in a post 2001 context: “ ( Álvaro Uribe) increasingly equated the guerrillas with drug traffickers and terrorists” . This policy has provoked much criticism which has enriched the debate on the nature of the conflict in Colombia, and consequently on the character of the FARC. See also
Anti-Narcotics Force
Drug cartel
Illegal drug trade
References
^ DEA Digging Into Al Qaeda Drug Links Archived 2010-11-09 at the Wayback Machine, By Robert Hendin, July 18, 2008. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoterrorism |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_441157163#10_497575445 | Title: Narcoterrorism - Wikipedia
Headings: Narcoterrorism
Narcoterrorism
Contents
Examples
Narcoterrorism in Colombia
History
See also
References
External links
Content: From then on, even when there was evidence of collaboration between FARC and the drug traffickers, these connections were described as « temporary alliances ». President Alvaro Uribe, who was elected on the idea of waging an all-out war against the FARC, over-emphasized the link between drugs and the FARC as well as the terrorist nature of the guerilla group in a post 2001 context: “ ( Álvaro Uribe) increasingly equated the guerrillas with drug traffickers and terrorists” . This policy has provoked much criticism which has enriched the debate on the nature of the conflict in Colombia, and consequently on the character of the FARC. See also
Anti-Narcotics Force
Drug cartel
Illegal drug trade
References
^ DEA Digging Into Al Qaeda Drug Links Archived 2010-11-09 at the Wayback Machine, By Robert Hendin, July 18, 2008. CBS News. ^ A GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF NARCOTICS-FUNDED TERRORIST AND OTHER EXTREMIST GROUPS Archived 2017-12-15 at the Wayback Machine, May 2002, Library of Congress – Federal Research Division
^ Testimony of Victor Comras to the US House Subcommittee on Financial Oversight and Investigations, hearings on Current and Evolving Trends in Terrorism Financing. September 28, 2010. ^ John Rollins & Liana Sun Wyler, Terrorism and Transnational Crime: Foreign Policy Issues for Congress Archived 2016-06-15 at the Wayback Machine, Congressional Research Service (June 11, 2013). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoterrorism |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_441157163#12_497578271 | Title: Narcoterrorism - Wikipedia
Headings: Narcoterrorism
Narcoterrorism
Contents
Examples
Narcoterrorism in Colombia
History
See also
References
External links
Content: ^ "The Drug War and Terrorism". Narcoterror.org. 2009-07-16. Archived from the original on 2013-06-27. Retrieved 2013-07-07. ^ Narco-terrorism: international drug trafficking and terrorism, a dangerous mix : hearing before the Committee on the Judiciary, One Hundred Eighth Congress, first session. United States Senate U.S. G.P.O. May 20, 2003. p. 111. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcoterrorism |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_442350535#0_498634582 | Title: Narrative crime script - Wikipedia
Headings: Narrative crime script
Narrative crime script
Criminology
News scripts
References
Content: Narrative crime script - Wikipedia
Narrative crime script
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Narrative Crime Script)
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (December 2015)
( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: " Narrative crime script" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR
(December 2015)
( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article is an orphan, as no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_Crime_Script |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_442484236#10_498842548 | Title: Narrative journalism - Wikipedia
Headings: Narrative journalism
Narrative journalism
Contents
History
Definitions of Narrative Journalism
Online narrative journalism
Issues with narrative journalism
References
External links
Content: With the availability of free publishing online today, narrative journalism has become a popular form used by writers eager to give their personal perspectives on noteworthy events and public issues. Salon and Slate are two of the most popular forums for narrative journalism. Other sites devoted to this craft include Creative Nonfiction and Atlantic Unbound, and with the increasing popularity of citizen journalism there exists potential for more to explore on the scene to cater to a variety of niches. Six Billion, founded in 2003, was an online magazine of narrative journalism that attempted to tackle an issue from 360 degrees. Each issue (themed by one topic such as "Battleground States" or "Veterans of Foreign Wars") featured stories told in text, film/video, photography, sound, illustration, and interactive media. Issues with narrative journalism
"A narrative does not depart from the cardinal rule: Make nothing up or you'll be out of here and working at the Sunglass Hut so fast it'll make your head spin around. A narrative is a journalistic form that has fallen into considerable disfavor in the wake of our craft's ceaseless, self-flagellating credibility crisis" — Patrick Beach, Austin American-Statesman. Since so much of narrative journalism is based on a writer reconstructing his or her experiences, many professionals in the news industry find themselves wary of using this technique because it is often harder to verify facts within the story. In a post- Jayson Blair era, those concerned with the ethics of honest reporting and writing are cautious of journalistic storytelling that may be manipulating facts to make the reader more emotionally invested. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_journalism |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_442735981#4_499190226 | Title:
Headings:
Content: According to Barry K. Beyer (1995), critical thinking means making clear, reasoned judgments. During the process of critical thinking, ideas should be reasoned, well thought out, and judged.[10] The U.S. National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking[11]defines critical thinking as the "intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action." [ 12]
Etymology and origin of critical thinking[edit]
In the term critical thinking, the word critical, (Grk. κριτικός = kritikos= "critic") derives from the word criticand implies a critique; it identifies the intellectual capacity and the means "of judging", "of judgement", "for judging", and of being "able to discern".[13] The intellectual roots of critical[14]thinking are as ancient as its etymology, traceable, ultimately, to the teachingpractice and vision of Socrates[15]2,500 years ago who discovered by a method of probing questioning that people could not rationally justify their confident claims to knowledge. Definitions[edit]
Traditionally, critical thinking has been variously defined as follows: "The process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to reach an answer or conclusion"[16]
"Disciplined thinking that is clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by evidence"[16]
"Purposeful, self-regulatoryjudgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based"[17]
"Includes a commitment to using reason in the formulation of our beliefs"[18]
The skill and propensity to engage in an activity with reflective scepticism (McPeck, 1981)[19]
Thinking about one's thinking in a manner designed to organize and clarify, raise the efficiency of, and recognize errors and biases in one's own thinking. Critical thinking is not 'hard' thinking nor is it directed at solving problems (other than 'improving' one's own thinking). Critical thinking is inward-directed with the intent of maximizing the rationalityof the thinker. One does not use critical thinking to solve problems—one uses critical thinking to improve one's process of thinking. [ | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrow-minded |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_443597403#13_500195258 | Title: Narwhal - Wikipedia
Headings: Narwhal
Narwhal
Contents
Taxonomy and etymology
Description
Tusk
Vestigial teeth
Genome
Distribution
Behaviour
Social
Migration
Diet
Diving
Communication
Breeding and early life
Life span and mortality
Predation and hunting
Conservation issues
Cultural depictions
In legend
In literature and art
Gallery
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Tusk
This narwhal skull has rare double tusks. Usually, the canine tooth only on the left side of the upper jaw becomes a tusk. Rarely, males develop two tusks. This specimen, however, was of a female (Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg; collected in 1684). The most conspicuous characteristic of the male narwhal is a single long tusk, which is in fact a canine tooth that projects from the left side of the upper jaw, through the lip, and forms a left-handed helix spiral. The tusk grows throughout life, reaching a length of about 1.5 to 3.1 m (4.9 to 10.2 ft). It is hollow and weighs around 10 kg (22 lb). About one in 500 males has two tusks, occurring when the right canine also grows out through the lip. Only about 15 percent of females grow a tusk which typically is smaller than a male tusk, with a less noticeable spiral. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narwhal |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_443597403#14_500196673 | Title: Narwhal - Wikipedia
Headings: Narwhal
Narwhal
Contents
Taxonomy and etymology
Description
Tusk
Vestigial teeth
Genome
Distribution
Behaviour
Social
Migration
Diet
Diving
Communication
Breeding and early life
Life span and mortality
Predation and hunting
Conservation issues
Cultural depictions
In legend
In literature and art
Gallery
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: The most conspicuous characteristic of the male narwhal is a single long tusk, which is in fact a canine tooth that projects from the left side of the upper jaw, through the lip, and forms a left-handed helix spiral. The tusk grows throughout life, reaching a length of about 1.5 to 3.1 m (4.9 to 10.2 ft). It is hollow and weighs around 10 kg (22 lb). About one in 500 males has two tusks, occurring when the right canine also grows out through the lip. Only about 15 percent of females grow a tusk which typically is smaller than a male tusk, with a less noticeable spiral. Collected in 1684, there is only one known case of a female growing a second tusk (image). Scientists have long speculated on the biological function of the tusk. Proposed functions include use of the tusk as a weapon, for opening breathing holes in sea ice, in feeding, as an acoustic organ, and as a secondary sex character. The leading theory has long been that the narwhal tusk serves as a secondary sex character of males, for nonviolent assessment of hierarchical status on the basis of relative tusk size. However, detailed analysis reveals that the tusk is a highly innervated sensory organ with millions of nerve endings connecting seawater stimuli in the external ocean environment with the brain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narwhal |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_443597403#16_500200765 | Title: Narwhal - Wikipedia
Headings: Narwhal
Narwhal
Contents
Taxonomy and etymology
Description
Tusk
Vestigial teeth
Genome
Distribution
Behaviour
Social
Migration
Diet
Diving
Communication
Breeding and early life
Life span and mortality
Predation and hunting
Conservation issues
Cultural depictions
In legend
In literature and art
Gallery
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: The rubbing of tusks together by male narwhals is thought to be a method of communicating information about characteristics of the water each has traveled through, rather than the previously assumed posturing display of aggressive male-to-male rivalry. In August 2016, drone videos of narwhals surface-feeding in Tremblay Sound, Nunavut showed that the tusk was used to tap and stun small Arctic cod, making them easier to catch for feeding. The tusk cannot serve a critical function for the animal's survival, as females — which generally do not have tusks — typically live longer than males. Therefore, the general scientific consensus is that the narwhal tusk is a sexual trait, much like the antlers of a stag, the mane of a lion, or the feathers of a peacock. Vestigial teeth
The tusks are surrounded posteriorly, ventrally, and laterally by several small vestigial teeth which vary in morphology and histology. These teeth can sometimes be extruded from the bone, but mainly reside inside open tooth sockets in the narwhal's snout alongside the tusks. The varied morphology and anatomy of small teeth indicate a path of evolutionary obsolescence, leaving the narwhal's mouth toothless. Genome
A 2.3 GB genome sequence has been assembled from multiple Illumina libraries. The geno | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narwhal |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_458830118#0_517905193 | Title: National Education Association - Wikipedia
Headings: National Education Association
National Education Association
Contents
Structure and governance
History
Founding
Mergers
Membership trends
Notable members
Composition
Funding
Read Across America Day
Policy positions
Political activities
Legislation opposed and supported
Criticism
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: National Education Association - Wikipedia
National Education Association
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
US teachers' trade union
NEA
Full name
National Education Association of the United States
Founded
1857; 164 years ago
( 1857)
Members
~2,290,000 (2020)
Affiliation
Education International
Key people
Becky Pringle, president
Office location
Washington, D.C., U.S.
