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msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_741710266#12_806324230	Title: Feminist art criticism - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist art criticism Feminist art criticism Contents Emergence Genius Museum organizations Intersectionality Intersection with other schools of thought Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory Realism and Reflectionism Journals and publication Beyond the academy Exhibition Today See also References Content: Critical Strategies Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995. Ecker, Gisela ed. Feminist Aesthetics London: Women's Press, 1985. Frueh, Joanna and C. Langer, A. Raven eds. Feminist Art Criticism: An Anthology Icon and Harper Collins, 1992, 1995. Lippard, Lucy From the Center: Feminist Essays on Women's Art New York:	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_art_criticism
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_741710266#13_806325095	Title: Feminist art criticism - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist art criticism Feminist art criticism Contents Emergence Genius Museum organizations Intersectionality Intersection with other schools of thought Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory Realism and Reflectionism Journals and publication Beyond the academy Exhibition Today See also References Content: Frueh, Joanna and C. Langer, A. Raven eds. Feminist Art Criticism: An Anthology Icon and Harper Collins, 1992, 1995. Lippard, Lucy From the Center: Feminist Essays on Women's Art New York: Dutton, 1976. Lippard, Lucy The Pink Glass Swan: Selected Feminist Essays on Art New York: New Press, 1996. Meskimmon, Marsha Women Making Art:	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_art_criticism
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742079933#0_806494381	Title: Feminist literary criticism - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist literary criticism Feminist literary criticism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents Methods employed History and critics Modern applications References Further reading External links Content: Feminist literary criticism - Wikipedia Feminist literary criticism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Part of a series on Feminism History Social Feminist history History of feminism Women-only space Women's history American British Canadian German Timelines Women's suffrage Muslim countries US Other women's rights Suffrage by country Austria Australia Canada Japan Kuwait Liechtenstein New Zealand Spain (Civil War) Spain (Francoist) Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Cayman Islands Wales United States In states Utah Waves First Second Third Fourth General variants Analytical Anarchist Anti-abortion Atheist Conservative Cultural Cyber Difference Ecofeminism Vegetarian Embedded Equality Eugenic Fat French French post-structuralist Global Hip-hop / Activism Individualist Labor Lesbian Radical lesbianism Liberal Equity Lipstick Materialist Maternal Multicultural Black Chicana Indigenous Kurdish (Jineology) Native American White Neofeminism Networked New Postcolonial Postfeminism Postmodern Post-structural Radical Separatist Sex-positive Socialist Marxist Social Standpoint State Transfeminism Transnational Victim Womanism Africana Religious variants Buddhist Christian Mormon Neopagan Dianic Wicca Reclaiming Hindu Islamic Jewish Orthodox Sikh Concepts Literature Children's literature Effects on society Equality Female education Female genital mutilation Femicide Feminism in culture Feminist movement African-American women's suffrage movement Art movement In hip hop Feminist stripper Gender equality Girl power Honor killing International Girl's Day and Women's Day Language reform Matriarchal religion Media Men in feminism Misogyny Oedipus complex Opposition to feminism Political lesbianism Lesbian separatism Pro-feminism Protofeminism Purplewashing Reproductive justice Sex workers' rights Sexual harassment Sexual objectification Triple oppression Violence against women War on women Women's health Women's rights Women in the workforce Toxic masculinity Outlooks Bicycling and feminism Criticism of marriage Views on BDSM Views on pornography Views on prostitution Views on sexual orientation Views on sexuality Views on transgender topics Theory Feminist method Gender studies Gender mainstreaming Gynocentrism Kyriarchy Male gaze Matriarchy Women's studies Men's studies Patriarchy Écriture féminine Areas of study anthropology archaeology architecture art art criticism literary criticism film theory biology composition studies criminology pathways perspective economics fpda geography international relations constructivism legal theory pedagogy philosophy aesthetics empiricism epistemology ethics justice ethics existentialism metaphysics science political ecology political theory pornography psychology revisionist mythology science fiction sex wars sexology sociology technoscience theology womanist theology By country Albania Australia Bangladesh Canada China Democratic Republic of the Congo Denmark Egypt Ethiopia Finland France Germany Ghana Greece Hong Kong India Indonesia Iran Iraq Republic of Ireland Israel Italy Japan Latin America Argentina Brazil Chile Haiti Honduras Mexico Paraguay Trinidad and Tobago Lebanon Malaysia Mali Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Northern Cyprus Norway Pakistan Philippines Poland Russia Syria Saudi Arabia South Africa South Korea Sweden Taiwan Thailand Turkey Vietnam Ukraine United Kingdom United States History of women Lists and categories Lists Articles Feminists by nationality Literature American feminist literature Feminist comic books Conservative feminisms Ecofeminist authors Feminist art critics Feminist economists Feminist philosophers Feminist poets Feminist rhetoricians Jewish feminists Muslim feminists Feminist parties Suffragists and suffragettes Women's rights activists Women's studies journals Women's suffrage organizations Categories Women's rights by country Feminists by nationality Feminism portal v t e Feminist literary criticism is literary criticism informed by feminist theory, or more broadly, by the politics of feminism. It uses the principles and ideology of feminism to critique the language of literature. This school of thought seeks to analyze and describe the ways in which literature portrays the narrative of male domination by exploring the economic, social, political, and psychological forces embedded within literature. This way of thinking and criticizing works can be said to have changed the way literary texts are viewed and studied, as well as changing and expanding the canon of what is commonly taught. It is used a lot in Greek myths. Traditionally, feminist literary criticism has sought to examine old texts within literary canon through a new lens. Specific goals of feminist criticism include both the development and discovery of female tradition of writing, and rediscovering of old texts, while also interpreting symbolism of women's writing so that it will not be lost or ignored by the male point of view and resisting sexism inherent in the majority of mainstream literature. These goals, along with the intent to analyze women writers and their writings from a female perspective, and increase awareness of the sexual politics of language and style were developed by Lisa Tuttle in the 1980s, and have since been adopted by a majority of feminist critics. The history of feminist literary criticism is extensive, from classic works of nineteenth-century women authors such as George Eliot and Margaret Fuller to cutting-edge theoretical work in women's studies and gender studies by " third-wave " authors. Before the 1970s—in the first and second waves of feminism—feminist literary criticism was concerned with women's authorship and the representation of women's condition within the literature;	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742079933#1_806500945	Title: Feminist literary criticism - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist literary criticism Feminist literary criticism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents Methods employed History and critics Modern applications References Further reading External links Content: Traditionally, feminist literary criticism has sought to examine old texts within literary canon through a new lens. Specific goals of feminist criticism include both the development and discovery of female tradition of writing, and rediscovering of old texts, while also interpreting symbolism of women's writing so that it will not be lost or ignored by the male point of view and resisting sexism inherent in the majority of mainstream literature. These goals, along with the intent to analyze women writers and their writings from a female perspective, and increase awareness of the sexual politics of language and style were developed by Lisa Tuttle in the 1980s, and have since been adopted by a majority of feminist critics. The history of feminist literary criticism is extensive, from classic works of nineteenth-century women authors such as George Eliot and Margaret Fuller to cutting-edge theoretical work in women's studies and gender studies by " third-wave " authors. Before the 1970s—in the first and second waves of feminism—feminist literary criticism was concerned with women's authorship and the representation of women's condition within the literature; in particular the depiction of fictional female characters. In addition, feminist literary criticism is concerned with the exclusion of women from the literary canon, with theorists such as Lois Tyson suggesting that this is because the views of women authors are often not considered to be universal. Additionally, feminist criticism has been closely associated with the birth and growth of queer studies. Modern feminist literary theory seeks to understand both the literary portrayals and representation of both women and people in the queer community, expanding the role of a variety of identities and analysis within feminist literary criticism. Contents 1 Methods employed 2 History and critics 3 Modern applications 4 References 4.1 Further reading 5 External links Methods employed Feminist scholarship has developed a variety of ways to unpack literature in order to understand its essence through a feminist lens.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742079933#2_806503519	Title: Feminist literary criticism - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist literary criticism Feminist literary criticism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents Methods employed History and critics Modern applications References Further reading External links Content: in particular the depiction of fictional female characters. In addition, feminist literary criticism is concerned with the exclusion of women from the literary canon, with theorists such as Lois Tyson suggesting that this is because the views of women authors are often not considered to be universal. Additionally, feminist criticism has been closely associated with the birth and growth of queer studies. Modern feminist literary theory seeks to understand both the literary portrayals and representation of both women and people in the queer community, expanding the role of a variety of identities and analysis within feminist literary criticism. Contents 1 Methods employed 2 History and critics 3 Modern applications 4 References 4.1 Further reading 5 External links Methods employed Feminist scholarship has developed a variety of ways to unpack literature in order to understand its essence through a feminist lens. Scholars under the camp known as Feminine Critique sought to divorce literary analysis away from abstract diction-based arguments and instead tailored their criticism to more "grounded" pieces of literature (plot, characters, etc.) and recognize the perceived implicit misogyny of the structure of the story itself. Others schools of thought such as gynocriticism —which is considered a 'female' perspective on women's writings—uses a historicist approach to literature by exposing exemplary female scholarship in literature and the ways in which their relation to gender structure relayed in their portrayal of both fiction and reality in their texts. Gynocriticism was introduced during the time of second wave feminism. Elaine Showalter suggests that feminist critique is an "ideological, righteous, angry, and admonitory search for the sins and errors of the past," and says gynocriticism enlists "the grace of imagination in a disinterested search for the essential difference of women's writing."	