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Title: Hispanic Americans in World War II - Wikipedia
Headings: Hispanic Americans in World War II
Hispanic Americans in World War II
Contents
Terminology
Prelude to World War II
Pearl Harbor
European Theatre
65th Infantry Regiment
Pacific Theatre
Bataan Death March
158th Regimental Combat Team
PFC Guy Gabaldon
Guarding the atomic bomb
United States Coast Guard
Aviators
Servicewomen
Female nurses
Senior Officers
Generals
Major General del Valle
Brigadier General Quesada
Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen
Commanders
Submarine commanders
Military honors
Recipients of the Medal of Honor
Top military decorations
Hero Street, USA
Home front
Discrimination
In the military
After returning home
Post-war commemoration
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Official pages
Academic Sources
Other
Content: He was later assigned as head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics. De Florez, who has been credited with over sixty inventions, urged the Navy to undertake development of "synthetic training devices" to increase readiness. During World War II, he was promoted to captain and, in 1944, to rear admiral. European Theatre
The European Theatre of World War II was an area of heavy fighting between the Allied forces and the Axis powers from September 1, 1939, to May 8, 1945. The majority of Hispanic Americans served in regular units; some active combat units recruited from areas of high Hispanic population, such as the 65th Infantry Regiment from Puerto Rico and the 141st Regiment of the 36th Texas Infantry, were made up mostly of Hispanics. Hispanics of the 141st Regiment of the 36th Infantry Division were some of the first American troops to land on Italian soil at Salerno. Company E of the 141st Regiment was entirely Hispanic. The 36th Infantry Division fought in Italy and France, enduring heavy casualties during the crossing of the Rapido River near Cassino, Italy. This was a controversial event over which military analysts have argued.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_Americans_in_World_War_II
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1558721056#9_1721308671
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Title: Hispanic Americans in World War II - Wikipedia
Headings: Hispanic Americans in World War II
Hispanic Americans in World War II
Contents
Terminology
Prelude to World War II
Pearl Harbor
European Theatre
65th Infantry Regiment
Pacific Theatre
Bataan Death March
158th Regimental Combat Team
PFC Guy Gabaldon
Guarding the atomic bomb
United States Coast Guard
Aviators
Servicewomen
Female nurses
Senior Officers
Generals
Major General del Valle
Brigadier General Quesada
Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen
Commanders
Submarine commanders
Military honors
Recipients of the Medal of Honor
Top military decorations
Hero Street, USA
Home front
Discrimination
In the military
After returning home
Post-war commemoration
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Official pages
Academic Sources
Other
Content: some active combat units recruited from areas of high Hispanic population, such as the 65th Infantry Regiment from Puerto Rico and the 141st Regiment of the 36th Texas Infantry, were made up mostly of Hispanics. Hispanics of the 141st Regiment of the 36th Infantry Division were some of the first American troops to land on Italian soil at Salerno. Company E of the 141st Regiment was entirely Hispanic. The 36th Infantry Division fought in Italy and France, enduring heavy casualties during the crossing of the Rapido River near Cassino, Italy. This was a controversial event over which military analysts have argued. 65th Infantry Regiment
Soldiers of the 65th Infantry training in Salinas, Puerto Rico, August 1941
A small detachment of insular troops from Puerto Rico was sent to Cuba in late March as a guard for Batista Field. In 1943, the 65th Infantry was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus and the Panama Canal, critical to oceangoing ships. An increase in the Puerto Rican induction program was immediately authorized. Continental troops such as the 762nd Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion, 766th AAA Gun Battalion and the 891st AAA Gun Battalions were replaced by Puerto Ricans in Panama. They also replaced troops in the bases on British Islands, to the extent permitted by the availability of trained Puerto Rican units.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_Americans_in_World_War_II
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1559117912#6_1721494611
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Title: Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Congress - Wikipedia
Headings: Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Congress
Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Congress
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
History of representation
Manifest Destiny and 19th century expansion
Post Spanish-American War period
The modern era
Post World War II representation
21st century
List of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States Congress
United States Congress
See also
References
External links
Content: California, Louisiana, and New Mexico. Post Spanish-American War period
Sen. Octaviano Larrazola, the first Hispanic or Latino American to serve in the United States Senate, was elected in 1928. One of the major questions that arose in the aftermath of the Spanish-American War in 1898 was the question of territorial status on the mainland and abroad. The gains of the Spanish-American War included claims to Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, and the handling of Puerto Rico in particular proved key to deciding how these foreign territories were to be treated, particularly with the establishment of the Foraker Act of 1900 and the Jones Act of 1917. One of the ways that Hispanic and Latino representation in Congress increased was that it created the position of Resident Commissioner for Puerto Rico, although this position contained some of the same restrictions previously experienced by territorial delegates. The period also saw some substantive gains as it saw the first two Latino Senators ever elected, led by the election of Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazola in 1928. Dennis Chávez of New Mexico followed suit by being elected in 1935 and becoming the first Hispanic or Latino American to serve in both the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate; Chávez also importantly represented a continued trend of political representation leading to substantive and surrogate representation of Hispanic and Latino American interests more widely, and was one of the earliest advocates for Hispanic and Latino American civil rights. This period represented important gains that would be built upon in the period following World War II and beyond. The modern era
Post World War II representation
The aftermath World War II proved another time for increased representation for Hispanic and Latino Americans in Congress, fueled by desires for equal rights born out of experiences fighting for the country abroad.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1559372869#0_1721791555
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Title: Hispanics in the American Civil War - Wikipedia
Headings: Hispanics in the American Civil War
Hispanics in the American Civil War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
Notable military personnel
Union forces
Confederate forces
Hispanic women in the Civil War
Medal of Honor
Hispanic Union units
The 1st California Cavalry Battalion
The Garibaldi Guard, D Company "The Spanish Company"
New Mexico Volunteer Infantry Regiment
Hispanic Confederate units
European Brigades and the Louisiana Tigers
The Spanish Guards
Confederate units of Texas
Post-war
See also
Notes
References
Content: Hispanics in the American Civil War - Wikipedia
Hispanics in the American Civil War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Hispanics in the American Civil War
First row
David Farragut • Santos Benavides • Augusto Rodriguez
Second row
Federico Fernández Cavada • Julius Peter Garesché • Luis F. Emilio
Third row
Loreta Janeta Velazquez
(On the left disguised as "Lieutenant Harry Buford" and on the right as herself)
Hispanics in the American Civil War fought on both the Union and Confederate sides of the conflict. Not all the Hispanics who fought in the American Civil War were " Hispanic-Americans ", in other words citizens of the United States. Many of them were Spanish subjects or nationals from countries in the Caribbean, Central and South America. Some were born in a US Territory and therefore did not have the right to US Citizenship. It is estimated that approximately 3,500 Hispanics, mostly Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cubans (Puerto Rico and Cuba were Spanish colonies) living in the United States joined the war: 2,500 for the Confederacy and 1,000 for the Union. This number increased to 10,000 by the end of the war. Hispanic is an ethnic term employed to categorize any citizen or resident of the United States, of any racial background, of any country, and of any religion, who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or is of non-Hispanic origin, but has an ancestor from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central or South America, or some other Hispanic origin. The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans. The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_American_Civil_War
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1559372869#1_1721794139
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Title: Hispanics in the American Civil War - Wikipedia
Headings: Hispanics in the American Civil War
Hispanics in the American Civil War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
Notable military personnel
Union forces
Confederate forces
Hispanic women in the Civil War
Medal of Honor
Hispanic Union units
The 1st California Cavalry Battalion
The Garibaldi Guard, D Company "The Spanish Company"
New Mexico Volunteer Infantry Regiment
Hispanic Confederate units
European Brigades and the Louisiana Tigers
The Spanish Guards
Confederate units of Texas
Post-war
See also
Notes
References
Content: 2,500 for the Confederacy and 1,000 for the Union. This number increased to 10,000 by the end of the war. Hispanic is an ethnic term employed to categorize any citizen or resident of the United States, of any racial background, of any country, and of any religion, who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or is of non-Hispanic origin, but has an ancestor from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central or South America, or some other Hispanic origin. The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans. The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War. It was also known as the "Federal Army", the "U.S. Army", the "Northern Army" and the "National Army". It consisted of the small United States Army (the regular army ), augmented by massive numbers of units supplied by the Northern states, composed of volunteers as well as conscripts . The "New Mexico Volunteer Infantry", with 157 Hispanics officers, was the Union unit with the most officers of that ethnic background. Besides Colonel Miguel E. Pino and Lieutenant Colonel Jose Maria Valdez who belonged to the 2nd New Mexico Volunteer Infantry, the New Mexico Volunteer Infantry also included Colonel Diego Archuleta (eventually promoted to Brig. Gen.), the commanding officer of the First New Mexico Volunteer Infantry, Colonel Jose G. Gallegos commander of the Third New Mexico Volunteer Infantry, and Lieutenant Colonel Francisco Perea, who commanded Perea's Militia Battalion.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_American_Civil_War
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1559372869#4_1721801028
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Title: Hispanics in the American Civil War - Wikipedia
Headings: Hispanics in the American Civil War
Hispanics in the American Civil War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
Notable military personnel
Union forces
Confederate forces
Hispanic women in the Civil War
Medal of Honor
Hispanic Union units
The 1st California Cavalry Battalion
The Garibaldi Guard, D Company "The Spanish Company"
New Mexico Volunteer Infantry Regiment
Hispanic Confederate units
European Brigades and the Louisiana Tigers
The Spanish Guards
Confederate units of Texas
Post-war
See also
Notes
References
Content: The provisional, volunteer army was established by an act of the Confederate Congress passed February 28, 1861, one week before the act which established the permanent regular army organization, passed March 6, 1861. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, little was done to organize the Confederate regular army. Amongst the Confederate units, who either had a significant number of Hispanics or were composed entirely of Hispanics were the 5th Regiment (Spanish Regiment) of the "European Brigade", "Cazadores Espanoles Regiment" and the "Louisiana Tigers", all from Louisiana; the "Spanish Guards" and the "55th Infantry" both from Alabama and " Florida's 2nd Infantry ". Hispanics held various grades of ranks in the military, the highest being full Admiral of the Union Navy. Three Hispanics were awarded the Medal of Honor, the highest military decoration for heroism awarded by the United States. Hispanic women also participated, such was the case of Loreta Janeta Velazquez, a Cuban woman who disguised as a male, fought and spied for the Confederacy. Contents
1 Notable military personnel
1.1 Union forces
1.2 Confederate forces
1.3 Hispanic women in the Civil War
1.4 Medal of Honor
2 Hispanic Union units
2.1 The 1st California Cavalry Battalion
2.2 The Garibaldi Guard, D Company "The Spanish Company"
2.3 New Mexico Volunteer Infantry Regiment
3 Hispanic Confederate units
3.1 European Brigades and the Louisiana Tigers
3.2 The Spanish Guards
3.3 Confederate units of Texas
4 Post-war
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Notable military personnel
The following is an uncompleted list of notable Hispanics who participated in the American Civil War. Their names are placed in accordance to the highest rank which they held during their military service. Union forces
Battle of Mobile Bay by Louis Prang
Admiral David Farragut (1801–1870) – Son of Spanish-born Jordi Farragut, Farragut was promoted to vice admiral on December 21, 1864, and to full admiral on July 25, 1866, after the war, thereby becoming the first person to be named full admiral in the Navy's history.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_American_Civil_War
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1559414416#2_1721827226
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Title: Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps - Wikipedia
Headings: Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps
Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps
Contents
Terminology
Background
Boxer Rebellion
World War I
Second Nicaraguan Campaign 1926–1933
World War II
Post World War II
Korean War
Table: Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Korean War
Vietnam War
Table: Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Vietnam War
1983 Beirut Bombing
Gulf War and Operation Restore Hope
War on Terrorism.
Table: Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Iraq War
Hispanic immigrants in the Marine Corps
Further increases likely
High-ranking Hispanics in the Marine Corps
Highest-ranking enlisted personnel
Highest-ranking officers
Medal of Honor
United States Naval Academy
Notable Marines of Hispanic descent
See also
References
Further reading
Content: According to the U.S. Census Bureau the estimated 2010 Hispanic population of the United States is over 50 million, or 16% of the U.S. population. The 2010 U.S. Census estimate of over 50 million Hispanics in the U.S. does not include the 3.9 million residents of Puerto Rico . Contents
1 Terminology
2 Background
3 Boxer Rebellion
4 World War I
5 Second Nicaraguan Campaign 1926–1933
6 World War II
7 Post World War II
8 Korean War
9 Vietnam War
10 1983 Beirut Bombing
11 Gulf War and Operation Restore Hope
12 War on Terrorism. 12.1 Hispanic immigrants in the Marine Corps
12.2 Further increases likely
13 High-ranking Hispanics in the Marine Corps
13.1 Highest-ranking enlisted personnel
13.2 Highest-ranking officers
14 Medal of Honor
15 United States Naval Academy
16 Notable Marines of Hispanic descent
17 See also
18 References
19 Further reading
Terminology
Hispanic is an ethnic term employed to categorize any citizen or resident of the United States, of any racial background, of any country, and of any religion, who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or is of non-Hispanic origin, but has an ancestor from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central or South America, or some other Hispanic origin. The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cubans. People of Spain and their direct descendants in the United States are not considered of "Hispanic" ethnicity, but rather as Europeans or European Americans of European (Spanish) origin in accordance to the established definition of the term. Background
Originally organized as the Continental Marines on November 10, 1775, as naval infantry, the Marine Corps has evolved in its mission with changing military doctrine and American foreign policy. The Marine Corps has participated in every American armed conflict including the Revolutionary War. There are various factors that make it difficult to determine when exactly Hispanics began to serve in the Corps; one is that statistics on Hispanics were not kept by the military until the 1970s when the United States Census Bureau coined the phrase.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Marine_Corps
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1559414416#3_1721830506
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Title: Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps - Wikipedia
Headings: Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps
Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps
Contents
Terminology
Background
Boxer Rebellion
World War I
Second Nicaraguan Campaign 1926–1933
World War II
Post World War II
Korean War
Table: Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Korean War
Vietnam War
Table: Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Vietnam War
1983 Beirut Bombing
Gulf War and Operation Restore Hope
War on Terrorism.
Table: Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Iraq War
Hispanic immigrants in the Marine Corps
Further increases likely
High-ranking Hispanics in the Marine Corps
Highest-ranking enlisted personnel
Highest-ranking officers
Medal of Honor
United States Naval Academy
Notable Marines of Hispanic descent
See also
References
Further reading
Content: People of Spain and their direct descendants in the United States are not considered of "Hispanic" ethnicity, but rather as Europeans or European Americans of European (Spanish) origin in accordance to the established definition of the term. Background
Originally organized as the Continental Marines on November 10, 1775, as naval infantry, the Marine Corps has evolved in its mission with changing military doctrine and American foreign policy. The Marine Corps has participated in every American armed conflict including the Revolutionary War. There are various factors that make it difficult to determine when exactly Hispanics began to serve in the Corps; one is that statistics on Hispanics were not kept by the military until the 1970s when the United States Census Bureau coined the phrase. Before then only unreliable estimates were made. For example, during World War II Hispanic Americans were estimated to comprise 2.3% to 4.7% of the Armed Forces. However, the exact number is unknown, as at the time Hispanics were integrated into the general white population census count. Separate statistics were kept for African Americans and Asian Americans. Another factor is that the estimates which have been made only take into account individuals whose surname is of Hispanic origin, when there are many Hispanics with non-Hispanic surnames who have served.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Marine_Corps
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1559526212#2_1721857088
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Title: Hispanics in the United States Navy - Wikipedia
Headings: Hispanics in the United States Navy
Hispanics in the United States Navy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Contents
American Revolution and the War of 1812
American Civil War
Union Navy
Medal of Honor
Confederate States Navy
World War I
World War II
Pacific Theatre
European Theatre
The "WAVES"
Cold War era
The Cochino incident
Korean War
Cuban Missile Crisis
Vietnam War
NATO commander
Latter part of the 20th century
Skirmish with Libyan Air Force
Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm
Operation Iraqi Freedom
Hispanics in sensitive domestic leadership positions
Increase in Hispanic enlistment
United States Naval Academy
Hispanic Heritage Month
See also
References
External links
Content: The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans. According to the U.S. Census Bureau the estimated Hispanic population of the United States is over 50 million, or 16% of the U.S. population, and Hispanics are the nation's largest ethnic or racial minority. The 2010 U.S. Census estimate of over 50 million Hispanics in the U.S. does not include the 3.9 million residents of Puerto Rico . More than 43,000 people of Hispanic origin are sailors and civilians serving with the U.S. Navy. The United States Navy has implemented aggressive recruitment programs directed towards this group. One of those programs is El Navy, whose principal aim is to attract those who speak Spanish. It has resulted in increased recruitment of Hispanics for entrance to the United States Naval Academy. As of April 2007, thirteen Hispanic Americans who were graduates of the USNA, and nine who were commissioned after attending the navy's officer candidate school, have reached the rank of rear admiral and above. Contents
1 American Revolution and the War of 1812
2 American Civil War
2.1 Union Navy
2.2 Medal of Honor
2.3 Confederate States Navy
3 World War I
4 World War II
4.1 Pacific Theatre
4.2 European Theatre
4.3 The "WAVES"
5 Cold War era
5.1 The Cochino incident
5.2 Korean War
5.3 Cuban Missile Crisis
5.4 Vietnam War
5.5 NATO commander
6 Latter part of the 20th century
6.1 Skirmish with Libyan Air Force
6.2 Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm
6.3 Operation Iraqi Freedom
7 Hispanics in sensitive domestic leadership positions
8 Increase in Hispanic enlistment
8.1 United States Naval Academy
8.2 Hispanic Heritage Month
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
American Revolution and the War of 1812
The United States Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was disbanded shortly thereafter. The United States Constitution provided the legal basis for a seaborne military force by giving Congress the power "to provide and maintain a navy."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_United_States_Navy
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1559704846#5_1722003298
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Title: Hispanophobia - Wikipedia
Headings: Hispanophobia
Hispanophobia
Contents
History
"Black legend"
United States
Contemporary forms in United States
"Official English"
Immigration controversy
See also
References
Sources
External links
Content: Another circumstance," according to historian David J. Weber, "that shaped the depth of Anglo Americans ' hispanophobia was the degree to which they saw Hispanics as an obstacle to their ambitions". As the US grew into a republic, anti-Spanish sentiment exhibited a recrudescence. Spain was perceived as both the antithesis of the separation of church and state and a paragon of monarchy and colonialism, which apparently fundamental opposition to the American founding principles fueled hostility that would eventually culminate in the Spanish–American War of 1898. Hispanophobia is particularly evident in the historiography of the Texas Revolution : In essence, the Texas rebellion had been little more than a struggle for political and economic power, but early Texas historians elevated the revolt against Mexico to a 'sublime collision of moral influences', a 'moral struggle,' and 'a war for principles'. ... Hispanophobia, with its particularly vitriolic anti-Mexican variant, also served as a convenient rationale to keep Mexicans 'in their place.' Throughout the 20th century, an array of mostly political and economic forces drove immigration from a multitude of Spanish-speaking countries, such as Cuba, Guatemala, the Dominican Republic, and Mexico, to the relatively strong economy and stable political environment of the United States. As a result, according to some historians, Americans "now have something called a ' Hispanic ', which describes not someone born in a Spanish-speaking country, someone who speaks Spanish well or badly, or even someone with a Hispanic surname but someone who identifies himself as such". As a key corollary to that development, it is toward that group, which is not precisely or rigorously defined, that American hispa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanophobia
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1564350277#2_1726189191
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Title: Historiography of World War II - Wikipedia
Headings: Historiography of World War II
Historiography of World War II
Contents
Historiographical viewpoints
Self esteem and glory
Blame
Canada
Taylor The Origins of the Second World War (1961)
Battle of France, 1940
Eastern Front
War crimes of the Wehrmacht
Davies
Holocaust denial
German-occupied Europe
Common themes: heroic liberation from Nazis
Denmark
France
Resistance
Vichy
Collaboration
Civilian conditions
Alsace Lorraine
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
USSR
Women
References
Further reading
Content: Post-revisionist historians of the causes, such as Alan Bullock, argue that the cause of the War was a matter of both the evil and the banal. Essentially Hitler was a strategist with clear aims and objectives, that would not have been achievable without taking advantage of the opportunities given to him. Each perspective of World War II offers an insightful analysis and allows us to expand our curiosity on the blame, conduct and causes of the war. On the result of the war, historians in countries occupied by the Nazis developed strikingly similar interpretations celebrating a victory against great odds, with national liberation based on national unity. That unity is repeatedly described as the greatest source of future strength. Historians in common glorified the resistance movement (somewhat to the neglect of the invaders who actually overthrew the Nazis). There is great stress on heroes — including celebrities such as Charles de Gaulle, Winston Churchill and Josip Broz Tito — but also countless brave partisans and members of the resistance. Women rarely played a role in the celebrity or the histories, although since the 1990s, social historians have been piecing together the role of women on the home fronts. In recent years much scholarly attention has focused on how popular memories were constructed through selection, and how commemorations are held. Contents
1 Historiographical viewpoints
1.1 Self esteem and glory
1.2 Blame
1.3 Canada
2 Taylor The Origins of the Second World War (1961)
3 Battle of France, 1940
4 Eastern Front
4.1 War crimes of the Wehrmacht
4.2 Davies
4.3 Holocaust denial
5 German-occupied Europe
5.1 Common themes:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1564350277#3_1726191644
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Title: Historiography of World War II - Wikipedia
Headings: Historiography of World War II
Historiography of World War II
Contents
Historiographical viewpoints
Self esteem and glory
Blame
Canada
Taylor The Origins of the Second World War (1961)
Battle of France, 1940
Eastern Front
War crimes of the Wehrmacht
Davies
Holocaust denial
German-occupied Europe
Common themes: heroic liberation from Nazis
Denmark
France
Resistance
Vichy
Collaboration
Civilian conditions
Alsace Lorraine
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
USSR
Women
References
Further reading
Content: Historians in common glorified the resistance movement (somewhat to the neglect of the invaders who actually overthrew the Nazis). There is great stress on heroes — including celebrities such as Charles de Gaulle, Winston Churchill and Josip Broz Tito — but also countless brave partisans and members of the resistance. Women rarely played a role in the celebrity or the histories, although since the 1990s, social historians have been piecing together the role of women on the home fronts. In recent years much scholarly attention has focused on how popular memories were constructed through selection, and how commemorations are held. Contents
1 Historiographical viewpoints
1.1 Self esteem and glory
1.2 Blame
1.3 Canada
2 Taylor The Origins of the Second World War (1961)
3 Battle of France, 1940
4 Eastern Front
4.1 War crimes of the Wehrmacht
4.2 Davies
4.3 Holocaust denial
5 German-occupied Europe
5.1 Common themes: heroic liberation from Nazis
5.2 Denmark
5.3 France
5.3.1 Resistance
5.3.2 Vichy
5.3.3 Collaboration
5.3.4 Civilian conditions
5.3.5 Alsace Lorraine
5.4 Netherlands
5.5 Norway
5.6 Poland
5.7 USSR
6 Women
7 References
8 Further reading
Historiographical viewpoints
Self esteem and glory
R.J. Bosworth argues the major powers have experienced intellectual conflict in interpreting their wartime stories. Some have ignored the central issues. Germany and, to a much lesser extent, Japan have experienced a collective self-analysis. But these two, as well as Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy, have largely ignored many roles and have looked instead for glory even when it was lacking. Blame
Blame as the driving force during World War II, is a widely known orthodox perspective.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_World_War_II
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1564620984#10_1726363062
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Title: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire - Wikipedia
Headings: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire
Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire
Contents
Overview of historiography
Overview of events
Highlights
3rd century
4th century
5th century
Theories and explanations of a fall
Decay owing to general malaise
Edward Gibbon
Vegetius on military decline
Arnold J. Toynbee and James Burke
Michael Rostovtzeff, Ludwig von Mises, and Bruce Bartlett
Joseph Tainter
Adrian Goldsworthy
Monocausal decay
Disease
Environmental degradation
Lead poisoning
Criticism of lead poisoning theory
Catastrophic collapse
J. B. Bury
Peter Heather
Bryan Ward-Perkins
Transformation
Henri Pirenne
Lucien Musset and the clash of civilizations
Late Antiquity
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Foreign language
External links
Content: The Empire of Late Antiquity already looked very different from classical Rome . The Roman Empire emerged from the Roman Republic when Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar transformed it from a republic into a monarchy. Rome reached its zenith in the 2nd century, then fortunes slowly declined (with many revivals and restorations along the way). The reasons for the decline of the Empire are still debated today, and are likely multiple. Historians infer that the population appears to have diminished in many provinces—especially western Europe—from the diminishing size of fortifications built to protect the cities from barbarian incursions from the 3rd century on. Some historians even have suggested that parts of the periphery were no longer inhabited because these fortifications were restricted to the center of the city only. Tree rings suggest "distinct drying" beginning in 250. By the late 3rd century, the city of Rome no longer served as an effective capital for the Emperor and various cities were used as new administrative capitals. Successive emperors, starting with Constantine, privileged the eastern city of Byzantium, which he had entirely rebuilt after a siege. Later rename
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1567787492#5_1728510457
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Title: History of Asian art - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Asian art
History of Asian art
Contents
Central Asian art
Nomadic folk art
Music and musical instrument
The revival of Central Asian art
East Asian art
Chinese art
Chinese painting and calligraphy art
Chinese painting
Chinese Calligraphy
Ancient Chinese crafts
Jade
Porcelain
Modern Chinese art
Tibetan art
Japanese art
Korean art
South Asian art
Buddhist art
Bhutanese art
Indian art
Nepalese art
Southeast Asian art
Cambodian art
Visual arts of Cambodia
Indonesian art
Balinese art
Laotian art
Thai art
Vietnamese art
Vietnamese calligraphy
Filipino art
West Asian/Near Eastern art
Art of Mesopotamia
Art of Israel and the Jewish diaspora
Islamic art
Iranian art
Arab art
Gallery of art in Asia
See also
Specific topics in Asian art
General art topics
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
The Pacific Islands
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Some of the famous classical musical instruments were originated within the Central Asian region. Rubab, Dombra, and Chang are some of the musical instruments used in the musical arts of Central Asia. The revival of Central Asian art
The lives of Central Asian people revolved around nomadic lifestyle. Thereby most of the Central Asian arts in the modern times are also inspired by nomadic living showcasing the golden era. As the matter of fact, the touch of tradition and culture in Central Asian art act as a major attraction factor for the international art forums. The global recognition towards the Central Asian Art has certainly added up to its worth. East Asian art
Copy of a portrait of Zhao Mengfu (趙孟頫), Metropolitan Museum of Art
Chinese art
Main articles: Chinese art, Chinese painting, Chinese ceramics, Chinese jade, and Chinese calligraphy
Chinese art (Chinese: 中國藝術/中国艺术) has varied throughout its ancient history, divided into periods by the ruling dynasties of China and changing technology. Different forms of art have been influenced by great philosophers, teachers, religious figures and even political leaders.