Country
United States
Website
nea .org
This article is part of series on the
Education in the
United States
US Department of Education
Summary
By state and in insular areas
By subject area
History of
Issues
Financing
Higher education issues
Financing
Law
Literacy
Reform
Levels of Education
Pre-kindergarten – Primary – Secondary – Higher
Organizations
Education portal
United States portal
v
t
e
General meeting, National Education Association on July 3, 1916, at Madison Square Garden, New York City
The National Education Association ( NEA) is the largest labor union and the largest white-collar representative in the United States. It represents public school teachers and other support personnel, faculty and staffers at colleges and universities, retired educators, and college students preparing to become teachers. The NEA has just under 2.3 million members and is headquartered in Washington, D.C. The NEA had a budget of more than $341 million for the 2012–2013 fiscal year. Becky Pringle is the NEA's current president. As per the NEA website: " Our mission is to advocate for education professionals and to unite our members and the nation to fulfill the promise of public education to prepare every student to succeed in a diverse and interdependent world." The NEA, originally on the conservative side of U.S. politics, by the 1970s emerged as a factor in modern American liberalism. While the NEA has a stated position of "non-partisan", it almost exclusively supports the Democratic Party. Conservatives, libertarians, and parents' rights groups have criticized the NEA's progressive positions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Education_Association |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_458830118#1_517907886 | Title: National Education Association - Wikipedia
Headings: National Education Association
National Education Association
Contents
Structure and governance
History
Founding
Mergers
Membership trends
Notable members
Composition
Funding
Read Across America Day
Policy positions
Political activities
Legislation opposed and supported
Criticism
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: As per the NEA website: " Our mission is to advocate for education professionals and to unite our members and the nation to fulfill the promise of public education to prepare every student to succeed in a diverse and interdependent world." The NEA, originally on the conservative side of U.S. politics, by the 1970s emerged as a factor in modern American liberalism. While the NEA has a stated position of "non-partisan", it almost exclusively supports the Democratic Party. Conservatives, libertarians, and parents' rights groups have criticized the NEA's progressive positions. State affiliates of the NEA regularly lobby state legislators for funding, seek to influence education policy, and file legal actions. At the national level, the NEA lobbies the United States Congress and federal agencies and is active in the nominating process for Democratic candidates. From 1989 through the 2014 election cycle, the NEA spent over $92 million on political campaign contributions, 97% of which went to Democrats. Contents
1 Structure and governance
2 History
2.1 Founding
2.2 Mergers
2.3 Membership trends
2.4 Notable members
3 Composition
4 Funding
5 Read Across America Day
6 Policy positions
7 Political activities
8 Legislation opposed and supported
9 Criticism
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Structure and governance
The NEA has a membership of just under 2.3 million people, with membership levels dropping every year since 2010. The NEA is incorporated as a professional association in a few states and as a Trade union in most. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Education_Association |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_458830118#2_517910077 | Title: National Education Association - Wikipedia
Headings: National Education Association
National Education Association
Contents
Structure and governance
History
Founding
Mergers
Membership trends
Notable members
Composition
Funding
Read Across America Day
Policy positions
Political activities
Legislation opposed and supported
Criticism
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: State affiliates of the NEA regularly lobby state legislators for funding, seek to influence education policy, and file legal actions. At the national level, the NEA lobbies the United States Congress and federal agencies and is active in the nominating process for Democratic candidates. From 1989 through the 2014 election cycle, the NEA spent over $92 million on political campaign contributions, 97% of which went to Democrats. Contents
1 Structure and governance
2 History
2.1 Founding
2.2 Mergers
2.3 Membership trends
2.4 Notable members
3 Composition
4 Funding
5 Read Across America Day
6 Policy positions
7 Political activities
8 Legislation opposed and supported
9 Criticism
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Structure and governance
The NEA has a membership of just under 2.3 million people, with membership levels dropping every year since 2010. The NEA is incorporated as a professional association in a few states and as a Trade union in most. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code. It is not a member of the AFL–CIO, but is part of Education International, the global federation of teachers' unions. NEA members set the union's policies through the Representative Assembly (RA). The RA, which is a delegation comprising elected representatives from each local and state affiliate, coalitions of student members and retired members, and other segments of the united education profession—is the primary legislative and policy-making body of the NEA. As of 2020
[update]
, the executive officers of the NEA are Rebecca Pringle (President), Princess Moss (Vice President), Noel Candelaria (Secretary-Treasurer) and Kim A. Anderson (Executive Director). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Education_Association |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_458830118#3_517912445 | Title: National Education Association - Wikipedia
Headings: National Education Association
National Education Association
Contents
Structure and governance
History
Founding
Mergers
Membership trends
Notable members
Composition
Funding
Read Across America Day
Policy positions
Political activities
Legislation opposed and supported
Criticism
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code. It is not a member of the AFL–CIO, but is part of Education International, the global federation of teachers' unions. NEA members set the union's policies through the Representative Assembly (RA). The RA, which is a delegation comprising elected representatives from each local and state affiliate, coalitions of student members and retired members, and other segments of the united education profession—is the primary legislative and policy-making body of the NEA. As of 2020
[update]
, the executive officers of the NEA are Rebecca Pringle (President), Princess Moss (Vice President), Noel Candelaria (Secretary-Treasurer) and Kim A. Anderson (Executive Director). These posts are elected by the Representative Assembly. The Board of Directors and Executive Committee are responsible for the general policies and interests of the NEA. The Board of Directors consists of one director from each state affiliate (plus an additional director for every 20,000 active members in the state), six directors for the retired members, and three directors for the student members. The board also includes at-large representatives of ethnic minorities, administrators, classroom teachers in higher education, and active members employed in educational support positions. History
Founding
The NEA was founded in Philadelphia in 1857 as the National Teachers Association (NTA). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Education_Association |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_458830118#9_517923837 | Title: National Education Association - Wikipedia
Headings: National Education Association
National Education Association
Contents
Structure and governance
History
Founding
Mergers
Membership trends
Notable members
Composition
Funding
Read Across America Day
Policy positions
Political activities
Legislation opposed and supported
Criticism
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: In 2007, at the 150th anniversary of its founding, NEA membership had grown to 3.2 million. However, by July 2012, USA Today reported that NEA had lost nearly 0.3% of their members each year since 2010. Following the Supreme Court's 2018 Janus v. AFSCME case, which ended the compulsion of non-union, public employees to pay agency fees, or what are colloquially known as 'fair-share fees,' the NEA's total membership and agency fee payers dropped from 3,074,841 on its Nov. 28, 2017, report to 2,975,933 in its Aug. 31, 2019, report, a total loss of 98,908 dues payers. Notable members
C. Louise Boehringer, in 1913 she spoke at their convention in San Francisco
Della Prell Darknell Campbell
William George Carr, Executive Director of the NEA from 1952 to 1967
Sabra R. Greenhalgh, life member of the NEA, elected a delegate to represent northern California at the annual convention in Columbus, Ohio, in 1931
Kate Wetzel Jameson, member
Vesta C. Muehleisen, member
Caroline Haven Ober, member
Jill Biden, First Lady of the United States
Mary Yost, vice-president of the Western Division of Department of Deans of Women
Composition
For most of the 20th century, the NEA represented the public school administration in small towns and rural areas. The state organizations played a major role in policy formation for the NEA. After 1957, the NEA reoriented itself to primarily represent the teachers in those districts, rather than just the administrators. It came to resemble the rival American Federation of Teachers (AFT), which was a labor union for teachers in larger cities. The success of the AFT in raising wages through strike activity encouraged the NEA to undertake similar activities. In the 1970s, more militant politics came to characterize the NEA. It created the NEA Political Action Committee to engage in local election campaigns, and it began endorsing political candidates who supported its policy goals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Education_Association |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_458830118#10_517926374 | Title: National Education Association - Wikipedia
Headings: National Education Association
National Education Association
Contents
Structure and governance
History
Founding
Mergers
Membership trends
Notable members
Composition
Funding
Read Across America Day
Policy positions
Political activities
Legislation opposed and supported
Criticism
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: After 1957, the NEA reoriented itself to primarily represent the teachers in those districts, rather than just the administrators. It came to resemble the rival American Federation of Teachers (AFT), which was a labor union for teachers in larger cities. The success of the AFT in raising wages through strike activity encouraged the NEA to undertake similar activities. In the 1970s, more militant politics came to characterize the NEA. It created the NEA Political Action Committee to engage in local election campaigns, and it began endorsing political candidates who supported its policy goals. State NEA branches became less important as the national and local levels began direct and unmediated relationships. The NEA's elected leadership often supported teachers in opposition to school administrators. According to NEA's Department of Labor records since 2005, when membership classifications were first reported, the majority of the union's membership are "active professional" members, having fallen only slightly from 74% to the current 71%. The second largest category have been "active education support professional" members, with about 15%. The third largest category are "retired" members, which have grown from 8% to 10%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Education_Association |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_459126007#0_518243255 | Title: National Endowment for the Arts - Wikipedia
Headings: National Endowment for the Arts
National Endowment for the Arts
Contents
Background
Grants
Governance
Grantmaking
Relative scope of funding
Lifetime honors
Controversy
1981 attempts to abolish
1989 objections
1990 performance artists vetoed
1995–1997 congressional attacks
Proposed defunding
Chairpersons
Nancy Hanks (1969–77)
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Primary sources
External links
Content: National Endowment for the Arts - Wikipedia
National Endowment for the Arts
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Independent agency of the United States federal government
National Endowment for the Arts
Agency overview
Formed
1965
Jurisdiction
Federal government of the United States
Headquarters
Constitution Center, Washington, D.C.