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742079933#3_806505925	Title: Feminist literary criticism - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist literary criticism Feminist literary criticism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents Methods employed History and critics Modern applications References Further reading External links Content: Scholars under the camp known as Feminine Critique sought to divorce literary analysis away from abstract diction-based arguments and instead tailored their criticism to more "grounded" pieces of literature (plot, characters, etc.) and recognize the perceived implicit misogyny of the structure of the story itself. Others schools of thought such as gynocriticism —which is considered a 'female' perspective on women's writings—uses a historicist approach to literature by exposing exemplary female scholarship in literature and the ways in which their relation to gender structure relayed in their portrayal of both fiction and reality in their texts. Gynocriticism was introduced during the time of second wave feminism. Elaine Showalter suggests that feminist critique is an "ideological, righteous, angry, and admonitory search for the sins and errors of the past," and says gynocriticism enlists "the grace of imagination in a disinterested search for the essential difference of women's writing." More contemporary scholars attempt to understand the intersecting points of femininity and complicate our common assumptions about gender politics by accessing different categories of identity (race, class, sexual orientation, etc.) The ultimate goal of any of these tools is to uncover and expose patriarchal underlying tensions within novels and interrogate the ways in which our basic literary assumptions about such novels are contingent on female subordination. In this way, the accessibility of literature broadens to a far more inclusive and holistic population. Moreover, works that historically received little or no attention, given the historical constraints around female authorship in some cultures, are able to be heard in their original form and unabridged. This makes a broader collection of literature for all readers insofar as all great works of literature are given exposure without bias towards a gender influenced system.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742079933#4_806508343	Title: Feminist literary criticism - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist literary criticism Feminist literary criticism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents Methods employed History and critics Modern applications References Further reading External links Content: More contemporary scholars attempt to understand the intersecting points of femininity and complicate our common assumptions about gender politics by accessing different categories of identity (race, class, sexual orientation, etc.) The ultimate goal of any of these tools is to uncover and expose patriarchal underlying tensions within novels and interrogate the ways in which our basic literary assumptions about such novels are contingent on female subordination. In this way, the accessibility of literature broadens to a far more inclusive and holistic population. Moreover, works that historically received little or no attention, given the historical constraints around female authorship in some cultures, are able to be heard in their original form and unabridged. This makes a broader collection of literature for all readers insofar as all great works of literature are given exposure without bias towards a gender influenced system. Women have also begun to employ anti-patriarchal themes to protest the historical censorship of literature written by women. The rise of decadent feminist literature in the 1990s was meant to directly challenge the sexual politics of the patriarchy. By employing a wide range of female sexual exploration and lesbian and queer identities by those like Rita Felski and Judith Bennet, women were able attract more attention about feminist topics in literature. Since the development of more complex conceptions of gender and subjectivity and third-wave feminism, feminist literary criticism has taken a variety of new routes, namely in the tradition of the Frankfurt School 's critical theory, which analyzes how the dominant ideology of a subject influences societal understanding. It has also considered gender in the terms of Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalysis, as part of the deconstruction of existing relations of power, and as a concrete political investment.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742079933#5_806510709	Title: Feminist literary criticism - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist literary criticism Feminist literary criticism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Contents Methods employed History and critics Modern applications References Further reading External links Content: Women have also begun to employ anti-patriarchal themes to protest the historical censorship of literature written by women. The rise of decadent feminist literature in the 1990s was meant to directly challenge the sexual politics of the patriarchy. By employing a wide range of female sexual exploration and lesbian and queer identities by those like Rita Felski and Judith Bennet, women were able attract more attention about feminist topics in literature. Since the development of more complex conceptions of gender and subjectivity and third-wave feminism, feminist literary criticism has taken a variety of new routes, namely in the tradition of the Frankfurt School 's critical theory, which analyzes how the dominant ideology of a subject influences societal understanding. It has also considered gender in the terms of Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalysis, as part of the deconstruction of existing relations of power, and as a concrete political investment. The more traditionally central feminist concern with the representation and politics of women's lives has continued to play an active role in criticism. More specifically, modern feminist criticism deals with those issues related to the perceived intentional and unintentional patriarchal programming within key aspects of society including education, politics and the work	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742122862#32_806557907	Title: Feminist method - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist method Feminist method Contents Objectivity and the construction of the Other Questioning gender as a scientific construct Emotion References Content: Inquiry. 32 (2): 151–176. doi: 10.1080/00201748908602185. v t e Feminist theory Academic fields Anthropology Archaeology Architecture Art Art criticism Film theory Literary criticism Biology Composition studies Criminology Digital humanities Economics FPDA Geography History International relations ( Constructivism) Legal theory Pedagogy Philosophy Aesthetics Empiricism Epistemology Ethics Existentialism Metaphysics Science Political ecology Political theory Postmodernism Psychology Sexology Sociology Technoscience Theology Womanist Asian Feminism portal Related subjects Ecofeminism Feminist method Hegemonic masculinity Women's history Women's studies Feminist theorists Elizabeth Anderson Karen Barad Simone de Beauvoir Wendy Brown Nancy Bauer Judith Butler Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw Hélène Cixous Alice Crary Andrea Dworkin Cynthia Enloe Martha Fineman Nancy Fraser Germaine Greer Donna Haraway Sandra Harding Patricia Hill Collins bell hooks Luce Irigaray Julia Kristeva Catharine MacKinnon Martha Nussbaum Val Plumwood Diana E. H. Russell Dorothy E. Smith Marilyn Waring Lists Women's studies journals v t e Philosophy of science Concepts Analysis Analytic–synthetic distinction A priori and a posteriori Causality Commensurability Consilience Construct Creative synthesis Demarcation problem Empirical evidence Explanatory power Fact Falsifiability Feminist method Functional contextualism Ignoramus et ignorabimus Inductive reasoning Intertheoretic reduction Inquiry Nature Objectivity Observation Paradigm Problem of induction Scientific law Scientific method Scientific revolution Scientific theory Testability Theory choice Theory-ladenness Underdetermination Unity of science Metatheory of science Coherentism Confirmation holism Constructive empiricism Constructive realism Constructivist epistemology Contextualism Conventionalism Deductive-nomological model Hypothetico-deductive model Inductionism Epistemological anarc	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_method
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742135809#1_806568037	Title: Feminist movements and ideologies - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist movements and ideologies Feminist movements and ideologies Contents Groupings Movements and ideologies Mainstream feminism Anarchist Black and womanist Cultural Difference Ecofeminism French Liberal Libertarian Multiracial Post-structural Postcolonial Postmodern Radical Separatist and lesbian Socialist and Marxist Standpoint Third-world Transfeminism Women and feminism in the United States Asian American feminism History Important figures and movements Modern Asian American feminism Native American feminism History Important figures and movements Modern Native American feminism Chicana feminism History Important figures and movements Modern Chicana feminism Women and feminism in South America Colombian feminism Feminism in Colombia History Important figures and movements: Modern Colombian feminism movements: Causes of diversity Shared perspectives Men as oppressed with women Men as oppressors of women Criticism References External links Content: 5 Causes of diversity 6 Shared perspectives 6.1 Men as oppressed with women 6.2 Men as oppressors of women 7 Criticism 8 References 9 External links Groupings Traditionally feminism is often divided into three main traditions usually called liberal, reformist or mainstream feminism, radical feminism and socialist/Marxist feminism, sometimes known as the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought; since the late 20th century a variety of newer forms of feminisms have also emerged, some of which are viewed as branches of the three main traditions. Judith Lorber distinguishes between three broad kinds of feminist discourses: gender reform feminisms, gender resistant feminisms, and gender revolution feminisms. In her typology, gender reform feminisms are rooted in the political philosophy of liberalism with its emphasis on individual rights. Gender resistant feminisms focus on specific behaviors and group dynamics through which women are kept in a subordinate position, even in subcultures which claim to support gender equality. Gender revolution feminisms seek to disrupt the social order through deconstructing its concepts and categories and analyzing the cultural reproduction of inequalities. Movements and ideologies Mainstream feminism Main article: Mainstream feminism " Mainstream feminism " as a general term identifies feminist ideologies and movements which do not fall into either the socialist or radical feminist camps. The mainstream feminist movement traditionally focused on political and legal reform, and has its roots in first-wave liberal feminism of the 19th and early-20th centuries.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_movements_and_ideologies