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Title: History of Asian art - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Asian art
History of Asian art
Contents
Central Asian art
Nomadic folk art
Music and musical instrument
The revival of Central Asian art
East Asian art
Chinese art
Chinese painting and calligraphy art
Chinese painting
Chinese Calligraphy
Ancient Chinese crafts
Jade
Porcelain
Modern Chinese art
Tibetan art
Japanese art
Korean art
South Asian art
Buddhist art
Bhutanese art
Indian art
Nepalese art
Southeast Asian art
Cambodian art
Visual arts of Cambodia
Indonesian art
Balinese art
Laotian art
Thai art
Vietnamese art
Vietnamese calligraphy
Filipino art
West Asian/Near Eastern art
Art of Mesopotamia
Art of Israel and the Jewish diaspora
Islamic art
Iranian art
Arab art
Gallery of art in Asia
See also
Specific topics in Asian art
General art topics
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
The Pacific Islands
References
Further reading
External links
Content: The global recognition towards the Central Asian Art has certainly added up to its worth. East Asian art
Copy of a portrait of Zhao Mengfu (趙孟頫), Metropolitan Museum of Art
Chinese art
Main articles: Chinese art, Chinese painting, Chinese ceramics, Chinese jade, and Chinese calligraphy
Chinese art (Chinese: 中國藝術/中国艺术) has varied throughout its ancient history, divided into periods by the ruling dynasties of China and changing technology. Different forms of art have been influenced by great philosophers, teachers, religious figures and even political leaders. Chinese art encompasses fine arts, folk arts and performance arts. Chinese art is art, whether modern or ancient, that originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists or performers. In the Song Dynasty, poetry was marked by a lyric poetry known as Ci (詞) which expressed feelings of desire, often in an adopted persona. Also in the Song dynasty, paintings of more subtle expression of landscapes appeared, with blurred outlines and mountain contours which conveyed distance through an impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena. It was during this period that in painting, emphasis was placed on spiritual rather than emotional elements, as in the previous period.
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Title: History of Asian art - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Asian art
History of Asian art
Contents
Central Asian art
Nomadic folk art
Music and musical instrument
The revival of Central Asian art
East Asian art
Chinese art
Chinese painting and calligraphy art
Chinese painting
Chinese Calligraphy
Ancient Chinese crafts
Jade
Porcelain
Modern Chinese art
Tibetan art
Japanese art
Korean art
South Asian art
Buddhist art
Bhutanese art
Indian art
Nepalese art
Southeast Asian art
Cambodian art
Visual arts of Cambodia
Indonesian art
Balinese art
Laotian art
Thai art
Vietnamese art
Vietnamese calligraphy
Filipino art
West Asian/Near Eastern art
Art of Mesopotamia
Art of Israel and the Jewish diaspora
Islamic art
Iranian art
Arab art
Gallery of art in Asia
See also
Specific topics in Asian art
General art topics
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
The Pacific Islands
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Chinese art encompasses fine arts, folk arts and performance arts. Chinese art is art, whether modern or ancient, that originated in or is practiced in China or by Chinese artists or performers. In the Song Dynasty, poetry was marked by a lyric poetry known as Ci (詞) which expressed feelings of desire, often in an adopted persona. Also in the Song dynasty, paintings of more subtle expression of landscapes appeared, with blurred outlines and mountain contours which conveyed distance through an impressionistic treatment of natural phenomena. It was during this period that in painting, emphasis was placed on spiritual rather than emotional elements, as in the previous period. Kunqu, the oldest extant form of Chinese opera developed during the Song Dynasty in Kunshan, near present-day Shanghai. In the Yuan dynasty, painting by the Chinese painter Zhao Mengfu (趙孟頫) greatly influenced later Chinese landscape painting, and the Yuan dynasty opera became a variant of Chinese opera which continues today as Cantonese opera . Chinese painting and calligraphy art
Chinese painting
Gongbi and Xieyi are two painting styles in Chinese painting. Gongbi means "meticulous", the rich colours and details in the picture are its main features, its content mainly depicts portraits or narratives. Xieyi means 'freehand', its form is often exaggerated and unreal, with an emphasis on the author's emotional expression and usually used in depicting landscapes.
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Title: History of Asian art - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Asian art
History of Asian art
Contents
Central Asian art
Nomadic folk art
Music and musical instrument
The revival of Central Asian art
East Asian art
Chinese art
Chinese painting and calligraphy art
Chinese painting
Chinese Calligraphy
Ancient Chinese crafts
Jade
Porcelain
Modern Chinese art
Tibetan art
Japanese art
Korean art
South Asian art
Buddhist art
Bhutanese art
Indian art
Nepalese art
Southeast Asian art
Cambodian art
Visual arts of Cambodia
Indonesian art
Balinese art
Laotian art
Thai art
Vietnamese art
Vietnamese calligraphy
Filipino art
West Asian/Near Eastern art
Art of Mesopotamia
Art of Israel and the Jewish diaspora
Islamic art
Iranian art
Arab art
Gallery of art in Asia
See also
Specific topics in Asian art
General art topics
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
The Pacific Islands
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Kunqu, the oldest extant form of Chinese opera developed during the Song Dynasty in Kunshan, near present-day Shanghai. In the Yuan dynasty, painting by the Chinese painter Zhao Mengfu (趙孟頫) greatly influenced later Chinese landscape painting, and the Yuan dynasty opera became a variant of Chinese opera which continues today as Cantonese opera . Chinese painting and calligraphy art
Chinese painting
Gongbi and Xieyi are two painting styles in Chinese painting. Gongbi means "meticulous", the rich colours and details in the picture are its main features, its content mainly depicts portraits or narratives. Xieyi means 'freehand', its form is often exaggerated and unreal, with an emphasis on the author's emotional expression and usually used in depicting landscapes. In addition to paper and silk, traditional paintings have also been done on the walls, such as the Mogao Grottoes in Gansu Province. The Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes were built in the Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD). It consists of more than 700 caves, of which 492 caves have murals on the walls, totalling more than 45,000 square meters. The murals are very broad in content, include Buddha statues, paradise, angels, important historical events and even donors. The painting styles in early cave received influence from India and the West.
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Title: History of Asian art - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Asian art
History of Asian art
Contents
Central Asian art
Nomadic folk art
Music and musical instrument
The revival of Central Asian art
East Asian art
Chinese art
Chinese painting and calligraphy art
Chinese painting
Chinese Calligraphy
Ancient Chinese crafts
Jade
Porcelain
Modern Chinese art
Tibetan art
Japanese art
Korean art
South Asian art
Buddhist art
Bhutanese art
Indian art
Nepalese art
Southeast Asian art
Cambodian art
Visual arts of Cambodia
Indonesian art
Balinese art
Laotian art
Thai art
Vietnamese art
Vietnamese calligraphy
Filipino art
West Asian/Near Eastern art
Art of Mesopotamia
Art of Israel and the Jewish diaspora
Islamic art
Iranian art
Arab art
Gallery of art in Asia
See also
Specific topics in Asian art
General art topics
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
The Pacific Islands
References
Further reading
External links
Content: In addition to paper and silk, traditional paintings have also been done on the walls, such as the Mogao Grottoes in Gansu Province. The Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes were built in the Northern Wei Dynasty (386–534 AD). It consists of more than 700 caves, of which 492 caves have murals on the walls, totalling more than 45,000 square meters. The murals are very broad in content, include Buddha statues, paradise, angels, important historical events and even donors. The painting styles in early cave received influence from India and the West. From the Tang Dynasty (618–906 CE), the murals began to reflect the unique Chinese painting style. Panorama of Along the River During the Qingming Festival, an 18th-century reproduction of the 12th century original by Chinese artist Zhang Zeduan; Note: scroll starts from the right
Chinese Calligraphy
On Calligraphy by Mi Fu, Song Dynasty
The Chinese calligraphy can be traced back to the Dazhuan (large seal script) that appeared in the Zhou Dynasty. After Emperor Qin unified China, Prime Minister Li Si collected and compiled Xiaozhuan (small seal) style as a new official text.
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Title: History of Asian art - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Asian art
History of Asian art
Contents
Central Asian art
Nomadic folk art
Music and musical instrument
The revival of Central Asian art
East Asian art
Chinese art
Chinese painting and calligraphy art
Chinese painting
Chinese Calligraphy
Ancient Chinese crafts
Jade
Porcelain
Modern Chinese art
Tibetan art
Japanese art
Korean art
South Asian art
Buddhist art
Bhutanese art
Indian art
Nepalese art
Southeast Asian art
Cambodian art
Visual arts of Cambodia
Indonesian art
Balinese art
Laotian art
Thai art
Vietnamese art
Vietnamese calligraphy
Filipino art
West Asian/Near Eastern art
Art of Mesopotamia
Art of Israel and the Jewish diaspora
Islamic art
Iranian art
Arab art
Gallery of art in Asia
See also
Specific topics in Asian art
General art topics
Oceania
Australia
New Zealand
The Pacific Islands
References
Further reading
External links
Content: From the Tang Dynasty (618–906 CE), the murals began to reflect the unique Chinese painting style. Panorama of Along the River During the Qingming Festival, an 18th-century reproduction of the 12th century original by Chinese artist Zhang Zeduan; Note: scroll starts from the right
Chinese Calligraphy
On Calligraphy by Mi Fu, Song Dynasty
The Chinese calligraphy can be traced back to the Dazhuan (large seal script) that appeared in the Zhou Dynasty. After Emperor Qin unified China, Prime Minister Li Si collected and compiled Xiaozhuan (small seal) style as a new official text. The small seal script is very elegant but difficult to write quickly. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, a type of script called the Lishu (Official Script) began to rise. Because it reveals no circles and very few curved lines, it is very suitable for fast writing. After that, the Kaishu style (traditional regular script) has appeared, and its structure is simpler and neater, this script is still widely used today. Ancient Chinese crafts
Blue and white porcelain dish
Jade
Early jade was used as an ornament or sacrificial utensils.
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Title: History of Chinese dance - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Chinese dance
History of Chinese dance
Contents
Early history
Qin and Han dynasties (221 BCE – 220 CE)
Six Dynasties era (220–589 CE)
Sui and Tang dynasties (581–907 CE)
Five Dynasties to the Song dynasty (907–1279 CE)
Yuan to Qing (1271–1912 CE)
Modern era
Dragon dance and lion dance
See also
References
Content: History of Chinese dance - Wikipedia
History of Chinese dance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Aspect of history
Tang dynasty figurines of female dancers. Dancing with sleeve movements is known from the Zhou dynasty and earlier in China. History of China
ANCIENT
Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BC
Xia c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC
Shang c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC
Zhou c. 1046 – 256 BC
Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn
Warring States
IMPERIAL
Qin 221–207 BC
Han 202 BC – 220 AD
Western Han
Xin
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin 266–420
Western Jin
Eastern Jin
Sixteen Kingdoms
Northern and Southern dynasties
420–589
Sui 581–618
Tang 618–907
( Wu Zhou 690–705)
Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms
907–979
Liao 916–1125
Song 960–1279
Northern Song
Western Xia
Southern Song
Jin
Western Liao
Yuan 1271–1368
Ming 1368–1644
Qing 1636–1912
MODERN
Republic of China on the mainland 1912–1949
People's Republic of China 1949–present
Republic of China in Taiwan 1949–present
Related articles
Chinese historiography
Timeline of Chinese history
Dynasties in Chinese history
Linguistic history
Art history
Economic history
Education history
Science and technology history
Legal history
Media history
Military history
Naval history
Women in ancient and imperial China
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Dance in China has a long recorded history. Depictions of dancing in China appeared over 4,000 years ago. The early dances may be folk dances or ritual dances, some of which developed into court dances. The most important of the early dances served important ritual and ceremonial roles and are known as yayue which continued to be performed at the imperial court until the Qing dynasty. A profusion of dances in popular and court entertainment as well as folk dances have been recorded in ancient texts. The art of dance in China reached a peak during the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) when numerous dances were recorded. Dancing as an individual art form declined in the later eras when dances become incorporated into operas and female dancing also declined when footbinding became more prevalent. In more recent times dance has enjoyed a resurgence, and it is widely performed by the public and professionals alike.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1574575696#4_1732319868
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Title: History of Chrysler - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Chrysler
History of Chrysler
Contents
History
Origins
Engineering innovations
Early models
Vehicle marques
Other marques
Mopar, AutoPar
MoPar, Chryco, AutoPar
Airtemp
Acustar
Safeguard
Airflow
The Forward Look
Government programs in World War II
Vehicles and systems
Radar antennas
Postwar government programs
Missiles
Space boosters
1960s
Expansion into Europe
The 1970s
Turbine
Lee Iacocca's Impact
Main article: Lee Iacocca
1980s
1990s
DaimlerChrysler 1998–2007
Chrysler sale to Cerberus 2007–2009
2008 financial crisis
US Government backing of warranties
Chapter 11 reorganization
Chrysler Group
Timeline of Chrysler
Logos
Medallion logo
Forward Look
Pentastar
Return of divisional logos
Winged logo
Revival of Pentastar
Elimination of the Pentastar
See also
Notes
References and further reading
Content: The advanced engineering and testing that went into Chrysler Corporation cars helped to push the company to the second-place position in U.S. sales by 1936, a position it would last hold in 1949. Early models
Chrysler 70
Chrysler Touring
Vehicle marques
1931 Plymouth
In 1928, Chrysler Corporation began dividing its vehicle offerings by price class and function. The Plymouth brand was introduced at the low priced end of the market (created essentially by once again reworking and rebadging Chrysler's 4-cylinder model). At the same time, the DeSoto marque was introduced in the medium-price field. Shortly thereafter, Chrysler bought the Dodge Brothers automobile and truck company and launched the Fargo range of trucks. By the late 1930s, the DeSoto and Dodge divisions would trade places in the corporate hierarchy. This proliferation of marques under Chrysler's umbrella might have been inspired by the similar strategy employed successfully by General Motors. Beginning in 1955, Imperial, formerly the top model of the Chrysler brand, became a separate make of its own, and in 1960, the Valiant was introduced likewise as a distinct marque. In the U.S. market, Valiant was made a model in the Plymouth line and the DeSoto make was discontinued for 1961. With those exceptions per applicable year and market, Chrysler's range from lowest to highest price from the 1940s through the 1970s was Valiant, Plymouth, Dodge, DeSoto, Chrysler, and Imperial.
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Title: History of Europe - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Europe
History of Europe
Contents
Overview
Prehistory of Europe
Ancient Europe
Minoans and Mycenae 2000–1100 BC
Early antiquity period
Ancient Greece
Ancient Rome
The Rise of Rome
Decline of the Roman Empire
Late Antiquity and Migration Period
Post-classical Europe
Byzantium
Early Middle Ages
Feudal Christendom
High Middle Ages
A divided church
Holy wars
Late Middle Ages
Homicide rates plunge over 800 years
Early Modern Europe
Renaissance
Exploration and trade
Reformation
Mercantilism and colonial expansion
Crisis of the 17th century
Age of Absolutism
Thirty Years' War 1618–1648
War of the Spanish Succession
Prussia
Russia
Enlightenment
From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914)
Industrial Revolution
Era of the French Revolution
Napoleon
Impact of the French Revolution
Religion
Protestantism
Nations rising
Emerging nationalism
Germany
Italy
Serbia
Greece
Bulgaria
Poland
Education
Ideological coalitions
France under Napoleon III
Major powers
Bismarck's Germany
Austrian and Russian empires
Imperialism
1914–1945: Two World wars
World War I
Paris Peace Conference
Interwar
Fascism and authoritarianism
Great Depression: 1929–1939
World War II
Cold War Era
Economic recovery
Recent history
Chronology
AD
See also
References
Bibliography
Surveys
Geography and atlases
Major nations
Classical
Late Roman
Medieval
Early modern
19th century
Since 1900
Agriculture and economy
Diplomacy
Empires and interactions
Ideas and science
Religion
Social
Warfare
Women and gender
External links
Content: History of Europe - Wikipedia
History of Europe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Historical development of Europe
Europe depicted by Antwerp cartographer Abraham Ortelius in 1595
The history of Europe concerns itself with the discovery and collection, the study, organization and presentation and the interpretation of past events and affairs of the people of Europe since the beginning of written records. During the Neolithic era and the time of the Indo-European migrations, Europe saw human inflows from east and southeast and subsequent important cultural and material exchange. The period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city-states of ancient Greece. Later, the Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. The fall of the Roman Empire in AD 476 traditionally marks the start of the Middle Ages. Beginning in the 14th century a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation set up Protestant churches primarily in Germany, Scandinavia and England. After 1800, the Industrial Revolution brought prosperity to Britain and Western Europe. The main European powers set up colonies in most of the Americas and Africa, and parts of Asia. In the 20th century, World War I and World War II resulted in massive numbers of deaths.
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Title: History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States
History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States
Contents
Spanish expeditions
Spanish expeditions that took place in the South of North America
Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest
Hispanic and Latino presence in the former British colonies of the United States at the end of the eighteenth century
Florida
Louisiana
California (1530–1765)
Hernán Cortés
Francisco de Ulloa
João Rodrigues Cabrilho
Sebastián Vizcaíno
Spanish colonization and governance (1765–1821)
First Spanish colonies
Gaspar de Portolà
Junípero Serra
Alta California missions
Ranchos
Mexican era (1821–1846)
General
Secularization
Other nationalities
Arizona and New Mexico
Arizona
Spanish period
Mexican period
New Mexico
Texas
Spanish period
Mexican period
United States era (beginning 1846)
Mexican Cession
Incorporation of the Hispanic people
Recent immigration
Historical demographics
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Surveys
Historiography
Content: Thus, the Spanish explorer Manuel Lisa, first settler of Nebraska, left St. Louis, Missouri to head northwest toward Montana, inaugurating the Oregon Trail. The Spanish moved from Western Missouri to eastern Montana, and along the Yellowstone to western and southern Montana. Hispanic and Latino presence in the former British colonies of the United States at the end of the eighteenth century
Main article: Spain and the American Revolutionary War
1790 U.S Ancestry
Based on Evaluated census figures
Ancestry group
Number
(1790 estimate)
% of
total
English
1,900,000
47.5
African
750,000
19.0
Scotch-Irish
320,000
8.0
German
280,000
7.0
Irish
200,000
5.0
Scottish
160,000
4.0
Welsh
120,000
3.0
Dutch
100,000
2.5
French
80,000
2.0
Native American
50,000
1.0
Spanish
20,000
0.5
Swedish and other
20,000
0.5
Total
4,000,000
100
Between 1779 and 1783 several Spanish troops provided aid to the Americans in their fight against the British Crown's troops in the American Revolutionary War. Also had some Spanish who participated in the American troops. Some of the Spanish who participated in the war stayed in the US. Maybe the more notable case was starred by Jorge Farragut, the Spanish lieutenant of the South Carolina Navy in the war. He settled in Mississippi and his son, David Farragut, excelled in the American Civil War. Many other Hispanics and Latinos emigrated also in the former British colonies in the eighteen century. So between end of this century and early of nineteenth century, emigrated people of origins such as the Spanish and Honduran to the United States (some Hondurans that emigrated to early of nineteenth, emigrated in 1820 fleeing the violence of the Honduran war of Independence ).
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Title: History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States
History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States
Contents
Spanish expeditions
Spanish expeditions that took place in the South of North America
Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest
Hispanic and Latino presence in the former British colonies of the United States at the end of the eighteenth century
Florida
Louisiana
California (1530–1765)
Hernán Cortés
Francisco de Ulloa
João Rodrigues Cabrilho
Sebastián Vizcaíno
Spanish colonization and governance (1765–1821)
First Spanish colonies
Gaspar de Portolà
Junípero Serra
Alta California missions
Ranchos
Mexican era (1821–1846)
General
Secularization
Other nationalities
Arizona and New Mexico
Arizona
Spanish period
Mexican period
New Mexico
Texas
Spanish period
Mexican period
United States era (beginning 1846)
Mexican Cession
Incorporation of the Hispanic people
Recent immigration
Historical demographics
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Surveys
Historiography
Content: Some of the Spanish who participated in the war stayed in the US. Maybe the more notable case was starred by Jorge Farragut, the Spanish lieutenant of the South Carolina Navy in the war. He settled in Mississippi and his son, David Farragut, excelled in the American Civil War. Many other Hispanics and Latinos emigrated also in the former British colonies in the eighteen century. So between end of this century and early of nineteenth century, emigrated people of origins such as the Spanish and Honduran to the United States (some Hondurans that emigrated to early of nineteenth, emigrated in 1820 fleeing the violence of the Honduran war of Independence ). According to the United States Census of 1790, which was the first census of the whole United States, there w
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1588462186#0_1739642775
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Title: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Japanese Americans
History of Japanese Americans
Contents
Japanese American history before World War II
Immigration
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Farming
Internment
World War II service
Post-World War II and redress
Timeline
See also
References
Further reading
Content: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
History of Japanese Americans
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
history of ethnic Japanese in the United States
Japanese Day parade in Seattle, during the Alaska–Yukon–Pacific Exposition of 1909
Japanese American history is the history of Japanese Americans or the history of ethnic Japanese in the United States. People from Japan began immigrating to the U.S. in significant numbers following the political, cultural, and social changes stemming from the 1868 Meiji Restoration. Large-scale Japanese immigration started with immigration to Hawaii during the first year of the Meiji period in 1868. Contents
1 Japanese American history before World War II
1.1 Immigration
1.2 Anti-Japanese sentiment
2 Farming
3 Internment
4 World War II service
5 Post-World War II and redress
6 Timeline
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
Japanese American history before World War II
Main article: Japanese-American life before World War II
Immigration
Significant Japanese immigration to the United States did not begin until the late nineteenth century. However, there is evidence to suggest that the first Japanese individual to land in North America was a young boy accompanying Francisican friar, Martín Ignacio Loyola, in October 1587, whilst on Loyola's second circumnavigation trip around the world. Japanese castaways Oguri Jukichi and Otokichi are among the first Japanese citizens known to have reached present day California and Washington in the early nineteenth century. Japan emerged from isolation following Commodore Matthew Perry's expedition to Japan, where he successfully negotiated a treaty opening Japan to American trade. Further developments included the start of direct shipping between San Francisco and Japan in 1855 and established official diplomatic relations in 1860. Japanese immigration to the United States was mostly economically motivated.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1588462186#1_1739645288
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Title: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Japanese Americans
History of Japanese Americans
Contents
Japanese American history before World War II
Immigration
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Farming
Internment
World War II service
Post-World War II and redress
Timeline
See also
References
Further reading
Content: However, there is evidence to suggest that the first Japanese individual to land in North America was a young boy accompanying Francisican friar, Martín Ignacio Loyola, in October 1587, whilst on Loyola's second circumnavigation trip around the world. Japanese castaways Oguri Jukichi and Otokichi are among the first Japanese citizens known to have reached present day California and Washington in the early nineteenth century. Japan emerged from isolation following Commodore Matthew Perry's expedition to Japan, where he successfully negotiated a treaty opening Japan to American trade. Further developments included the start of direct shipping between San Francisco and Japan in 1855 and established official diplomatic relations in 1860. Japanese immigration to the United States was mostly economically motivated. Stagnating economic conditions causing poor living conditions and high unemployment pushed Japanese people to search elsewhere for a better life. Japan's population density had increased from 1,335 per square in 1872 to 1,885 in 1903 intensifying economic pressure on working class populations. Rumours of better standards of living in the “land of promise” encouraged a rise in immigration to the US, especially by younger sons who (due in large part to the Japanese practice of primogeniture) were motivated to independently establish themselves abroad. Only fifty-five Japanese were recorded as living in the United States in 1870, but by 1890 there had been more than two thousand new arrivals. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 had a significant impact for Japanese immigration, as it left room for 'cheap labour' and an increasing recruitment of Japanese from both Hawaii and Japan as they sought industrialists to replacement Chinese labourers. '
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1588462186#2_1739647607
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Title: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Japanese Americans
History of Japanese Americans
Contents
Japanese American history before World War II
Immigration
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Farming
Internment
World War II service
Post-World War II and redress
Timeline
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Stagnating economic conditions causing poor living conditions and high unemployment pushed Japanese people to search elsewhere for a better life. Japan's population density had increased from 1,335 per square in 1872 to 1,885 in 1903 intensifying economic pressure on working class populations. Rumours of better standards of living in the “land of promise” encouraged a rise in immigration to the US, especially by younger sons who (due in large part to the Japanese practice of primogeniture) were motivated to independently establish themselves abroad. Only fifty-five Japanese were recorded as living in the United States in 1870, but by 1890 there had been more than two thousand new arrivals. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 had a significant impact for Japanese immigration, as it left room for 'cheap labour' and an increasing recruitment of Japanese from both Hawaii and Japan as they sought industrialists to replacement Chinese labourers. ' Between 1901 and 1908, a time of unrestricted immigration, 127,000 Japanese entered the U.S.'