Annual budget
$162,250,000 USD (2020)
Agency executive
Ann Eilers (acting), Chairman
Website
arts .gov
The National Endowment for the Arts ( NEA) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that offers support and funding for projects exhibiting artistic excellence. It was created by an act of the U.S. Congress in 1965 as an independent agency of the federal government. The agency was created by an act of the U.S. Congress and signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson on September 29, 1965 (20 U.S.C. 951). The foundation consists of the National Endowment for the Arts, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Federal Council on the Arts and the Humanities, and the Institute of Museum and Library Services. The NEA has its offices in Washington, D.C. It was awarded Tony Honors for Excellence in Theatre in 1995, as well as the Special Tony Award in 2016. In 1985, the Arts Endowment won an honorary Oscar from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for its work with the American Film Institute in the identification, acquisition, restoration and preservation of historic films. Additionally, in 2016 and again in 2017, the National Endowment for the Arts received Emmy nominations from the Television Academy in the Outstanding Short Form Nonfiction or Reality Series category. Contents
1 Background
2 Grants
3 Governance
4 Grantmaking
4.1 Relative scope of funding
5 Lifetime honors
6 Controversy
6.1 1981 attempts to abolish
6.2 1989 objections
6.3 1990 performance artists vetoed
6.4 1995–1997 congressional attacks
6.5 Proposed defunding
7 Chairpersons
7.1 Nancy Hanks (1969–77)
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Citations
9.2 Sources
10 Further reading
10.1 Primary sources
11 External links
Background
The National Endowment for the Arts was created during the term of President Lyndon B. Johnson under the general auspices of the Great Society. According to historian Karen Patricia Heath, "Johnson personally was not much interested in the acquisition of knowledge, cultural or otherwise, for its own sake, nor did he have time for art appreciation or meeting with artists." The NEA is "dedicated to supporting excellence in the arts, both new and established; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_459126007#1_518246582 | Title: National Endowment for the Arts - Wikipedia
Headings: National Endowment for the Arts
National Endowment for the Arts
Contents
Background
Grants
Governance
Grantmaking
Relative scope of funding
Lifetime honors
Controversy
1981 attempts to abolish
1989 objections
1990 performance artists vetoed
1995–1997 congressional attacks
Proposed defunding
Chairpersons
Nancy Hanks (1969–77)
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Primary sources
External links
Content: In 1985, the Arts Endowment won an honorary Oscar from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for its work with the American Film Institute in the identification, acquisition, restoration and preservation of historic films. Additionally, in 2016 and again in 2017, the National Endowment for the Arts received Emmy nominations from the Television Academy in the Outstanding Short Form Nonfiction or Reality Series category. Contents
1 Background
2 Grants
3 Governance
4 Grantmaking
4.1 Relative scope of funding
5 Lifetime honors
6 Controversy
6.1 1981 attempts to abolish
6.2 1989 objections
6.3 1990 performance artists vetoed
6.4 1995–1997 congressional attacks
6.5 Proposed defunding
7 Chairpersons
7.1 Nancy Hanks (1969–77)
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Citations
9.2 Sources
10 Further reading
10.1 Primary sources
11 External links
Background
The National Endowment for the Arts was created during the term of President Lyndon B. Johnson under the general auspices of the Great Society. According to historian Karen Patricia Heath, "Johnson personally was not much interested in the acquisition of knowledge, cultural or otherwise, for its own sake, nor did he have time for art appreciation or meeting with artists." The NEA is "dedicated to supporting excellence in the arts, both new and established; bringing the arts to all Americans; and providing leadership in arts education". Grants
Between 1965 and 2008, the agency has made in excess of 128,000 grants, totaling more than $5 billion. From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, Congress granted the NEA an annual funding of between $160 and $180 million. In 1996, Congress cut the NEA funding to $99.5 million as a result of pressure from conservative groups, including the American Family Association, who criticized the agency for using tax dollars to fund highly controversial artists such as Barbara DeGenevieve, Andres Serrano, Robert Mapplethorpe, and the performance artists known as the " NEA Four ". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_459126007#2_518249296 | Title: National Endowment for the Arts - Wikipedia
Headings: National Endowment for the Arts
National Endowment for the Arts
Contents
Background
Grants
Governance
Grantmaking
Relative scope of funding
Lifetime honors
Controversy
1981 attempts to abolish
1989 objections
1990 performance artists vetoed
1995–1997 congressional attacks
Proposed defunding
Chairpersons
Nancy Hanks (1969–77)
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Primary sources
External links
Content: bringing the arts to all Americans; and providing leadership in arts education". Grants
Between 1965 and 2008, the agency has made in excess of 128,000 grants, totaling more than $5 billion. From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, Congress granted the NEA an annual funding of between $160 and $180 million. In 1996, Congress cut the NEA funding to $99.5 million as a result of pressure from conservative groups, including the American Family Association, who criticized the agency for using tax dollars to fund highly controversial artists such as Barbara DeGenevieve, Andres Serrano, Robert Mapplethorpe, and the performance artists known as the " NEA Four ". Since 1996, the NEA has partially rebounded with a 2015 budget of $146.21 million. For FY 2010, the budget reached the level it was at during the mid-1990s at $167.5 million but fell again in FY 2011 with a budget of $154 million. Governance
The NEA is governed by a chairman nominated by the president to a four-year term and subject to congressional confirmaion. The NEA's advisory committee, the National Council on the Arts, advises the Chairman on policies and programs, as well as reviewing grant applications, fundraising guidelines, and leadership initiative. This body consists of 14 individuals appointed by the President for their expertise and knowledge in the arts, in addition to six ex officio members of Congress who serve in a non-voting capacity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_459126007#3_518251422 | Title: National Endowment for the Arts - Wikipedia
Headings: National Endowment for the Arts
National Endowment for the Arts
Contents
Background
Grants
Governance
Grantmaking
Relative scope of funding
Lifetime honors
Controversy
1981 attempts to abolish
1989 objections
1990 performance artists vetoed
1995–1997 congressional attacks
Proposed defunding
Chairpersons
Nancy Hanks (1969–77)
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Primary sources
External links
Content: Since 1996, the NEA has partially rebounded with a 2015 budget of $146.21 million. For FY 2010, the budget reached the level it was at during the mid-1990s at $167.5 million but fell again in FY 2011 with a budget of $154 million. Governance
The NEA is governed by a chairman nominated by the president to a four-year term and subject to congressional confirmaion. The NEA's advisory committee, the National Council on the Arts, advises the Chairman on policies and programs, as well as reviewing grant applications, fundraising guidelines, and leadership initiative. This body consists of 14 individuals appointed by the President for their expertise and knowledge in the arts, in addition to six ex officio members of Congress who serve in a non-voting capacity. Grantmaking
The NEA offers grants in the categories of: 1) grants for arts projects, 2) national initiatives, and 3) partnership agreements. Grants for arts projects support exemplary projects in the discipline categories of artist communities, arts education, dance, design, folk and traditional arts, literature, local arts agencies, media arts, museums, music, musical theater, opera, presenting (including multidisciplinary art forms), theater, and visual arts. The NEA also grants individual fellowships in literature to creative writers and translators of exceptional talent in the areas of prose and poetry. The NEA has partnerships in the areas of state and regional, federal, international activities, and design. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_459126007#4_518253609 | Title: National Endowment for the Arts - Wikipedia
Headings: National Endowment for the Arts
National Endowment for the Arts
Contents
Background
Grants
Governance
Grantmaking
Relative scope of funding
Lifetime honors
Controversy
1981 attempts to abolish
1989 objections
1990 performance artists vetoed
1995–1997 congressional attacks
Proposed defunding
Chairpersons
Nancy Hanks (1969–77)
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Primary sources
External links
Content: Grantmaking
The NEA offers grants in the categories of: 1) grants for arts projects, 2) national initiatives, and 3) partnership agreements. Grants for arts projects support exemplary projects in the discipline categories of artist communities, arts education, dance, design, folk and traditional arts, literature, local arts agencies, media arts, museums, music, musical theater, opera, presenting (including multidisciplinary art forms), theater, and visual arts. The NEA also grants individual fellowships in literature to creative writers and translators of exceptional talent in the areas of prose and poetry. The NEA has partnerships in the areas of state and regional, federal, international activities, and design. The state arts agencies and regional arts organizations are the NEA's primary partners in serving the American people through the arts. Forty percent of all NEA funding goes to the state arts agencies and regional arts organizations. Additionally, the NEA awards three Lifetime Honors: NEA National Heritage Fellowships to master folk and traditional artists, NEA Jazz Masters Fellowships to jazz musicians and advocates, and NEA Opera Honors to individuals who have made extraordinary contributions to opera in the United States. The NEA also manages the National Medal of Arts, awarded annually by the President. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_459126007#5_518255645 | Title: National Endowment for the Arts - Wikipedia
Headings: National Endowment for the Arts
National Endowment for the Arts
Contents
Background
Grants
Governance
Grantmaking
Relative scope of funding
Lifetime honors
Controversy
1981 attempts to abolish
1989 objections
1990 performance artists vetoed
1995–1997 congressional attacks
Proposed defunding
Chairpersons
Nancy Hanks (1969–77)
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Primary sources
External links
Content: The state arts agencies and regional arts organizations are the NEA's primary partners in serving the American people through the arts. Forty percent of all NEA funding goes to the state arts agencies and regional arts organizations. Additionally, the NEA awards three Lifetime Honors: NEA National Heritage Fellowships to master folk and traditional artists, NEA Jazz Masters Fellowships to jazz musicians and advocates, and NEA Opera Honors to individuals who have made extraordinary contributions to opera in the United States. The NEA also manages the National Medal of Arts, awarded annually by the President. Relative scope of funding
Artist William Powhida has noted that "in one single auction, wealthy collectors bought almost a billion dollars in contemporary art at Christie's in New York." He further commented: " If you had a 2 percent tax just on the auctions in New York you could probably double the NEA budget in two nights." Lifetime honors
The NEA is the federal agency responsible for recognizing outstanding achievement in the arts. It does this by awarding three lifetime achievement awards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_459126007#6_518257462 | Title: National Endowment for the Arts - Wikipedia
Headings: National Endowment for the Arts
National Endowment for the Arts
Contents
Background
Grants
Governance
Grantmaking
Relative scope of funding
Lifetime honors
Controversy
1981 attempts to abolish
1989 objections
1990 performance artists vetoed
1995–1997 congressional attacks
Proposed defunding
Chairpersons
Nancy Hanks (1969–77)
See also
References
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Primary sources
External links
Content: Relative scope of funding
Artist William Powhida has noted that "in one single auction, wealthy collectors bought almost a billion dollars in contemporary art at Christie's in New York." He further commented: " If you had a 2 percent tax just on the auctions in New York you could probably double the NEA budget in two nights." Lifetime honors
The NEA is the federal agency responsible for recognizing outstanding achievement in the arts. It does this by awarding three lifetime achievement awards. The NEA Jazz Masters Fellowships are awarded to individuals who have made significant contributions to the art of jazz. The NEA National Heritage Fellowships are awarded for artistic excellence and accomplishments for American's folk and traditional arts. The National Medal of Arts is awarded by the President of the United States and NEA for outstanding contributions to the excellence, growth, support, and availability of the arts in the United States. Controversy
1981 attempts to abolish
Upon entering office in 1981, the incoming Ronald Reagan administration intended to push Congress to abolish the NEA completely over a three-year period. Reagan's first director of the Office of Management and Budget, David A. Stockman, thought the NEA and the National Endowment for the Humanities were "good [departments] to simply bring to a halt because they went too far, and they would be easy to defeat." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Arts |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_475649256#0_535618687 | Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
History of the United States public debt
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from National debt by U.S. presidential terms)
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( July 2020)
Aspect of history