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742213242#2_806592446	Title: Feminist pathways perspective - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist pathways perspective Feminist pathways perspective Contents Victimization Connection to criminal activity Demographics of victimization Age Gender Polyvictimization Main Routes from Victimization to Crime Child abuse Partner abuse Critique of the victimization explanation Women's agency Intersectionality Separating offenders and victims References Content: Literature on victimization has often created a division between victims and offenders. However, these two groups are not as separate as was once understood. It was not until the 1970s that research analyzed victimization, traumas, and past abuse as factors that can influence women to commit crimes. In the early 20th century, the personal histories of women in crime were not a focus of research. Early literature suggested women were antisocial due to their biology, environment, and socialization. Lombroso, for instance, distinguished female offenders from non-offenders based on their physical anatomies. These early explanatory factors were understood individualistically outside of a social-historical context . Connection to criminal activity There is a well-documented association between criminal behavior and victimization among female offenders. That said, the age and gendered patterns of victimization risk, context, and consequences are highly visible and exacerbated among incarcerated women. There is evidence to support that women involved with crime often have extensive histories of physical and sexual abuse.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_pathways_perspective
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742213242#3_806594201	Title: Feminist pathways perspective - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist pathways perspective Feminist pathways perspective Contents Victimization Connection to criminal activity Demographics of victimization Age Gender Polyvictimization Main Routes from Victimization to Crime Child abuse Partner abuse Critique of the victimization explanation Women's agency Intersectionality Separating offenders and victims References Content: Lombroso, for instance, distinguished female offenders from non-offenders based on their physical anatomies. These early explanatory factors were understood individualistically outside of a social-historical context . Connection to criminal activity There is a well-documented association between criminal behavior and victimization among female offenders. That said, the age and gendered patterns of victimization risk, context, and consequences are highly visible and exacerbated among incarcerated women. There is evidence to support that women involved with crime often have extensive histories of physical and sexual abuse. Female offenders are more likely to have been abused than male offenders and more likely to have been victimized than female non-offenders. A survey of national correctional populations found that over half of female inmates have been physically or sexually abused, compared to fewer than one in five male inmates. Literature suggests female offenders' victimization often begins at a young age and persists through her lifetime. Nearly two thirds of incarcerated women have experienced at least one event of abuse by age eleven. Ninety-two percent of girls under 18 in the California juvenile justice system report having faced emotional, sexual, or physical abuse.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_pathways_perspective
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742213242#4_806596121	Title: Feminist pathways perspective - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist pathways perspective Feminist pathways perspective Contents Victimization Connection to criminal activity Demographics of victimization Age Gender Polyvictimization Main Routes from Victimization to Crime Child abuse Partner abuse Critique of the victimization explanation Women's agency Intersectionality Separating offenders and victims References Content: Female offenders are more likely to have been abused than male offenders and more likely to have been victimized than female non-offenders. A survey of national correctional populations found that over half of female inmates have been physically or sexually abused, compared to fewer than one in five male inmates. Literature suggests female offenders' victimization often begins at a young age and persists through her lifetime. Nearly two thirds of incarcerated women have experienced at least one event of abuse by age eleven. Ninety-two percent of girls under 18 in the California juvenile justice system report having faced emotional, sexual, or physical abuse. Eighty percent of women in prison in the United States have experienced an event of physical or sexual abuse in her lifetime. This lifetime of violence is "pervasive and severe." The literature suggests that the prevalence of victimization among incarcerated women and its cumulative impact indicates that victimization is a central factor for women's entry into crime. Demographics of victimization The feminist pathways perspective is not meant to suggest that victimization is unique to women. Instead, this perspective addresses how gender impacts the experience of victimization, and how this difference in experience paves the path to crime for women.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_pathways_perspective
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742213242#5_806598072	Title: Feminist pathways perspective - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist pathways perspective Feminist pathways perspective Contents Victimization Connection to criminal activity Demographics of victimization Age Gender Polyvictimization Main Routes from Victimization to Crime Child abuse Partner abuse Critique of the victimization explanation Women's agency Intersectionality Separating offenders and victims References Content: Eighty percent of women in prison in the United States have experienced an event of physical or sexual abuse in her lifetime. This lifetime of violence is "pervasive and severe." The literature suggests that the prevalence of victimization among incarcerated women and its cumulative impact indicates that victimization is a central factor for women's entry into crime. Demographics of victimization The feminist pathways perspective is not meant to suggest that victimization is unique to women. Instead, this perspective addresses how gender impacts the experience of victimization, and how this difference in experience paves the path to crime for women. An individual's risk of victimization is shaped by environmental context, social networks, and demographics. Life course researchers maintain that people are exposed to violence to various degrees based on their location, socioeconomic circumstance, and lifestyle choices. According to the lifestyle exposure perspective, sociodemographic traits give rise to lifestyle differences which may put an individual at an increased risk of victimization. For instance, someone from a low-income neighborhood who spends time in public places at night and among strangers may be more likely to encounter offenders, and therefore at a greater risk of victimization. Age Estimated Rates (Per 1,000 Persons 12 Years of Age or Older) of Personal Victimization, By Age (Hindelang 1976) Age is strongly associated with victimization risk, especially for property and violent crimes.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_pathways_perspective
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742518445#1_806748421	Title: Feminist views on prostitution - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist views on prostitution Feminist views on prostitution Contents Framing the debate Arguments against prostitution Coercion and poverty Long-term effects on the prostitutes Male dominance over women A consequence and correlate of violence against women The raced and classed nature of prostitution Outlawing of buying sexual services Pro-sex worker perspectives Proponents and support groups Economic empowerment Marriage analogy Legalization or decriminalization Transgender, non-binary, and male sex workers Other perspectives Views of Prostitution in Developing Regions Asia Thailand Africa See also References Further reading External links Content: Anti-prostitution feminists hold that prostitution is a form of exploitation of women and male dominance over women and a practice which is the result of the existing patriarchal societal order. These feminists argue that prostitution has a very negative effect, both on the prostitutes themselves and on society as a whole, as it reinforces stereotypical views about women, who are seen as sex objects which can be used and abused by men. The Red Light district in Amsterdam Pro-prostitution feminists hold that prostitution and other forms of sex work can be valid choices for women and men who choose to engage in it. In this view, prostitution must be differentiated from forced prostitution, and feminists should support sex worker activism against abuses by both the sex industry and the legal system. The disagreement between these two feminist stances has proven particularly contentious, and may be comparable to the feminist sex wars (acrimonious debates on sex issues) of the late twentieth century. Contents 1 Framing the debate 2 Arguments against prostitution 2.1 Coercion and poverty 2.2 Long-term effects on the prostitutes 2.3 Male dominance over women 2.4 A consequence and correlate of violence against women 2.5 The raced and classed nature of prostitution 2.6 Outlawing of buying sexual services 3 Pro-sex worker perspectives 3.1 Proponents and support groups 3.2 Economic empowerment 3.3 Marriage analogy 3.4 Legalization or decriminalization 3.5 Transgender, non-binary, and male sex workers 4 Other perspectives 4.1 Views of Prostitution in Developing Regions 4.1.1 Asia 4.1.1.1 Thailand 4.1.2 Africa 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Framing the debate Newman and White in Women Power and Public Policy (2012) argue that feminist perspectives on prostitution agree on three main points: " First, they condemn the current legal policy enforcing criminal sanctions against women who offer sex in exchange for money. Second, they agree that authentic consent is the sine qua non of legitimate sex, whether in commercial or non-commercial form. Third, all feminists recognize that commercial sex workers are subject to economic coercion and are often victims of violence, and that little is done to address these problems." They go on to identify three main feminist views on the issue of prostitution.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_views_on_prostitution