The numbers of new arrivals peaked in 1907 with as many as 30,000 Japanese immigrants counted (economic and living conditions were particularly bad in Japan at this point as a result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–5). Japanese immigrants who moved to mainland U.S. settled on the West Coast primarily in California. Anti-Japanese sentiment
Nonetheless, there was a history of legalized discrimination in American immigration laws which heavily restricted Japanese immigration. As the number of Japanese in the United States increased, resentment against their success in the farming industry and fears of a " yellow peril " grew into an anti-Japanese movement similar to that faced by earlier Chinese immigrants. Increased pressure from the Asiatic Exclusion League and the San Francisco Board of Education, forced President Roosevelt to negotiate the Gentlemen's Agreement with Japan in 1907.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1588462186#3_1739650100
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Title: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Japanese Americans
History of Japanese Americans
Contents
Japanese American history before World War II
Immigration
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Farming
Internment
World War II service
Post-World War II and redress
Timeline
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Between 1901 and 1908, a time of unrestricted immigration, 127,000 Japanese entered the U.S.'
The numbers of new arrivals peaked in 1907 with as many as 30,000 Japanese immigrants counted (economic and living conditions were particularly bad in Japan at this point as a result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–5). Japanese immigrants who moved to mainland U.S. settled on the West Coast primarily in California. Anti-Japanese sentiment
Nonetheless, there was a history of legalized discrimination in American immigration laws which heavily restricted Japanese immigration. As the number of Japanese in the United States increased, resentment against their success in the farming industry and fears of a " yellow peril " grew into an anti-Japanese movement similar to that faced by earlier Chinese immigrants. Increased pressure from the Asiatic Exclusion League and the San Francisco Board of Education, forced President Roosevelt to negotiate the Gentlemen's Agreement with Japan in 1907. It was agreed that Japan would stop issuing valid passports for the U.S. This agreement was intended to curtail Japanese immigration to the U.S, but Japanese women were still allowed to immigrate if they were the wives of U.S. residents. Prior to 1908, about seven out of eight ethnic Japanese in the United States were men. By 1924, the ratio had changed to approximately four women to every six men. Japanese immigration to the U.S. effectively ended when Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1924 which banned all but a token few Japanese people. The ban on immigration produced unusually well-defined generational groups within the Japanese American community.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1588462186#5_1739654152
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Title: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Japanese Americans
History of Japanese Americans
Contents
Japanese American history before World War II
Immigration
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Farming
Internment
World War II service
Post-World War II and redress
Timeline
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Initially, there was an immigrant generation, the Issei, and their U.S.-born children, the Nisei Japanese American. The Issei were exclusively those who had immigrated before 1924. Because no new immigrants were permitted, all Japanese Americans born after 1924 were — by definition — born in the US. This generation, the Nisei, became a distinct cohort from the Issei generation in terms of age, citizenship, and English language ability, in addition to the usual generational differences. Institutional and interpersonal racism led many of the Nisei to marry other Nisei, resulting in a third distinct generation of Japanese Americans, the Sansei. It was only in 1952 that the Senate and House voted the McCarran-Walter Act which allowed Japanese immigrants to become naturalized U.S. citizens. But significant Japanese immigration did not occur again until the Immigration Act of 1965 which ended 40 years of bans against immigration from Japan and other countries. Farming
Japanese American farmer in Mountain View, California. Japanese-Americans have made significant contributions to agricultural development in Western-Pacific parts of the United States. Similar to European American settlers, the Issei, the majority of whom were young adult males, immigrated to America searching for better economic conditions and the majority settled in Western Pacific states settling for manual labour jobs in various industries such as ‘railroad, cannery and logging camp labourers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1588462186#6_1739656177
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Title: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Japanese Americans
History of Japanese Americans
Contents
Japanese American history before World War II
Immigration
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Farming
Internment
World War II service
Post-World War II and redress
Timeline
See also
References
Further reading
Content: It was only in 1952 that the Senate and House voted the McCarran-Walter Act which allowed Japanese immigrants to become naturalized U.S. citizens. But significant Japanese immigration did not occur again until the Immigration Act of 1965 which ended 40 years of bans against immigration from Japan and other countries. Farming
Japanese American farmer in Mountain View, California. Japanese-Americans have made significant contributions to agricultural development in Western-Pacific parts of the United States. Similar to European American settlers, the Issei, the majority of whom were young adult males, immigrated to America searching for better economic conditions and the majority settled in Western Pacific states settling for manual labour jobs in various industries such as ‘railroad, cannery and logging camp labourers. The Japanese workforce were diligent and extremely hardworking, inspired to earn enough money to return and retire in Japan. Consequently, this collective ambition enabled the Issei to work in agriculture as tenant farmers fairly promptly and by ‘1909 approximately 30,000 Japanese labourers worked in the Californian agriculture’. This transition occurred relatively smoothly due to a strong inclination to work in agriculture which had always been an occupation that had been looked upon with respect in Japan. Progress was made by the Issei in agriculture despite struggles faced cultivating the land, including harsh environment problems such as harsh weather and persistent issues with grass-hoppers. Economic difficulties and discriminating socio-political pressures such as the anti-alien laws (see California Alien Land Law of 1913) were further obstacles.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1588462186#7_1739658417
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Title: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Japanese Americans
History of Japanese Americans
Contents
Japanese American history before World War II
Immigration
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Farming
Internment
World War II service
Post-World War II and redress
Timeline
See also
References
Further reading
Content: The Japanese workforce were diligent and extremely hardworking, inspired to earn enough money to return and retire in Japan. Consequently, this collective ambition enabled the Issei to work in agriculture as tenant farmers fairly promptly and by ‘1909 approximately 30,000 Japanese labourers worked in the Californian agriculture’. This transition occurred relatively smoothly due to a strong inclination to work in agriculture which had always been an occupation that had been looked upon with respect in Japan. Progress was made by the Issei in agriculture despite struggles faced cultivating the land, including harsh environment problems such as harsh weather and persistent issues with grass-hoppers. Economic difficulties and discriminating socio-political pressures such as the anti-alien laws (see California Alien Land Law of 1913) were further obstacles. Nevertheless, second-generation Nisei were not impacted by these laws as a result of being legal American citizens, therefore their important roles in West Coast agriculture persisted Japanese immigrants brought a sophisticated knowledge of cultivation including knowledge of soils, fertilizers, skills in land reclamation, irrigation and drainage. This knowledge combined with Japanese traditional culture respecting the soil and hard-work, led successful cultivation of crops on previously marginal lands. According to sources, by 1941 Japanese Americans ‘were producing between thirty and thirty-five per cent by value of all commercial truck crops grown in California as well as occupying a dominant position in the distribution system of fruits and vegetables.’ The role of Issei in agriculture prospered in the early twentieth century. It was only in the event of the Internment of Japanese Americans in 1942 that many lost their agricultural businesses and farms.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1588462186#8_1739660802
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Title: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Japanese Americans
History of Japanese Americans
Contents
Japanese American history before World War II
Immigration
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Farming
Internment
World War II service
Post-World War II and redress
Timeline
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Nevertheless, second-generation Nisei were not impacted by these laws as a result of being legal American citizens, therefore their important roles in West Coast agriculture persisted Japanese immigrants brought a sophisticated knowledge of cultivation including knowledge of soils, fertilizers, skills in land reclamation, irrigation and drainage. This knowledge combined with Japanese traditional culture respecting the soil and hard-work, led successful cultivation of crops on previously marginal lands. According to sources, by 1941 Japanese Americans ‘were producing between thirty and thirty-five per cent by value of all commercial truck crops grown in California as well as occupying a dominant position in the distribution system of fruits and vegetables.’ The role of Issei in agriculture prospered in the early twentieth century. It was only in the event of the Internment of Japanese Americans in 1942 that many lost their agricultural businesses and farms. Although this was the case, Japanese Americans remain involved in these industries today, particularly in southern California and to some extent, Arizona by the areas' year-round agricultural economy, and descendants of Japanese pickers who adapted farming in Oregon and Washington state. Agriculture also played a key role during the internment of Japanese Americans. World War II internment camps, were located in desolate spots such as Poston, in the Arizona desert, and Tule Lake, California, at a dry mountain lake bed. Agricultural programs were put in place at relocation centres with the aim of growing food for direct consumption by inmates. There was also a less important aim of cultivating 'war crops' for the war effort.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1588462186#9_1739663046
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Title: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Japanese Americans
History of Japanese Americans
Contents
Japanese American history before World War II
Immigration
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Farming
Internment
World War II service
Post-World War II and redress
Timeline
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Although this was the case, Japanese Americans remain involved in these industries today, particularly in southern California and to some extent, Arizona by the areas' year-round agricultural economy, and descendants of Japanese pickers who adapted farming in Oregon and Washington state. Agriculture also played a key role during the internment of Japanese Americans. World War II internment camps, were located in desolate spots such as Poston, in the Arizona desert, and Tule Lake, California, at a dry mountain lake bed. Agricultural programs were put in place at relocation centres with the aim of growing food for direct consumption by inmates. There was also a less important aim of cultivating 'war crops' for the war effort. Agriculture in internment camps was faced with multiple challenges such as harsh weather and climate conditions however, on the most part the agricultural programs were a success mainly due to inmate knowledge and interest in agriculture. Due to their tenacious efforts, these farm lands remain active today. Internment
Main article: Internment of Japanese Americans
Juneau High School valedictorian John Tanaka received his diploma at a special graduation ceremony at the school's gymnasium in Juneau, Alaska in April 1942 prior to his internment. He was unable to attend actual graduation the next month due to evacuation orders.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1588462186#10_1739664943
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Title: History of Japanese Americans - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Japanese Americans
History of Japanese Americans
Contents
Japanese American history before World War II
Immigration
Anti-Japanese sentiment
Farming
Internment
World War II service
Post-World War II and redress
Timeline
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Agriculture in internment camps was faced with multiple challenges such as harsh weather and climate conditions however, on the most part the agricultural programs were a success mainly due to inmate knowledge and interest in agriculture. Due to their tenacious efforts, these farm lands remain active today. Internment
Main article: Internment of Japanese Americans
Juneau High School valedictorian John Tanaka received his diploma at a special graduation ceremony at the school's gymnasium in Juneau, Alaska in April 1942 prior to his internment. He was unable to attend actual graduation the next month due to evacuation orders. During World War II, an estimated 120,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese nationals or citizens residing in the United States were forcibly interned in ten different camps across the US, mostly in the west. The Internment was a 'system of legalized racial oppression' and were based on the race or ancestry rather than activities of the interned. Families, including children, were interned together. Each member of the family was allowed to bring two suitcases of their belongings. Each family, regardless of its size, was given one room to live in.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japanese_Americans
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1590390866#2_1740904367
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Title: History of Latin America - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Latin America
History of Latin America
Contents
Origin of the term and definition
The Pre-Columbian period
Colonial Era
Colonial-era Religion
Traveling to the New World
Religion in Latin America
The wars of independence
19th-century revolutions: the postcolonial era
20th century
Rise of the Latin American left
Late-20th-century military regimes and revolutions
Washington Consensus
21st century
Turn to the left
Turn to the right
See also
Pre-Columbian
Colonization
History by region
History by country
Other topics
References
Further reading
Historiography
Colonial era
Independence era
Modern era
Content: Political independence resulted in political and economic instability in Latin America immediately after independence. Great Britain and the United States exercised significant influence in the post-independence era, resulting in a form of neo-colonialism, whereby a country's political sovereignty remained in place, but foreign powers exercised considerable power in the economic sphere. During the Cold War, Latin America experienced social revolutions, rural and urban guerrilla movements, overt and covert United States interventions, and military coups . Contents
1 Origin of the term and definition
2 The Pre-Columbian period
3 Colonial Era
4 Colonial-era Religion
4.1 Traveling to the New World
4.2 Religion in Latin America
5 The wars of independence
6 19th-century revolutions: the postcolonial era
7 20th century
7.1 Rise of the Latin American left
7.2 Late-20th-century military regimes and revolutions
7.3 Washington Consensus
8 21st century
8.1 Turn to the left
8.2 Turn to the right
9 See also
9.1 Pre-Columbian
9.2 Colonization
9.3 History by region
9.4 History by country
9.5 Other topics
10 References
11 Further reading
11.1 Historiography
11.2 Colonial era
11.3 Independence era
11.4 Modern era
Origin of the term and definition
See also: Latin America: Definition
The idea that a part of the Americas has a cultural or racial affinity with all Romance cultures can be traced back to the 1830s, in particular in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier, who postulated that this part of the Americas were inhabited by people of a " Latin race ," and that it could, therefore, ally itself with " Latin Europe " in a struggle with " Teutonic Europe ," " Anglo-Saxon America " and " Slavic Europe." The idea was later taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France. The actual term "Latin America" was coined in France under Napoleon III and played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area and install Maximilian as emperor of Mexico. In the mid-twentieth century, especially in the United States, there was a trend to occasionally classify all of the territory south of the United States as "Latin America," especially when the discussion focused on its contemporary political and economic relations to the rest of the world, rather than solely on its cultural aspects.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1593445328#12_1742557220
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Title: History of Massachusetts - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Massachusetts
History of Massachusetts
Contents
Before European settlement
Pilgrims and Puritans: 1620–1629
Massachusetts Bay Colony: 1628–1686
Dominion of New England: 1686–1692
Royal Province of Massachusetts Bay: 1692–1774
Economy
Banking
Wars with France
Disasters
Politics
Revolutionary Massachusetts: 1760s–1780s
Boston Massacre
Boston Tea Party
American Revolution
Federalist Era: 1780–1815
The new constitution
Shays' Rebellion
Johnny Appleseed
Early industrial period: 1815–1860
Industrial development
Railroads
Whaling
Political and social movements
Know Nothing movement
Civil War and Gilded Age: 1860–1900
Invention of basketball and volleyball
Industrial advance
Prosperity decades: 1900–29
Depression and war: 1929–1945
Economic changes: decline of manufacturing, 1945–1985
The Kennedy family
Modern economy and society: 1985–present
The Big Dig
Boundaries
Founding grants
New Hampshire boundary
Rhode Island eastern border
Rhode Island northern border
Connecticut border
New York border
Maine
See also
Notes
Further reading
Surveys
Specialized scholarly studies
To 1780
1780–1900
1900–present
Primary sources
External links
Content: They abandoned it in 1623, and it was replaced by another small colony led by Robert Gorges. This settlement also failed, and individuals from these colonies returned to England, joined the Plymouth colonists, or established individual outposts elsewhere on the shores of Massachusetts Bay. In 1624, the Dorchester Company established a settlement on Cape Ann. This colony only survived until 1626, although a few settlers remained. Massachusetts Bay Colony: 1628–1686
Major boundaries of Massachusetts Bay and neighboring colonial claims in the 17th century and 18th century; modern state boundaries are partially overlaid for context
Main articles: Massachusetts Bay Colony and Plymouth Colony
The Pilgrims were followed by Puritans who established the Massachusetts Bay Colony at Salem (1629) and Boston (1630). The Puritans strongly dissented from the theology and church polity of the Church of England, and they came to Massachusetts for religious freedom. The Bay Colony was founded under a royal charter, unlike Plymouth Colony.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1593445328#13_1742559779
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Title: History of Massachusetts - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Massachusetts
History of Massachusetts
Contents
Before European settlement
Pilgrims and Puritans: 1620–1629
Massachusetts Bay Colony: 1628–1686
Dominion of New England: 1686–1692
Royal Province of Massachusetts Bay: 1692–1774
Economy
Banking
Wars with France
Disasters
Politics
Revolutionary Massachusetts: 1760s–1780s
Boston Massacre
Boston Tea Party
American Revolution
Federalist Era: 1780–1815
The new constitution
Shays' Rebellion
Johnny Appleseed
Early industrial period: 1815–1860
Industrial development
Railroads
Whaling
Political and social movements
Know Nothing movement
Civil War and Gilded Age: 1860–1900
Invention of basketball and volleyball
Industrial advance
Prosperity decades: 1900–29
Depression and war: 1929–1945
Economic changes: decline of manufacturing, 1945–1985
The Kennedy family
Modern economy and society: 1985–present
The Big Dig
Boundaries
Founding grants
New Hampshire boundary
Rhode Island eastern border
Rhode Island northern border
Connecticut border
New York border
Maine
See also
Notes
Further reading
Surveys
Specialized scholarly studies
To 1780
1780–1900
1900–present
Primary sources
External links
Content: 1628–1686
Major boundaries of Massachusetts Bay and neighboring colonial claims in the 17th century and 18th century; modern state boundaries are partially overlaid for context
Main articles: Massachusetts Bay Colony and Plymouth Colony
The Pilgrims were followed by Puritans who established the Massachusetts Bay Colony at Salem (1629) and Boston (1630). The Puritans strongly dissented from the theology and church polity of the Church of England, and they came to Massachusetts for religious freedom. The Bay Colony was founded under a royal charter, unlike Plymouth Colony. The Puritan migration was mainly from East Anglia and southwestern regions of England, with an estimated 20,000 immigrants between 1628 and 1642. Massachusetts Bay colony quickly eclipsed Plymouth in population and economy, the chief factors being the large influx of population, more suitable harbor facilities for trade, and the growth of a prosperous merchant class. Religious dissension and expansionism led to the founding of several new colonies shortly after Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay. Dissenters such as Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson were banished due to religious disagreements with Massachusetts Bay authorities. Williams established Providence Plantations in 1636.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Massachusetts
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1595222337#2_1743338952
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Title: History of Minnesota - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Minnesota
History of Minnesota
Contents
Native American inhabitation
European exploration
Territorial foundation and settlement
Land acquisition
Fort Snelling and the establishment of Minneapolis and Saint Paul
Early European settlement and development
Minnesota Territory
Statehood
Civil War era and Dakota War of 1862
Lynchings and executions
Economic and social development
Farming and railroad development
Industrial development
Mayo Clinic
Urbanization and government
Great Depression
20th Century
Arts and culture
Minnesota in World War I
Civilian Conservation Corps
Minnesota in World War II
Korea, Vietnam
Modern economy
The digital state
Postwar politics
See also
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links
Content: Early settlers used Saint Anthony Falls for powering sawmills in the area that became Minneapolis, while others settled downriver in the area that became Saint Paul . Minnesota was given a legal description with the creation the Minnesota Territory in 1849, and became the 32nd U.S. state on May 11, 1858. After the chaos of the Civil war and the Dakota War of 1862 ended, the state's economy grew when its timber and agriculture resources were developed. Railroads attracted immigrants, established the farm economy, and brought goods to market. The power provided by St. Anthony Falls spurred the growth of Minneapolis, and the innovative milling methods gave it the title of the "milling capital of the world". New industry came from iron ore, discovered in the north, mined relatively easily from open pits, and shipped to Great Lakes steel mills from the ports at Duluth and Two Harbors. Economic development and social changes led to an expanded role for state government and a population shift from rural areas to cities. The Great Depression brought layoffs in mining and tension in labor relations but New Deal programs helped the state. After World War II, Minnesota became known for technology, fueled by early computer companies Sperry Rand, Control Data and Cray. The Twin Cities also became a regional center for the arts with cultural institutions such as the Guthrie Theater, Minnesota Orchestra, and the Walker Art Center .