The amount of U.S. public debt, measured as a percentage of GDP from 1900 to 2020, projected to 2050. The history of the United States public debt started with federal government debt incurred during the American Revolutionary War by the first U.S treasurer, Michael Hillegas, after its formation in 1789. The United States has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since then, except for about a year during 1835–1836. To allow comparisons over the years, public debt is often expressed as a ratio to gross domestic product (GDP). Historically, the United States public debt as a share of GDP has increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined. The United States public debt as a percentage of GDP reached its highest level during Harry Truman 's first presidential term, during and after World War II. Public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly in the post-World War II period, and reached a low in 1973 under President Richard Nixon. Debt as a share of GDP has consistently increased since then, except during the terms of presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_debt_by_U.S._presidential_terms |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_475649256#1_535620986 | Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: To allow comparisons over the years, public debt is often expressed as a ratio to gross domestic product (GDP). Historically, the United States public debt as a share of GDP has increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined. The United States public debt as a percentage of GDP reached its highest level during Harry Truman 's first presidential term, during and after World War II. Public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly in the post-World War II period, and reached a low in 1973 under President Richard Nixon. Debt as a share of GDP has consistently increased since then, except during the terms of presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton. Public debt rose during the 1980s, as President Reagan cut tax rates and increased military spending. It fell during the 1990s, due to decreased military spending, increased taxes and the 1990s boom. Public debt rose sharply in the wake of the 2007–08 financial crisis and the resulting significant tax revenue declines and spending increases. The US Public debt rose dramatically during the 2019-2021 COVID-19 Pandemic due to emergency measures to sustain the economy during large scale economic retraction in most industries with concomitant high unemployment. Contents
1 Early history
1.1 1790s
1.2 The assumption issue
1.3 1790s to 1834
1.4 Payment of US national debt
1.5 1836 to 1910
2 World War I and Great Depression
3 After World War II
3.1 2011 credit rating downgrade
4 Changes in debt by political affiliation
5 Causes of recent changes in debt
5.1 2001 vs. 2009
5.2 2001 vs. 2011
5.3 2008 vs. 2009
6 Historical debt levels
6.1 Gross federal debt
6.2 Publicly held debt
7 Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Early history
Alexander Hamilton 's First Report on the Public Credit, January 9, 1790
1790s
Except for about a year during 1835–1836, the United States has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since its Constitution went into effect on March 4, 1789. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_debt_by_U.S._presidential_terms |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_475649256#8_535638236 | Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: The federal government was able to avoid competing in interest with the States. The debts of the federal government on January 1, 1791 amounted to $75,463,476.52, of which about $40 million was domestic debt, $12 million was foreign debt, and $18.3 million were state debts assumed by the federal government, of the $21.5 million that had been authorized. 1790s to 1834
To reduce the debt, from 1796 to 1811 there were 14 budget surpluses and 2 deficits. There was a sharp increase in the debt as a result of the War of 1812. In the 20 years following that war, there were 18 surpluses. Payment of US national debt
On January 8, 1835, president Andrew Jackson paid off the entire national debt, the only time in U.S. history that has been accomplished. The Panic of 1837 then followed. 1836 to 1910
In 1836 debt began again (the debt on January 1, 1836 was $37,000). Another sharp increase in the debt occurred as a result of the Civil War. The debt was just $65 million in 1860, but passed $1 billion in 1863 and reached $2.7 billion by the end of the war. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_debt_by_U.S._presidential_terms |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_475649256#9_535640116 | Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: Payment of US national debt
On January 8, 1835, president Andrew Jackson paid off the entire national debt, the only time in U.S. history that has been accomplished. The Panic of 1837 then followed. 1836 to 1910
In 1836 debt began again (the debt on January 1, 1836 was $37,000). Another sharp increase in the debt occurred as a result of the Civil War. The debt was just $65 million in 1860, but passed $1 billion in 1863 and reached $2.7 billion by the end of the war. During the following 47 years, there were 36 surpluses and 11 deficits. During this period 55% of the national debt was paid off. World War I and Great Depression
Debt decreased again during World War I (1914–1918), reaching $25.5 billion at its conclusion. Approximately $17 billion in debt was raised through the selling of Liberty Bonds to the general public to finance the U.S.'s military effort. The war was followed by 11 consecutive surpluses that saw the debt reduced by 36% by the end of the 1920s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_debt_by_U.S._presidential_terms |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_475649256#11_535643840 | Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: Warren G. Harding was elected president in 1920 and believed the federal government should be fiscally managed in a way similar to private sector businesses. He had campaigned in 1920 on the slogan, "Less government in business and more business in government." Under Harding, federal spending declined from $6.3 billion in 1920 to $5 billion in 1921 and $3.3 billion in 1922. Over the course of the 1920s, under the leadership of Calvin Coolidge, the national debt was reduced by one third. The decrease was even greater when the growth in GDP and inflation is taken into account. Debt held by the public was $15.05 billion or 16.5% of GDP in 1930. When Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in 1933, the public debt was almost $20 billion, 20% of GDP. Decreased tax revenues and spending on social programs during the Great Depression increased the debt and by 1936, the public debt had increased to $33.7 billion, approximately 40% of GDP. During its first term, the Roosevelt administration ran large annual deficits of between 2 and 5% of GDP. By 1939, the debt held by the public had increased to $39.65 billion or 43% of GDP. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_debt_by_U.S._presidential_terms |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_475649256#12_535645791 | Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: Debt held by the public was $15.05 billion or 16.5% of GDP in 1930. When Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in 1933, the public debt was almost $20 billion, 20% of GDP. Decreased tax revenues and spending on social programs during the Great Depression increased the debt and by 1936, the public debt had increased to $33.7 billion, approximately 40% of GDP. During its first term, the Roosevelt administration ran large annual deficits of between 2 and 5% of GDP. By 1939, the debt held by the public had increased to $39.65 billion or 43% of GDP. The buildup and involvement in World War II during the presidencies of F.D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman led to the largest increase in public debt. Public debt rose over 100% of GDP to pay for the mobilization before and during the war. Public debt was $251.43 billion or 112% of GDP at the conclusion of the war in 1945 and was $260 billion in 1950. After World War II
U.S. federal debt held by the public as a percentage of GDP, from 1940 to 2012. The public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly after the end of World War II under the presidency of Harry S. Truman, as the U.S. and the rest of the world experienced a post-war economic expansion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_debt_by_U.S._presidential_terms |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477580572#0_538017584 | Title: Nationalization of history - Wikipedia
Headings: Nationalization of history
Nationalization of history
Contents
Universal history
Main article: Universal history
Causes of nationalization of history
Renationalization of history
Renationalization of history in Ukraine
Legacy
Nation mythologies, histories and states
Society and nature
Denationalization of history
See also
References
Content: Nationalization of history - Wikipedia
Nationalization of history
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Nationalization of history is the term used in historiography to describe the process of separation of "one's own" history from the common universal history, by way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that results with construction of history as history of a nation. If national labeling of the past is not treated with great care, it can result in the retrospective nationalization of history and even assigning nonexistent or exaggerating existing national attributes of historical events and persons. Nationalization of history, which began after a period of globalization of history, was not only one of causes, but also element and result of the process of establishment of modern nations ( national revival ). Contents
1 Universal history
2 Causes of nationalization of history
3 Renationalization of history
3.1 Renationalization of history in Ukraine
4 Legacy
4.1 Nation mythologies, histories and states
4.2 Society and nature
4.3 Denationalization of history
5 See also
6 References
Universal history
Main article: Universal history
Voltaire was the first in the modern period who attempted to write a history of the world, without use of religious and nationalistic interpretations of the past. Universal history, the result of a universal, cosmopolitan interpretation of historical events and mankind as a whole, coherent unit, preceded the nationalization of history. In the Western world, this motivation to imagine a universal history became influential in the 18th century when numerous philosophers promoted new cosmopolitan ideologies, after the ethno-religious conflicts of the previous century, and the subsequent consolidation of states which attempted to impose themselves over religious particularisms. Colonial experience (many European countries had colonies) exposed society in Europe to numerous different cultures and civilizations. It is also very important to take in consideration that the 18th century was in the Age of Enlightenment when people's activities, both on individual and social level, were determined with desire to follow rational scientific judgment while changing the society, which released them from restraints of customs and arbitrary authorities based on faith, superstition, or revelation and backed up by religion or tradition. All these circumstances provided suitable surroundings for development of universalistic, liberal and rational global perspectives in studies of society and its past and writing historical texts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalization_of_history |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477580572#3_538026340 | Title: Nationalization of history - Wikipedia
Headings: Nationalization of history
Nationalization of history
Contents
Universal history
Main article: Universal history
Causes of nationalization of history
Renationalization of history
Renationalization of history in Ukraine
Legacy
Nation mythologies, histories and states
Society and nature
Denationalization of history
See also
References
Content: his credo was to perform reconstruction of the past "as it was". Ranke's universal precepts in virtually all his works were, however, applied almost exclusively to the history of states and nations. Causes of nationalization of history
Though nationalization of history could probably be traced from the earliest phases of creating historical works, it was in the period after the French revolution that creating of historical works started to be strongly influenced by national perspectives, and that perspective gradually became globally dominant with its culmination during the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. Nationalism was estimated as the proper perspective to such an extent that nationalization of history remained unnoticed till recently (1980s and 1990s) and was not studied in historiography in a scale that would correspond to its significance. Many various reasons, depending on the circumstances, caused nationalization of history. Probably the most important is national revival, the important element of which was nationalized history, that resulted in the emerging of modern nations and nation-states, mostly during the 19th century. With the emerging of national states, a global universal approach to writing history lost ground to the nation-state and was very much captured by it even in a significant part of the 20th century. The professionalization and institutionalization of history that took part in nation-states' institutions during the 19th and first half of the 20th century was closely connected with the process of history's increasing nationalization. Nationalization of history was additionally entrenched by the development of national curricula in schools based on "monumental and prestigious" series of "authoritative" national stories, often written in insular style and justificatory manner. Germany after Versailles: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalization_of_history |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#0_538266492 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four)
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Three fictional states (Oceania, Eurasia, Eastasia) in the novel 1984 by George Orwell, perpetually vying for the control of the world
The three fictional superstates of the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four are Oceania, Eurasia, and Eastasia. ' Disputed territories' are also indicated. Oceania, Eurasia and Eastasia are the three fictional superstates in George Orwell 's 1949 dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. All that Oceania's citizens know about the world is whatever the Party wants them to know, so how the world evolved into the three states is unknown; and it is also unknown to the reader whether they actually exist in the novel's reality, or whether they are a storyline invented by the Party to advance social control. The nations, so far as can be inferred, appear to have emerged from nuclear warfare and civil dissolution over 20 years between 1945 and 1965. Contents
1 Sourcing
2 Oceania
3 Eurasia and Eastasia
4 International relations
5 Analysis
5.1 Contemporary interpretations
6 Influences
7 Comparisons
8 Sources
Sourcing
George Orwell, author of Nineteen Eighty-Four, whose wartime BBC career influenced the creation of Oceania
What is known of the society, politics and economics of Oceania, and its rivals, comes from the in-universe book, The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism. The protagonist of Nineteen Eighty-Four, Winston Smith, describes it as "a heavy black volume, amateurishly bound, with no name or title on the cover. The print also looked slightly irregular. The pages were worn at the edges, and fell apart easily, as though the book had passed through many hands." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#1_538268865 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: The nations, so far as can be inferred, appear to have emerged from nuclear warfare and civil dissolution over 20 years between 1945 and 1965. Contents
1 Sourcing
2 Oceania
3 Eurasia and Eastasia
4 International relations
5 Analysis
5.1 Contemporary interpretations
6 Influences
7 Comparisons
8 Sources
Sourcing
George Orwell, author of Nineteen Eighty-Four, whose wartime BBC career influenced the creation of Oceania
What is known of the society, politics and economics of Oceania, and its rivals, comes from the in-universe book, The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism. The protagonist of Nineteen Eighty-Four, Winston Smith, describes it as "a heavy black volume, amateurishly bound, with no name or title on the cover. The print also looked slightly irregular. The pages were worn at the edges, and fell apart easily, as though the book had passed through many hands." The book is a literary device Orwell uses to connect the past and present of 1984. Orwell intended Goldstein's book to parody Trotsky 's (on whom Goldstein is based) The Revolution Betrayed: What is the Soviet Union and Where is it Going?, 1941. Oceania