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_742518445#2_806751724	Title: Feminist views on prostitution - Wikipedia Headings: Feminist views on prostitution Feminist views on prostitution Contents Framing the debate Arguments against prostitution Coercion and poverty Long-term effects on the prostitutes Male dominance over women A consequence and correlate of violence against women The raced and classed nature of prostitution Outlawing of buying sexual services Pro-sex worker perspectives Proponents and support groups Economic empowerment Marriage analogy Legalization or decriminalization Transgender, non-binary, and male sex workers Other perspectives Views of Prostitution in Developing Regions Asia Thailand Africa See also References Further reading External links Content: Contents 1 Framing the debate 2 Arguments against prostitution 2.1 Coercion and poverty 2.2 Long-term effects on the prostitutes 2.3 Male dominance over women 2.4 A consequence and correlate of violence against women 2.5 The raced and classed nature of prostitution 2.6 Outlawing of buying sexual services 3 Pro-sex worker perspectives 3.1 Proponents and support groups 3.2 Economic empowerment 3.3 Marriage analogy 3.4 Legalization or decriminalization 3.5 Transgender, non-binary, and male sex workers 4 Other perspectives 4.1 Views of Prostitution in Developing Regions 4.1.1 Asia 4.1.1.1 Thailand 4.1.2 Africa 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Framing the debate Newman and White in Women Power and Public Policy (2012) argue that feminist perspectives on prostitution agree on three main points: " First, they condemn the current legal policy enforcing criminal sanctions against women who offer sex in exchange for money. Second, they agree that authentic consent is the sine qua non of legitimate sex, whether in commercial or non-commercial form. Third, all feminists recognize that commercial sex workers are subject to economic coercion and are often victims of violence, and that little is done to address these problems." They go on to identify three main feminist views on the issue of prostitution. The sex work perspective, the abolitionist perspective and the outlaw perspective. The sex work perspective maintains that prostitution is a legitimate form of work for women faced with the option of other bad jobs, therefore women ought to have the right to work in the sex trade free of prosecution or the fear of it. The sex work perspective also argues that governments should eliminate laws that criminalize voluntary prostitution. This, the sex work perspective asserts, will allow prostitution to be regulated by governments and business codes, protect sex trade workers, and improve the ability to prosecute people who hurt them. The Abolitionist perspective holds that governments should work towards the elimination of prostitution.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_views_on_prostitution
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_763694701#1_831044000	Title: Fighter aircraft - Wikipedia Headings: Fighter aircraft Fighter aircraft Contents Classification Air superiority fighter Interceptor Night and all-weather fighters Strategic fighters Historical overview Piston engine fighters World War I Inter-war period (1919–38) World War II European theater Pacific theater Technological innovations Post–World War II period Rocket-powered fighters Jet-powered fighters First-generation subsonic jet fighters (mid-1940s to mid-1950s) Second-generation jet fighters (mid-1950s to early 1960s) Third-generation jet fighters (early 1960s to circa 1970) Fourth-generation jet fighters (circa 1970 to mid-1990s) 4.5-generation jet fighters (1990s to 2000s) Fifth-generation jet fighters (2000s to 2020s) Sixth-generation jet fighters (2020s onward) Fighter weapons See also References Citations Bibliography External links Content: Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to improve this article by removing or adjusting images in accordance with the Manual of Style on use of images. ( February 2021) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) American fighters from different eras; a World War II P-38 Lightning (upper right), a pair of Korean War F-86 Sabres, and a modern F-22 Raptor (lower left) Fighter aircraft are fixed-wing military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat. In military conflict, the role of fighter aircraft is to establish air superiority of the battlespace. Domination of the airspace above a battlefield permits bombers and attack aircraft to engage in tactical and strategic bombing of enemy targets. The key performance features of a fighter include not only its firepower but also its high speed and maneuverability relative to the target aircraft. The success or failure of a combatant's efforts to gain air superiority hinges on several factors including the skill of its pilots, the tactical soundness of its doctrine for deploying its fighters, and the numbers and performance of those fighters. Many modern fighter aircraft have secondary capabilities such as ground attack and some types, such as fighter-bombers, are designed from the outset for dual roles. Other fighter designs are highly specialized while still filling the main air superiority role, these include the interceptor, heavy fighter, and night fighter .	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircraft
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_763694701#11_831071693	Title: Fighter aircraft - Wikipedia Headings: Fighter aircraft Fighter aircraft Contents Classification Air superiority fighter Interceptor Night and all-weather fighters Strategic fighters Historical overview Piston engine fighters World War I Inter-war period (1919–38) World War II European theater Pacific theater Technological innovations Post–World War II period Rocket-powered fighters Jet-powered fighters First-generation subsonic jet fighters (mid-1940s to mid-1950s) Second-generation jet fighters (mid-1950s to early 1960s) Third-generation jet fighters (early 1960s to circa 1970) Fourth-generation jet fighters (circa 1970 to mid-1990s) 4.5-generation jet fighters (1990s to 2000s) Fifth-generation jet fighters (2000s to 2020s) Sixth-generation jet fighters (2020s onward) Fighter weapons See also References Citations Bibliography External links Content: Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were biplanes built with a wooden frame covered with fabric, and a maximum airspeed of about 100 mph (160 km/h). As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important, all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations. Between the wars, wood was largely replaced in part or whole by metal tubing, and finally aluminum stressed skin structures (monocoque) began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of machine guns or cannons and some were capable of speeds approaching 400 mph (640 km/h). Most fighters up to this point had one engine, but a number of twin-engine fighters were built; however they were found to be outmatched against single-engine fighters and were relegated to other tasks, such as night fighters equipped with primitive radar sets. Hawker Sea Hurricanes in formation By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the turbojet engine was far less than a piston engine, having two engines was no longer a handicap and one or two were used, depending on requiremen	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircraft
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_763856001#2_831155524	Title: Fighter pilot - Wikipedia Headings: Fighter pilot Fighter pilot Contents Recruitment Fitness Tactics Offensive Defensive Defense against missiles G-force Notable fighter pilots Female fighter pilots See also References Further reading Non-fiction Fiction External links Content: Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (November 2010) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (November 2010) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) Ilmari Juutilainen, a Finnish WWII fighter pilot with Brewster BW-364 "Orange 4" on 26 June 1942 during the Continuation War. A fighter pilot is a military aviator trained to engage in air-to-air combat, air-to-ground combat and sometimes electronic warfare while in the cockpit of a fighter aircraft. Fighter pilots undergo specialized training in aerial warfare and dogfighting (close range aerial combat). A fighter pilot with at least five air-to-air kills becomes known as an ace . Contents 1 Recruitment 2 Fitness 3 Tactics 3.1 Offensive 3.2 Defensive 3.3 Defense against missiles 3.4 G-force 4 Notable fighter pilots 5 Female fighter pilots 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 Non-fiction 8.2 Fiction 9 External links Recruitment Fighter pilots are one of the most highly regarded and desirable positions of any air force. Selection processes only accept the elite out of all the potential candidates.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_pilot
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_763856001#3_831157475	Title: Fighter pilot - Wikipedia Headings: Fighter pilot Fighter pilot Contents Recruitment Fitness Tactics Offensive Defensive Defense against missiles G-force Notable fighter pilots Female fighter pilots See also References Further reading Non-fiction Fiction External links Content: A fighter pilot is a military aviator trained to engage in air-to-air combat, air-to-ground combat and sometimes electronic warfare while in the cockpit of a fighter aircraft. Fighter pilots undergo specialized training in aerial warfare and dogfighting (close range aerial combat). A fighter pilot with at least five air-to-air kills becomes known as an ace . Contents 1 Recruitment 2 Fitness 3 Tactics 3.1 Offensive 3.2 Defensive 3.3 Defense against missiles 3.4 G-force 4 Notable fighter pilots 5 Female fighter pilots 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 8.1 Non-fiction 8.2 Fiction 9 External links Recruitment Fighter pilots are one of the most highly regarded and desirable positions of any air force. Selection processes only accept the elite out of all the potential candidates. An individual who possesses an exceptional academic record, physical fitness, healthy well-being, and a strong mental drive will have a higher chance of being selected for pilot training. Candidates are also expected to exhibit strong leadership and teamwork abilities. As such, in nearly all air forces, fighter pilots, as are pilots of most other aircraft, are commissioned officers . Fitness Female USAF fighter pilots heading to their jets before takeoff (2006) Fighter pilots must be in optimal health to handle the physical demands of modern aerial warfare. Excellent heart condition is required, as the increased "G's" a pilot experiences in a turn can cause stress on the cardiovascular system.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_pilot