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1604486767#0_1748484801
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Title: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
Contents
Colonial era (1521–1821)
Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572
Power of the Spanish Crown in ecclesiastical matters
The first evangelists to the indigenous
The abandoned experiment to train Indian priests
Mendicant-produced texts for evangelization
Hospitals
Confraternities
Spanish Habsburg Era (1550–1700)
Establishment of the episcopal hierarchy and the assertion of crown control
Bishops as interim viceroys
Structure of the episcopal hierarchy
Ecclesiastical privileges
Secular or diocesan clergy's incomc
Reduction of mendicants' role
Pious endowments
Tithes
Society of Jesus in Mexico, 1572–1767
Jesuit haciendas
Jesuit resistance to the tithe
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Convents
Establishments for elite creole women
For Indian noblewomen
Holy Office of the Inquisition
Crypto-Jews
Other jurisdictional transgressions
Indigenous beliefs
Devotions to holy men and women
Virgin of Guadalupe and other devotions to Mary
Devotions to Christ and pilgrimage sites
Mexican saints
Spanish Bourbon Era 1700–1821
Changes in the Church as an economic institution
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Charitable Institutions
The clergy and Mexican independence 1810–1821
Post-Independence Mexico, 1821-present
Independent Mexico in the nineteenth century
The First Empire and Early Republic, 1821–1854
Liberal reform of 1833
Liberal reform (1857–1861)
The era of Porfirio Diaz (1876–1911)
The Mexican Revolution
The end of the Porfiriato
Madero, 1911–1913
Huerta, 1913-14
The Constitutionalists
Zapatistas and religion
Church-State relations, 1917–1940
1917 Mexican Constitution
Anticlericalism of Calles and violent church-state conflict 1926–1929
Catholic lay organizations
Catholic women and the church-state crisis
End of the Cristero Rebellion, 1929
Cristero saints
Impact of the War
Cárdenas, 1934-40
Government-mandated socialist education and Catholic pushback
Growth during the new Church-State modus vivendi, 1940–1980
Changing church-state relations, 1980–2000
Clampdown on liberation theology
Church push for civic culture in Chihuahua
Salinas, the Vatican, and reform of the constitution
Protestant groups and constitutional reform
Cardinal Posadas Ocampo's murder
Issues in the 21st century
Child sex abuse scandals
Priests targeted by narcotraffickers
Pope Francis visit
Falling membership
Further reading
General
Colonial Era - 1519–1821
Nineteenth century
Twentieth and Twenty-First Century
See also
References
Content: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico - Wikipedia
History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from History of Roman Catholicism in Mexico)
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The Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral. The history of the Catholic Church in Mexico dates from the period of the Spanish conquest (1519–21) and has continued as an institution in Mexico into the twenty-first century. Catholicism is one of the two major legacies from the Spanish colonial era, the other being Spanish as the nation's language. The Catholic Church was a privileged institution until the mid nineteenth century. It was the sole permissible church in the colonial era and into the early Mexican Republic, following independence in 1821. Following independence, it involved itself directly in politics, including in matters that did not specifically involve the Church. In the mid-nineteenth century the liberal Reform brought major changes in church-state relations. Mexican liberals in power challenged the Catholic Church's role, particularly in reaction to its involvement in politics. The Reform curtailed the Church's role in education, property ownership, and control of birth, marriage, and death records, with specific anticlerical laws. Many of these were incorporated into the Constitution of 1857, restricting the Church's corporate ownership of property and other limitations.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1604486767#1_1748489184
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Title: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
Contents
Colonial era (1521–1821)
Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572
Power of the Spanish Crown in ecclesiastical matters
The first evangelists to the indigenous
The abandoned experiment to train Indian priests
Mendicant-produced texts for evangelization
Hospitals
Confraternities
Spanish Habsburg Era (1550–1700)
Establishment of the episcopal hierarchy and the assertion of crown control
Bishops as interim viceroys
Structure of the episcopal hierarchy
Ecclesiastical privileges
Secular or diocesan clergy's incomc
Reduction of mendicants' role
Pious endowments
Tithes
Society of Jesus in Mexico, 1572–1767
Jesuit haciendas
Jesuit resistance to the tithe
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Convents
Establishments for elite creole women
For Indian noblewomen
Holy Office of the Inquisition
Crypto-Jews
Other jurisdictional transgressions
Indigenous beliefs
Devotions to holy men and women
Virgin of Guadalupe and other devotions to Mary
Devotions to Christ and pilgrimage sites
Mexican saints
Spanish Bourbon Era 1700–1821
Changes in the Church as an economic institution
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Charitable Institutions
The clergy and Mexican independence 1810–1821
Post-Independence Mexico, 1821-present
Independent Mexico in the nineteenth century
The First Empire and Early Republic, 1821–1854
Liberal reform of 1833
Liberal reform (1857–1861)
The era of Porfirio Diaz (1876–1911)
The Mexican Revolution
The end of the Porfiriato
Madero, 1911–1913
Huerta, 1913-14
The Constitutionalists
Zapatistas and religion
Church-State relations, 1917–1940
1917 Mexican Constitution
Anticlericalism of Calles and violent church-state conflict 1926–1929
Catholic lay organizations
Catholic women and the church-state crisis
End of the Cristero Rebellion, 1929
Cristero saints
Impact of the War
Cárdenas, 1934-40
Government-mandated socialist education and Catholic pushback
Growth during the new Church-State modus vivendi, 1940–1980
Changing church-state relations, 1980–2000
Clampdown on liberation theology
Church push for civic culture in Chihuahua
Salinas, the Vatican, and reform of the constitution
Protestant groups and constitutional reform
Cardinal Posadas Ocampo's murder
Issues in the 21st century
Child sex abuse scandals
Priests targeted by narcotraffickers
Pope Francis visit
Falling membership
Further reading
General
Colonial Era - 1519–1821
Nineteenth century
Twentieth and Twenty-First Century
See also
References
Content: Following independence, it involved itself directly in politics, including in matters that did not specifically involve the Church. In the mid-nineteenth century the liberal Reform brought major changes in church-state relations. Mexican liberals in power challenged the Catholic Church's role, particularly in reaction to its involvement in politics. The Reform curtailed the Church's role in education, property ownership, and control of birth, marriage, and death records, with specific anticlerical laws. Many of these were incorporated into the Constitution of 1857, restricting the Church's corporate ownership of property and other limitations. Although there were some liberal clerics who advocated reform, such as José María Luis Mora, the Church came to be seen as conservative and anti-revolutionary. During the bloody War of the Reform, the Church was an ally of conservative forces that attempted to oust the liberal government. They also were associated with the conservatives' attempt to regain power during the French Intervention, when Maximilian of Habsburg was invited to become emperor of Mexico. The empire fell and conservatives were discredited, along with the Catholic Church. However, during the long presidency of Porfirio Díaz (1876–1911) the liberal general pursued a policy of conciliation with the Catholic Church;
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1604486767#2_1748493498
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Title: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
Contents
Colonial era (1521–1821)
Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572
Power of the Spanish Crown in ecclesiastical matters
The first evangelists to the indigenous
The abandoned experiment to train Indian priests
Mendicant-produced texts for evangelization
Hospitals
Confraternities
Spanish Habsburg Era (1550–1700)
Establishment of the episcopal hierarchy and the assertion of crown control
Bishops as interim viceroys
Structure of the episcopal hierarchy
Ecclesiastical privileges
Secular or diocesan clergy's incomc
Reduction of mendicants' role
Pious endowments
Tithes
Society of Jesus in Mexico, 1572–1767
Jesuit haciendas
Jesuit resistance to the tithe
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Convents
Establishments for elite creole women
For Indian noblewomen
Holy Office of the Inquisition
Crypto-Jews
Other jurisdictional transgressions
Indigenous beliefs
Devotions to holy men and women
Virgin of Guadalupe and other devotions to Mary
Devotions to Christ and pilgrimage sites
Mexican saints
Spanish Bourbon Era 1700–1821
Changes in the Church as an economic institution
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Charitable Institutions
The clergy and Mexican independence 1810–1821
Post-Independence Mexico, 1821-present
Independent Mexico in the nineteenth century
The First Empire and Early Republic, 1821–1854
Liberal reform of 1833
Liberal reform (1857–1861)
The era of Porfirio Diaz (1876–1911)
The Mexican Revolution
The end of the Porfiriato
Madero, 1911–1913
Huerta, 1913-14
The Constitutionalists
Zapatistas and religion
Church-State relations, 1917–1940
1917 Mexican Constitution
Anticlericalism of Calles and violent church-state conflict 1926–1929
Catholic lay organizations
Catholic women and the church-state crisis
End of the Cristero Rebellion, 1929
Cristero saints
Impact of the War
Cárdenas, 1934-40
Government-mandated socialist education and Catholic pushback
Growth during the new Church-State modus vivendi, 1940–1980
Changing church-state relations, 1980–2000
Clampdown on liberation theology
Church push for civic culture in Chihuahua
Salinas, the Vatican, and reform of the constitution
Protestant groups and constitutional reform
Cardinal Posadas Ocampo's murder
Issues in the 21st century
Child sex abuse scandals
Priests targeted by narcotraffickers
Pope Francis visit
Falling membership
Further reading
General
Colonial Era - 1519–1821
Nineteenth century
Twentieth and Twenty-First Century
See also
References
Content: Although there were some liberal clerics who advocated reform, such as José María Luis Mora, the Church came to be seen as conservative and anti-revolutionary. During the bloody War of the Reform, the Church was an ally of conservative forces that attempted to oust the liberal government. They also were associated with the conservatives' attempt to regain power during the French Intervention, when Maximilian of Habsburg was invited to become emperor of Mexico. The empire fell and conservatives were discredited, along with the Catholic Church. However, during the long presidency of Porfirio Díaz (1876–1911) the liberal general pursued a policy of conciliation with the Catholic Church; though he kept the anticlerical articles of the liberal constitution in force, he in practice allowed greater freedom of action for the Catholic Church. With Díaz's ouster in 1911 and the decade-long conflict of the Mexican Revolution, the victorious Constitutionalist faction led by Venustiano Carranza wrote the new Constitution of 1917 that strengthened the anticlerical measures in the liberal Constitution of 1857. With the presidency of Northern, anticlerical, revolutionary general Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–28), the State's enforcement of the anticlerical articles of Constitution of 1917 provoked a major crisis with violence in a number of regions of Mexico. The Cristero Rebellion (1926–29) was resolved, with the aid of diplomacy of the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, ending the violence, but the anticlerical articles of the constitution remained. President Manuel Avila Camacho (1940–1946) came to office declaring "I am a [Catholic] believer," ( soy creyente) and Church-State relations improved though without constitutional changes.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1604486767#3_1748498236
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Title: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
Contents
Colonial era (1521–1821)
Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572
Power of the Spanish Crown in ecclesiastical matters
The first evangelists to the indigenous
The abandoned experiment to train Indian priests
Mendicant-produced texts for evangelization
Hospitals
Confraternities
Spanish Habsburg Era (1550–1700)
Establishment of the episcopal hierarchy and the assertion of crown control
Bishops as interim viceroys
Structure of the episcopal hierarchy
Ecclesiastical privileges
Secular or diocesan clergy's incomc
Reduction of mendicants' role
Pious endowments
Tithes
Society of Jesus in Mexico, 1572–1767
Jesuit haciendas
Jesuit resistance to the tithe
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Convents
Establishments for elite creole women
For Indian noblewomen
Holy Office of the Inquisition
Crypto-Jews
Other jurisdictional transgressions
Indigenous beliefs
Devotions to holy men and women
Virgin of Guadalupe and other devotions to Mary
Devotions to Christ and pilgrimage sites
Mexican saints
Spanish Bourbon Era 1700–1821
Changes in the Church as an economic institution
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Charitable Institutions
The clergy and Mexican independence 1810–1821
Post-Independence Mexico, 1821-present
Independent Mexico in the nineteenth century
The First Empire and Early Republic, 1821–1854
Liberal reform of 1833
Liberal reform (1857–1861)
The era of Porfirio Diaz (1876–1911)
The Mexican Revolution
The end of the Porfiriato
Madero, 1911–1913
Huerta, 1913-14
The Constitutionalists
Zapatistas and religion
Church-State relations, 1917–1940
1917 Mexican Constitution
Anticlericalism of Calles and violent church-state conflict 1926–1929
Catholic lay organizations
Catholic women and the church-state crisis
End of the Cristero Rebellion, 1929
Cristero saints
Impact of the War
Cárdenas, 1934-40
Government-mandated socialist education and Catholic pushback
Growth during the new Church-State modus vivendi, 1940–1980
Changing church-state relations, 1980–2000
Clampdown on liberation theology
Church push for civic culture in Chihuahua
Salinas, the Vatican, and reform of the constitution
Protestant groups and constitutional reform
Cardinal Posadas Ocampo's murder
Issues in the 21st century
Child sex abuse scandals
Priests targeted by narcotraffickers
Pope Francis visit
Falling membership
Further reading
General
Colonial Era - 1519–1821
Nineteenth century
Twentieth and Twenty-First Century
See also
References
Content: though he kept the anticlerical articles of the liberal constitution in force, he in practice allowed greater freedom of action for the Catholic Church. With Díaz's ouster in 1911 and the decade-long conflict of the Mexican Revolution, the victorious Constitutionalist faction led by Venustiano Carranza wrote the new Constitution of 1917 that strengthened the anticlerical measures in the liberal Constitution of 1857. With the presidency of Northern, anticlerical, revolutionary general Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–28), the State's enforcement of the anticlerical articles of Constitution of 1917 provoked a major crisis with violence in a number of regions of Mexico. The Cristero Rebellion (1926–29) was resolved, with the aid of diplomacy of the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, ending the violence, but the anticlerical articles of the constitution remained. President Manuel Avila Camacho (1940–1946) came to office declaring "I am a [Catholic] believer," ( soy creyente) and Church-State relations improved though without constitutional changes. A major change came in 1992, with the presidency of Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988–1994). In a sweeping program of reform to "modernize Mexico" that he outlined in his 1988 inaugural address, his government pushed through revisions in the Mexican Constitution, explicitly including a new legal framework that restored the Catholic Church's juridical personality. The majority of Mexicans in the twenty-first century identify themselves as being Catholic, but the growth of other religious groups such as Protestant evangelicals, Mormons, as well secularism is consistent with trends elsewhere in Latin America. The 1992 federal Act on Religious Associations and Public Worship ( Ley de Asociaciones Religiosas y Culto Público ), known in English as the Religious Associations Act or (RAA), has affected all religious groups in Mexico. Contents
1 Colonial era (1521–1821)
2 Early period:
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1604486767#4_1748503168
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Title: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
Contents
Colonial era (1521–1821)
Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572
Power of the Spanish Crown in ecclesiastical matters
The first evangelists to the indigenous
The abandoned experiment to train Indian priests
Mendicant-produced texts for evangelization
Hospitals
Confraternities
Spanish Habsburg Era (1550–1700)
Establishment of the episcopal hierarchy and the assertion of crown control
Bishops as interim viceroys
Structure of the episcopal hierarchy
Ecclesiastical privileges
Secular or diocesan clergy's incomc
Reduction of mendicants' role
Pious endowments
Tithes
Society of Jesus in Mexico, 1572–1767
Jesuit haciendas
Jesuit resistance to the tithe
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Convents
Establishments for elite creole women
For Indian noblewomen
Holy Office of the Inquisition
Crypto-Jews
Other jurisdictional transgressions
Indigenous beliefs
Devotions to holy men and women
Virgin of Guadalupe and other devotions to Mary
Devotions to Christ and pilgrimage sites
Mexican saints
Spanish Bourbon Era 1700–1821
Changes in the Church as an economic institution
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Charitable Institutions
The clergy and Mexican independence 1810–1821
Post-Independence Mexico, 1821-present
Independent Mexico in the nineteenth century
The First Empire and Early Republic, 1821–1854
Liberal reform of 1833
Liberal reform (1857–1861)
The era of Porfirio Diaz (1876–1911)
The Mexican Revolution
The end of the Porfiriato
Madero, 1911–1913
Huerta, 1913-14
The Constitutionalists
Zapatistas and religion
Church-State relations, 1917–1940
1917 Mexican Constitution
Anticlericalism of Calles and violent church-state conflict 1926–1929
Catholic lay organizations
Catholic women and the church-state crisis
End of the Cristero Rebellion, 1929
Cristero saints
Impact of the War
Cárdenas, 1934-40
Government-mandated socialist education and Catholic pushback
Growth during the new Church-State modus vivendi, 1940–1980
Changing church-state relations, 1980–2000
Clampdown on liberation theology
Church push for civic culture in Chihuahua
Salinas, the Vatican, and reform of the constitution
Protestant groups and constitutional reform
Cardinal Posadas Ocampo's murder
Issues in the 21st century
Child sex abuse scandals
Priests targeted by narcotraffickers
Pope Francis visit
Falling membership
Further reading
General
Colonial Era - 1519–1821
Nineteenth century
Twentieth and Twenty-First Century
See also
References
Content: A major change came in 1992, with the presidency of Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988–1994). In a sweeping program of reform to "modernize Mexico" that he outlined in his 1988 inaugural address, his government pushed through revisions in the Mexican Constitution, explicitly including a new legal framework that restored the Catholic Church's juridical personality. The majority of Mexicans in the twenty-first century identify themselves as being Catholic, but the growth of other religious groups such as Protestant evangelicals, Mormons, as well secularism is consistent with trends elsewhere in Latin America. The 1992 federal Act on Religious Associations and Public Worship ( Ley de Asociaciones Religiosas y Culto Público ), known in English as the Religious Associations Act or (RAA), has affected all religious groups in Mexico. Contents
1 Colonial era (1521–1821)
2 Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572
2.1 Power of the Spanish Crown in ecclesiastical matters
2.2 The first evangelists to the indigenous
2.3 The abandoned experiment to train Indian priests
2.4 Mendicant-produced texts for evangelization
2.5 Hospitals
2.6 Confraternities
3 Spanish Habsburg Era (1550–1700)
3.1 Establishment of the episcopal hierarchy and the assertion of crown control
3.2 Bishops as interim viceroys
3.3 Structure of the episcopal hierarchy
3.4 Ecclesiastical privileges
3.5 Secular or diocesan clergy's incomc
3.6 Reduction of mendicants' role
3.7 Pious endowments
3.8 Tithes
3.9 Society of Jesus in Mexico, 1572–1767
3.9.1 Jesuit haciendas
3.9.2 Jesuit resistance to the tithe
3.9.3 Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
3.10 Convents
3.10.1 Establishments for elite creole women
3.10.2 For Indian noblewomen
3.11 Holy Office of the Inquisition
3.11.1 Crypto-Jews
3.11.2 Other jurisdictional transgressions
3.11.3 Indigenous beliefs
3.12 Devotions to holy men and women
3.12.1 Virgin of Guadalupe and other devotions to Mary
3.13 Devotions to Christ and pilgrimage sites
3.13.1 Mexican saints
4 Spanish Bourbon Era 1700–1821
4.1 Changes in the Church as an economic institution
4.2 Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
4.3 Charitable Institutions
4.4 The clergy and Mexican independence 1810–1821
5 Post-Independence Mexico, 1821-present
6 Independent Mexico in the nineteenth century
6.1 The First Empire and Early Republic, 1821–1854
6.2 Liberal reform of 1833
6.3 Liberal reform (1857–1861)
6.4 The era of Porfirio Diaz (1876–1911)
7 The Mexican Revolution
7.1 The end of the Porfiriato
7.2 Madero, 1911–1913
7.3 Huerta, 1913-14
7.4 The Constitutionalists
7.5 Zapatistas and religion
8 Church-State relations, 1917–1940
8.1 1917 Mexican Constitution
8.2 Anticlericalism of Calles and violent church-state conflict 1926–1929
8.3 Catholic lay organizations
8.4 Catholic women and the church-state crisis
8.5 End of the Cristero Rebellion, 1929
8.6 Cristero saints
8.7 Impact of the War
8.8 Cárdenas, 1934-40
8.9 Government-mandated socialist education and Catholic pushback
8.10 Growth during the new Church-State modus vivendi, 1940–1980
9 Changing church-state relations, 1980–2000
9.1 Clampdown on liberation theology
9.2 Church push for civic culture in Chihuahua
9.3 Salinas, the Vatican, and reform of the constitution
9.4 Protestant groups and constitutional reform
9.5 Cardinal Posadas Ocampo's murder
10 Issues in the 21st century
10.1 Child sex abuse scandals
10.2 Priests targeted by narcotraffickers
10.3 Pope Francis visit
10.4 Falling membership
11 Further reading
11.1 General
11.2 Colonial Era - 1519–1821
11.3 Nineteenth century
11.4 Twentieth and Twenty-First Century
12 See also
13 References
Colonial era (1521–1821)
See also: Franciscan missions to the Maya, Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda, Yaqui people § Conquistadors and Missionaries, and Spanish missions in Mexico
Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Roman_Catholicism_in_Mexico
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1604486767#5_1748510329
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Title: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
History of the Catholic Church in Mexico
Contents
Colonial era (1521–1821)
Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572
Power of the Spanish Crown in ecclesiastical matters
The first evangelists to the indigenous
The abandoned experiment to train Indian priests
Mendicant-produced texts for evangelization
Hospitals
Confraternities
Spanish Habsburg Era (1550–1700)
Establishment of the episcopal hierarchy and the assertion of crown control
Bishops as interim viceroys
Structure of the episcopal hierarchy
Ecclesiastical privileges
Secular or diocesan clergy's incomc
Reduction of mendicants' role
Pious endowments
Tithes
Society of Jesus in Mexico, 1572–1767
Jesuit haciendas
Jesuit resistance to the tithe
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Convents
Establishments for elite creole women
For Indian noblewomen
Holy Office of the Inquisition
Crypto-Jews
Other jurisdictional transgressions
Indigenous beliefs
Devotions to holy men and women
Virgin of Guadalupe and other devotions to Mary
Devotions to Christ and pilgrimage sites
Mexican saints
Spanish Bourbon Era 1700–1821
Changes in the Church as an economic institution
Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
Charitable Institutions
The clergy and Mexican independence 1810–1821
Post-Independence Mexico, 1821-present
Independent Mexico in the nineteenth century
The First Empire and Early Republic, 1821–1854
Liberal reform of 1833
Liberal reform (1857–1861)
The era of Porfirio Diaz (1876–1911)
The Mexican Revolution
The end of the Porfiriato
Madero, 1911–1913
Huerta, 1913-14
The Constitutionalists
Zapatistas and religion
Church-State relations, 1917–1940
1917 Mexican Constitution
Anticlericalism of Calles and violent church-state conflict 1926–1929
Catholic lay organizations
Catholic women and the church-state crisis
End of the Cristero Rebellion, 1929
Cristero saints
Impact of the War
Cárdenas, 1934-40
Government-mandated socialist education and Catholic pushback
Growth during the new Church-State modus vivendi, 1940–1980
Changing church-state relations, 1980–2000
Clampdown on liberation theology
Church push for civic culture in Chihuahua
Salinas, the Vatican, and reform of the constitution
Protestant groups and constitutional reform
Cardinal Posadas Ocampo's murder
Issues in the 21st century
Child sex abuse scandals
Priests targeted by narcotraffickers
Pope Francis visit
Falling membership
Further reading
General
Colonial Era - 1519–1821
Nineteenth century
Twentieth and Twenty-First Century
See also
References
Content: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572
2.1 Power of the Spanish Crown in ecclesiastical matters
2.2 The first evangelists to the indigenous
2.3 The abandoned experiment to train Indian priests
2.4 Mendicant-produced texts for evangelization
2.5 Hospitals
2.6 Confraternities
3 Spanish Habsburg Era (1550–1700)
3.1 Establishment of the episcopal hierarchy and the assertion of crown control
3.2 Bishops as interim viceroys
3.3 Structure of the episcopal hierarchy
3.4 Ecclesiastical privileges
3.5 Secular or diocesan clergy's incomc
3.6 Reduction of mendicants' role
3.7 Pious endowments
3.8 Tithes
3.9 Society of Jesus in Mexico, 1572–1767
3.9.1 Jesuit haciendas
3.9.2 Jesuit resistance to the tithe
3.9.3 Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
3.10 Convents
3.10.1 Establishments for elite creole women
3.10.2 For Indian noblewomen
3.11 Holy Office of the Inquisition
3.11.1 Crypto-Jews
3.11.2 Other jurisdictional transgressions
3.11.3 Indigenous beliefs
3.12 Devotions to holy men and women
3.12.1 Virgin of Guadalupe and other devotions to Mary
3.13 Devotions to Christ and pilgrimage sites
3.13.1 Mexican saints
4 Spanish Bourbon Era 1700–1821
4.1 Changes in the Church as an economic institution
4.2 Expulsion of the Jesuits 1767
4.3 Charitable Institutions
4.4 The clergy and Mexican independence 1810–1821
5 Post-Independence Mexico, 1821-present
6 Independent Mexico in the nineteenth century
6.1 The First Empire and Early Republic, 1821–1854
6.2 Liberal reform of 1833
6.3 Liberal reform (1857–1861)
6.4 The era of Porfirio Diaz (1876–1911)
7 The Mexican Revolution
7.1 The end of the Porfiriato
7.2 Madero, 1911–1913
7.3 Huerta, 1913-14
7.4 The Constitutionalists
7.5 Zapatistas and religion
8 Church-State relations, 1917–1940
8.1 1917 Mexican Constitution
8.2 Anticlericalism of Calles and violent church-state conflict 1926–1929
8.3 Catholic lay organizations
8.4 Catholic women and the church-state crisis
8.5 End of the Cristero Rebellion, 1929
8.6 Cristero saints
8.7 Impact of the War
8.8 Cárdenas, 1934-40
8.9 Government-mandated socialist education and Catholic pushback
8.10 Growth during the new Church-State modus vivendi, 1940–1980
9 Changing church-state relations, 1980–2000
9.1 Clampdown on liberation theology
9.2 Church push for civic culture in Chihuahua
9.3 Salinas, the Vatican, and reform of the constitution
9.4 Protestant groups and constitutional reform
9.5 Cardinal Posadas Ocampo's murder
10 Issues in the 21st century
10.1 Child sex abuse scandals
10.2 Priests targeted by narcotraffickers
10.3 Pope Francis visit
10.4 Falling membership
11 Further reading
11.1 General
11.2 Colonial Era - 1519–1821
11.3 Nineteenth century
11.4 Twentieth and Twenty-First Century
12 See also
13 References
Colonial era (1521–1821)
See also: Franciscan missions to the Maya, Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda, Yaqui people § Conquistadors and Missionaries, and Spanish missions in Mexico
Early period: The Spiritual Conquest 1519–1572
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: " History of the Catholic Church in Mexico" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2019) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Pope Alexander VI, who granted the Spanish crown extensive powers. During the conquest, the Spaniards pursued a dual policy of military conquest, bringing indigenous peoples and territory under Spanish control, and spiritual conquest, that is, conversion of indigenous peoples to Christianity. When Spaniards embarked on the exploration and conquest of Mexico, a Catholic priest, Gerónimo de Aguilar, accompanied Hernán Cortés ’s expedition. Spaniards were appalled at the ritual practice of human sacrifice and initially attempted to suppress it, but until the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was accomplished, it was not stamped out.