Oceania was founded following an anti-capitalist revolution, which while intended to be the ultimate liberation of its proletariat, soon ignored them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#2_538270678 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: The book is a literary device Orwell uses to connect the past and present of 1984. Orwell intended Goldstein's book to parody Trotsky 's (on whom Goldstein is based) The Revolution Betrayed: What is the Soviet Union and Where is it Going?, 1941. Oceania
Oceania was founded following an anti-capitalist revolution, which while intended to be the ultimate liberation of its proletariat, soon ignored them. There is, however, no indication in the text to suggest how the Party obtained the power it possesses or when it did so. The state is composed of "the Americas, the Atlantic Islands, including the British Isles, Australasia and the southern portion of Africa ." Oceania's political system, Ingsoc, (English socialism) uses cult of personality to venerate the ruler, Big Brother as the Inner Party exercises day-to-day power. Food rationing, which does not affect Inner Party members, is in place. This is intended to strengthen the party's control over its citizens and help with its wars. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#3_538272182 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: There is, however, no indication in the text to suggest how the Party obtained the power it possesses or when it did so. The state is composed of "the Americas, the Atlantic Islands, including the British Isles, Australasia and the southern portion of Africa ." Oceania's political system, Ingsoc, (English socialism) uses cult of personality to venerate the ruler, Big Brother as the Inner Party exercises day-to-day power. Food rationing, which does not affect Inner Party members, is in place. This is intended to strengthen the party's control over its citizens and help with its wars. Winston considers the geography as now stands: " even the names of countries, and their shapes on the map, had been different. Airstrip One, for instance, had not been so called in those days: it had been called England, or Britain, though London, he felt fairly certain, had always been called London. There is countryside outside of London, but this is not a place for enjoying the contrast with the city but purely practical grounds of exercise. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#4_538273730 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: Winston considers the geography as now stands: " even the names of countries, and their shapes on the map, had been different. Airstrip One, for instance, had not been so called in those days: it had been called England, or Britain, though London, he felt fairly certain, had always been called London. There is countryside outside of London, but this is not a place for enjoying the contrast with the city but purely practical grounds of exercise. Oceania is made up by provinces, of which Airstrip One, as Britain is now known, is one. The whole province is "miserable and run-down" with London consisting, almost solely, of "decaying suburbs". Airstrip One is the third most populous province in Oceania; but London is not the capital, for Oceania has none. This decentralisation enables the Party to ensure that each province of Oceania feels itself to be the centre of affairs; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#5_538275124 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: Oceania is made up by provinces, of which Airstrip One, as Britain is now known, is one. The whole province is "miserable and run-down" with London consisting, almost solely, of "decaying suburbs". Airstrip One is the third most populous province in Oceania; but London is not the capital, for Oceania has none. This decentralisation enables the Party to ensure that each province of Oceania feels itself to be the centre of affairs; and it prevents them from feeling colonised, for there is no distant capital to focus discontent on. 85% of Oceania's population are Proles, with the most of the remainder the Outer Party; a tiny number rule as members of the Inner Party. Winston yearns for revolution and a return to a time before Oceania, says Carr; but he realises that "no revolution is possible in Oceania. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#9_538280502 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: In Oceania, to think is to do and no distinction is drawn between either. Criticism of the state is forbidden; though criticism must be constant for the state's survival for it must have critics to destroy so as to demonstrate the state's power. Governance of Oceania depends upon the necessity of suppressing freedom of thought or original thinking amongst the Outer Party (the Proles are exempted from this as they are deemed incapable of having ideas). The state is highly bureaucratic. Winston notes that myriad committees are responsible for administration and are "liable to hold up even the mending of a window-pane for two years". The rulers of Oceania, the Inner Party, says Winston, were once the intelligentsia, the "bureaucrats, scientists, technicians, trade-union organizers, publicity experts, sociologists, teachers, journalists, and professional politicians". The state's national anthem is Oceania, 'Tis for Thee. Eurasia and Eastasia
Eastasia consists of " China and the countries south to it, the Japanese islands, and a large but fluctuating portion of Manchuria, Mongolia and Tibet ." Eurasia comprises "the whole of the northern part of the European and Asiatic landmass from Portugal to the Bering Strait ." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#10_538282249 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: Winston notes that myriad committees are responsible for administration and are "liable to hold up even the mending of a window-pane for two years". The rulers of Oceania, the Inner Party, says Winston, were once the intelligentsia, the "bureaucrats, scientists, technicians, trade-union organizers, publicity experts, sociologists, teachers, journalists, and professional politicians". The state's national anthem is Oceania, 'Tis for Thee. Eurasia and Eastasia
Eastasia consists of " China and the countries south to it, the Japanese islands, and a large but fluctuating portion of Manchuria, Mongolia and Tibet ." Eurasia comprises "the whole of the northern part of the European and Asiatic landmass from Portugal to the Bering Strait ." The ideology of Eurasia is Neo-Bolshevism, and that of Eastasia is called Obliteration of the Self, also known as Death-Worship. These states' populations also primarily consist of Proles. Winston recognises similarities with the other superstates, at one point commenting that "it was curious to think that the sky was the same for everybody, In Eurasia or Eastasia as well as here. And the people under the sky were very much the same." International relations
The three states have been at war with each other since the 1960s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#11_538284040 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: The ideology of Eurasia is Neo-Bolshevism, and that of Eastasia is called Obliteration of the Self, also known as Death-Worship. These states' populations also primarily consist of Proles. Winston recognises similarities with the other superstates, at one point commenting that "it was curious to think that the sky was the same for everybody, In Eurasia or Eastasia as well as here. And the people under the sky were very much the same." International relations
The three states have been at war with each other since the 1960s. By 1984 it has become a constant, and they regularly change allegiance with each other. Each state is self-supporting so they do not war over natural resources, nor is the destruction of the opponent the primary objective; for, even when two states ally against the third, no combination is powerful enough to do so. According to Fabio Parasecoli, war is necessary to use up the oversupply constantly generated by the respective extreme forms of capitalism. Each state recognises that science is responsible for its over-production, so science must be carefully controlled lest the proles or Outer Party expect an increased standard of living. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#12_538285724 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: By 1984 it has become a constant, and they regularly change allegiance with each other. Each state is self-supporting so they do not war over natural resources, nor is the destruction of the opponent the primary objective; for, even when two states ally against the third, no combination is powerful enough to do so. According to Fabio Parasecoli, war is necessary to use up the oversupply constantly generated by the respective extreme forms of capitalism. Each state recognises that science is responsible for its over-production, so science must be carefully controlled lest the proles or Outer Party expect an increased standard of living. From this analysis stems the policy of permanent warfare: by focusing production on arms and materiel (rather than consumer goods) each state can keep its population impoverished and willing to sacrifice personal liberties for the greater good. The peoples of these states—subject to shortages, queues, poor infrastructure and food— "are no longer domesticated or even able to be domesticated " says Carr. These states all, in effect, use the same totalitarianism, and are similar monolithic regimes. Historian Mark Connelly notes that "the beliefs may differ, but their purpose is the same, to justify and maintain the unquestioned leadership of a totalitarian elite". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#13_538287559 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: From this analysis stems the policy of permanent warfare: by focusing production on arms and materiel (rather than consumer goods) each state can keep its population impoverished and willing to sacrifice personal liberties for the greater good. The peoples of these states—subject to shortages, queues, poor infrastructure and food— "are no longer domesticated or even able to be domesticated " says Carr. These states all, in effect, use the same totalitarianism, and are similar monolithic regimes. Historian Mark Connelly notes that "the beliefs may differ, but their purpose is the same, to justify and maintain the unquestioned leadership of a totalitarian elite". Each uses artificially-induced hatred of its then-enemy by its citizenry to control them. Due to the sheer size of the protagonists, there are, says Connelly, no "massive invasions claiming hundreds of thousands of lives", but instead small-scale, local encounters and conflicts which are then exaggerated for the purposes of domestic propaganda. Connely describes the fighting between the states as "highly technical, involving small units of highly trained individuals waging battles in remote contested regions". All sides once possessed nuclear weapons, but, following a short-lived resort to them in the 1950s (in which Colchester was hit) they were recognised as too dangerous for any of them to use. As a result, says Connelly, although London could have been destroyed by a nuclear weapon in 1984, it was never hit by anything worse–albeit "20 or 30 times a week"–than "rocketbombs", themselves no more powerful than the V-1s or V-2s of World War Two. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#14_538289728 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: Each uses artificially-induced hatred of its then-enemy by its citizenry to control them. Due to the sheer size of the protagonists, there are, says Connelly, no "massive invasions claiming hundreds of thousands of lives", but instead small-scale, local encounters and conflicts which are then exaggerated for the purposes of domestic propaganda. Connely describes the fighting between the states as "highly technical, involving small units of highly trained individuals waging battles in remote contested regions". All sides once possessed nuclear weapons, but, following a short-lived resort to them in the 1950s (in which Colchester was hit) they were recognised as too dangerous for any of them to use. As a result, says Connelly, although London could have been destroyed by a nuclear weapon in 1984, it was never hit by anything worse–albeit "20 or 30 times a week"–than "rocketbombs", themselves no more powerful than the V-1s or V-2s of World War Two. At any moment, however, an alliance could shift and the two states that had previously been at war with each other may suddenly ally against the other. When this happened, the past immediately had to be re-written—newspapers retyped, new photos glued over old—to provide continuity. In many cases that which contradicted the state was simply destroyed. This occurs during Oceania's Hate Week, when it is announced that the state is at war with Eastasia and allied to Eurasia, despite the assembled crowd—including Winston and Julia—having just witnessed the executions of Eurasian prisoners of war. Winston describes how, when the announcer spoke, "nothing altered in his voice or manner or in the content of what he was saying, but suddenly the names were different". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_477800898#15_538292004 | Title: Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four - Wikipedia
Headings: Political geography of
Nineteen Eighty-Four
Political geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four
Contents
Sourcing
Oceania
Eurasia and Eastasia
International relations
Analysis
Contemporary interpretations
Influences
Comparisons
Sources
Content: At any moment, however, an alliance could shift and the two states that had previously been at war with each other may suddenly ally against the other. When this happened, the past immediately had to be re-written—newspapers retyped, new photos glued over old—to provide continuity. In many cases that which contradicted the state was simply destroyed. This occurs during Oceania's Hate Week, when it is announced that the state is at war with Eastasia and allied to Eurasia, despite the assembled crowd—including Winston and Julia—having just witnessed the executions of Eurasian prisoners of war. Winston describes how, when the announcer spoke, "nothing altered in his voice or manner or in the content of what he was saying, but suddenly the names were different". Orwell describes the war as one of "limited aims between combatants who are unable to destroy one another, have no material cause for fighting and are not divided by any genuine ideological difference". These wars, suggests the writer Roberta Kalechofsky, "sti | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_of_Nineteen_Eighty-Four |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_478123244#0_538440355 | Title: Nationwide opinion polling for the 2008 United States presidential election - Wikipedia
Headings: Nationwide opinion polling for the 2008 United States presidential election
Nationwide opinion polling for the 2008 United States presidential election
Contents
Presidential election
Two-way contest: Barack Obama vs John McCain
Democratic nominee vs. Republican nominee
Three-way contest
Four-way contest
Five-way contest
Earlier polls
Two-way contest
Democratic nominee vs. Republican nominee
Three-way race
Democratic field vs. Republican field
Three-way contest
Support likelihood
Democratic candidate
Republican candidate
Other polls
Candidate distinctions
Would you be willing to vote for a female presidential candidate in 2008?