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_763856001#4_831159459	Title: Fighter pilot - Wikipedia Headings: Fighter pilot Fighter pilot Contents Recruitment Fitness Tactics Offensive Defensive Defense against missiles G-force Notable fighter pilots Female fighter pilots See also References Further reading Non-fiction Fiction External links Content: An individual who possesses an exceptional academic record, physical fitness, healthy well-being, and a strong mental drive will have a higher chance of being selected for pilot training. Candidates are also expected to exhibit strong leadership and teamwork abilities. As such, in nearly all air forces, fighter pilots, as are pilots of most other aircraft, are commissioned officers . Fitness Female USAF fighter pilots heading to their jets before takeoff (2006) Fighter pilots must be in optimal health to handle the physical demands of modern aerial warfare. Excellent heart condition is required, as the increased "G's" a pilot experiences in a turn can cause stress on the cardiovascular system. One "G" is equal to the force of gravity experienced under normal conditions, two "G"s would be twice the force of normal gravity. Some fighter aircraft can accelerate to up to 9 G’s. Fighter pilots also require strong muscle tissue along the extremities and abdomen, for performing an anti-G straining maneuver (AGSM, see below) when performing tight turns and other highly accelerated maneuvers. Better-than-average visual acuity is also a highly desirable and valuable trait. Tactics Offensive Modern medium and long range active radar homing and semi-active radar homing missiles can be fired at targets outside or beyond visual range.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_pilot
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_763856001#5_831161284	Title: Fighter pilot - Wikipedia Headings: Fighter pilot Fighter pilot Contents Recruitment Fitness Tactics Offensive Defensive Defense against missiles G-force Notable fighter pilots Female fighter pilots See also References Further reading Non-fiction Fiction External links Content: One "G" is equal to the force of gravity experienced under normal conditions, two "G"s would be twice the force of normal gravity. Some fighter aircraft can accelerate to up to 9 G’s. Fighter pilots also require strong muscle tissue along the extremities and abdomen, for performing an anti-G straining maneuver (AGSM, see below) when performing tight turns and other highly accelerated maneuvers. Better-than-average visual acuity is also a highly desirable and valuable trait. Tactics Offensive Modern medium and long range active radar homing and semi-active radar homing missiles can be fired at targets outside or beyond visual range. However, when a pilot is dogfighting at short-range, his position relative to the opponent is decidedly important. Outperformance of another pilot and that pilot's aircraft is critical to maintain the upper-hand. A common saying for dogfighting is "lose sight, lose fight". If one pilot had a greater missile range than the other, he would choose to fire his missile first, before being in range of the enemy's missile. Normally, the facts of an enemy's weapon payload is unknown, and are revealed as the fight progresses.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_pilot
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_777021950#2_845297495	Title: Financial impact of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings - Wikipedia Headings: Financial impact of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings Financial impact of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings Contents Effect on Boeing Litigation Pilots Victims' families Orders and deliveries Revenue and earnings Stock analysis Coronavirus relief Boeing suppliers Airlines Aircraft lessors Training and simulators market Aviation insurance Effect on the US economy References Content: On January 7, 2021, Boeing settled to pay over $2.5 billion after being charged with fraud . Contents 1 Effect on Boeing 1.1 Litigation 1.1.1 Pilots 1.1.2 Victims' families 1.2 Orders and deliveries 1.3 Revenue and earnings 1.4 Stock analysis 1.5 Coronavirus relief 2 Boeing suppliers 3 Airlines 4 Aircraft lessors 5 Training and simulators market 6 Aviation insurance 7 Effect on the US economy 8 References Effect on Boeing 737 MAX aircraft parked at Grant County International Airport in October 2019 Following its intention to suspend production in December 2019, Boeing estimated an additional cost of $6.3 billion to deliver the 737 MAX program and a subsequent reduction in the program's anticipated profit margin. Boeing initially hoped that flights would resume by July 2019, but on June 3, CEO Dennis Muilenburg revised this to the end of 2019, with no firm timeline. On July 18, Boeing reaffirmed a return to flight during the fourth quarter of 2019, but noting that the date could still slip. In September 2019, Muilenburg suggested a phased return around the world because of the regulatory divisions regarding recertification. Later that same month Boeing told its suppliers that the plane could return to service by November. On November 11, 2019, Boeing revised this to a resumption of deliveries in December 2019 and commercial flights in January 2020. In January 2020, Boeing said it was not expecting recertification until mid 2020. In the second quarter of 2019, Boeing reported a record quarterly loss of $2.9 billion, as it provisioned $4.9 billion for airlines compensation. Its inventory had grown by $6 billion, its stock market value had dropped by $62 billion and its share price lost 25% between March and August 2019.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_impact_of_the_Boeing_737_MAX_groundings
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_777021950#5_845303611	Title: Financial impact of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings - Wikipedia Headings: Financial impact of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings Financial impact of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings Contents Effect on Boeing Litigation Pilots Victims' families Orders and deliveries Revenue and earnings Stock analysis Coronavirus relief Boeing suppliers Airlines Aircraft lessors Training and simulators market Aviation insurance Effect on the US economy References Content: In the first quarter of 2020, Boeing is seeking financial bailout of $60-billion against further disruptions caused by the global coronavirus pandemic. A special board meeting on October 20, 2019, discussed the financial effect of the groundings, amid speculation of possible staff reductions. Staff in the US and the UK were not to receive their 2019 Christmas bonuses. New CEO Dave Calhoun will receive a multimillion-dollar bonus if he achieves a key milestone of returning the MAX to service. Development of the Boeing New Midsize Airplane has been postponed to prioritize resources on returning the MAX to service. In July 2019, Boeing desisted from a $60 billion Pentagon procurement to replace land-based nuclear missiles. Dow Jones Newswires reported that "some analysts" said that Boeing's ability to pursue big military projects is reduced because of the financial cost of the groundings. As of November 2020, banks valued Boeing's direct costs at 20 billion, and indirect costs of over 60 billion dollars (1200 aircraft) in lost sales, which may be recovered in the future at concessionary prices. On January 7, 2021, Boeing settled to pay over $2.5 billion after being charged with fraud over the company's hiding of information from safety regulators: a criminal monetary penalty of $243.6 million, $1.77 billion of damages to airline customers, and a $500 million crash-victim beneficiaries fund.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_impact_of_the_Boeing_737_MAX_groundings
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_777021950#6_845305697	Title: Financial impact of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings - Wikipedia Headings: Financial impact of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings Financial impact of the Boeing 737 MAX groundings Contents Effect on Boeing Litigation Pilots Victims' families Orders and deliveries Revenue and earnings Stock analysis Coronavirus relief Boeing suppliers Airlines Aircraft lessors Training and simulators market Aviation insurance Effect on the US economy References Content: In July 2019, Boeing desisted from a $60 billion Pentagon procurement to replace land-based nuclear missiles. Dow Jones Newswires reported that "some analysts" said that Boeing's ability to pursue big military projects is reduced because of the financial cost of the groundings. As of November 2020, banks valued Boeing's direct costs at 20 billion, and indirect costs of over 60 billion dollars (1200 aircraft) in lost sales, which may be recovered in the future at concessionary prices. On January 7, 2021, Boeing settled to pay over $2.5 billion after being charged with fraud over the company's hiding of information from safety regulators: a criminal monetary penalty of $243.6 million, $1.77 billion of damages to airline customers, and a $500 million crash-victim beneficiaries fund. Litigation Pilots In June 2019, 737 MAX pilots jointly filed a class action against Boeing for lost wages due to the grounding, claiming that Boeing attempted to cover-up design flaws with the aircraft. On October 7, 2019, Southwest Airlines Pilots Association filed a suit against Boeing, arguing it misled the airline's labor union. The association said the MAX grounding cost its pilots over $100 million in lost income, which it claims Boeing should pay. Victims' families Bereaved families of the Lion Air crash are in settlement talks with Boeing, while the Ethiopian victims' families are pursuing a jury trial. Boeing, a Chicago-based company, is the target of over 100 cases in U.S. District Court in Chicago.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_impact_of_the_Boeing_737_MAX_groundings
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_789183342#1_859489792	Title: Firehose of falsehood - Wikipedia Headings: Firehose of falsehood Firehose of falsehood Contents Characteristics Campaigns Countermeasures See also References External links Content: The high volume of messages and the use of multiple channels are effective because people are more likely to believe a story when it appears to have been reported by multiple sources. In addition to the recognizably Russian news source, RT, for example, Russia disseminates propaganda using dozens of proxy websites whose connection to RT is "disguised or downplayed." People are also more likely to believe a story when they think many others believe it, especially if those others belong to a group with which they identify. Thus, an army of trolls can influence a person's opinion by creating the false impression that a majority of that person's neighbors support a given view. Using the firehose model, according to the RAND Corporation, the Russian government has had some success in getting people to believe and spread falsehoods and disbelieve truthful reporting. The success of this approach flouts the conventional wisdom that communication is more persuasive when it is truthful, credible, and non-contradictory. Although the firehosing technique takes advantage of modern technology, it is informed by the thinking of the Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, according to literary critic Michiko Kakutani. Lenin once explained that his heated language was "calculated not to convince, but to break up the ranks of the opponent, not to correct the mistake of the opponent, but to destroy him, to wipe his organization off the face of the earth." In his biography of Lenin, historian Victor Sebestyen described him as the "godfather" of " post-truth politics ." Kakutani also cites Vladislav Surkov, a Russian businessman and propagandist.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firehose_of_falsehood