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Title: History of Seattle since 1940 - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Seattle since 1940
History of Seattle since 1940
History of Seattle, Washington since 1940
Contents
WWII and the Boeing era: 1945–1970
Counterculture
Political emergence of non-white minorities
Boeing bust: 1970–1985
Silicon Forest: 1985–present
N30
Music
Environmental sustainability
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: From 1950 to 1960, the population increased 89,496 or 20% to 557,087. All of those people had to live somewhere, and the Fifties saw a huge housing boom. Population density all over Seattle exploded as people filled the boundaries of settlement in the city and began to move north. Most of the development was in single-family houses, since land was plentiful. Constructing the Alaskan Way Viaduct, 1952
At the same time, the freeways were being built to compensate for all this new growth. The community of Mercer Island, the " Eastside " (east of Lake Washington) communities of Bryn Mawr, Newport, Bellevue, Clyde Hill, Hunts Point, Medina, Juanita, and the northern suburbs of Kenmore, Lake Forest Park, and Lake Hills all came into being during the Boeing boom. Interstate 5 (I-5) cut the city in half on a north–south axis, while I-90 crossed east–west, connecting with Mercer Island via the floating Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge. SR 520 skirted the north end of Montlake just south of the Montlake Cut, and paralleled I-90 with its own floating bridge. I-5 neatly cut off Downtown Seattle from Capitol Hill, First Hill, and even from part of the historic downtown, including the Tony Sorrento Hotel, which was left stranded on the "wrong" side of the freeway. I-90 was perhaps less disruptive (unless, of course, you were living in its path), since it is partly routed through a tunnel and skirts a more-or-less unbuildable edge of Beacon Hill, avoiding slicing the city into north and south halves.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1607145094#7_1750146465
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Title: History of Seattle since 1940 - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Seattle since 1940
History of Seattle since 1940
History of Seattle, Washington since 1940
Contents
WWII and the Boeing era: 1945–1970
Counterculture
Political emergence of non-white minorities
Boeing bust: 1970–1985
Silicon Forest: 1985–present
N30
Music
Environmental sustainability
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: The community of Mercer Island, the " Eastside " (east of Lake Washington) communities of Bryn Mawr, Newport, Bellevue, Clyde Hill, Hunts Point, Medina, Juanita, and the northern suburbs of Kenmore, Lake Forest Park, and Lake Hills all came into being during the Boeing boom. Interstate 5 (I-5) cut the city in half on a north–south axis, while I-90 crossed east–west, connecting with Mercer Island via the floating Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge. SR 520 skirted the north end of Montlake just south of the Montlake Cut, and paralleled I-90 with its own floating bridge. I-5 neatly cut off Downtown Seattle from Capitol Hill, First Hill, and even from part of the historic downtown, including the Tony Sorrento Hotel, which was left stranded on the "wrong" side of the freeway. I-90 was perhaps less disruptive (unless, of course, you were living in its path), since it is partly routed through a tunnel and skirts a more-or-less unbuildable edge of Beacon Hill, avoiding slicing the city into north and south halves. Freeway Park was eventually built over I-5 in 1976, restoring something of a link between Downtown and First Hill, but was not heavily enough used to provide much mitigation. The R.H. Thompson Expressway, planned to connect SR 520 with I-90 and SR 167 via the Central District, and the Bay Freeway, connecting I-5 with the Seattle Center via Mercer Street, were canceled by citizen referendums as part of nationwide freeway revolts . With all this postwar growth came growing pollution of the lakes and rivers that provided much of the beauty that had been Seattle's appeal to its recent immigrants. Also, the sprawl constantly demanded more roads, since the ones already built had terrible traffic. ( Naturally, new roads simply led to new development and were soon as snarled as those they were intended to relieve.)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Seattle_since_1940
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1607145094#8_1750148934
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Title: History of Seattle since 1940 - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Seattle since 1940
History of Seattle since 1940
History of Seattle, Washington since 1940
Contents
WWII and the Boeing era: 1945–1970
Counterculture
Political emergence of non-white minorities
Boeing bust: 1970–1985
Silicon Forest: 1985–present
N30
Music
Environmental sustainability
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: Freeway Park was eventually built over I-5 in 1976, restoring something of a link between Downtown and First Hill, but was not heavily enough used to provide much mitigation. The R.H. Thompson Expressway, planned to connect SR 520 with I-90 and SR 167 via the Central District, and the Bay Freeway, connecting I-5 with the Seattle Center via Mercer Street, were canceled by citizen referendums as part of nationwide freeway revolts . With all this postwar growth came growing pollution of the lakes and rivers that provided much of the beauty that had been Seattle's appeal to its recent immigrants. Also, the sprawl constantly demanded more roads, since the ones already built had terrible traffic. ( Naturally, new roads simply led to new development and were soon as snarled as those they were intended to relieve.) A group of Seattle natives, anxious to preserve the city in which they grew up, came together to institute the Metropolitan Problems Committee, or METRO, intended to manage and plan the metropolitan area. The driving force behind this movement was Jim Ellis, who headed the committee and repeatedly brought the planning issue before the voters and city governments. The logic was that a regional transit system would require a regional political body; the same held for regional sewage and pollution control or regional growth planning. The original, comprehensive METRO regional plan was defeated in a vote by suburbanites who seemed to view the problem not as one of pollution, transit, sprawl, or lack of planning:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Seattle_since_1940
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Title: History of Washington (state) - Wikipedia
Headings: History of Washington (state)
History of Washington (state)
Contents
Prehistory and cultures
Colony
Early European and American exploration
American–British occupation disputes
Early American Settlements
Eastern Washington
Puget Sound
Statehood
Progressive Era
1920s
Great Depression
World War II
Contemporary Washington
Eruption of Mount St Helens
Economy
Politics
See also
References
External links
Content: History of Washington (state) - Wikipedia
History of Washington (state)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from History of Washington (U.S. state))
Jump to navigation Jump to search
History article
Washington's flag since 1967
The history of Washington includes thousands of years of Native American history before Europeans arrived and began to establish territorial claims. The region was part of Oregon Territory from 1848 to 1853, after which it was separated from Oregon and established as Washington Territory following the efforts at the Monticello Convention. In 1889, Washington became the 42nd state of the United States. Contents
1 Prehistory and cultures
2 Colony
2.1 Early European and American exploration
2.2 American–British occupation disputes
3 Early American Settlements
3.1 Eastern Washington
3.2 Puget Sound
4 Statehood
5 Progressive Era
6 1920s
7 Great Depression
8 World War II
9 Contemporary Washington
9.1 Eruption of Mount St Helens
9.2 Economy
9.3 Politics
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Prehistory and cultures
Archaeological evidence shows that the Pacific Northwest was one of the first populated areas in North America. Both animal and human bones dating back to 13,000 years old have been found across Washington and evidence of human habitation in the Olympic Peninsula dates back to approximately 9,000 BCE, 3,000 to 5,000 years after massive flooding of the Columbia River which carved the Columbia Gorge. Anthropologists estimate there were 125 distinct Northwest tribes and 50 languages and dialects in existence before the arrival of Euro-Americans in this region. Throughout the Puget Sound region, coastal tribes made use of the region's abundant natural resources, subsisting primarily on salmon, halibut, shellfish, and whale. Cedar was an important building material and was used by tribes to build both longhouses and large canoes. Clothing was also made from the bark of cedar trees. The Columbia River tribes became the richest of the Washington tribes through their control of Celilo Falls, historically the richest salmon fishing location in the Northwest.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1626713277#1_1761097603
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Title: History of democracy in Mexico - Wikipedia
Headings: History of democracy in Mexico
History of democracy in Mexico
Contents
Colonial government: 1521–1808
Independence era, 1808-1821
First Empire: 1821-1823
Constitution of 1824 and early republic to 1855
Second Constituent Congress
Democracy truncated by coups
Liberals and conservatives, 1857-1876
Liberal in-fighting and French invasion
Increase of executive power
Porfiriato: 1876-1911
First term
Second term and extensions
The Creelman Interview and potential for regime change
Revolutionary era: 1910-1920
Post-revolution government: 1920-1940
Bending rules and the establishment of the Maximato
Political evolution: 1940–1960
Electoral base and consolidation of legislative control
Control of the Judiciary
Emergence of the opposition and pragmatism
Protests and splintering: 1960 - 2000
Roots of the student protests
Electoral reforms under Echeverría
Electoral reforms from López Portillo to Salinas
Democracy and the Zapatista uprising
Political situation, 2000 - Present
Electoral Reforms from Zedillo to present
Zedillo administration and the election of the PAN
PAN retains the presidency
Return of the PRI and transition to López Obrador and MORENA
Modern Challenges
Fragility of democracy and rule of law
Primary election participation
Clientelism
Electoral court
Anti-re-electionist principle and campaign finance
Gender equality in representation
Effects of electoral manipulation on voter turnout
Current Elected Federal Offices
President
Congress
Lower Chamber
Upper Chamber
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: The liberals drafted and ratified the Constitution of 1857, which enshrined rights such as universal male suffrage and eliminated Church and army privileges. The overthrowal of Santa Anna, however, led to widespread dissatisfaction among conservative Mexicans and led to a twenty-two-year conflict and two wars between conservatives and liberals. In 1862, on the invitation of Mexican conservatives, Maximilian Habsburg was crowned Emperor of Mexico after a successful French invasion of the country . The Empire was short-lived; after its collapse in 1867, Mexican liberals regained power until 1910. Regular elections were held, but the electorate remained politically unengaged. This era was known as the Porfiriato – the presidency of Porfirio Díaz, who ascended to power a via military coup in 1876 and held power directly and indirectly until 1910. As resentment of Diaz increased, the Mexican Revolution broke out in 1910 and caused a bloody civil war, which ended with the creation of the Constitution of 1917 . Mexican politics were dominated by the secular Constitutionalists, who had won the ensuing civil war. Regular elections were held, but results were often manipulated.
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Title: History of perfume - Wikipedia
Headings: History of perfume
History of perfume
Contents
Mesopotamia
India
Cyprus
Islamic
Western
France
England
Russia
Americas
See also
References
Further reading
Content: During the Renaissance period, perfumes were used primarily by royalty and the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from the sanitary practices of the day. Partly due to this patronage, the western perfumery industry was created. Perfume enjoyed huge success during the 17th century. Perfumed gloves became popular in France and in 1656, the guild of glove and perfume-makers was established. Perfumers were also known to create poisons; for instance, a French duchess was murdered when a perfume/poison was rubbed into her gloves and was slowly absorbed into her skin. Perfume came into its own when Louis XV came to the throne in the 18th century. His court was called "la cour parfumée" (the perfumed court). Madame de Pompadour ordered generous supplies of perfume, and King Louis demanded a different fragrance for his apartment every day. The court of Louis XIV was even named due to the scents which were applied daily not only to the skin but also to clothing, fans and furniture.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1636336860#14_1767016174
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Title: History of perfume - Wikipedia
Headings: History of perfume
History of perfume
Contents
Mesopotamia
India
Cyprus
Islamic
Western
France
England
Russia
Americas
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Perfume substituted for soap and water. The use of perfume in France grew steadily. By the 18th century, aromatic plants were being grown in the Grasse region of France to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, France remains the centre of the European perfume design and trade . After Napoleon came to power, exorbitant expenditures for perfume continued. Two quarts of violet cologne were delivered to him each week, and he is said to have used sixty bottles of double extract of jasmine every month. Josephine had stronger perfume preferences. She was partial to musk, and she used so much that sixty years after her death the scent still lingered in her boudoir. England
Perfume use peaked in England during the reigns of Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547) and Queen Elizabeth I (reigned 1558–1603). All public places were scented during Queen Elizabeth's rule, since she could not tolerate bad smells.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1636336860#15_1767017516
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Title: History of perfume - Wikipedia
Headings: History of perfume
History of perfume
Contents
Mesopotamia
India
Cyprus
Islamic
Western
France
England
Russia
Americas
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Two quarts of violet cologne were delivered to him each week, and he is said to have used sixty bottles of double extract of jasmine every month. Josephine had stronger perfume preferences. She was partial to musk, and she used so much that sixty years after her death the scent still lingered in her boudoir. England
Perfume use peaked in England during the reigns of Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547) and Queen Elizabeth I (reigned 1558–1603). All public places were scented during Queen Elizabeth's rule, since she could not tolerate bad smells. It was said that the sharpness of her nose was equaled only by the slyness of her tongue. Ladies of the day took great pride in creating delightful fragrances and they displayed their skill in mixing scents in a manor houses ' still room . As with industry and the arts, perfume underwent profound change in the 19th century. Changing tastes and the development of modern chemistry laid the foundations of modern perfumery as alchemy gave way to chemistry. Russia
Perfume manufac
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1637454887#0_1767760342
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Title: History of propaganda - Wikipedia
Headings: History of propaganda
History of propaganda
Contents
Pre-modern precedents
19th century
First World War
Germany
Britain
United States
Russian revolution
White propaganda
Red propaganda
Post-war
Nazi Germany
Nuremberg Laws
Political opponents
France in the 1930s
Second World War
Cold War propaganda
Vietnam war
Pro-South
Pro-North
U.S. home front
Yugoslav wars
Propaganda films
World War I
Interwar period
World War II
Cold War
Post-9/11
Food, health, and beyond
Food
Health
Other
21st century
Forms
Fake news
Workplace
Nations
China
Mexico
North Korea
United States
Russia
Vietnam
Contemporary wars
Afghan War
Iraq War
Iraqi propaganda
US propaganda in Iraq
Propaganda aimed at US citizens
See also
References
Further reading
World wars
Visual propaganda
External links
General information
Content: History of propaganda - Wikipedia
History of propaganda
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Aspect of history
American cartoon, published in 1898: " Remember the Maine! And Don't Forget the Starving Cubans!" Used to encourage support for American intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. Propaganda is information that is not impartial and used primarily to influence an audience and further an agenda, often by presenting facts selectively (perhaps lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or using loaded messages to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information presented. The term propaganda has acquired a strongly negative connotation by association with its most manipulative and jingoistic examples. Contents
1 Pre-modern precedents
2 19th century
3 First World War
3.1 Germany
3.2 Britain
3.3 United States
4 Russian revolution
4.1 White propaganda
4.2 Red propaganda
5 Post-war
6 Nazi Germany
6.1 Nuremberg Laws
6.2 Political opponents
6.3 France in the 1930s
7 Second World War
8 Cold War propaganda
9 Vietnam war
9.1 Pro-South
9.2 Pro-North
9.3 U.S. home front
10 Yugoslav wars
11 Propaganda films
11.1 World War I
11.2 Interwar period
11.3 World War II
11.4 Cold War
11.5 Post-9/11
11.6 Food, health, and beyond
12 21st century
12.1 Forms
12.1.1 Fake news
12.1.2 Workplace
12.2 Nations
12.2.1 China
12.2.2 Mexico
12.2.3 North Korea
12.2.4 United States
12.2.5 Russia
12.2.6 Vietnam
13 Contemporary wars
13.1 Afghan War
13.2 Iraq War
13.2.1 Iraqi propaganda
13.2.2 US propaganda in Iraq
13.2.3 Propaganda aimed at US citizens
14 See also
15 References
16 Further reading
16.1 World wars
16.2 Visual propaganda
17 External links
17.1 General information
Pre-modern precedents
Main article: Propaganda during the Reformation
English Civil War cartoon titled "The Cruel Practices of Prince Rupert " (1643). Primitive forms of propaganda have been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription (c. 515 BC) detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne is viewed by most historians as an early example of propaganda.
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Title: History of rail transport in Germany - Wikipedia
Headings: History of rail transport in Germany
History of rail transport in Germany
Contents
Forerunners
Railways before 1871
Development
The first German railways
1840s
First trunk lines
Central European network
European network
State railway ambitions
The Länderbahn era (1871 to 1920)
Nebenbahn
Important lines
Deutsche Reichsbahn (1920–1945)
Transition period (1945–1949)
Deutsche Bundesbahn (1949–1994)
Deutsche Reichsbahn (DR) (1949–1994)
Deutsche Bahn (1994–present)
See also
References
Notes
Further reading
In German
External links
Content: and, in 1818, he built another locomotive for the 1.8-kilometre-long Friederiken-Schienenweg ( de ), a coal line near Geislautern in the Saarland, which had been converted in 1821 from wooden to iron rails. This engine worked, but failed to meet expectations due to its poor performance. 2010 postage stamp
Railways before 1871
In the first half of the 19th century, opinions about the emerging railways in Germany varied widely. While business-minded people like Friedrich Harkort and Friedrich List saw in the railway the possibility of stimulating the economy and overcoming the patronization of little states, and were already starting railway construction in the 1820s and early 1830s, others feared the fumes and smoke generated by locomotives or saw their own livelihoods threatened by them. Development
No. 302 of the private Mecklenburg Railway, built in 1866
The political disunity of three dozen states and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s but the growing importance of the Zollverein made the construction of a coherent infrastructure a necessity. The initial impetus to build was hampered by complicated negotiations on land ownership. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines did link the major cities; each German state being responsible for the lines within its own borders. During the 1820s, the nobility favoured costly and economically inefficient (but prestigious) canal projects over railways.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Germany
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1638347459#2_1768272729
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Title: History of rail transport in Great Britain - Wikipedia
Headings: History of rail transport in Great Britain
History of rail transport in Great Britain
Contents
Before 1830: The pioneers
1830 – 1922: Early development
1923 – 1947: The Big Four
1948 – 1994: British Rail
1995 onwards: Post-privatisation
See also
References
Sources
General
Pre-1830
1830–1922
1923–1947
1948–1994
Content: From the start of 1948, the "Big Four" were nationalised to form British Railways. Though there were few initial changes to services, usage increased and the network became profitable. Declining passenger numbers and financial losses in the late 1950s and early 1960s prompted the closure of many branch and main lines, and small stations, under the Beeching Axe. High-speed inter-city trains were introduced in the 1970s. The 1980s saw severe cuts in rail subsidies and above- inflation increases in fares, and losses decreased. Railway operations were privatised during 1994–1997. Ownership of the track and infrastructure passed to Railtrack, whilst passenger operations were franchised to individual private sector operators (originally there were 25 franchises) and the freight services were sold outright. Since privatisation, passenger volumes have increased to their highest ever level, but whether this is due to privatisation is disputed. The Hatfield accident set in motion a series of events that resulted in the ultimate collapse of Railtrack and its replacement with Network Rail, a state-owned, not-for-dividend company. Contents
1 Before 1830:
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1638449314#1_1768392880
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Title: History of rail transport in Ireland - Wikipedia
Headings: History of rail transport in Ireland
History of rail transport in Ireland
Contents
Transport before railways
Ireland's first railway
Railway gauges
Main line railways
Belfast and County Down Railway
Cork, Bandon and South Coast Railway
County Donegal Railways Joint Committee
Dublin and South Eastern Railway
Great Northern Railway of Ireland
Great Southern & Western Railway
Midland Great Western Railway
Northern Counties Committee
Other railways
Independent railways
Monorail
The system in the early 20th century
Dieselisation
Rationalisation
1970s and 1980s
1990s rail revival
2000s
2010s
Future projects
See also
References
External links
Content: The current status is less than half that amount, with a large unserviced area around the border area between Northern Ireland and The Republic of Ireland . Railways on the island of Ireland are run by Iarnród Éireann (Irish Rail) within Ireland and Northern Ireland Railways within Northern Ireland. The two companies jointly operate the island's only cross-border service, the Enterprise, between Dublin and Belfast. The Railway Preservation Society of Ireland based in Whitehead, County Antrim runs preserved steam trains on the main line, with the Irish Traction Group preserving diesel locomotives, and operating on the main line. The Downpatrick & County Down Railway is the only self-contained full-size heritage railway in the island of Ireland. Contents
1 Transport before railways
2 Ireland's first railway
3 Railway gauges
4 Main line railways
4.1 Belfast and County Down Railway
4.2 Cork, Bandon and South Coast Railway
4.3 County Donegal Railways Joint Committee
4.4 Dublin and South Eastern Railway
4.5 Great Northern Railway of Ireland
4.6 Great Southern & Western Railway
4.7 Midland Great Western Railway
4.8 Northern Counties Committee
5 Other railways
5.1 Independent railways
5.2 Monorail
6 The system in the early 20th century
6.1 Dieselisation
6.2 Rationalisation
6.3 1970s and 1980s
6.4 1990s rail revival
6.5 2000s
6.6 2010s
7 Future projects
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Transport before railways
Transport on a country-wide scale began in 1710 with the introduction by the General Post Office of mail coaches on the main routes between towns. Private operators added to the routes, and an established "turnpike" road system started in the 1730s. In 1715 the Irish Parliament took steps to encourage inland navigation, but it was not until 1779 that the first 19 km (12 mi) section of the Grand Canal was opened. The addition of the Royal Canal and river navigation (particularly on the River Shannon) meant that freight could be transported more easily. Charles Bianconi established his horse-car services in the south in 1815, the first of many such passenger-carrying operations.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1638449314#2_1768395976
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Title: History of rail transport in Ireland - Wikipedia
Headings: History of rail transport in Ireland
History of rail transport in Ireland
Contents
Transport before railways
Ireland's first railway
Railway gauges
Main line railways
Belfast and County Down Railway
Cork, Bandon and South Coast Railway
County Donegal Railways Joint Committee
Dublin and South Eastern Railway
Great Northern Railway of Ireland
Great Southern & Western Railway
Midland Great Western Railway
Northern Counties Committee
Other railways
Independent railways
Monorail
The system in the early 20th century
Dieselisation
Rationalisation
1970s and 1980s
1990s rail revival
2000s
2010s
Future projects
See also
References
External links
Content: Contents
1 Transport before railways
2 Ireland's first railway
3 Railway gauges
4 Main line railways
4.1 Belfast and County Down Railway
4.2 Cork, Bandon and South Coast Railway
4.3 County Donegal Railways Joint Committee
4.4 Dublin and South Eastern Railway
4.5 Great Northern Railway of Ireland
4.6 Great Southern & Western Railway
4.7 Midland Great Western Railway
4.8 Northern Counties Committee
5 Other railways
5.1 Independent railways
5.2 Monorail
6 The system in the early 20th century
6.1 Dieselisation
6.2 Rationalisation
6.3 1970s and 1980s
6.4 1990s rail revival
6.5 2000s
6.6 2010s
7 Future projects
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Transport before railways
Transport on a country-wide scale began in 1710 with the introduction by the General Post Office of mail coaches on the main routes between towns. Private operators added to the routes, and an established "turnpike" road system started in the 1730s. In 1715 the Irish Parliament took steps to encourage inland navigation, but it was not until 1779 that the first 19 km (12 mi) section of the Grand Canal was opened. The addition of the Royal Canal and river navigation (particularly on the River Shannon) meant that freight could be transported more easily. Charles Bianconi established his horse-car services in the south in 1815, the first of many such passenger-carrying operations. Despite these improvements huge areas of Ireland still relied on a basic road system; turnpikes were still slow and canals were expensive. Ireland's first railway
The Dublin and Kingstown line in 1837. Dublin and Kingstown Railway, by John Harris. Although a railway between Limerick and Waterford had been authorised as early as 1826 (the same year as Britain's first exclusively locomotive-drawn line, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway) it was not until 1834 that the first railway was built, the Dublin and Kingstown Railway (D&KR) between Westland Row in Dublin and Kingstown ( Dún Laoghaire ), a distance of 10 km (6 mi).
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Title: History of same-sex marriage in the United States - Wikipedia
Headings: History of same-sex marriage in the United States
History of same-sex marriage in the United States
Contents
Early years
Activist debate
Hawaii and reaction
Lawrence v. Texas
Massachusetts and reactions
2008
Decision and reversal in California
Court ruling: Connecticut
National political parties
2009
Court decision: Iowa
Legislation: Vermont, New Hampshire, District of Columbia
Enactment and reversal in Maine
Respect for Marriage Act
2010
2011
Legislation: New York
2012
Legislation: Washington, Maryland
National politics
Balloting results
2013
United States v. Windsor
Court rulings: California, New Jersey, New Mexico
State legislation: Rhode Island, Delaware, Minnesota, Hawaii, Illinois
Utah court ruling and subsequent stay
2014
Court decisions: Oregon and Pennsylvania
Louisiana ban upheld
U.S. Supreme Court declines cases
States with cases at issue: Virginia, Indiana, Wisconsin, Oklahoma, Utah
Other states in the affected circuits: Colorado, West Virginia, North Carolina, Wyoming, South Carolina, Kansas
Ninth Circuit decision
States with cases at issue
Other states in the Ninth Circuit: Alaska, Arizona, and Montana
Sixth Circuit decision
In Ohio
In Tennessee
Decisions being appealed: Arkansas, Mississippi, and Missouri
2014–2015
Florida
U.S. Supreme Court accepts cases
Alabama
Guam
Obergefell v. Hodges
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Content: History of same-sex marriage in the United States - Wikipedia
History of same-sex marriage in the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The history of same-sex marriage in the United States dates from the early 1970s, when the first lawsuits seeking legal recognition of same-sex relationships brought the question of civil marriage rights and benefits for same-sex couples to public attention though they proved unsuccessful. The subject became increasingly prominent in U.S. politics following the 1993 Hawaii Supreme Court decision in Baehr v. Miike that suggested the possibility that the state's prohibition might be unconstitutional. That decision was met by actions at both the federal and state level to restrict marriage to male-female couples, notably the enactment at the federal level of the Defense of Marriage Act . The first legal same-sex marriage ceremony in the United States happened on February 12, 2004, when mayor of San Francisco Gavin Newsom ordered city hall to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples. This decision resulted in the celebration of the first gay marriage in the United States, when Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon became the first gay couple to tie the knot and get official recognition of their fifty year relationship (Marriage Equality New York). On May 17, 2004, Massachusetts became the first U.S. state and the sixth jurisdiction in the world to legalize same-sex marriage following the Supreme Judicial Court 's decision in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health six months earlier. Just as with the Hawaii decision, the legalization of same-sex marriage in Massachusetts provoked a reaction from opponents of same-sex marriage that resulted in further legal restrictions being written into state statutes and constitutions. The movement to obtain marriage rights for same-sex couples expanded steadily from that time until in late 2014 lawsuits had been brought in every state that still denied marriage licenses to same-sex couples. By late 2014, same-sex marriage had become legal in states that contained more than 70% of the United States population. In some jurisdictions legalization came through the action of state courts or the enactment of state legislation.
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Title: History of scuba diving - Wikipedia
Headings: History of scuba diving
History of scuba diving
Contents
Early history
First successful scuba equipment
Open circuit
Closed circuit
Post WWII
Dive computers
Industry growth
Scuba training
Professional scuba training and certification
Recreational scuba training and certification
Research into scuba diver safety
History of specific fields of application for scuba diving
Military diving
Scientific diving
Recreational diving
Solo diving
Cave diving
UK history
US history
Diving on shipwrecks and other sunken structures
Origins in salvage and archaeology
Development into a recreational activity by scuba divers
References
Content: Although a working demand regulator system had been invented in 1864 by Auguste Denayrouze and Benoît Rouquayrol, the first open-circuit scuba system developed in 1925 by Yves Le Prieur in France was a manually adjusted free-flow system with a low endurance, which limited the practical usefulness of the system. In 1942, during the German occupation of France, Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Émile Gagnan designed the first successful and safe open-circuit scuba, a twin hose system known as the Aqua-Lung. Their system combined an improved demand regulator with high-pressure air tanks. This was patented in 1945. To sell his regulator in English-speaking countries Cousteau registered the Aqua-Lung trademark, which was first licensed to the U.S. Divers company, and in 1948 to Siebe Gorman of England, Siebe Gorman was allowed to sell in Commonwealth countries, but had difficulty in meeting the demand and the U.S. patent prevented others from making the product. The patent was circumvented by Ted Eldred of Melbourne, Australia, who developed the single-hose open-circuit scuba system, which separates the first stage and demand valve of the pressure regulator by a low-pressure hose, puts the demand valve at the diver's mouth, and releases exhaled gas through the demand valve casing. Eldred sold the first Porpoise Model CA single hose scuba early in 1952. Early scuba sets were usually provided with a plain harness of shoulder straps and waist belt. Many harnesses did not have a backplate, and the cylinders rested directly against the diver's back. Early scuba divers dived without a buoyancy aid.