Would you be willing to vote for an African American presidential candidate in 2008?
Would you be willing to vote for a Mormon (a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) presidential candidate in 2008?
Would you be willing to vote for a Roman Catholic presidential candidate in 2008?
Would you be willing to vote for a Jewish presidential candidate in 2008?
Would you be willing to vote for a Hispanic presidential candidate in 2008?
Would you be willing to vote for a thrice-married candidate in 2008?
Would you be willing to vote for a seventy-two year old candidate in 2008?
Would you be willing to vote for a homosexual candidate in 2008?
Would you be willing to vote for an atheist candidate in 2008?
Candidate quality
If elected, would the following candidate make a good president or a bad president?
Candidate ideology
Do you think the following candidate is too liberal, too conservative, or about right?
See also
External links
Aggregated
References
Content: Nationwide opinion polling for the 2008 United States presidential election - Wikipedia
Nationwide opinion polling for the 2008 United States presidential election
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Nationwide opinion polling for the United States presidential election, 2008)
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. ( June 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: United States presidential election, 2008
See also: Statewide opinion polling for the United States presidential election, 2008
2008 U.S. presidential election
Timeline
General election debates
National polling
Statewide polling
Parties
Democratic Party
Candidates
Debates and forums
Primaries
National polling
Statewide polling
Results
Nominee
Convention
superdelegates
Republican Party
Candidates
Debates and forums
Primaries
National polling
Statewide polling
Results
Nominee
Convention
Minor parties
Libertarian Party
convention
Green Party
primaries
convention
Constitution Party
All candidates
Related races
House
Senate
Governors
Vice President
Democratic
Republican
← 2004
2008
2012 →
v
t
e
This article provides a list of scientific, nationwide public opinion polls that were conducted relating to the 2008 United States presidential election . Contents
1 Presidential election
1.1 Two-way contest: Barack Obama vs John McCain
1.1.1 Democratic nominee vs. Republican nominee
1.2 Four-way contest
1.3 Five-way contest
2 Earlier polls
2.1 Two-way contest
2.1.1 Democratic nominee vs. Republican nominee
2.1.2 Democratic field vs. Republican field
2.2 Three-way contest
2.2.1 Support likelihood
2.3 Democratic candidate
2.4 Republican candidate
2.5 Other polls
2.5.1 Candidate distinctions
2.5.2 Candidate quality
2.5.2.1 If elected, would the following candidate make a good president or a bad president? 2.5.3 Candidate ideology
3 See also
4 External links
5 References
Presidential election
Two-way contest: Barack Obama vs John McCain
See also: Graphical representations of two-way-contest opinion polling data from the United States presidential election, 2008
Democratic nominee vs. Republican nominee
Margin shading indicates candidate in lead. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationwide_opinion_polling_for_the_United_States_presidential_election,_2008 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_478633597#1_538720116 | Title: Native American Rights Fund - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American Rights Fund
Native American Rights Fund
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
Background
Tribal Supreme Court Project
Actions
References
External links
Content: A staff of fifteen attorneys handles about fifty major cases at any given time, with most of the cases taking several years to resolve. Cases are accepted on the basis of their breadth and potential importance in setting precedents and establishing important principles of Indian law. In September 2001 tribal leaders met in Washington, D.C., and established the Tribal Supreme Court Project in an effort to "strengthen tribal advocacy before the U.S. Supreme Court by developing new litigation strategies and coordinating tribal legal resources." The ultimate goal is to improve the win-loss record of Indian tribes in Supreme Court cases. The Project is staffed by attorneys from NARF and the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) and consists of a Working Group of over 200 attorneys and academics from around the nation who specialize in Indian law and other areas of law that impact Indian cases, including property law, trust law and Supreme Court practice. In addition, an Advisory Board of Tribal Leaders assists the Project by providing the necessary political and tribal perspective to the legal and academic expertise. Tribal Supreme Court Project
The Tribal Supreme Court Project does the following: In conjunction with the National Indian Law Library (NILL), monitors Indian law cases in the state and federal appellate courts that have the potential to reach the Supreme Court (NILL Indian Law Bulletins)
Maintains an on-line depository of briefs and opinions in all Indian law cases filed with the U.S. Supreme Court and cases being monitored in the U.S. Court of Appeal and State Supreme Courts (Court Documents)
Prepares an Update Memorandum of Cases which provides an overview of Indian law cases pending before the U.S. Supreme Court, cases being monitored and the current work being performed by the Project
Offers assistance to tribal leaders and their attorneys to determine whether to file a Petition for a Writ of Certiorari to the U.S. Supreme Court in cases where they lost in the court below
Offers assistance to attorneys representing Indian tribes to prepare their Brief in Opposition at the Petition Stage in cases where they won in the court below
Coordinates an Amicus Brief writing network and helps to develop litigation strategies at both the Petition Stage and the Merits Stage to ensure that the briefs receive the maximum attention of the Justices
When appropriate, prepares and submits Amicus Briefs on behalf of Indian tribes and Tribal Organizations
Provides other brief writing assistance, including reviewing and editing of the principal briefs, and the performance of additional legal research
Coordinates and conducts Moot Court and Roundtable opportunities for attorneys who are presenting Oral Arguments before the Court
Conducts conference calls and fosters panel discussions among attorneys nationwide about pending Indian law cases and, when necessary, forms small working groups to formulate strategy on specific issues. Actions
One of NARF's earliest cases resulted in the 1974 Boldt Decision, in which a U.S. district judge ruled that Washington State must uphold tribal treaty rights, specifically fishing rights. NARF has represented Native peoples in the case, Cobell v. Salazar, initiated by Elouise Cobell ( Blackfeet) over the U.S. Department of the Interior 's mismanagement of trust funds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_478633597#2_538723916 | Title: Native American Rights Fund - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American Rights Fund
Native American Rights Fund
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
Background
Tribal Supreme Court Project
Actions
References
External links
Content: In addition, an Advisory Board of Tribal Leaders assists the Project by providing the necessary political and tribal perspective to the legal and academic expertise. Tribal Supreme Court Project
The Tribal Supreme Court Project does the following: In conjunction with the National Indian Law Library (NILL), monitors Indian law cases in the state and federal appellate courts that have the potential to reach the Supreme Court (NILL Indian Law Bulletins)
Maintains an on-line depository of briefs and opinions in all Indian law cases filed with the U.S. Supreme Court and cases being monitored in the U.S. Court of Appeal and State Supreme Courts (Court Documents)
Prepares an Update Memorandum of Cases which provides an overview of Indian law cases pending before the U.S. Supreme Court, cases being monitored and the current work being performed by the Project
Offers assistance to tribal leaders and their attorneys to determine whether to file a Petition for a Writ of Certiorari to the U.S. Supreme Court in cases where they lost in the court below
Offers assistance to attorneys representing Indian tribes to prepare their Brief in Opposition at the Petition Stage in cases where they won in the court below
Coordinates an Amicus Brief writing network and helps to develop litigation strategies at both the Petition Stage and the Merits Stage to ensure that the briefs receive the maximum attention of the Justices
When appropriate, prepares and submits Amicus Briefs on behalf of Indian tribes and Tribal Organizations
Provides other brief writing assistance, including reviewing and editing of the principal briefs, and the performance of additional legal research
Coordinates and conducts Moot Court and Roundtable opportunities for attorneys who are presenting Oral Arguments before the Court
Conducts conference calls and fosters panel discussions among attorneys nationwide about pending Indian law cases and, when necessary, forms small working groups to formulate strategy on specific issues. Actions
One of NARF's earliest cases resulted in the 1974 Boldt Decision, in which a U.S. district judge ruled that Washington State must uphold tribal treaty rights, specifically fishing rights. NARF has represented Native peoples in the case, Cobell v. Salazar, initiated by Elouise Cobell ( Blackfeet) over the U.S. Department of the Interior 's mismanagement of trust funds. The historic 13-year case resulted in a $3.4 billion settlement. NARF publishes literature pertaining to Native American rights. They currently are co-publishing a book about tribal employment law. References
^ a b c Native American Rights Fund. ( retrieved on 13 Feb 2010)
^ "UNM Today." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_478633597#4_538728026 | Title: Native American Rights Fund - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American Rights Fund
Native American Rights Fund
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
Background
Tribal Supreme Court Project
Actions
References
External links
Content: University of New Mexico. 4 Feb 2010 (retrieved 13 Feb 2010)
^ a b "Tribal Supreme Court Project Home." Archived 2009-11-11 at the Wayback Machine (retrieved on 13 Feb 2010)
^ Echohawk, John. " Echohawk: Using their law and their history to protect our rights." 6 Jan 2006 (retrieved on 13 Feb 2010)
^ Coleman, Travis. " Blackfeet woman’s battle for trust accounting a long one." News from Indian Country. Jan 2010 (retrieved on 13 Feb 2010)
^ "Obama Admin Strikes $3.4B Deal in Indian Trust Lawsuit." New York Times. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_479215070#0_539040985 | Title: Native American identity in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American identity in the United States
Native American identity in the United States
Contents
Definitions
Traditional
Constructed as an imagined community
Blood quantum
Residence on tribal lands
Construction by others
United States government definitions
Self-identification
Personal reasons for self-identification
Historic struggles
Unity and nationalism
Examples
Cherokee
Navajo
Lumbee
References
Bibliography
Content: Native American identity in the United States - Wikipedia
Native American identity in the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Alaska Native dancers at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks Art Museum, 2006
Caddo members of the Caddo Cultural Club, Binger, Oklahoma, 2008
Native American writers Kim Shuck (Cherokee-Sac and Fox), Jewelle Gomez (Iowa), L. Frank (Tongva-Acjachemen) and Reid Gómez (Navajo)
Native American identity in the United States is an evolving topic based on the struggle to define " Native American " or " (American) Indian" both for people who consider themselves Native American and for people who do not. Some people seek an identity that will provide for a stable definition for legal, social, and personal purposes. There are a number of different factors which have been used to define "Indianness," and the source and potential use of the definition play a role in what definition is used. Facets which characterize "Indianness" include culture, society, genes / biology, law, and self-identity. An important question is whether the definition should be dynamic and changeable across time and situation, or whether it is possible to define "Indianness" in a static way. The dynamic definitions may be based in how Indians adapt and adjust to dominant society, which may be called an "oppositional process" by which the boundaries between Indians and the dominant groups are maintained. Another reason for dynamic definitions is the process of " ethnogenesis ", which is the process by which the ethnic identity of the group is developed and renewed as social organizations and cultures evolve. The question of identity, especially aboriginal identity, is common in many societies worldwide. The future of their identity is extremely important to Native Americans. Activist Russell Means spoke frequently about the crumbling Indian way of life, the loss of traditions, languages, and sacred places. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_479215070#1_539043702 | Title: Native American identity in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American identity in the United States
Native American identity in the United States
Contents
Definitions
Traditional
Constructed as an imagined community
Blood quantum
Residence on tribal lands
Construction by others
United States government definitions
Self-identification
Personal reasons for self-identification
Historic struggles
Unity and nationalism
Examples
Cherokee
Navajo
Lumbee
References
Bibliography