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_797336506#10_868437065	Title: First Meetings - Wikipedia Headings: First Meetings First Meetings First Meetings Contents Story list Plot summaries The Polish Boy Teacher's Pest Ender's Game (short story) Investment Counselor Characters The Polish Boy Teacher's Pest Ender's Game (short story) Investment Counselor See also References External links Content: Ender's Game (short story) This story begins as Ender is made the commander of Dragon Army at Battle School, an institution designed to make young children into military commanders against an unspecified enemy. Armies are groups of students that fight mock battles in the Battle Room, a null gravity environment, and are subdivided into "toons". Due to Ender's genius in leadership, Dragon Army dominates the competition. After his nineteenth consecutive victory, Ender is told that his Army is being broken up and his toon leaders made commanders in their turn, while he is transferred to Command School for the next stage of his education. Here, veteran Mazer Rackham tutors him in the use of a space battle simulator. Eventually, many of his former toon leaders serve under him once more. Once familiar with the simulator, they fight a series of what Mazer tells them are mock battles against a computer-controlled enemy. Ender's team wins again and again, finally destroying a planet that the enemy fleet seems to be protecting. Once the battle is over, Mazer tells Ender that all of the battles were real, the children's commands having been relayed to the extant fleet, and that he has destroyed the enemy's home world and ended the war. Investment Counselor Ever since the events of Ender's Game, Ender Wiggin has been voyaging through space at near-lightspeed.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Meetings
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_797453601#3_868564188	Title: First Mexican Republic - Wikipedia Headings: First Mexican Republic First Mexican Republic Contents Independence and immediate aftermath Rise and fall of the First Mexican Empire Provisional Government of Mexico (1823-1824) 1824 Constitution of Mexico Creating new institutions Spain and Spaniards in Mexico Politics in the era of Guadalupe Victoria Election of 1828 Presidency of Vicente Guerrero (1829) Church-State relations Conflicts with Indigenous peoples in Northern Mexico End of the First Mexican Republic Notes Further reading Content: The first president of the Republic, Guadalupe Victoria was also the only president who completed his full term in this period and in almost 30 years of independent Mexico. As in the early U.S., the president and vice president were elected separately and the men did not have to be of the same party, contributing to governmental instability. Political controversy, ever since the drafting of the constitution tended to center around whether Mexico should be a federal or a centralist state, with wider liberal and conservative causes attaching themselves to each faction respectively. General Antonio López de Santa Anna repealed the Constitution of 1824 on October 23, 1835, and the Federal Republic became a unitary state, the Centralist Republic. The unitary regime was formally established on December 30, 1836, with the enactment of the seven constitutional laws. Contents 1 Independence and immediate aftermath 2 Rise and fall of the First Mexican Empire 3 Provisional Government of Mexico (1823-1824) 4 1824 Constitution of Mexico 5 Creating new institutions 6 Spain and Spaniards in Mexico 7 Politics in the era of Guadalupe Victoria 8 Election of 1828 9 Presidency of Vicente Guerrero (1829) 10 Church-State relations 11 Conflicts with Indigenous peoples in Northern Mexico 12 End of the First Mexican Republic 13 Notes 14 Further reading Independence and immediate aftermath Flag of the Army of Three Guarantees, 1821 The Spanish overseas possession of the Viceroyalty of New Spain lasted for 300 years, from 1521 with the fall of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and the foundation of Mexico City until the collapse of the viceroyalty in following years of civil war and military stalemate. An insurgency for independence from Spain lasted from the initial 1810 mass revolt, led by secular cleric Miguel Hidalgo and continued under another secular cleric, José María Morelos, and carried on the hot country of Mexico's south by Vicente Guerrero. Augustin Iturbide, a royalist military officer born in New Spain of Spanish parents, made a strategic alliance with insurgent leader Guerrero under the Plan of Iguala, in which the former foes fought in tandem to oust Spanish rule. The plan proclaimed Mexico a nation-state; Roman Catholicism as the sole religion;	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Mexican_Republic
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_797453601#4_868567237	Title: First Mexican Republic - Wikipedia Headings: First Mexican Republic First Mexican Republic Contents Independence and immediate aftermath Rise and fall of the First Mexican Empire Provisional Government of Mexico (1823-1824) 1824 Constitution of Mexico Creating new institutions Spain and Spaniards in Mexico Politics in the era of Guadalupe Victoria Election of 1828 Presidency of Vicente Guerrero (1829) Church-State relations Conflicts with Indigenous peoples in Northern Mexico End of the First Mexican Republic Notes Further reading Content: Contents 1 Independence and immediate aftermath 2 Rise and fall of the First Mexican Empire 3 Provisional Government of Mexico (1823-1824) 4 1824 Constitution of Mexico 5 Creating new institutions 6 Spain and Spaniards in Mexico 7 Politics in the era of Guadalupe Victoria 8 Election of 1828 9 Presidency of Vicente Guerrero (1829) 10 Church-State relations 11 Conflicts with Indigenous peoples in Northern Mexico 12 End of the First Mexican Republic 13 Notes 14 Further reading Independence and immediate aftermath Flag of the Army of Three Guarantees, 1821 The Spanish overseas possession of the Viceroyalty of New Spain lasted for 300 years, from 1521 with the fall of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and the foundation of Mexico City until the collapse of the viceroyalty in following years of civil war and military stalemate. An insurgency for independence from Spain lasted from the initial 1810 mass revolt, led by secular cleric Miguel Hidalgo and continued under another secular cleric, José María Morelos, and carried on the hot country of Mexico's south by Vicente Guerrero. Augustin Iturbide, a royalist military officer born in New Spain of Spanish parents, made a strategic alliance with insurgent leader Guerrero under the Plan of Iguala, in which the former foes fought in tandem to oust Spanish rule. The plan proclaimed Mexico a nation-state; Roman Catholicism as the sole religion; the equality of Spaniards those born in Mexico ( Americanos ), thereby abolishing colonial-era legal racial designations; and was to be a constitutional monarchy. The joint forces of the insurgent guerrillas and the royal army formed the Army of the Three Guarantees, and royal rule collapsed in New Spain. The incoming viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba, recognizing New Spain's independence. Iturbide entered Mexico City in triumph on September 27, 1821.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Mexican_Republic
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_811745076#5_885325570	Title: Variety store - Wikipedia Headings: Variety store Variety store Contents History North America Five and dime stores Dollar stores United Kingdom Global chains Economics Pricing and margins Supply Demography Around the world See also References External links Content: Grocery stores and drug stores sold more and more candy. The last US Woolworth's closed in 1997. Newberry's went bankrupt in 1992 and the brand disappeared in 2002. 300 McCrory stores, many of which being Newberry's, closed in 1997. Dollar stores Starting in the late 1990s, dollar stores had started expanding enough to gain the attention of the national press. They were popular not only due to their value, but because freestanding smaller stores were located in small towns, downtowns, and across the cities and suburbs, they were often convenient compared to going to the mall. They continued to grow and by 2019, for example, Dollar Tree had higher annual sales than Macy's. Dollar and variety store revenue reached $77 billion in 2018. As of 2018, main dollar store chains in the U.S. were Dollar General, Dollar Tree (which owns Family Dollar ), the 99 Cents Only Stores, and Five Below. Dollar stores are experiencing an increase of revenue, with around 14,000 Dollar Tree locations in the U.S. in 2018 with plans to open over a hundred more;	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_and_dime
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_824668639#19_903170363	Title: Flatwoods, West Virginia - Wikipedia Headings: Flatwoods, West Virginia Flatwoods, West Virginia Contents History Geography Demographics 2010 census 2000 census In popular culture References Content: ^ "US Gazetteer files 2010". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on January 12, 2012. Retrieved 2013-01-24. ^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. v t e Municipalities and communities of Braxton County, West Virginia, United States County seat: Sutton Towns Burnsville Flatwoods Gassaway Sutton Unincorporated communities Arnett Bison Bonnie Braxton Canfield Caress Centralia Chapel Clem Copen Corley Cutlips Dingy Duck Dutch Elmira Falls Mill Flower Frametown Gem Gip Glendon Heaters Herold Home Hyers Joppa Laurel Fork Letch Little Birch Little Otter McNutt Napier Newville Orlando ‡ Riffle Rollyson Rosedale Servia Strange Creek Tague Tesla Thrash Vernon Waggy ‡ Wilsie Ghost towns Bower Bulltown Exchange Palmer Sleith Footnotes ‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties United States portal v t e Municipalities of West Virginia Cities Beckley Benwood Bluefield Bridgeport Buckhannon Cameron Ceredo Charles Town Charleston Chester Clarksburg Dunbar Elkins Fairmont Follansbee Gary Glen Dale Grafton Hinton Huntington Hurricane Kenova Keyser Kingwood Lewisburg Logan Madison Mannington Marmet Martinsburg McMechen Montgomery Morgantown Moundsville Mount Hope Mullens New Cumberland New Martinsville Nitro Oak Hill Paden City Parkersburg Parsons Pennsboro Petersburg Philippi Pleasant Valley Point Pleasant Princeton Ranson Ravenswood Richwood Ripley Romney Ronceverte Salem Shinnston Sistersville Smithers South Charleston Spencer St. Albans St. Marys Stonewood Thomas Vienna War Weirton Welch Wellsburg Weston Westover Wheeling White Sulphur Springs Williamson Williamstown Towns Addison (Webster Springs) Albright Alderson Anawalt Anmoore Ansted Athens Auburn Bancroft Barrackville Belmont Bath (Berkeley Springs) Bayard Belington Belle Bethany Beverly Blacksville Bolivar Bradshaw Bramwell Brandonville Bruceton Mills Buffalo Burnsville Cairo Camden-on-Gauley Capon Bridge Carpendale Cedar Grove Chapmanville Chesapeake Clay Clendenin Cowen Danville Davis Davy Delbarton Durbin East Bank Eleanor Elizabeth Elk Garden Ellenboro Fairview Falling Spring Farmington Fayetteville Flatwoods Flemington Fort Gay Franklin Friendly Gassaway Gauley Bridge Gilbert Glasgow Glenville Grant Town Grantsville Granville Hambleton Hamlin Handley Harman Harpers Ferry Harrisville Hartford City Hedgesville Henderson Hendricks Hillsboro Hundred Huttonsville Iaeger Jane Lew Junior Kermit Kimball Leon Lester Lost Creek Lumberport Mabscott Man Marlinton Mason Masontown Matewan Matoaka Meadow Bridge Middlebourne Mill Creek Milton Mitchell Heights Monongah Montrose Moorefield New Haven Newburg North Hills Northfork Nutter Fort Oakvale Oceana Paw Paw Pax Peterstown Piedmont Pine Grove Pineville Poca Pratt Pullman Quinwood Rainelle Reedsville Reedy Ridgeley Rivesville Rowlesburg Rupert Sand Fork Shepherdstown Smithfield Sophia Star City Summersville Sutton Sylvester Terra Alta Thurmond Triadelphia Tunnelton Union Wardensville Wayne West Hamlin West Liberty West Logan West Milford West Union White Hall Whitesville Winfield Womelsdorf (Coalton) Worthington Villages Barboursville Beech Bottom Bethlehem Clearview Valley Grove Windsor Heights Authority control LCCN: n2005009238 VIAF:	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatwoods,_West_Virginia