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Title: History of social work - Wikipedia
Headings: History of social work
History of social work
Contents
Pre-modern antecedents
Modern development
Poverty relief
Private philanthropy
Social action
Further Development
Gender perspective in the history of social work
Medical Social Work
State Welfare
Today
Links
References
Content: The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions. Contents
1 Pre-modern antecedents
2 Modern development
2.1 Poverty relief
2.2 Private philanthropy
2.3 Social action
2.4 Further Development
3 Gender perspective in the history of social work
4 Medical Social Work
5 State Welfare
6 Today
7 Links
8 References
Pre-modern antecedents
Before the rise of modern states, the Christian church provided social services in (for example) the Mediterranean world. When the Roman Emperor Constantine I endorsed Christianity in the 4th century, the newly legitimised church set up or expanded burial societies, poorhouses, homes for the aged, shelter for the homeless, hospitals, and orphanages in the Roman Empire. These were often funded, at least in part, from grants from the Empire. By 580 AD the church had a system for circulating consumables to the poor: associated with each parish was a diaconium or office of the deacon. Monasteries also often served as comprehensive social-service agencies, acting as hospitals, homes for the aged, orphanages, travelers' aid stations. During the Middle Ages, the Christian church had vast influence on European society and Christians regarded charity as a responsibility and a sign of one's piety. This charity came in the form of direct relief (for example, giving money, food, or other material goods to alleviate a particular need), as opposed to trying to change the root causes of social ills. As there was no effective bureaucracy below city government that was capable of large-scale charitable activities, the clergy carried out this role in Europe until the Early Modern Period .
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Title: History of the Alps - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Alps
History of the Alps
Contents
Early history (before 1200)
Later Medieval to Early Modern Era (1200 to 1900)
Central Alps
Western Alps
Eastern Alps
Modern history (1900 to present)
Population
Economy
Milestones of railway transit across the Alps
Political history
Tourism and alpinism
Linguistic history
References
Bibliography
See also
External links
Content: History of the Alps - Wikipedia
History of the Alps
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. ( March 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This is about cultural history; for geological history, see Alpine orogeny, Geology of the Alps. View of the Matterhorn within the Alps
The valleys of the Alps have been inhabited since prehistoric times. The Alpine culture, which developed there, centers on transhumance . Currently the Alps are divided among eight states: France, Monaco, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany and Slovenia. In 1991 the Alpine Convention was established to regulate this transnational area, whose area measures about 190,000 square kilometres (73,000 sq mi). Contents
1 Early history (before 1200)
2 Later Medieval to Early Modern Era (1200 to 1900)
2.1 Central Alps
2.2 Western Alps
2.3 Eastern Alps
3 Modern history (1900 to present)
3.1 Population
3.2 Economy
3.3 Political history
3.4 Tourism and alpinism
4 Linguistic history
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 See also
8 External links
Early history (before 1200)
The Wildkirchli caves in the Appenzell Alps show traces of Neanderthal habitation (about 40,000 BCE).
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Title: History of the Alps - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Alps
History of the Alps
Contents
Early history (before 1200)
Later Medieval to Early Modern Era (1200 to 1900)
Central Alps
Western Alps
Eastern Alps
Modern history (1900 to present)
Population
Economy
Milestones of railway transit across the Alps
Political history
Tourism and alpinism
Linguistic history
References
Bibliography
See also
External links
Content: Later Medieval to Early Modern Era (1200 to 1900)
The French historian Fernand Braudel, in his famous volume on Mediterranean civilisation, describes the Alps as “an exceptional range of mountains from the point of view of resources, collective disciplines, the quality of its human population and the number of good roads.” This remarkable human presence in the Alpine region came into being with the population growth and agrarian expansion of the High Middle Ages. At first a mixed form of agriculture and animal husbandry dominated the economy. Then, from the Late Middle Ages onwards, cattle tended to replace sheep as the dominant animals. In a few regions of the northern slope of the Alps, cattle farming became increasingly oriented toward long-range markets and substituted agriculture completely. At the same time other types of interregional and transalpine exchange were growing in significance. The most important pass was the Brenner, which could accommodate cart traffic beginning in the fifteenth century. In the Western and Central Alps, the passes were practicable only by pack animals up to the period around 1800. The process of state formation in the Alps was driven by the proximity to focal areas of European conflicts such as in the Italian wars of 1494–1559. In that period the socio-political structures of Alpine regions drifted apart.
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Title: History of the Alps - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Alps
History of the Alps
Contents
Early history (before 1200)
Later Medieval to Early Modern Era (1200 to 1900)
Central Alps
Western Alps
Eastern Alps
Modern history (1900 to present)
Population
Economy
Milestones of railway transit across the Alps
Political history
Tourism and alpinism
Linguistic history
References
Bibliography
See also
External links
Content: Later, however, it became a major obstacle to the further intensification of agriculture, especially in comparison to the surrounding lowlands where land productivity increased rapidly. Inside the Alpine region there was a striking difference between the western and central parts, which were dominated by small farming establishments, and the eastern part, which were characterised by medium or big farms. Migration to the urbanised zones of the surrounding areas was already apparent before 1500 and was often temporary. In the Alps themselves, urbanisation was slow. Central Alps
Further information: Old Swiss Confederacy and Highest Alemannic
In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 1516 of the Swiss Confederacy, at least so far as regards the mountain Cantons, and with especial reference to the independent confederations of the Grisons and the Valais, which only became full members of the Confederation in 1803 and 1815 respectively. The attraction of the south was too strong for both the Forest Cantons and the Grisons, so that both tried to secure, and actually did secure, various bits of the Milanese . The Gotthard Pass was known in antiquity as Adula Mons, but it was not one of the important Alpine passes due to the impassability of the Schöllenen Gorge north of the pass. This changed dramatically with the construction of the so-called Devil's Bridge by the year 1230. Almost immediately, in 1231, the formerly unimportant valley of Uri was granted imperial immediacy and became the main route connecting Germany and Italy.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1644994284#13_1772227182
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Title: History of the Alps - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Alps
History of the Alps
Contents
Early history (before 1200)
Later Medieval to Early Modern Era (1200 to 1900)
Central Alps
Western Alps
Eastern Alps
Modern history (1900 to present)
Population
Economy
Milestones of railway transit across the Alps
Political history
Tourism and alpinism
Linguistic history
References
Bibliography
See also
External links
Content: Old Swiss Confederacy and Highest Alemannic
In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 1516 of the Swiss Confederacy, at least so far as regards the mountain Cantons, and with especial reference to the independent confederations of the Grisons and the Valais, which only became full members of the Confederation in 1803 and 1815 respectively. The attraction of the south was too strong for both the Forest Cantons and the Grisons, so that both tried to secure, and actually did secure, various bits of the Milanese . The Gotthard Pass was known in antiquity as Adula Mons, but it was not one of the important Alpine passes due to the impassability of the Schöllenen Gorge north of the pass. This changed dramatically with the construction of the so-called Devil's Bridge by the year 1230. Almost immediately, in 1231, the formerly unimportant valley of Uri was granted imperial immediacy and became the main route connecting Germany and Italy. Also in 1230, a hospice dedicated to Gotthard of Hildesheim was built on the pass to accommodate the pilgrims to Rome which now took this route. The sudden strategical importance for the European powers gained by what is now Central Switzerland was an important factor in the formation of the Old Swiss Confederacy beginni
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Title: History of the Byzantine Empire - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Byzantine Empire
History of the Byzantine Empire
Contents
Tetrarchy
Constantine I and his successors
Leonid dynasty
Justinian I and his successors
Heraclian dynasty and shrinking borders
The period of internal instability
Isaurian dynasty and Iconoclasm
Amorian (Phrygian) dynasty
Macedonian dynasty and resurgence
Internal developments
Wars against the Muslims
Wars against the Bulgarians
Relations with Kiev Rus
The climax
Crisis and fragmentation
Komnenian dynasty and the crusaders
Komnenian dynasty and the crusaders
Alexios I and the First Crusade
John II, Manuel I and the Second Crusade
12th century Renaissance
Decline and disintegration
Dynasty of the Angeloi and Third Crusade
Fourth Crusade
Fall
Empire in exile
Reconquest of Constantinople
Late Civil Wars
Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Constantinople
Aftermath
Annotations
Notes
References
Content: History of the Byzantine Empire - Wikipedia
History of the Byzantine Empire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Part of a series on the
History of the
Byzantine Empire
Preceding
Roman Empire
Dominate
Early period (330–717)
Constantinian–Valentinianic era ( Constantinian dynasty – Valentinianic dynasty)
Theodosian era
Leonid era
Justinian era
Heraclian era
Twenty Years' Anarchy
Middle period (717–1204)
Isaurian era
Nikephorian era
Amorian era
Macedonian era
Doukid era
Komnenian era
Angelid era
Late period (1204–1453)
Fourth Crusade and Latin rule
Latin Empire
Principality of Achaea
others
Byzantine successor states
Nicaea
Epirus / Thessalonica
Trebizond
Theodoro
Palaiologan era
Despotate of the Morea
Decline of the Byzantine Empire
Fall of Constantinople
Timeline
By topic
Art
Government
Economy
Army
Navy
Byzantine Empire portal
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t
e
This history of the Byzantine Empire covers the history of the Eastern Roman Empire from late antiquity until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD. Several events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the transitional period during which the Roman Empire's east and west divided. In 285, the emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) partitioned the Roman Empire's administration into eastern and western halves. Between 324 and 330, Constantine I (r. 306–337) transferred the main capital from Rome to Byzantium, later known as Constantinople ("City of Constantine") and Nova Roma ("New Rome"). Under Theodosius I (r. 379–395), Christianity became the Empire's official state religion and others such as Roman polytheism were proscribed. And finally, under the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), the Empire's military and administration were restructured and adopted Greek for official use instead of Latin. Thus, although it continued the Roman state and maintained Roman state traditions, modern historians distinguish Byzantium from ancient Rome insofar as it was oriented towards Greek rather than Latin culture, and characterised by Orthodox Christianity rather than Roman polytheism. The borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565), the Empire reached its greatest extent after reconquering much of the historically Roman western Mediterranean coast, including north Africa, Italy, and Rome itself, which it held for two more centuries. During the reign of Maurice (r. 582–602), the Empire's eastern frontier was expanded and the north stabilised.
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Title: History of the Labour Party (UK) - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Labour Party (UK)
History of the Labour Party (UK)
Contents
Founding of the party
Background
Labour Representation Committee
Early years and the rise of the Labour Party
World War I
First Labour governments under Ramsay MacDonald
First Labour government
General strike
Second Labour government
Great Depression and the split under MacDonald
Opposition during the time of the National Government
Economics
Foreign policy
Local Labour reforms in the inter-war period
Wales
London county council
Poplar council
Wartime coalition
Post-War victory under Clement Attlee
"Thirteen Wasted Years"
Labour Party under Harold Wilson
Economic policies
Social and educational reforms
"In Place of Strife"
1970s
Return to power in 1974
European referendum
Harold Wilson steps down
Economic and political troubles
Economic record
Gains in education
Outside financial help
No majority in Commons
Scottish National Party withdraws support
"Winter of Discontent" and defeat by Margaret Thatcher
"Wilderness Years"
Michael Foot
Neil Kinnock
John Smith
New Labour
Origins
In government
In opposition
Ed Miliband
Jeremy Corbyn
Keir Starmer
See also
References
Further reading
Historiography
External links
Content: History of the Labour Party (UK) - Wikipedia
History of the Labour Party (UK)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the history of the British Labour Party. For information about the wider history of British socialism, see History of socialism in Great Britain. A graph showing the percentage of the popular vote received by major parties in general elections (1832–2005), with the rapid rise of the Labour Party after its founding during the late 19th century being clear as it became one of the two major forces in politics
The British Labour Party grew out of the trade union movement of the late 19th century and surpassed the Liberal Party as the main opposition to the Conservatives in the early 1920s. In the 1930s and 1940s, it stressed national planning, using nationalization of industry as a tool, in line with Clause IV of the original constitution of the Labour Party which called for the "common ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange, and the best obtainable system of popular administration and control of each industry or service" (this clause was eventually revised in 1994). Labour has had several spells in government, first as minority governments under Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and 1929–1931. MacDonald and half his cabinet split with the mainstream of the party and were denounced as traitors. Labour was a junior partner in the wartime coalition from 1940 to 1945. After the famous 1945 general election landslide under Clement Attlee (1945–1951) it set up the welfare state with the National Health Service, nationalised a fifth of the economy, joined NATO and opposed the Soviet Union in the Cold War. Under Harold Wilson in 1964–1970 it promoted economic modernisation. Labour was in government again in 1974–1979 under Wilson and then James Callaghan.
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Title: History of the Labour Party (UK) - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Labour Party (UK)
History of the Labour Party (UK)
Contents
Founding of the party
Background
Labour Representation Committee
Early years and the rise of the Labour Party
World War I
First Labour governments under Ramsay MacDonald
First Labour government
General strike
Second Labour government
Great Depression and the split under MacDonald
Opposition during the time of the National Government
Economics
Foreign policy
Local Labour reforms in the inter-war period
Wales
London county council
Poplar council
Wartime coalition
Post-War victory under Clement Attlee
"Thirteen Wasted Years"
Labour Party under Harold Wilson
Economic policies
Social and educational reforms
"In Place of Strife"
1970s
Return to power in 1974
European referendum
Harold Wilson steps down
Economic and political troubles
Economic record
Gains in education
Outside financial help
No majority in Commons
Scottish National Party withdraws support
"Winter of Discontent" and defeat by Margaret Thatcher
"Wilderness Years"
Michael Foot
Neil Kinnock
John Smith
New Labour
Origins
In government
In opposition
Ed Miliband
Jeremy Corbyn
Keir Starmer
See also
References
Further reading
Historiography
External links
Content: MacDonald and half his cabinet split with the mainstream of the party and were denounced as traitors. Labour was a junior partner in the wartime coalition from 1940 to 1945. After the famous 1945 general election landslide under Clement Attlee (1945–1951) it set up the welfare state with the National Health Service, nationalised a fifth of the economy, joined NATO and opposed the Soviet Union in the Cold War. Under Harold Wilson in 1964–1970 it promoted economic modernisation. Labour was in government again in 1974–1979 under Wilson and then James Callaghan. Escalating economic crises (the " Winter of Discontent ") and a split with David Owen and others forming the Social Democratic Party, resulted in opposition status during the Thatcher years from 1979 to 1990. Labour returned with a 179-seat majority in the 1997 general election under the leadership of Tony Blair. The party's large majority in the House of Commons was slightly reduced to 167 in the 2001 general election and more substantially reduced to 66 in the 2005 general election. Under Gordon Brown, it was defeated in the 2010 general election, becoming the opposition to a Conservative/Liberal-Democrat coalition. After further losses in the 2015 general election, party leader Ed Miliband resigned with the party in opposition to a Conservative majority government under David Cameron.
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Title: History of the Labour Party (UK) - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Labour Party (UK)
History of the Labour Party (UK)
Contents
Founding of the party
Background
Labour Representation Committee
Early years and the rise of the Labour Party
World War I
First Labour governments under Ramsay MacDonald
First Labour government
General strike
Second Labour government
Great Depression and the split under MacDonald
Opposition during the time of the National Government
Economics
Foreign policy
Local Labour reforms in the inter-war period
Wales
London county council
Poplar council
Wartime coalition
Post-War victory under Clement Attlee
"Thirteen Wasted Years"
Labour Party under Harold Wilson
Economic policies
Social and educational reforms
"In Place of Strife"
1970s
Return to power in 1974
European referendum
Harold Wilson steps down
Economic and political troubles
Economic record
Gains in education
Outside financial help
No majority in Commons
Scottish National Party withdraws support
"Winter of Discontent" and defeat by Margaret Thatcher
"Wilderness Years"
Michael Foot
Neil Kinnock
John Smith
New Labour
Origins
In government
In opposition
Ed Miliband
Jeremy Corbyn
Keir Starmer
See also
References
Further reading
Historiography
External links
Content: Escalating economic crises (the " Winter of Discontent ") and a split with David Owen and others forming the Social Democratic Party, resulted in opposition status during the Thatcher years from 1979 to 1990. Labour returned with a 179-seat majority in the 1997 general election under the leadership of Tony Blair. The party's large majority in the House of Commons was slightly reduced to 167 in the 2001 general election and more substantially reduced to 66 in the 2005 general election. Under Gordon Brown, it was defeated in the 2010 general election, becoming the opposition to a Conservative/Liberal-Democrat coalition. After further losses in the 2015 general election, party leader Ed Miliband resigned with the party in opposition to a Conservative majority government under David Cameron. The Conservatives would lose their majority in 2017 but Labour would remain in opposition against a Second May ministry with a Confidence and supply agreement. The 2019 United Kingdom general election would be Labour's fourth defeat since power resulting in the First Johnson ministry majority followed by the end of the Labour Party leadership of Jeremy Corbyn . Contents
1 Founding of the party
1.1 Background
1.2 Labour Representation Committee
2 Early years and the rise of the Labour Party
2.1 World War I
3 First Labour governments under Ramsay MacDonald
3.1 First Labour government
3.2 General strike
3.3 Second Labour government
3.3.1 Great Depression and the split under MacDonald
4 Opposition during the time of the National Government
4.1 Economics
4.2 Foreign policy
5 Local Labour reforms in the inter-war period
5.1 Wales
5.2 London county council
5.3 Poplar council
6 Wartime coalition
7 Post-War victory under Clement Attlee
8 "Thirteen Wasted Years"
9 Labour Party under Harold Wilson
9.1 Economic policies
9.2 Social and educational reforms
9.3 "In Place of Strife"
10 1970s
10.1 Return to power in 1974
10.1.1 European referendum
10.1.2 Harold Wilson steps down
10.1.3 Economic and political troubles
10.1.3.1 Economic record
10.1.3.2 Gains in education
10.1.3.3 Outside financial help
10.1.3.4 No majority in Commons
10.1.3.5 Scottish National Party withdraws support
10.2 "Winter of Discontent" and defeat by Margaret Thatcher
11 "Wilderness Years"
11.1 Michael Foot
11.2 Neil Kinnock
11.3 John Smith
12 New Labour
12.1 Origins
12.2 In government
13 In opposition
13.1 Ed Miliband
13.2 Jeremy Corbyn
13.3 Keir Starmer
14 See also
15 References
16 Further reading
16.1 Historiography
17 External links
Founding of the party
Background
The Labour Party's origins lie in the late 19th century numeric increase of the urban proletariat and the extension of the franchise to working-class males, when it became apparent that there was a need for a political party to represent the interests and needs of those groups. Some members of the trade union movement became interested in moving into the political field, and after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, the Liberal Party endorsed some trade-union sponsored candidates. In addition, several small socialist groups had formed around this time with the intention of linking the movement to political policies.
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Title: History of the Labour Party (UK) - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Labour Party (UK)
History of the Labour Party (UK)
Contents
Founding of the party
Background
Labour Representation Committee
Early years and the rise of the Labour Party
World War I
First Labour governments under Ramsay MacDonald
First Labour government
General strike
Second Labour government
Great Depression and the split under MacDonald
Opposition during the time of the National Government
Economics
Foreign policy
Local Labour reforms in the inter-war period
Wales
London county council
Poplar council
Wartime coalition
Post-War victory under Clement Attlee
"Thirteen Wasted Years"
Labour Party under Harold Wilson
Economic policies
Social and educational reforms
"In Place of Strife"
1970s
Return to power in 1974
European referendum
Harold Wilson steps down
Economic and political troubles
Economic record
Gains in education
Outside financial help
No majority in Commons
Scottish National Party withdraws support
"Winter of Discontent" and defeat by Margaret Thatcher
"Wilderness Years"
Michael Foot
Neil Kinnock
John Smith
New Labour
Origins
In government
In opposition
Ed Miliband
Jeremy Corbyn
Keir Starmer
See also
References
Further reading
Historiography
External links
Content: The Conservatives would lose their majority in 2017 but Labour would remain in opposition against a Second May ministry with a Confidence and supply agreement. The 2019 United Kingdom general election would be Labour's fourth defeat since power resulting in the First Johnson ministry majority followed by the end of the Labour Party leadership of Jeremy Corbyn . Contents
1 Founding of the party
1.1 Background
1.2 Labour Representation Committee
2 Early years and the rise of the Labour Party
2.1 World War I
3 First Labour governments under Ramsay MacDonald
3.1 First Labour government
3.2 General strike
3.3 Second Labour government
3.3.1 Great Depression and the split under MacDonald
4 Opposition during the time of the National Government
4.1 Economics
4.2 Foreign policy
5 Local Labour reforms in the inter-war period
5.1 Wales
5.2 London county council
5.3 Poplar council
6 Wartime coalition
7 Post-War victory under Clement Attlee
8 "Thirteen Wasted Years"
9 Labour Party under Harold Wilson
9.1 Economic policies
9.2 Social and educational reforms
9.3 "In Place of Strife"
10 1970s
10.1 Return to power in 1974
10.1.1 European referendum
10.1.2 Harold Wilson steps down
10.1.3 Economic and political troubles
10.1.3.1 Economic record
10.1.3.2 Gains in education
10.1.3.3 Outside financial help
10.1.3.4 No majority in Commons
10.1.3.5 Scottish National Party withdraws support
10.2 "Winter of Discontent" and defeat by Margaret Thatcher
11 "Wilderness Years"
11.1 Michael Foot
11.2 Neil Kinnock
11.3 John Smith
12 New Labour
12.1 Origins
12.2 In government
13 In opposition
13.1 Ed Miliband
13.2 Jeremy Corbyn
13.3 Keir Starmer
14 See also
15 References
16 Further reading
16.1 Historiography
17 External links
Founding of the party
Background
The Labour Party's origins lie in the late 19th century numeric increase of the urban proletariat and the extension of the franchise to working-class males, when it became apparent that there was a need for a political party to represent the interests and needs of those groups. Some members of the trade union movement became interested in moving into the political field, and after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, the Liberal Party endorsed some trade-union sponsored candidates. In addition, several small socialist groups had formed around this time with the intention of linking the movement to political policies. Among these were the Independent Labour Party, the intellectual and largely middle-class Fabian Society, the Social Democratic Federation and the Scottish Labour Party . It was during this period that British socialism began to make headway in local government. In 1889 the Progressive Party composed of Fabians and British Liberals took control of London County Council at the first elections held there. This was the first council to have substantial socialist influence, and carried out a programme of municipalisation, while constructing some of the first social housing in England and increasing public spending on services such as the Fire Brigade. In addition, the number of parks and public baths were increased, London's sewerage system was improved, roads were widened and paved, and the Blackwall Tunnel, linking the Isle of Dogs with Greenwich, was opened in 1897.
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Title: History of the Labour Party (UK) - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Labour Party (UK)
History of the Labour Party (UK)
Contents
Founding of the party
Background
Labour Representation Committee
Early years and the rise of the Labour Party
World War I
First Labour governments under Ramsay MacDonald
First Labour government
General strike
Second Labour government
Great Depression and the split under MacDonald
Opposition during the time of the National Government
Economics
Foreign policy
Local Labour reforms in the inter-war period
Wales
London county council
Poplar council
Wartime coalition
Post-War victory under Clement Attlee
"Thirteen Wasted Years"
Labour Party under Harold Wilson
Economic policies
Social and educational reforms
"In Place of Strife"
1970s
Return to power in 1974
European referendum
Harold Wilson steps down
Economic and political troubles
Economic record
Gains in education
Outside financial help
No majority in Commons
Scottish National Party withdraws support
"Winter of Discontent" and defeat by Margaret Thatcher
"Wilderness Years"
Michael Foot
Neil Kinnock
John Smith
New Labour
Origins
In government
In opposition
Ed Miliband
Jeremy Corbyn
Keir Starmer
See also
References
Further reading
Historiography
External links
Content: This created an association called the Labour Representation Committee (LRC), meant to coordinate attempts to support MPs sponsored by trades unions and represent the working-class population. It had no single leader, and in the absence of one, the Independent Labour Party nominee Ramsay MacDonald was elected as Secretary. He had the difficult task of keeping the various strands of opinions in the LRC united. The October 1900 "Khaki election" came too soon for the new party to campaign effectively; total expenses for the election only came to £33. Only 15 candidatures were sponsored, but two were successful; Keir Hardie in Merthyr Tydfil and Richard Bell in Derby. Support for the LRC was boosted by the 1901 Taff Vale Case, a dispute between strikers and a railway company that ended with the union being ordered to pay £23,000 damages for a strike. The judgment effectively made strikes illegal since employers could recoup the cost of lost business from the unions. The apparent acquiescence of the Conservative Government of Arthur Balfour to industrial and business interests (traditionally the allies of the Liberal Party in opposition to the Conservative's landed interests) intensified support for th
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Title: Netherlands in World War II - Wikipedia
Headings: Netherlands in World War II
Netherlands in World War II
Contents
Interbellum
Neutrality
German invasion
Bombing of Rotterdam
Dutch surrender
German occupation
Life in the occupied Netherlands
Luftwaffe
Forced labour and resistance
Atlantic Wall
Holocaust
Collaboration
Dutch resistance
Dutch government in exile
Dutch East Indies and the war in the Far East
The final year
Hunger Winter
Liberation
Casualties
After the war
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Uniquely among all German-occupied areas, communists in and around the city of Amsterdam organized the February strike – a general strike (February 1941) to protest against the persecution of Jewish citizens. World War II occurred in four distinct phases in the European Netherlands: September 1939 to May 1940: After the war broke out, the Netherlands declared neutrality. The country was subsequently invaded and occupied. May 1940 to June 1941: An economic boom caused by orders from Germany, combined with the "velvet glove" approach from Arthur Seyss-Inquart, resulted in a comparatively mild occupation. June 1941 to June 1944: As the war intensified, Germany demanded higher contributions from occupied territories, resulting in a decline of living-standards. Repression against the Jewish population intensified and thousands were deported to extermination camps.