Content: The dynamic definitions may be based in how Indians adapt and adjust to dominant society, which may be called an "oppositional process" by which the boundaries between Indians and the dominant groups are maintained. Another reason for dynamic definitions is the process of " ethnogenesis ", which is the process by which the ethnic identity of the group is developed and renewed as social organizations and cultures evolve. The question of identity, especially aboriginal identity, is common in many societies worldwide. The future of their identity is extremely important to Native Americans. Activist Russell Means spoke frequently about the crumbling Indian way of life, the loss of traditions, languages, and sacred places. He was concerned that there may soon be no more Native Americans, only "Native American Americans, like Polish Americans and Italian Americans ." As the number of Indians has grown (ten times as many today as in 1890), the number who carry on tribal traditions shrinks (one fifth as many as in 1890), as has been common among many ethnic groups over time. Means said, "We might speak our language, we might look like Indians and sound like Indians, but we won’t be Indians." Contents
1 Definitions
1.1 Traditional
1.2 Constructed as an imagined community
1.3 Blood quantum
1.4 Residence on tribal lands
1.5 Construction by others
1.6 United States government definitions
1.7 Self-identification
1.7.1 Personal reasons for self-identification
2 Historic struggles
3 Unity and nationalism
4 Examples
4.1 Cherokee
4.2 Navajo
4.3 Lumbee
5 References
5.1 Bibliography
Definitions
There are various ways in which Indian identity has been defined. Some definitions seek universal applicability, while others only seek definitions for particular purposes, such as for tribal membership or for the purposes of legal jurisdiction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_479215070#2_539046302 | Title: Native American identity in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American identity in the United States
Native American identity in the United States
Contents
Definitions
Traditional
Constructed as an imagined community
Blood quantum
Residence on tribal lands
Construction by others
United States government definitions
Self-identification
Personal reasons for self-identification
Historic struggles
Unity and nationalism
Examples
Cherokee
Navajo
Lumbee
References
Bibliography
Content: He was concerned that there may soon be no more Native Americans, only "Native American Americans, like Polish Americans and Italian Americans ." As the number of Indians has grown (ten times as many today as in 1890), the number who carry on tribal traditions shrinks (one fifth as many as in 1890), as has been common among many ethnic groups over time. Means said, "We might speak our language, we might look like Indians and sound like Indians, but we won’t be Indians." Contents
1 Definitions
1.1 Traditional
1.2 Constructed as an imagined community
1.3 Blood quantum
1.4 Residence on tribal lands
1.5 Construction by others
1.6 United States government definitions
1.7 Self-identification
1.7.1 Personal reasons for self-identification
2 Historic struggles
3 Unity and nationalism
4 Examples
4.1 Cherokee
4.2 Navajo
4.3 Lumbee
5 References
5.1 Bibliography
Definitions
There are various ways in which Indian identity has been defined. Some definitions seek universal applicability, while others only seek definitions for particular purposes, such as for tribal membership or for the purposes of legal jurisdiction. The individual seeks to have a personal identity that matches social and legal definitions, although perhaps any definition will fail to categorize correctly the identity of everyone. American Indians were perhaps clearly identifiable at the turn of the 20th century, but today the concept is contested. Malcolm Margolin, co-editor of News From Native California muses, "I don’t know what an Indian is... [but] Some people are clearly Indian, and some are clearly not." Cherokee Chief (from 1985–1995) Wilma Mankiller echoes: " An Indian is an Indian regardless of the degree of Indian blood or which little government card they do or do not possess." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_479215070#4_539050974 | Title: Native American identity in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American identity in the United States
Native American identity in the United States
Contents
Definitions
Traditional
Constructed as an imagined community
Blood quantum
Residence on tribal lands
Construction by others
United States government definitions
Self-identification
Personal reasons for self-identification
Historic struggles
Unity and nationalism
Examples
Cherokee
Navajo
Lumbee
References
Bibliography
Content: Further, it is difficult to know what might be meant by any Native American racial identity. Race is a disputed term, but is often said to be a social (or political) rather than biological construct. The issue of Native American racial identity was discussed by Steve Russell (2002, p68), "American Indians have always had the theoretical option of removing themselves from a tribal community and becoming legally white. American law has made it easy for Indians to disappear because that disappearance has always been necessary to the ' Manifest Destiny ' that the United States span the continent that was, after all, occupied." Russell contrasts this with the reminder that Native Americans are "members of communities before members of a race." Traditional
Reservation life has often been a blend of the traditional and the contemporary. In 1877, this Lakota family living at South Dakota's Rose Bud Agency had both tipis and log cabins. Traditional definitions of "Indianness" are also important. There is a sense of "peoplehood" which links Indianness to sacred traditions, places, and shared history as indigenous people. This definition transcends academic and legal terminology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_479215070#5_539052890 | Title: Native American identity in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American identity in the United States
Native American identity in the United States
Contents
Definitions
Traditional
Constructed as an imagined community
Blood quantum
Residence on tribal lands
Construction by others
United States government definitions
Self-identification
Personal reasons for self-identification
Historic struggles
Unity and nationalism
Examples
Cherokee
Navajo
Lumbee
References
Bibliography
Content: Traditional
Reservation life has often been a blend of the traditional and the contemporary. In 1877, this Lakota family living at South Dakota's Rose Bud Agency had both tipis and log cabins. Traditional definitions of "Indianness" are also important. There is a sense of "peoplehood" which links Indianness to sacred traditions, places, and shared history as indigenous people. This definition transcends academic and legal terminology. Language is also seen as an important part of identity, and learning Native languages, especially for youth in a community, is an important part in tribal survival. Some Indian artists find traditional definitions especially important. Crow poet Henry Real Bird offers his own definition, "An Indian is one who offers tobacco to the ground, feeds the water, and prays to the four winds in his own language." Pulitzer Prize-winning Kiowa author N. Scott Momaday gives a definition that is less spiritual but still based in the traditions and experience of a person and their family, "An Indian is someone who thinks of themselves as an Indian. But that's not so easy to do and one has to earn the entitlement somehow. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_479215070#6_539054773 | Title: Native American identity in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American identity in the United States
Native American identity in the United States
Contents
Definitions
Traditional
Constructed as an imagined community
Blood quantum
Residence on tribal lands
Construction by others
United States government definitions
Self-identification
Personal reasons for self-identification
Historic struggles
Unity and nationalism
Examples
Cherokee
Navajo
Lumbee
References
Bibliography
Content: Language is also seen as an important part of identity, and learning Native languages, especially for youth in a community, is an important part in tribal survival. Some Indian artists find traditional definitions especially important. Crow poet Henry Real Bird offers his own definition, "An Indian is one who offers tobacco to the ground, feeds the water, and prays to the four winds in his own language." Pulitzer Prize-winning Kiowa author N. Scott Momaday gives a definition that is less spiritual but still based in the traditions and experience of a person and their family, "An Indian is someone who thinks of themselves as an Indian. But that's not so easy to do and one has to earn the entitlement somehow. You have to have a certain experience of the world in order to formulate this idea. I consider myself an Indian; I've had the experience of an Indian. I know how my father saw the world, and his father before him." Constructed as an imagined community
Some social scientists relate the uncertainty of Native American identity to the theory of the constructed nature of identity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_479215070#7_539056593 | Title: Native American identity in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American identity in the United States
Native American identity in the United States
Contents
Definitions
Traditional
Constructed as an imagined community
Blood quantum
Residence on tribal lands
Construction by others
United States government definitions
Self-identification
Personal reasons for self-identification
Historic struggles
Unity and nationalism
Examples
Cherokee
Navajo
Lumbee
References
Bibliography
Content: You have to have a certain experience of the world in order to formulate this idea. I consider myself an Indian; I've had the experience of an Indian. I know how my father saw the world, and his father before him." Constructed as an imagined community
Some social scientists relate the uncertainty of Native American identity to the theory of the constructed nature of identity. Many social scientists discuss the construction of identity. Benedict Anderson 's " imagined communities " are an example. However, some see the construction of identity as being part of how a group remembers its past, tells its stories, and interprets its myths. Thus cultural identity is made within the discourses of history and culture. Identity thus may not be fact-based in the essence of a person, but a positioning, based in politics and social situations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_479215070#10_539061775 | Title: Native American identity in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: Native American identity in the United States
Native American identity in the United States
Contents
Definitions
Traditional
Constructed as an imagined community
Blood quantum
Residence on tribal lands
Construction by others
United States government definitions
Self-identification
Personal reasons for self-identification
Historic struggles
Unity and nationalism
Examples
Cherokee
Navajo
Lumbee
References
Bibliography
Content: This was very influential in using blood quantum to restrict the definition of Indian. The use of blood quantum is seen by some as problematic as Indians marry out to other groups at a higher rate than any other United States ethnic or racial category. This could ultimately lead to their absorption into the rest of multiracial American society. Residence on tribal lands
BIA map of reservations in the United States
Related to the remembrance and practice of traditions is the residence on tribal lands and Indian reservations. Peroff (2002) emphasizes the role that proximity to other Native Americans (and ultimately proximity to tribal lands) plays in one's identity as a Native American. Construction by others
Students at the Bismarck Indian School in the early twentieth century. European conceptions of "Indianness" are notable both for how they influence how American Indians see themselves and for how they have persisted as stereotypes which may negatively affect treatment of Indians. The noble savage stereotype is famous, but American colonists held other stereotypes as well. For example, some colonists imagined Indians as living in a state similar to their own ancestors, for example the Picts, Gauls, and Britons before " Julius Caesar with his Roman legions (or some other) had ... laid the ground to make us tame and civil." In the 19th and 20th century, particularly until John Collier 's tenure as Commissioner of Indian Affairs began in 1933, various policies of the United States federal and state governments amounted to an attack on Indian cultural identity and attempt to force assimilation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482238244#3_542136896 | Title: Natural arch - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural arch
Natural arch
Contents
Coastline
Weather-eroded arches
Water-eroded arches
Cave erosion
Arches as highway or railway bridges
Notable natural arches
Africa
Antarctica
Asia
Europe
North America
Canada
Caribbean
Mexico
United States
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
South America
See also
References
External links
Content: By contrast, the Dictionary of Geological Terms defines a natural bridge as a "natural arch that spans a valley of erosion." The largest natural arch, by a significant margin, is the Xianren Bridge in China, with a span of 122 ± 5 meters (400 ± 15 ft). Contents
1 Coastline
2 Weather-eroded arches
3 Water-eroded arches
4 Cave erosion
5 Arches as highway or railway bridges
6 Notable natural arches
6.1 Africa
6.2 Antarctica
6.3 Asia
6.4 Europe
6.5 North America
6.5.1 Canada
6.5.2 Caribbean
6.5.3 Mexico
6.5.4 United States
6.6 Oceania
6.6.1 Australia
6.6.2 New Zealand
6.7 South America
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Coastline