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_860270949#11_947248283	Title: Food vs. fuel - Wikipedia Headings: Food vs. fuel Food vs. fuel Contents Food price inflation Proposed causes Ethanol fuel as an oxygenate additive Other factors Government regulations of food and fuel markets Oil price increases US government policy Freeze on first generation biofuel production Non-food crops for biofuel Biodiesel Bioalcohols Bioprotein Biofuel from food byproducts and coproducts Biofuel subsidies and tariffs Reduce farmland reserves and set asides Sustainable production of biofuels Continuation of the status quo Impact on developing countries National Corn Growers Association Controversy within the international system The 2007 controversy: Ethanol diplomacy in the Americas The 2008 controversy: Global food prices See also Bibliography References External links Content: This demand shift took place at a time when oil prices were already significantly rising. Other factors That food prices went up at the same time fuel prices went up is not surprising and should not be entirely blamed on biofuels. Energy costs are a significant cost for fertilizer, farming, and food distribution. Also, China and other countries have had significant increases in their imports as their economies have grown. Sugar is one of the main feedstocks for ethanol and prices are down from 2 years ago. Part of the food price increase for international food commodities measured in US dollars is due to the dollar being devalued. Protectionism is also an important contributor to price increases. 36% of world grain goes as fodder to feed animals, rather than people. Over long time periods population growth and climate change could cause food prices to go up. However, these factors have been around for many years and food prices have jumped up in the last 3 years, so their contribution to the current problem is min	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_vs._fuel
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_903171253#2_991616628	Title: Forty-Eighters - Wikipedia Headings: Forty-Eighters Forty-Eighters Contents In the Americas Brazil Chile United States In Australia In Europe Belgium France Netherlands Switzerland United Kingdom Wandering Forty-Eighters See also Bibliography References External links Content: Contents 1 In the Americas 1.1 Brazil 1.2 Chile 1.3 United States 2 In Australia 3 In Europe 3.1 Belgium 3.2 France 3.3 Netherlands 3.4 Switzerland 3.5 United Kingdom 4 Wandering Forty-Eighters 5 See also 6 Bibliography 7 References 8 External links In the Americas Brazil Disappointed by the failure of the Prussian Revolution in 1848, the biologist Fritz Müller realised there might be implications for his life and career. As a result, he emigrated to South Brazil in 1852, with his brother August and their wives, to join Hermann Blumenau 's new colony in the State of Santa Catarina. There he studied the natural history of the Atlantic forest in that region, and wrote the book Facts and Arguments for Darwin . Chile See also: German colonization of Valdivia, Osorno and Llanquihue After being advised by Bernhard Eunom Philippi among others, Karl Anwandter emigrated to Chile following the failed revolution. In 1850 he settled in Valdivia. He was joined there by numerous other German immigrants of the period. United States St. Louis Turnverein, 1860 Germans migrated to developing midwestern and southern cities, developing the beer and wine industries in several locations, and advancing journalism; others developed thriving agricultural communities. Galveston, Texas, was a port of entry to many Forty-Eighters.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forty-Eighters
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_906749273#0_995958282	Title: Founder's syndrome - Wikipedia Headings: Founder's syndrome Founder's syndrome Contents Problem Symptoms Responses Novel management & leadership Plan of action Criticism Further reading See also References Content: Founder's syndrome - Wikipedia Founder's syndrome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Problems in an organization caused by its founder (s) retaining control for too long Not to be confused with Founder effect. Founder's syndrome (also founderitis) is the difficulty faced by organizations, and in particular young companies such as start-ups, where one or more founders maintain disproportionate power and influence following the effective initial establishment of the organization, leading to a wide range of problems. The syndrome occurs in both non-profit and for-profit organizations or companies. Contents 1 Problem 2 Symptoms 3 Responses 3.1 Novel management & leadership 3.2 Plan of action 4 Criticism 5 Further reading 6 See also 7 References Problem The passion and charisma of the founder (s), often sources of the initial creativity and productivity of the organization, can become limiting or a destructive factor. It may simply limit further growth and success, or it may lead to bitter factionalism and divisions as the scale of demands made on the organization increases, or it may result in outright failure. Symptoms An organization suffering from founder's syndrome typically presents many of the following symptoms: The organization is strongly identified with the founder; and a result sometimes believed to be related to the founder's ego. Obsessive leadership style compared to a more standard behavior. Autocratic decision-making (Autocratic Management style ): Founders tend to make all decisions in early start-up companies, big and small, without a formal process or feedback from others.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founder%27s_syndrome
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_906749273#1_995960352	Title: Founder's syndrome - Wikipedia Headings: Founder's syndrome Founder's syndrome Contents Problem Symptoms Responses Novel management & leadership Plan of action Criticism Further reading See also References Content: Symptoms An organization suffering from founder's syndrome typically presents many of the following symptoms: The organization is strongly identified with the founder; and a result sometimes believed to be related to the founder's ego. Obsessive leadership style compared to a more standard behavior. Autocratic decision-making (Autocratic Management style ): Founders tend to make all decisions in early start-up companies, big and small, without a formal process or feedback from others. Decisions are made in crisis mode, with little forward planning. Staff meetings are held generally to rally the troops, get status reports, and assign tasks. There is little meaningful strategic development, or shared executive agreement on objectives with limited or a complete lack of professional development. Typically, there is little organizational infrastructure in place, and what is there is not used correctly. Furthermore, the founder has difficulty making decisions that benefit the organization because of their affiliation.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founder%27s_syndrome
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_906749273#2_995961785	Title: Founder's syndrome - Wikipedia Headings: Founder's syndrome Founder's syndrome Contents Problem Symptoms Responses Novel management & leadership Plan of action Criticism Further reading See also References Content: Decisions are made in crisis mode, with little forward planning. Staff meetings are held generally to rally the troops, get status reports, and assign tasks. There is little meaningful strategic development, or shared executive agreement on objectives with limited or a complete lack of professional development. Typically, there is little organizational infrastructure in place, and what is there is not used correctly. Furthermore, the founder has difficulty making decisions that benefit the organization because of their affiliation. Higher levels of Micromanagement by checking on employees or colleagues subject matter work instead of maintaining and evolving the overall company's picture. Entrepreneurs show higher levels of bias (e.g. overconfidence) than do managers in established organizations. There is no succession plan. A failing so-called leadership transition within first couple of years leading to consequences such as trust, moral, unforeseen future for the business. The founder has difficulty with adapting to changes as the organization matures.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founder%27s_syndrome
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_906749273#3_995963259	Title: Founder's syndrome - Wikipedia Headings: Founder's syndrome Founder's syndrome Contents Problem Symptoms Responses Novel management & leadership Plan of action Criticism Further reading See also References Content: Higher levels of Micromanagement by checking on employees or colleagues subject matter work instead of maintaining and evolving the overall company's picture. Entrepreneurs show higher levels of bias (e.g. overconfidence) than do managers in established organizations. There is no succession plan. A failing so-called leadership transition within first couple of years leading to consequences such as trust, moral, unforeseen future for the business. The founder has difficulty with adapting to changes as the organization matures. The culture of the leadership team and company plays an important role for success or failure. Often the founder's idea is central to the initial business and clients of the company, so that if markets change, the need for the initial idea might vanish. Key staff and board members are typically selected by the founder and are often friends and colleagues of the founder. Their role is to support the founder, rather than to lead the mission. Staff may be chosen due to their personal loyalty to the founder rather than skills, organizational fit, or experience.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founder%27s_syndrome
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_906749273#4_995964759	Title: Founder's syndrome - Wikipedia Headings: Founder's syndrome Founder's syndrome Contents Problem Symptoms Responses Novel management & leadership Plan of action Criticism Further reading See also References Content: The culture of the leadership team and company plays an important role for success or failure. Often the founder's idea is central to the initial business and clients of the company, so that if markets change, the need for the initial idea might vanish. Key staff and board members are typically selected by the founder and are often friends and colleagues of the founder. Their role is to support the founder, rather than to lead the mission. Staff may be chosen due to their personal loyalty to the founder rather than skills, organizational fit, or experience. Board members may be under-qualified, under-informed or intimidated and will typically be unable to answer basic questions without checking first. Professionally trained and talented recruits, often recruited to resolve difficulties in the organization, find that they are not able to contribute in an effective and professional way. The founder begins to believe their own press/ PR and other marketing related issues. The founder, who is usually the CEO or managing director, suffers HiPPO (Highest-paid-person's opinion), which means that often their ideas, decisions, etc. keep winning over the actual better ideas, decisions, etc.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founder%27s_syndrome