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Title: Netherlands in World War II - Wikipedia
Headings: Netherlands in World War II
Netherlands in World War II
Contents
Interbellum
Neutrality
German invasion
Bombing of Rotterdam
Dutch surrender
German occupation
Life in the occupied Netherlands
Luftwaffe
Forced labour and resistance
Atlantic Wall
Holocaust
Collaboration
Dutch resistance
Dutch government in exile
Dutch East Indies and the war in the Far East
The final year
Hunger Winter
Liberation
Casualties
After the war
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: From 1933, the Netherlands were hit by the Great Depression, which had begun in 1929. The incumbent government of Hendrikus Colijn pursued a programme of extensive cuts to maintain the value of the Guilder, resulting in workers' riots in Amsterdam and a naval mutiny between 1933 and 1934. Eventually, in 1936, the government was forced to abandon the gold standard and devalue the currency. Numerous fascist movements emerged in the Netherlands during the Great Depression era, inspired by Italian Fascism or German Nazism. But, they never attracted enough members to be an effective mass-movement. The National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands (Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging, NSB) supported by the National Socialist German Workers' Party which took power in Germany in 1933, attempted to expand in 1935. Nazi-style racial ideology had limited appeal in the Netherlands, as did its calls to violence. At the time of the outbreak of World War II, the NSB was already declining, both in number of members and numbers of voters. During the interwar period the government undertook a significant increase in civil infrastructure projects and land reclamation, including the Zuiderzee Works. This resulted in the final draining of seawater from the Wieringermeerpolder, and the completion of the Afsluitdijk.
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Title: History of the Patriot Act - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Patriot Act
History of the Patriot Act
Contents
Background
September 11, 2001 terrorist attack
First bills introduced
Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001 and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act
Birth of the USA PATRIOT Act
Opposition grows
Security and Freedom Ensured Act
Judicial and legislative challenges
Lead up to reauthorization
Reauthorization legislative history
Judges strike key provisions
References
Further reading
External links
Government sources
Supportive views
Critical views
Content: History of the Patriot Act - Wikipedia
History of the Patriot Act
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
USA PATRIOT Act
Other short titles
Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001
Long title
An Act to deter and punish terrorist acts in the United States and around the world, to enhance law enforcement investigatory tools, and for other purposes. Nicknames
Patriot Act
Enacted by
the 107th United States Congress
Effective
October 26, 2001
Citations
Public law
107-56
Statutes at Large
115 Stat. 272 (2001)
Codification
Acts amended
Electronic Communications Privacy Act – Computer Fraud and Abuse Act – Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act – Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act – Money Laundering Control Act – Bank Secrecy Act – Right to Financial Privacy Act – Fair Credit Reporting Act – Immigration and Nationality Act – Victims of Crime Act of 1984 – Telemarketing and Consumer Fraud and Abuse Prevention Act
Titles amended
8, 12, 15, 18, 20, 31, 42, 47, 49, 50
U.S.C. sections created
18 USC §2712, 31 USC §5318A, 15 USC §1681v, 8 USC §1226A, 18 USC §1993, 18 USC §2339, 18 USC §175b, 50 USC §403-5b, 51 USC §5103a
U.S.C. sections amended
8 USC §1105, 8 USC §1182g, 8 USC §1189, 8 USC §1202, 12 USC §248, 12 USC §1828, 12 USC §3414, 15 USC §1681a, 15 USC §6102, 15 USC §6106, 18 USC §7, 18 USC §81, 18 USC §175, 18 USC §470, 18 USC §471, 18 USC §472, 18 USC §473, 18 USC §474, 18 USC §476, 18 USC §477, 18 USC §478, 18 USC §479, 18 USC §480, 18 USC §481, 18 USC §484, 18 USC §493, 18 USC §917, 18 USC §930, 18 USC §981, 18 USC §1029, 18 USC §1030, 18 USC §1362, 18 USC §1363, 18 USC §1366, 18 USC §1956, 18 USC §1960, 18 USC §1961, 18 USC §1992, 18 USC §2155, 18 USC §2325, 18 USC §2331, 18 USC §2332e, 18 USC §2339A, 18 USC §2339B, 18 USC §2340A, 18 USC §2510, 18 USC §2511, 18 USC §2516, 18 USC §2517, 18 USC §2520, 18 USC §2702, 18 USC §2703, 18 USC §2707, 18 USC §2709, 18 USC §2711, 18 USC §3056, 18 USC §3077, 18 USC §3103, 18 USC §3121, 18 USC §3123, 18 USC §3124, 18 USC §3127, 18 USC §3286, 18 USC §3583, 20 USC §1232g, 20 USC §9007, 31 USC §310 (redesignated), 31 USC §5311, 31 USC §5312, 31 USC §5317, 31 USC §5318, 31 USC §5319, 31 USC §5321, 31 USC §5322, 31 USC §5324, 31 USC §5330, 31 USC §5331, 31 USC §5332, 31 USC §5341, 42 USC §2284, 42 USC §2284, 42 USC §3796, 42 USC §3796h, 42 USC §10601, 42 USC §10602, 42 USC §10603, 42 USC §10603b, 42 USC §14601, 42 USC §14135A, 47 USC §551, 49 USC §31305, 49 USC §46504, 49 USC §46505, 49 USC §60123, 50 USC §403-3c, 50 USC §401a, 50 USC §1702, 50 USC §1801, 50 USC §1803, 50 USC §1804, 50 USC §1805, 50 USC §1806, 50 USC §1823, 50 USC §1824, 50 USC §1842, 50 USC §1861, 50 USC §1862, 50 USC §1863
Legislative history
Introduced in the House of Representatives as H.R. 3162 by Frank J. Sensenbrenner, Jr. ( R – WI) on October 23, 2001
Committee consideration by United States House Committee on the Judiciary; Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence; Committee on Financial Services; Committee on International Relations; Committee on Energy and Commerce (Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet); Committee on Education and the Workforce; Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure; Committee on Armed Services
Passed the House on October 24, 2001 ( Yeas:
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1662414130#1_1782378555
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Title: History of the Patriot Act - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Patriot Act
History of the Patriot Act
Contents
Background
September 11, 2001 terrorist attack
First bills introduced
Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001 and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act
Birth of the USA PATRIOT Act
Opposition grows
Security and Freedom Ensured Act
Judicial and legislative challenges
Lead up to reauthorization
Reauthorization legislative history
Judges strike key provisions
References
Further reading
External links
Government sources
Supportive views
Critical views
Content: Committee on International Relations; Committee on Energy and Commerce (Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet); Committee on Education and the Workforce; Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure; Committee on Armed Services
Passed the House on October 24, 2001 ( Yeas: 357; Nays: 66)
Passed the Senate on October 25, 2001 ( Yeas: 98; Nays:
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1662414130#2_1782379673
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Title: History of the Patriot Act - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Patriot Act
History of the Patriot Act
Contents
Background
September 11, 2001 terrorist attack
First bills introduced
Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001 and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act
Birth of the USA PATRIOT Act
Opposition grows
Security and Freedom Ensured Act
Judicial and legislative challenges
Lead up to reauthorization
Reauthorization legislative history
Judges strike key provisions
References
Further reading
External links
Government sources
Supportive views
Critical views
Content: 357; Nays: 66)
Passed the Senate on October 25, 2001 ( Yeas: 98; Nays: 1)
Signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 26, 2001
The history of the USA PATRIOT Act involved many parties who opposed and supported the legislation, which was proposed, enacted and signed into law 45 days after the September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001. The USA PATRIOT Act, though approved by large majorities in the U.S. Senate and House of Representative, was controversial, and parts of the law were invalidated or modified by successful legal challenges over constitutional infringements to civil liberties. The Act had several sunset provisions, most reauthorized by the USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005 and the USA PATRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act. Both reauthorizations incorporated amendments to the original USA PATRIOT Act, and other federal laws. The catalyst for the USA PATRIOT Act occurred on September 11, 2001 when terrorists attacked and destroyed the World Trade Center in New York City and the western side of the Pentagon near Washington D.C. Within a few weeks of the September 11 attacks, a number of bills attempting to make changes to anti-terrorism laws were introduced into Congress.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1662414130#3_1782381675
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Title: History of the Patriot Act - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Patriot Act
History of the Patriot Act
Contents
Background
September 11, 2001 terrorist attack
First bills introduced
Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001 and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act
Birth of the USA PATRIOT Act
Opposition grows
Security and Freedom Ensured Act
Judicial and legislative challenges
Lead up to reauthorization
Reauthorization legislative history
Judges strike key provisions
References
Further reading
External links
Government sources
Supportive views
Critical views
Content: 1)
Signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 26, 2001
The history of the USA PATRIOT Act involved many parties who opposed and supported the legislation, which was proposed, enacted and signed into law 45 days after the September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001. The USA PATRIOT Act, though approved by large majorities in the U.S. Senate and House of Representative, was controversial, and parts of the law were invalidated or modified by successful legal challenges over constitutional infringements to civil liberties. The Act had several sunset provisions, most reauthorized by the USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act of 2005 and the USA PATRIOT Act Additional Reauthorizing Amendments Act. Both reauthorizations incorporated amendments to the original USA PATRIOT Act, and other federal laws. The catalyst for the USA PATRIOT Act occurred on September 11, 2001 when terrorists attacked and destroyed the World Trade Center in New York City and the western side of the Pentagon near Washington D.C. Within a few weeks of the September 11 attacks, a number of bills attempting to make changes to anti-terrorism laws were introduced into Congress. After the USA PATRIOT Act was passed it remained controversial, and began to be questioned by some members of Congress. A number of sections were struck by the courts. Some provisions were challenged by the ACLU, who filed a lawsuit on April 9, 2004. In April 2005, a Senate Judicial Hearing on the Patriot Act was held. The Act was as controversial as ever, and more than a few groups were campaigning against it.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1662414130#4_1782384020
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Title: History of the Patriot Act - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Patriot Act
History of the Patriot Act
Contents
Background
September 11, 2001 terrorist attack
First bills introduced
Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001 and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act
Birth of the USA PATRIOT Act
Opposition grows
Security and Freedom Ensured Act
Judicial and legislative challenges
Lead up to reauthorization
Reauthorization legislative history
Judges strike key provisions
References
Further reading
External links
Government sources
Supportive views
Critical views
Content: After the USA PATRIOT Act was passed it remained controversial, and began to be questioned by some members of Congress. A number of sections were struck by the courts. Some provisions were challenged by the ACLU, who filed a lawsuit on April 9, 2004. In April 2005, a Senate Judicial Hearing on the Patriot Act was held. The Act was as controversial as ever, and more than a few groups were campaigning against it. Aside from the EFF, the ACLU, the CDT and the EPIC, the Act had raised the ire of the American Library Association (ALA) and the American Booksellers Foundation for Freedom of Expression, who were all extremely concerned about the provisions of the Patriot Act. In June, the Select Committee on Intelligence proposed legislation to the House on July 21 as the USA PATRIOT and Terrorism Prevention Reauthorization Act of 2005. It repealed the sunset date for surveillance provisions of the Patriot Act — in other words, it would have made those sections permanent. A number of amendments were also proposed and passed. The House responded on September 11 that they unanimously disagreed with the Senate amendment, and agreed to a conference.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1662414130#5_1782385937
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Title: History of the Patriot Act - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the Patriot Act
History of the Patriot Act
Contents
Background
September 11, 2001 terrorist attack
First bills introduced
Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001 and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act
Birth of the USA PATRIOT Act
Opposition grows
Security and Freedom Ensured Act
Judicial and legislative challenges
Lead up to reauthorization
Reauthorization legislative history
Judges strike key provisions
References
Further reading
External links
Government sources
Supportive views
Critical views
Content: Aside from the EFF, the ACLU, the CDT and the EPIC, the Act had raised the ire of the American Library Association (ALA) and the American Booksellers Foundation for Freedom of Expression, who were all extremely concerned about the provisions of the Patriot Act. In June, the Select Committee on Intelligence proposed legislation to the House on July 21 as the USA PATRIOT and Terrorism Prevention Reauthorization Act of 2005. It repealed the sunset date for surveillance provisions of the Patriot Act — in other words, it would have made those sections permanent. A number of amendments were also proposed and passed. The House responded on September 11 that they unanimously disagreed with the Senate amendment, and agreed to a conference. One provision struck down was the so-called "sneak and peek" provisions of the Patriot Act. These were struck down after the FBI wrongfully used the provision to arrest Portland attorney Brandon Mayfield on suspicions that he had been involved in the 2004 Madrid train bombings . Contents
1 Background
2 September 11, 2001 terrorist attack
3 First bills introduced
4 Anti-Terrorism Act of 2001 and Financial Anti-Terrorism Act
5 Birth of the USA PATRIOT Act
6 Opposition grows
7 Security and Freedom Ensured Act
8 Judicial and legislative challenges
9 Lead up to reauthorization
10 Reauthorization legislative history
11 Judges strike key provisions
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Background
The Patriot Act made a number of changes to U.S. law. Key acts changed were the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA), the Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986 (ECPA), the Money Laundering Control Act of 1986 and Bank Secrecy Act (BSA), as well as the Immigration and Nationality Act . Title II of the Patriot Act made a number of significant changes to the laws relating to foreign intelligence surveillance, of which the main two Acts that were affected were FISA and the ECPA.
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Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
History of the United States public debt
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from History of the U.S. public debt)
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. ( July 2020)
Aspect of history
Federal debt held by the public as a percentage of gross domestic product, from 1790 to 2013, projected to 2038. The history of the United States public debt started with federal government debt incurred during the American Revolutionary War by the first U.S treasurer, Michael Hillegas, after its formation in 1789. The United States has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since then, except for about a year during 1835–1836. To allow comparisons over the years, public debt is often expressed as a ratio to gross domestic product (GDP). Historically, the United States public debt as a share of GDP has increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined. The United States public debt as a percentage of GDP reached its highest level during Harry Truman 's first presidential term, during and after World War II. Public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly in the post-World War II period, and reached a low in 1973 under President Richard Nixon. Debt as a share of GDP has consistently increased since then, except during the terms of presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1668073087#1_1785297636
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Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: To allow comparisons over the years, public debt is often expressed as a ratio to gross domestic product (GDP). Historically, the United States public debt as a share of GDP has increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined. The United States public debt as a percentage of GDP reached its highest level during Harry Truman 's first presidential term, during and after World War II. Public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly in the post-World War II period, and reached a low in 1973 under President Richard Nixon. Debt as a share of GDP has consistently increased since then, except during the terms of presidents Jimmy Carter and Bill Clinton. Public debt rose during the 1980s, as President Reagan cut tax rates and increased military spending. It fell during the 1990s, due to decreased military spending, increased taxes and the 1990s boom. Public debt rose sharply in the wake of the 2007–08 financial crisis and the resulting significant tax revenue declines and spending increases. Contents
1 Early history
1.1 1790s
1.2 The assumption issue
1.3 1790s to 1834
1.4 Payment of US national debt
1.5 1836 to 1910
2 World War I and Great Depression
3 After World War II
3.1 2011 credit rating downgrade
4 Changes in debt by political affiliation
5 Causes of recent changes in debt
5.1 2001 vs. 2009
5.2 2001 vs. 2011
5.3 2008 vs. 2009
6 Historical debt levels
6.1 Gross federal debt
6.2 Publicly held debt
7 Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Early history
Alexander Hamilton 's First Report on the Public Credit, January 9, 1790
1790s
Except for about a year during 1835–1836, the United States has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since its Constitution went into effect on March 4, 1789. During the American Revolution, the Continental Congress, under the Articles of Confederation, amassed huge war debts, but lacked the power to repay these obligations through taxation or duties on imports.
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Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: The Panic of 1837 then followed. 1836 to 1910
In 1836 debt began again (the debt on January 1, 1836 was $37,000). Another sharp increase in the debt occurred as a result of the Civil War. The debt was just $65 million in 1860, but passed $1 billion in 1863 and reached $2.7 billion by the end of the war. During the following 47 years, there were 36 surpluses and 11 deficits. During this period 55% of the national debt was paid off. World War I and Great Depression
Debt decreased again during World War I (1914–1918), reaching $25.5 billion at its conclusion. Approximately $17 billion in debt was raised through the selling of Liberty Bonds to the general public to finance the U.S.'s military effort. The war was followed by 11 consecutive surpluses that saw the debt reduced by 36% by the end of the 1920s. Warren G. Harding was elected president in 1920 and believed the federal government should be fiscally managed in a way similar to private sector businesses.
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Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: During this period 55% of the national debt was paid off. World War I and Great Depression
Debt decreased again during World War I (1914–1918), reaching $25.5 billion at its conclusion. Approximately $17 billion in debt was raised through the selling of Liberty Bonds to the general public to finance the U.S.'s military effort. The war was followed by 11 consecutive surpluses that saw the debt reduced by 36% by the end of the 1920s. Warren G. Harding was elected president in 1920 and believed the federal government should be fiscally managed in a way similar to private sector businesses. He had campaigned in 1920 on the slogan, "Less government in business and more business in government." Under Harding, federal spending declined from $6.3 billion in 1920 to $5 billion in 1921 and $3.3 billion in 1922. Over the course of the 1920s, under the leadership of Calvin Coolidge, the national debt was reduced by one third. The decrease was even greater when the growth in GDP and inflation is taken into account. Debt held by the public was $15.05 billion or 16.5% of GDP in 1930.
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Title: History of the United States public debt - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States public debt
History of the United States public debt
Contents
Early history
1790s
The assumption issue
1790s to 1834
Payment of US national debt
1836 to 1910
World War I and Great Depression
After World War II
2011 credit rating downgrade
Changes in debt by political affiliation
Causes of recent changes in debt
2001 vs. 2009
2001 vs. 2011
2008 vs. 2009
Historical debt levels
Gross federal debt
Publicly held debt
Federal spending, federal debt and GDP
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: When Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in 1933, the public debt was almost $20 billion, 20% of GDP. Decreased tax revenues and spending on social programs during the Great Depression increased the debt and by 1936, the public debt had increased to $33.7 billion, approximately 40% of GDP. During its first term, the Roosevelt administration ran large annual deficits of between 2 and 5% of GDP. By 1939, the debt held by the public had increased to $39.65 billion or 43% of GDP. The buildup and involvement in World War II during the presidencies of F.D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman led to the largest increase in public debt. Public debt rose over 100% of GDP to pay for the mobilization before and during the war. Public debt was $251.43 billion or 112% of GDP at the conclusion of the war in 1945 and was $260 billion in 1950. After World War II
U.S. federal debt held by the public as a percentage of GDP, from 1940 to 2012. The public debt as a percentage of GDP fell rapidly after the end of World War II under the presidency of Harry S. Truman, as the U.S. and the rest of the world experienced a post-war economic expansion. Unlike previous wars, the Korean War (1950–53) was largely financed by taxation and did not lead to an increase in the public debt.
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Title: History of the United States (1789–1849) - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States (1789–1849)
History of the United States (1789–1849)
Contents
Federalist Era
Washington Administration: 1789–1797
Emergence of political parties
Adams Administration: 1797–1801
Thomas Jefferson
Jeffersonian principles of foreign policy
Louisiana Purchase
War of 1812
Era of Good Feelings and the rise of Nationalism
Sectionalism
Era of Good Feelings
Annexation of Florida and border treaties
Emergence of Second Party System
Jacksonian democracy
Suffrage of all white men
Indian Removal
Nullification Crisis
Banking
Age of Reform
Second Great Awakening
Utopians
Public schools movement
Asylum movement
Women
Anti-slavery movements
Women as abolitionists
Prohibition
Economic growth
Social mobility
Westward expansion
Texas, Oregon, California and Manifest Destiny
Mexican–American War: 1846–1848
See also
References
Further reading
Surveys
Political and diplomatic history
Social and economic history
Interpretations of the spirit of the age
Historiography
External links
Content: Economic modernization proceeded rapidly, thanks to highly profitable cotton crops in the South, new textile and machine-making industries in the Northeast, and a fast developing transportation infrastructure. During 1791 and 1838, 13 new states were formed. Breaking loose from European models, the Americans developed their own high culture, notably in literature and in higher education. The Second Great Awakening brought revivals across the country, forming new denominations and greatly increasing church membership, especially among Methodists and Baptists. By the 1840s increasing numbers of immigrants were arriving from Europe, especially British, Irish, and Germans. Many settled in the cities, which were starting to emerge as a major factor in the economy and society. The Whigs had warned that annexation of Texas would lead to a crisis over slavery, and they were proven right by the turmoil of the 1850s that led to the Civil War. Contents
1 Federalist Era
1.1 Washington Administration: 1789–1797
1.2 Emergence of political parties
1.3 Adams Administration: 1797–1801
2 Thomas Jefferson
2.1 Jeffersonian principles of foreign policy
2.2 Louisiana Purchase
2.3 War of 1812
3 Era of Good Feelings and the rise of Nationalism
3.1 Sectionalism
3.2 Era of Good Feelings
3.3 Annexation of Florida and border treaties
4 Emergence of Second Party System
4.1 Jacksonian democracy
4.2 Suffrage of all white men
4.3 Indian Removal
4.4 Nullification Crisis
4.5 Banking
5 Age of Reform
5.1 Second Great Awakening
5.1.1 Utopians
5.2 Public schools movement
5.3 Asylum movement
5.4 Women
5.5 Anti-slavery movements
5.6 Women as abolitionists
5.7 Prohibition
6 Economic growth
6.1 Social mobility
7 Westward expansion
7.1 Texas, Oregon, California and Manifest Destiny
7.2 Mexican–American War:
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Title: History of the United States (1789–1849) - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the United States (1789–1849)
History of the United States (1789–1849)
Contents
Federalist Era
Washington Administration: 1789–1797
Emergence of political parties
Adams Administration: 1797–1801
Thomas Jefferson
Jeffersonian principles of foreign policy
Louisiana Purchase
War of 1812
Era of Good Feelings and the rise of Nationalism
Sectionalism
Era of Good Feelings
Annexation of Florida and border treaties
Emergence of Second Party System
Jacksonian democracy
Suffrage of all white men
Indian Removal
Nullification Crisis
Banking
Age of Reform
Second Great Awakening
Utopians
Public schools movement
Asylum movement
Women
Anti-slavery movements
Women as abolitionists
Prohibition
Economic growth
Social mobility
Westward expansion
Texas, Oregon, California and Manifest Destiny
Mexican–American War: 1846–1848
See also
References
Further reading
Surveys
Political and diplomatic history
Social and economic history
Interpretations of the spirit of the age
Historiography
External links
Content: Many settled in the cities, which were starting to emerge as a major factor in the economy and society. The Whigs had warned that annexation of Texas would lead to a crisis over slavery, and they were proven right by the turmoil of the 1850s that led to the Civil War. Contents
1 Federalist Era
1.1 Washington Administration: 1789–1797
1.2 Emergence of political parties
1.3 Adams Administration: 1797–1801
2 Thomas Jefferson
2.1 Jeffersonian principles of foreign policy
2.2 Louisiana Purchase
2.3 War of 1812
3 Era of Good Feelings and the rise of Nationalism
3.1 Sectionalism
3.2 Era of Good Feelings
3.3 Annexation of Florida and border treaties
4 Emergence of Second Party System
4.1 Jacksonian democracy
4.2 Suffrage of all white men
4.3 Indian Removal
4.4 Nullification Crisis
4.5 Banking
5 Age of Reform
5.1 Second Great Awakening
5.1.1 Utopians
5.2 Public schools movement
5.3 Asylum movement
5.4 Women
5.5 Anti-slavery movements
5.6 Women as abolitionists
5.7 Prohibition
6 Economic growth
6.1 Social mobility
7 Westward expansion
7.1 Texas, Oregon, California and Manifest Destiny
7.2 Mexican–American War: 1846–1848
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
10.1 Surveys
10.2 Political and diplomatic history
10.3 Social and economic history
10.4 Interpretations of the spirit of the age
10.5 Historiography
11 External links
Federalist Era
Main article: Federalist Era
Washington Administration: 1789–1797
George Washington, first U.S. President. ( Lansdowne portrait by Gilbert Stuart, 1796)
Main article: Presidency of George Washington
George Washington, a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, commander of the Continental Army, and president of the Constitutional Convention, was unanimously chosen as the first President of the United States under the new U.S. Constitution.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1670232134#1_1786250811
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Title: History of the University of Arkansas - Wikipedia
Headings: History of the University of Arkansas
History of the University of Arkansas
Contents
Establishment of the University
Construction
The early years
Presidency of John C. Futrall
The Second World War and after
Modern era
Notes
See also
Content: The History of the University of Arkansas began with its establishment in Fayetteville, Arkansas, in 1871 under the Morrill Act, as the Arkansas Industrial College. Over the period of its nearly 140-year history, the school has grown from two small buildings on a hilltop to a university with diverse colleges and prominent graduate programs. Its presidents have included Civil War general Daniel Harvey Hill, John C. Futrall, and J. William Fulbright . Contents
1 Establishment of the University
2 Construction
3 The early years
4 Presidency of John C. Futrall
5 The Second World War and after
6 Modern era
7 Notes
8 See also
Establishment of the University
Prior to the establishment of the University of Arkansas, higher education existed sporadically throughout the state of Arkansas in the form of small academies and institutions, such as Cane Hill College not far from Fayetteville, and St. John's College in Little Rock. In addition, Fayetteville was also home to Arkansas College, which enjoyed a high reputation statewide and regionally until the destruction of the school's buildings in 1862 by fire. However, by the outbreak of the Civil War, there were no state supported institutions, despite Antebellum attempts by various Arkansas governors to use the proceeds from federal lands bequeathed to Arkansas upon achieving statehood to establish an endowment for their creation. Instead, these funds were siphoned off by the legislature for support of other state programs. Incidentally, the same year that saw the burning down of Arkansas College also saw the introduction of legislation in the United States Congress that eventually resulted in the establishment of the University of Arkansas. In 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed into law the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, which offered to states federal land to sell with the proceedings going towards the establishment of state educational institutions. It was not until Reconstruction that the Arkansas legislature was able to take advantage of the act.