The Azure Window, Malta, which collapsed in 2017
On coasts two different types of arches can form depending on the geology. On discordant coastlines rock types run at 90° to the coast. Wave refraction concentrates the wave energy on the headland, and an arch forms when caves break through the headland. Two examples of this type of arch are London Arch —previously known as London Bridge—in Victoria, Australia, and Neill Island in the Andaman Islands, India. When these arches eventually collapse, they form stacks and stumps. On concordant coastlines rock types run parallel to the coastline, with weak rock such as shale protected by stronger rock such as limestone. The wave action along concordant coastlines breaks through the strong rock and then erodes the weak rock very quickly. Good examples of this type of arch are the Durdle Door and Stair Hole near Lulworth Cove on Dorset 's Jurassic Coast in south England. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_arch |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482577347#1_542581806 | Title: Natural environment - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural environment
Natural environment
Contents
Composition
Geological activity
Water on Earth
Oceans
Rivers
Lakes
Ponds
Human impact on water
Atmosphere, climate and weather
Layers of the atmosphere
Principal layers
Other layers
Effects of global warming
Climate
Weather
Life
Ecosystems
Main article: Ecosystem
Biomes
Biogeochemical cycles
Wilderness
Challenges
Criticism
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: An image of the Sahara desert from satellite. It is the world's largest hot desert and third-largest desert after the polar deserts. The natural environment or natural world encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to the Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished as components: Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human intervention, including all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries and their nature. Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating from civilized human actions. In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment. In such areas where humans have fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land conversion, the natural environment is greatly changed into a simplified human environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482620740#8_542628923 | Title: Natural evil - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural evil
Natural evil
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
Nature of natural evil
Natural versus moral evil
Challenge to religious belief
References
Content: However, human actions exacerbate the evil effects of natural disasters. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) says human activity is a key factor that turns “extreme weather events into greater natural disasters.” For example, “deforestation and floodplain development” by humans turn high rainfall into “devastating floods and mudslides." When humans damage coastal reefs, remove mangroves, destroy dune systems, or clear coastal forests, "extreme coastal events cause much more loss of life and damage.” Damage by tsunamis varied “according to the extent of reef protection and remaining mangrove coverage.” In Europe, human development has “contributed to more frequent and regular floods.” In earthquakes, people often suffer injury or death because of “poorly designed and constructed buildings.” In the United States, wildfires that destroy lives and property aren't "entirely natural.” Some fires are caused by human action and the damage inflicted is sometimes magnified by building “in remote, fire-prone areas.” Dusty conditions in the West that “can cause significant human health problems” have been shown to be “a direct result of human activity and not part of the natural system." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_evil |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482875358#1_542934796 | Title: Natural gas in Russia - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural gas in Russia
Natural gas in Russia
Contents
Disputes with Ukraine
Agreement with China
Subsidies
Automotive use
See also
References
Content: however, BP estimates put Russia second behind Iran with 33 tcm. Additionally, Russia is likely to have the largest volume of undiscovered natural gas deposits, an additional 6.7 tcm, according to US Geological Survey estimations. Russia consumes approximately 457 bcm a year, second only to the United States. Contents
1 Disputes with Ukraine
2 Agreement with China
3 Subsidies
4 Automotive use
5 See also
6 References
Disputes with Ukraine
Main article: Russia–Ukraine gas disputes
Since 2005, the Russian gas supplier Gazprom and the Ukrainian oil and gas company Naftogaz have been involved in a number of disputes. These disputes have grown beyond simple business disputes into transnational political issues that threaten natural gas supplies in numerous European countries dependent on natural gas imports from Russian suppliers, which are transported through Ukraine. During 2005, Russia claimed Ukraine was not paying for gas, but diverting that which was intended to be exported to the EU from the pipelines. Ukrainian officials at first denied the accusation, but later Naftogaz admitted that natural gas intended for other European countries was retained and used for domestic needs. The dispute reached a peak on 1 January 2006, when Russia cut off all gas supplies passing through Ukrainian territory. On 4 January 2006, a preliminary agreement between Russia and Ukraine was achieved, and the supply was restored. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482875358#2_542936619 | Title: Natural gas in Russia - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural gas in Russia
Natural gas in Russia
Contents
Disputes with Ukraine
Agreement with China
Subsidies
Automotive use
See also
References
Content: These disputes have grown beyond simple business disputes into transnational political issues that threaten natural gas supplies in numerous European countries dependent on natural gas imports from Russian suppliers, which are transported through Ukraine. During 2005, Russia claimed Ukraine was not paying for gas, but diverting that which was intended to be exported to the EU from the pipelines. Ukrainian officials at first denied the accusation, but later Naftogaz admitted that natural gas intended for other European countries was retained and used for domestic needs. The dispute reached a peak on 1 January 2006, when Russia cut off all gas supplies passing through Ukrainian territory. On 4 January 2006, a preliminary agreement between Russia and Ukraine was achieved, and the supply was restored. The situation calmed until October 2007 when new disputes began over Ukrainian gas debts. This led to reduction of gas supplies in March 2008. During the last months of 2008, relations once again became tense when Ukraine and Russia could not agree on the debts owed by Ukraine. In January 2009, this disagreement resulted in supply disruptions in many European nations, with eighteen European countries reporting major drops in or complete cut-offs of their gas supplies transported through Ukraine from Russia. In September 2009 officials from both countries stated they felt the situation was under control and that there would be no more conflicts over the topic, at least until the Ukrainian 2010 presidential elections. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482875358#3_542938535 | Title: Natural gas in Russia - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural gas in Russia
Natural gas in Russia
Contents
Disputes with Ukraine
Agreement with China
Subsidies
Automotive use
See also
References
Content: The situation calmed until October 2007 when new disputes began over Ukrainian gas debts. This led to reduction of gas supplies in March 2008. During the last months of 2008, relations once again became tense when Ukraine and Russia could not agree on the debts owed by Ukraine. In January 2009, this disagreement resulted in supply disruptions in many European nations, with eighteen European countries reporting major drops in or complete cut-offs of their gas supplies transported through Ukraine from Russia. In September 2009 officials from both countries stated they felt the situation was under control and that there would be no more conflicts over the topic, at least until the Ukrainian 2010 presidential elections. However, in October 2009, another disagreement arose about the amount of gas Ukraine would import from Russia in 2010. Ukraine intended to import less gas in 2010 as a result of reduced industry needs because of its economic recession; however, Gazprom insisted that Ukraine fulfill its contractual obligations and purchase the previously agreed upon quantities of gas. On 8 June 2010, a Stockholm court of arbitration ruled Naftogaz of Ukraine must return 12.1 billion cubic metres (430 billion cubic feet) of gas to RosUkrEnergo, a Swiss-based company in which Gazprom controls a 50% stake. Russia accused the Ukrainian side of siphoning gas from pipelines passing through Ukraine in 2009. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482875358#6_542943785 | Title: Natural gas in Russia - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural gas in Russia
Natural gas in Russia
Contents
Disputes with Ukraine
Agreement with China
Subsidies
Automotive use
See also
References
Content: The Kovykta and Chayanda gas fields which will supply the majority of the natural gas are currently largely undeveloped. Tentative agreements had been reached several times since 2005, but each time final negotiations broke down over price. The agreed upon price was not disclosed, but those familiar with the situation said getting a lower price than European buyers was a key demand of China in the negotiations. However, Russian representatives said the price would fluctuate based on the market price of oil, making the deal closer to what Russia had wanted than to what China had been asking for. The total value of the deal was estimated at US$400 billion. It will increase Russian exports to countries not part of the former Soviet Union by 25% and make China the country's 2nd largest customer, after Germany. The agreement was reached as Chinese and Russian leaders met to discuss greater cooperation in Asia without involvement of Western powers. It was seen as an important political and economic victory for Russian President Vladimir Putin. It allows Russia to diversify its natural business outside of Europe and weakens the force of economic sanctions placed by the West in the aftermath of the 2014 Crimean crisis. More generally, it allows Russia to reduce its isolation due to the crisis in Ukraine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482875358#7_542945484 | Title: Natural gas in Russia - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural gas in Russia
Natural gas in Russia
Contents
Disputes with Ukraine
Agreement with China
Subsidies
Automotive use
See also
References
Content: It will increase Russian exports to countries not part of the former Soviet Union by 25% and make China the country's 2nd largest customer, after Germany. The agreement was reached as Chinese and Russian leaders met to discuss greater cooperation in Asia without involvement of Western powers. It was seen as an important political and economic victory for Russian President Vladimir Putin. It allows Russia to diversify its natural business outside of Europe and weakens the force of economic sanctions placed by the West in the aftermath of the 2014 Crimean crisis. More generally, it allows Russia to reduce its isolation due to the crisis in Ukraine. For China, the deal helps lessen its dependence on coal to produce electric power, using a cleaner method of electricity generation through natural gas. It also helps meet the country's growing demand for natural gas. Subsidies
There is a long history of subsidy of natural gas in Russia. Subsidies for natural gas has been one of the reasons for the limited growth of renewable energy in the country. However, it is difficult to estimate the extent of subsidy, as there is no benchmark price. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482875358#14_542954329 | Title: Natural gas in Russia - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural gas in Russia
Natural gas in Russia
Contents
Disputes with Ukraine
Agreement with China
Subsidies
Automotive use
See also
References
Content: US Geological Survey. ^ "Ukraine gas row hits EU supplies". BBC. 1 January 2006. Retrieved 16 December 2008. ^ "Ukraine 'stealing Europe's gas ' ". BBC. 2 January 2006. Retrieved 16 December 2008. ^ "Ukraine takes extra Russian gas". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482875358#15_542954951 | Title: Natural gas in Russia - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural gas in Russia
Natural gas in Russia
Contents
Disputes with Ukraine
Agreement with China
Subsidies
Automotive use
See also
References
Content: ^ "Ukraine 'stealing Europe's gas ' ". BBC. 2 January 2006. Retrieved 16 December 2008. ^ "Ukraine takes extra Russian gas". BBC. 24 January 2006. Retrieved 16 December 2008. ^ "18 countries affected by Russia-Ukraine gas row". Reuters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_18_482875358#17_542956203 | Title: Natural gas in Russia - Wikipedia
Headings: Natural gas in Russia
Natural gas in Russia
Contents
Disputes with Ukraine
Agreement with China
Subsidies
Automotive use
See also
References
Content: 7 January 2009. Retrieved 7 January 2009. ^ Cendrowicz, Leo (9 January 2009). " Russia-Europe Gas Spat Ends—For Now". Time. Retrieved 9 January 2009. ^ "Ukraine says has good winter gas stocks for Europe". Reuters. 7 September 2009. Retrieved 7 September 2009. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas_in_Russia |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.