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Title: History of trade of the People's Republic of China - Wikipedia
Headings: History of trade of the People's Republic of China
History of trade of the People's Republic of China
Contents
Internal trade and distribution
Agriculture
Industry
Lateral economic cooperation
Retail sales
Foreign trade
History of Chinese foreign trade
Trade policy in the 1980s
Organization of foreign trade
Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade
Foreign trade corporations and enterprises
Financial transactions and investment
Other organizations involved in trade
Composition of foreign trade
Trading partners
Tourism
See also
References
Content: (January 2016)
( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Aspect of history
Trade is a key factor of the economy of China. In the three decades following the Communist takeover in 1949, China's trade institutions developed into a partially modern but somewhat inefficient system. The drive to modernize the economy that began in 1978 required a sharp acceleration in commodity flows and greatly improved efficiency in economic transactions. In the ensuing years economic reforms were adopted by the government to develop a socialist market economy. This type of economy combined central planning with market mechanisms. The changes resulted in the decentralization and expansion of domestic and foreign trade institutions, as well as a greatly enlarged role for free market, s in the distribution of goods, and a prominent role for foreign trade and investment in economic development. In 2013 China surpassed the United States as the largest trading nation in the world and plays a vital role in international trade, and has increasingly engaged in trade organizations and treaties in recent years. China became a member of the World Trade Organization in 2001. China also has free trade agreements with several nations, including China–Australia Free Trade Agreement, China–South Korea Free Trade Agreement, ASEAN–China Free Trade Area, Switzerland and Pakistan. Contents
1 Internal trade and distribution
1.1 Agriculture
1.2 Industry
1.3 Lateral economic cooperation
1.4 Retail sales
2 Foreign trade
2.1 History of Chinese foreign trade
2.2 Trade policy in the 1980s
2.3 Organization of foreign trade
2.3.1 Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations and Trade
2.3.2 Foreign trade corporations and enterprises
2.3.3 Financial transactions and investment
2.3.4 Other organizations involved in trade
2.4 Composition of foreign trade
2.5 Trading partners
3 Tourism
4 See also
5 References
Internal trade and distribution
Agriculture
Approximately 63 percent of the population was located in rural areas, where the majority of people worked in agriculture and rural industries.
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Title: Hobby Lobby - Wikipedia
Headings: Hobby Lobby
Hobby Lobby
Contents
History
Controversies
Opposition to Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
Items relating to Jewish holidays
Smuggling and collections management controversies
Owner's religious beliefs
Reaction to COVID-19 pandemic
Hand-Dyed Yarn Theft
References
External links
Content: The company released the following statement: " [ T]he Green family's religious beliefs forbid them from participating in, providing access to, paying for, training others to engage in, or otherwise supporting abortion-causing drugs and devices". Hobby Lobby argued that the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and the Religious Freedom Restoration Act serve to protect their religious beliefs, and accordingly bars the application of the contraceptive mandate to them. The U.S. Supreme Court rejected the company's application for an injunction, prompting the firm to sue the federal government. On July 19, 2013, US District Judge Joe Heaton granted the company a temporary exemption from the contraceptive-providing mandate. On January 28, 2014, the Center for Inquiry filed an amicus brief with the Supreme Court. They argued that were the court to grant Hobby Lobby an exclusion, the firm would violate the Establishment Clause, along with part of the First Amendment. Oral arguments in the case, then known as Sebelius v. Hobby Lobby, were heard on March 25, 2014. On June 30, 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court, ruled 5–4, that Hobby Lobby and other "closely held" stock corporations can choose to be exempt from the law based on religious preferences, based on the Religious Freedom Restoration Act but not on the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Items relating to Jewish holidays
In September 2013, a shopper reported being told by a store employee, in Marlboro, New Jersey, that Hobby Lobby did not carry merchandise celebrating Jewish holidays, as the store did not "cater to you people."
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Title: Hold Me Now (Thompson Twins song) - Wikipedia
Headings: Hold Me Now (Thompson Twins song)
Hold Me Now (Thompson Twins song)
Contents
Background and recording
Composition
Critical reception
Music video
Chart performance
Formats and track listing
Credits and personnel
Charts and certifications
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Cover versions
Notes
References
External links
Content: At the end the background changes from blue to red, and the three members are featured together singing and clapping while the song is fading out. Chart performance
"Hold Me Now" was released in the United Kingdom in November 1983, debuting on the UK Singles Chart at number 31, peaking at number four, and staying in the chart for 15 weeks. It became the band's first top five in the country, and their biggest seller earning a gold certification by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) in January 1984. The song was a moderate hit in Europe, reaching the top 10 in Germany and Ireland, and peaking at number 18 in Switzerland. The single was released in North America in February 1984. In Canada the single entered the RPM singles chart at number 43, peaking at number three on 28 April 1984. The Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA) certified "Hold Me Now" gold in May 1984. In the United States the single entered the Billboard Hot 100 on 11 February 1984 at number 73, peaking at number three on 5 May 1984, and staying 21 weeks on the chart, becoming the band's biggest hit in the country. In addition, it topped Billboard ' s Hot Dance Club Play chart for a week on 28 April 1984, becoming the band's third number-one single on this chart. Formats and track listing
7" single
"Hold Me Now" – 4:44
"Let Loving Start" – 3:43
12" maxi-single
"Hold Me Now" (Extended version) – 9:54
"Let Loving Start" (Extended version) – 9:09
Credits and personnel
Tom Bailey – lead vocals, guitar, bass guitar, piano, keyboards, producer
Alannah Currie – percussion, xylophone, drums, backing vocals
Joe Leeway – congas, backing vocals
Alex Sadkin – producer
Phil Thornalley – audio mixing
Adrian Peacock – photography
Satori (from ideas by Alannah Currie) – design / artwork
Charts and certifications
Weekly charts
Chart (1983)
Peak
position
Irish Singles Chart
9
UK Singles ( OCC)
4
Chart (1984)
Peak
position
Australia ( Kent Music Report)
3
Canada Top Singles ( RPM)
3
German Singles Chart
7
New Zealand Singles Chart
4
South Africa ( Springbok Radio)
8
Swiss
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Title: Holy Week processions in Guatemala - Wikipedia
Headings: Holy Week processions in Guatemala
Holy Week processions in Guatemala
Contents
History
Pre-columbine era
Holy Week in Medieval Europe
Bourbon Reforms
19th Century
20th Century
Holy Week art
Sculptures
Procession sculptures
Arte efímero
Processions
Guatemala City
Antigua Guatemala
See also
General:
Notes and references
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Content: Decline of Jesuit cultural heritage
Trend towards a secular and secularized culture
Decidedly rationalist attitude
Precedence of natural science over religious dogma
Severe criticism of the role of the Church in society, especially the fraier and nun monasteries. These laws sought to limit excessive economic power of some brotherhoods, their large number, the lack of administrative and fiscal control by the authorities and public manifestations of piety, the latter listed as signs of backwardness and fanaticism, especially those of Holy Week. 19th Century
See also: Rafael Carrera and Justo Rufino Barrios
After the overthrow and expulsion of members of Aycinena Clan in 1829, the Liberals ousted the regular orders and just left the secular clergy in the country, although without the fixed income from mandatory tithing. This greatly weakened the Catholic Church in Guatemala, but after the failure of liberal governor Mariano Gálvez to combat an epidema of cholera morbus, parish priests incited the peasant population against him, and under the leadership of Rafael Carrera, drove Gálvez and liberal out of power. After a decade of government, Carrera allowed the return of the regular orders and conservative elite Catholics and authorized compulsory tithing again, reinforcing the Church in the country and the manifestations of faith such as Holy Week flourished. Indeed, in 1852, Guatemala and the Holy See signed a concordat in which the latter was entrusted with the education of the Guatemalan population and church-state union in the country was reinforced. After the fall of the Conservative regime and the Liberal victory in 1871, the Catholic Church suffered renewed attacks on its economic and political influence, as happened in 1829 when it was attacked by the Liberal government of Francisco Morazán. In 1873, the regular orders were again evicted, their property confiscated -including convents, haciendas and doctrines of Indians throughout the country- and mandatory tithing was abolished, leaving the secular clergy relegated to their parishes without stable income. Article 32:
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Title: Homeless Bill of Rights - Wikipedia
Headings: Homeless Bill of Rights
Homeless Bill of Rights
Contents
Overview
Criminalization of Homelessness
Controversy over Legislation Affecting the Homeless
Legislation in the United States
Rhode Island
Illinois
Connecticut
California
Colorado
See also
References
External links
Content: Homeless Bill of Rights - Wikipedia
Homeless Bill of Rights
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The Homeless Bill of Rights (also Homeless Person's Bill of Rights and Acts of Living bill) refers to legislation protecting the civil and human rights of homeless people. These laws affirm that homeless people have equal rights to medical care, free speech, free movement, voting, opportunities for employment, and privacy. Legislation of this type is currently being debated at the state level in the United States. Over 120 organizations in five different states have shown public support for a Homeless Bill of Rights and are working towards its implementation. A Homeless Bill of Rights has become law in Rhode Island, Connecticut and Illinois and is under consideration by several other U.S. states, including California, Delaware, Minnesota, Missouri, Oregon, Tennessee, and Vermont. Contents
1 Overview
2 Criminalization of Homelessness
3 Controversy over Legislation Affecting the Homeless
4 Legislation in the United States
4.1 Rhode Island
4.2 Illinois
4.3 Connecticut
4.4 California
4.5 Colorado
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Overview
Homeless Bill of Rights laws affirm that people living on the street have a reasonable expectation of privacy in their property. While the wording and objectives of proposed bills vary from state to state, most proposed legislation seeks to protect these central rights for all unhoused individuals: The right to use public spaces without fear of discrimination or harassment by law enforcement
The right to vote
The right to non-obstructively seek shelter, social services, legal aid, and education
The right to privacy of property in public spaces
The right to feel safe
This type of legislation is groundbreaking because it asserts that having a permanent and valid address is not a requisite for retaining basic rights. Many cities around the United States attempt to shift the problem of housing insecurity outside their jurisdiction by criminalizing homelessness. The criminalization of homelessness creates a vicious cycle of citations, fines, imprisonment, and reduced employability that further increases the difficulty of securing stable housing.
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Title: Homeless Bill of Rights - Wikipedia
Headings: Homeless Bill of Rights
Homeless Bill of Rights
Contents
Overview
Criminalization of Homelessness
Controversy over Legislation Affecting the Homeless
Legislation in the United States
Rhode Island
Illinois
Connecticut
California
Colorado
See also
References
External links
Content: States that implement a Homeless Bill of Rights protect individuals' rights to exist in public spaces, thus requiring that cities attempt to directly address the issue of housing insecurity. Moreover, while a Homeless Bill of Rights may not directly create significant change in the lives of unhoused individuals, it can facilitate a shift in the American perspective of homelessness and open up avenues for further discourse, programs, and legislation. Criminalization of Homelessness
The criminalization of homelessness can be defined as the passage of laws or ordinances that prohibit sitting, sleeping, panhandling, sharing food, or religious practice in public spaces. Over half a million people are homeless on any given night in the United States, and a third of them are unsheltered. The growing issue of homelessness has been met with increasingly strict homeless legislation that seeks to reduce the visibility of unhoused individuals. These measures penalize individuals from performing necessary, life-sustaining practices (such as sleeping) outside of the private domain, and disproportionately impact unhoused populations who have no choice but to occupy public space for these activities. Surveys by the Western Regional Advocacy Project (WRAP) have documented the impacts of such anti-homeless legislation by interviewing over 1,300 unhoused individuals. Of those interviewed, 81% of individuals reported being "harassed, cited or arrested for sleeping", 77% said they had been "harassed, cited or arrested for sitting or lying on the sidewalk", and 26% "knew of a safe place to sleep at night". As The National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty concludes its report on the " criminalization of homelessness ": Laws that criminalize visible homelessness are immoral and offend our basic human instincts.
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Title: Homeless Bill of Rights - Wikipedia
Headings: Homeless Bill of Rights
Homeless Bill of Rights
Contents
Overview
Criminalization of Homelessness
Controversy over Legislation Affecting the Homeless
Legislation in the United States
Rhode Island
Illinois
Connecticut
California
Colorado
See also
References
External links
Content: These measures penalize individuals from performing necessary, life-sustaining practices (such as sleeping) outside of the private domain, and disproportionately impact unhoused populations who have no choice but to occupy public space for these activities. Surveys by the Western Regional Advocacy Project (WRAP) have documented the impacts of such anti-homeless legislation by interviewing over 1,300 unhoused individuals. Of those interviewed, 81% of individuals reported being "harassed, cited or arrested for sleeping", 77% said they had been "harassed, cited or arrested for sitting or lying on the sidewalk", and 26% "knew of a safe place to sleep at night". As The National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty concludes its report on the " criminalization of homelessness ": Laws that criminalize visible homelessness are immoral and offend our basic human instincts. They are contrary to the fundamental religious and political principals from which the American people seek guidance, and their existence demonstrates that we have fallen vastly short of our religious and foundational aspirations. Homeless Bills of Rights seek to amend local codes that outlaw loitering, vagrancy, sitting or lying on the sidewalk, begging, urinating, eating in public, and other behaviors that disproportionately affect homeless people. Most homeless advocates agree that the issue of homelessness can only be alleviated if there is a focus placed on changing laws that criminalize homelessness. Controversy over Legislation Affecting the Homeless
The "Beds Not Bars" slogan suggests that society must help homeless people instead of outlawing their behavior. Skid Row in Los Angeles is sometimes mentioned as an area that would deteriorate if homelessness was not regulated
Opposition to legislature that supports the rights of unhoused individuals primarily comes from state and city officials, housed citizens, and varied business interests.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1702134388#4_1819397472
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Title: Homeless Bill of Rights - Wikipedia
Headings: Homeless Bill of Rights
Homeless Bill of Rights
Contents
Overview
Criminalization of Homelessness
Controversy over Legislation Affecting the Homeless
Legislation in the United States
Rhode Island
Illinois
Connecticut
California
Colorado
See also
References
External links
Content: They are contrary to the fundamental religious and political principals from which the American people seek guidance, and their existence demonstrates that we have fallen vastly short of our religious and foundational aspirations. Homeless Bills of Rights seek to amend local codes that outlaw loitering, vagrancy, sitting or lying on the sidewalk, begging, urinating, eating in public, and other behaviors that disproportionately affect homeless people. Most homeless advocates agree that the issue of homelessness can only be alleviated if there is a focus placed on changing laws that criminalize homelessness. Controversy over Legislation Affecting the Homeless
The "Beds Not Bars" slogan suggests that society must help homeless people instead of outlawing their behavior. Skid Row in Los Angeles is sometimes mentioned as an area that would deteriorate if homelessness was not regulated
Opposition to legislature that supports the rights of unhoused individuals primarily comes from state and city officials, housed citizens, and varied business interests. Increasing the visibility of homelessness as a public issue is an implicit goal of many Homeless Bill of Rights advocates. Visible homelessness, especially in the form of encampments, is typically regarded as a failure of the city or state. Most anti-homeless legislation seeks to mitigate the issue by moving unhoused individuals from one space to another and thus decrease the visibility of "undesirable" individuals in public spaces. Business interests, represented by the California Chamber of Commerce, have called Assemblymember Tom Ammiano's Homeless Person's Bill of Rights a "job killer" which would create "costly and unreasonable mandates on employers." Some municipalities and local politicians also oppose the laws, which impose state authority to overturn local regulations.
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1702134388#10_1819408164
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Title: Homeless Bill of Rights - Wikipedia
Headings: Homeless Bill of Rights
Homeless Bill of Rights
Contents
Overview
Criminalization of Homelessness
Controversy over Legislation Affecting the Homeless
Legislation in the United States
Rhode Island
Illinois
Connecticut
California
Colorado
See also
References
External links
Content: No person's rights, privileges, or access to public services may be denied or abridged solely because he or she is homeless. Such a person 1 shall be granted the same rights and privileges as any other resident of this state. A person experiencing homelessness: Has the right to use and move freely in public spaces, including, but not limited to, public sidewalks, public parks, public transportation and public buildings, in the same manner as any other person, and without discrimination on the basis of his or her housing status; Has the right to equal treatment by all state and municipal agencies, without discrimination on the basis of housing status; Has the right not to face discrimination while seeking or maintaining employment due to his or her lack of permanent mailing address, or his or her mailing address being that of a shelter or social service provider; Has the right to emergency medical care free from discrimination based on his or her housing status; Has the right to vote, register to vote, and receive documentation necessary to prove identity for voting without discrimination due to his or her housing status; Has the right to protection from disclosure of his or her records and information provided to homeless shelters and service providers to state, municipal and private entities without appropriate legal authority; and the right to confidentiality of personal records and information in accordance with all limitations on disclosure established by the Federal Homeless Management Information Systems, the Federal Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, and the Federal Violence Against Women Act;
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Title: Hope Mills, North Carolina - Wikipedia
Headings: Hope Mills, North Carolina
Hope Mills, North Carolina
Contents
Geography
History
Today
Demographics
Notable people
References
External links
Content: National Park Service. July 9, 2010. ^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. External links
Town of Hope Mills official website
Hope Mills Area Chamber of Commerce
Cumberland County Schools
SandSpur Newspaper, published by the Fayetteville Observer each Wednesday for Hope Mills
The Hope Mills Bee, online publication
v
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County seat: Fayetteville
City
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‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
United States portal
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Onslow
Orange
Pamlico
Pasquotank
Pender
Perquimans
Person
Pitt
Polk
Randolph
Richmond
Robeson
Rockingham
Rowan
Rutherford
Sampson
Scotland
Stanly
Stokes
Surry
Swain
Transylvania
Tyrrell
Union
Vance
Wake
Warren
Washington
Watauga
Wayne
Wilkes
Wilson
Yadkin
Yancey
Authority control
LCCN: n83016542
VIAF: 138408895
WorldCat Identities: lccn-n83016542
Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hope_Mills,_North_Carolina&oldid=1007142206 "
Categories:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope_Mills,_North_Carolina
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1720667799#16_1840681465
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Title: Hope Mills, North Carolina - Wikipedia
Headings: Hope Mills, North Carolina
Hope Mills, North Carolina
Contents
Geography
History
Today
Demographics
Notable people
References
External links
Content: External links
Town of Hope Mills official website
Hope Mills Area Chamber of Commerce
Cumberland County Schools
SandSpur Newspaper, published by the Fayetteville Observer each Wednesday for Hope Mills
The Hope Mills Bee, online publication
v
t
e
Municipalities and communities of Cumberland County, North Carolina, United States
County seat: Fayetteville
City
Fayetteville
Towns
Eastover
Falcon ‡
Godwin
Hope Mills
Linden
Spring Lake
Stedman
Wade
CDP
Vander
Unincorporated
communities
Chestnut Hills
Cumberland
Dogwood Acres
Montclair
Military bases
Fort Bragg
Pope Army Airfield
Footnotes
‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
United States portal
v
t
e
State of North Carolina
Raleigh (capital)
Topics
Climate
Geography
state parks
wildlife
History
Mass media
newspapers
radio
TV
North Carolinians
Politics
government
law
Tourist attractions
Seal of North Carolina
Flag of North Carolina
Society
Culture
music
sports
Crime
Demographics
Economy
Education
Elections
Gambling
Regions
Western
Foothills
High Country
Piedmont
Metrolina (Charlotte)
Piedmont Triad
Triangle
Eastern
Sandhills
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Inner Banks
Outer Banks
Largest cities
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Chapel Hill
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Durham
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Smaller cities
Albemarle
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Laurinburg
Lenoir
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Monroe
Morganton
New Bern
Newton
Reidsville
Roanoke Rapids
Rocky Mount
Salisbury
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Wilson
Major towns
Beaufort
Boone
Brevard
Carrboro
Clayton
Cornelius
Dunn
Fuquay-Varina
Harrisburg
Holly Springs
Hope Mills
Huntersville
Indian Trail
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Leland
Matthews
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Mint Hill
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Oxford
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Tarboro
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Anson
Ashe
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Camden
Carteret
Caswell
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Clay
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Harnett
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Hoke
Hyde
Iredell
Jackson
Johnston
Jones
Lee
Lenoir
Lincoln
Macon
Madison
Martin
McDowell
Mecklenburg
Mitchell
Montgomery
Moore
Nash
New Hanover
Northampton
Onslow
Orange
Pamlico
Pasquotank
Pender
Perquimans
Person
Pitt
Polk
Randolph
Richmond
Robeson
Rockingham
Rowan
Rutherford
Sampson
Scotland
Stanly
Stokes
Surry
Swain
Transylvania
Tyrrell
Union
Vance
Wake
Warren
Washington
Watauga
Wayne
Wilkes
Wilson
Yadkin
Yancey
Authority control
LCCN: n83016542
VIAF: 138408895
WorldCat Identities: lccn-n83016542
Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hope_Mills,_North_Carolina&oldid=1007142206 "
Categories: Towns in Cumberland County, North Carolina
Towns in North Carolina
Populated places established in 1766
Fayetteville, North Carolina metropolitan area
Logging communities in the United States
Hidden categories: Articles using NRISref without a referenc
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1748149325#0_1873663195
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Title: How It Feels To Be Colored Me - Wikipedia
Headings: How It Feels To Be Colored Me
How It Feels To Be Colored Me
Summary
References
Content: How It Feels To Be Colored Me - Wikipedia
How It Feels To Be Colored Me
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
" How It Feels To Be Colored Me " (1928) is an essay by Zora Neale Hurston published in World Tomorrow as a "white journal sympathetic to Harlem Renaissance writers", illustrating her circumstance as an African-American woman in the early 20th century in America. Most of Hurston's work involved her "Negro" characterization that were so true to reality, that she was known as an excellent anthropologist, "As an anthropologist and as an African-American writer during the Harlem Renaissance, Hurston was uniquely situated to explore the critical possibilities of marginality." Coming from an all- black community in Eatonville, Florida, she lived comfortably due to her father holding high titles, John Hurston was a local Baptist preacher and the mayor of Eatonville. After the death of her mother in 1904, at the age of thirteen, Hurston was forced to live with relatives in Jacksonville who worked as domestic servants. In her essay Hurston references Jacksonville where she describes that she felt "thrown against a sharp white background". Eatonville and Jacksonville became the main influential settings for her essay "How it Feels To Be Colored Me" and her novel Their Eyes Were Watching God. In both writings Hurston begins to investigate the true meaning of individuality and personality, through the usage of anecdotes, imagery, tone, and figurative language. Hurston's writings allow the reader to understand "personal expression to the arena of public discourse without losing the ties to their home cultures and languages"
Summary
Downtown Jacksonville in 1914
Hurston begins the essay about her childhood in the town of Eatonville, Florida. She describes watching white people from her front porch, and dances and sings for them in return for money. Hurston becomes comfortable with her surroundings in the small town of Eatonville.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_It_Feels_To_Be_Colored_Me
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1748149325#1_1873665537
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Title: How It Feels To Be Colored Me - Wikipedia
Headings: How It Feels To Be Colored Me
How It Feels To Be Colored Me
Summary
References
Content: Eatonville and Jacksonville became the main influential settings for her essay "How it Feels To Be Colored Me" and her novel Their Eyes Were Watching God. In both writings Hurston begins to investigate the true meaning of individuality and personality, through the usage of anecdotes, imagery, tone, and figurative language. Hurston's writings allow the reader to understand "personal expression to the arena of public discourse without losing the ties to their home cultures and languages"
Summary
Downtown Jacksonville in 1914
Hurston begins the essay about her childhood in the town of Eatonville, Florida. She describes watching white people from her front porch, and dances and sings for them in return for money. Hurston becomes comfortable with her surroundings in the small town of Eatonville. At the age of thirteen her mother passes away and Hurston was sent away to leave her home in Jacksonville to attend a boarding school. At this point, Hurston is referred to as just another “colored girl.” She then elaborates how Eatonville was a safe zone for her since it was considered a “colored town” (358). As time progressed, she realized the differences between herself and others surrounding her, like her skin and the different personalities in her friends. She begins to feel a sense of isolation and loneliness.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_It_Feels_To_Be_Colored_Me
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1748149325#2_1873667221
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Title: How It Feels To Be Colored Me - Wikipedia
Headings: How It Feels To Be Colored Me
How It Feels To Be Colored Me
Summary
References
Content: At the age of thirteen her mother passes away and Hurston was sent away to leave her home in Jacksonville to attend a boarding school. At this point, Hurston is referred to as just another “colored girl.” She then elaborates how Eatonville was a safe zone for her since it was considered a “colored town” (358). As time progressed, she realized the differences between herself and others surrounding her, like her skin and the different personalities in her friends. She begins to feel a sense of isolation and loneliness. Although, Hurston claims that she does not consider herself "tragically colored" but a regular human being, "At times I have no race, I am just me" (359). She mentions her experience at a jazz club with a white friend, where through the music she expresses the racial differences and distance between their lives. She concludes her essay acknowledging the difference but refuses the idea of separation. " I have no separate feeling about being an American citizen and colored" (360). She explains that if the racial roles were reversed, and blacks discriminated against whites, the outcome is the same for a white person’s experience amongst black people.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_It_Feels_To_Be_Colored_Me
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