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_906749273#7_995969464	Title: Founder's syndrome - Wikipedia Headings: Founder's syndrome Founder's syndrome Contents Problem Symptoms Responses Novel management & leadership Plan of action Criticism Further reading See also References Content: The organization becomes increasingly reactive, rather than proactive. Alternatively, the founder or the board may recognize the issue and take effective action. Responses Novel management & leadership There exists no single cure against Founder's syndrome, as every new business endeavor is different, however companies (newly founded or larger organizations with internal groups) are providing new insights and answer to the problem. A good example for better managing is Gallup 's 12: The Elements of Great Managing, which is a survey-based work or Google's re: Work project, which is available to internal managers and the public. Plan of action Coping with founder's syndrome requires discussion of the problem, a plan of action, and interventions by the founder, the board, and/or by others involved in the organization. The objective of the plan should be to allow the organization to make a successful transition to a mature organizational model without damage to either the organization itself or the individuals concerned. Criticism Despite the negative and positive symptoms listed above, according to one study focused on "knowledge-intensive technology" companies, founders with a so-called hands-on management style, which can be interpreted as micromanagement or obsessive or similar, are more likely to retain employees and see their firms thrive. On the contrary to the ego issue, overconfidence can be seen as a positive attribute.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founder%27s_syndrome
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_906749273#8_995971324	Title: Founder's syndrome - Wikipedia Headings: Founder's syndrome Founder's syndrome Contents Problem Symptoms Responses Novel management & leadership Plan of action Criticism Further reading See also References Content: Work project, which is available to internal managers and the public. Plan of action Coping with founder's syndrome requires discussion of the problem, a plan of action, and interventions by the founder, the board, and/or by others involved in the organization. The objective of the plan should be to allow the organization to make a successful transition to a mature organizational model without damage to either the organization itself or the individuals concerned. Criticism Despite the negative and positive symptoms listed above, according to one study focused on "knowledge-intensive technology" companies, founders with a so-called hands-on management style, which can be interpreted as micromanagement or obsessive or similar, are more likely to retain employees and see their firms thrive. On the contrary to the ego issue, overconfidence can be seen as a positive attribute. Some persons provide opposite recommendations and advice such as "Do Everything and Anything" or "It's your company - You decide." Further reading DeMarco, Tom. Hruschka, Peter. Lister, Timothy, "Adrenaline Junkies and Template Zombies: Understanding Patterns of Project Behavior, Dorset House, ISBN 0932633676 Postmortem culture:	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founder%27s_syndrome
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_935007227#4_1026029913	Title: Frankfurt Parliament - Wikipedia Headings: Frankfurt Parliament Frankfurt Parliament Contents Background Napoleonic upheavals and German Confederation The 1840s The March Revolution The Pre-Parliament Preparing for the Elections Organisation of the Nationalversammlung Assembly in the St. Paul's Church Form and Function of the Parliament Presidents of the National Assembly Calculating the number of deputies Social background of the deputies Factions and committees Provisional central power Formation of the Central Power Practical tasks of the Provisional Central Power Prime Ministers of the Provisional Government Relations with the National Assembly Main political issues Schleswig-Holstein Question and development of political camps Opening hostilities Arranging an armistice The Septemberunruhen The German Reichsflotte and financial problems The German army and rising confidence of the princes The military parade of August 6th The Cologne cathedral festival Oktoberaufstand and execution of Blum Defining "Germany" Schleswig Bohemia and Moravia Posen and the Demarkationslinie Limburg Austrian Littoral and Trentino Auschwitz and Zator Greater German or smaller German solution Austria's protests Drafting the Imperial Constitution Basic rights Qualifying the Emperor The first and second readings Passage of the Constitution Head of state and Kaiserdeputation Rump parliament and dissolution The May Uprisings Break with the Provisional Central Power Removal of the National Assembly to Stuttgart The Provisional Regency and People's Army Dissolution Aftermath Long-term political effects See also Bibliography References Sources Content: The unrest that resulted from the 1830 French July Revolution led to a temporary reversal of that trend, but after the demonstration for civic rights and national unity at the 1832 Hambach Festival, and the abortive attempt at an armed rising in the 1833 Frankfurter Wachensturm, the pressure on representatives of constitutional or democratic ideas was raised through measures such as censorship and bans on public assemblies. The 1840s Main article: Vormärz The 1840s began with the Rhine Crisis, a primarily diplomatic scandal caused by the threat from the French prime minister Adolphe Thiers to invade Germany in a dispute between Paris and the four other Great Powers (including Austria and Prussia) over the Middle East. The threat alarmed the German Confederate Diet ( Bundesversammlung ), which was made up of representatives of the individual princes, and the only institution representing the whole German Confederation. The Diet voted to extend the Fortresses of the German Confederation ( Bundesfestungen) at Mainz, Ulm, and Rastatt, while the Kingdom of Bavaria developed the fortress at Germersheim. Patriotic feelings of the public were effectively captured in the poem Die Wacht am Rhein ( Watch on the Rhine) by Max Schneckenburger, and in songs such as "Der Deutsche Rhein" and the " Lied der Deutschen ", the national anthem of Germany since 1922. The mid-1840s saw an increased frequency of internal crises. This was partially the result of large-scale political developments, such as the escalation of the future of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein and the erection of the Bundesfestungen. Additionally, a series of bad harvests in parts of Germany, notably the southwest, led to widely spread famine-related unrest in 1845 and 1846. The changes caused by the beginnings of industrialisation exacerbated social and economic tensions considerably, especially in Saxony and Silesia .	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_Parliament
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_937198940#0_1028731657	Title: Franklin Dam controversy - Wikipedia Headings: Franklin Dam controversy Franklin Dam controversy Contents Announcement of the plans Attempts at compromise Inquiry, referendum, and Tasmanian state election The campaigns broadens Blockade Resolution References Further reading External links Content: Franklin Dam controversy - Wikipedia Franklin Dam controversy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Proposed dam in Tasmania, Australia Franklin Dam controversy The iconic campaign sticker "No Dams In S-W Tasmania · World Heritage ·" was used to show opposition to the Franklin Dam in the early 1980s Date circa 1978-1981 Location Tasmania, Australia Type Political controversy Challenge of constitutional powers Theme Environmental debate Participants The Wilderness Society (Australia) Tasmanian Conservation Trust Australian Conservation Foundation Tasmanian Government Australian Government Outcome The High Court ruled that the World Heritage (Western Tasmania Wilderness) Regulations (Cth) and the World Heritage Properties Conservation Act, 1983 (Cth) were within constitutional powers, rendering it unlawful for the Hydro-Electric Commission of Tasmania to construct the dam, except with the consent of a Commonwealth Minister. Arrests 1,217 Litigation Commonwealth v Tasmania aka "The Tasmanian Dam Case" The Franklin Dam or Gordon-below-Franklin Dam project was a proposed dam on the Gordon River in Tasmania, Australia, that was never constructed. The movement that eventually led to the project's cancellation became one of the most significant environmental campaigns in Australian history. The dam was proposed for the purpose of generating hydroelectricity. The resulting new electricity generation capacity would have been 180 megawatts (240,000 hp). The proposed construction would have subsequently impacted upon the environmentally sensitive Franklin River, which joins the Gordon nearby. During the campaign against the dam, both areas were listed on the UNESCO World Heritage Area register. The campaign that followed led to the consolidation of the small green movement that had been born out of a campaign against the building of three dams on Lake Pedder in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Over the five years between the announcement of the dam proposal in 1978 and the axing of the plans in 1983, there was vigorous debate between the pro- and anti-dam lobbies, with large protests from both sides. In December 1982, the dam site was occupied by protesters, leading to widespread arrests and greater publicity.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Dam_controversy
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_944981773#8_1037330794	Title: Freddie Stroma - Wikipedia Headings: Freddie Stroma Freddie Stroma Contents Early life Career Personal life Filmography Discography References External links Content: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi Brit Vayner 2018 Second Act Ron Ebsen Television roles Year Title Role Notes 2006 Mayo Lucas Harper aka. The Gil Mayo Mysteries; episode: 1.7 2006 Casualty James Huppert Episode: " Happy Hour" 2007 The Last Flight to Kuwait Gregor Schatz Television film 2015–2016 Unreal Adam Cromwell Main role (season 1); guest role (season 2) 2016 Game of Thrones Dickon Tarly Episode: " Blood of My Blood " 2017 Time After Time H. G. Wells Lead role 2019 Grand Hotel Oliver 2 episodes 2020 Bridgerton Prince Friedrich 3 episodes 2021 The Crew Jake Martin Main role Discography Year Song Album 2011 "Knockin" A Cinderella Story: Once Upon a Song "Possibilities" A Cinderella Story: Once Upon a Song References ^ a b "The Old Radleian" (PDF). Radley College.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie_Stroma
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_947967376#20_1040772103	Title: Fredericksburg, Indiana - Wikipedia Headings: Fredericksburg, Indiana Fredericksburg, Indiana Contents History Geography Demographics 2010 census 2000 census Notable people References Content: Retrieved 2011-04-23. ^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2016. v t e Municipalities and communities of Washington County, Indiana, United States County seat: Salem City Salem Towns Campbellsburg Hardinsburg Little York Livonia New Pekin Saltillo Townships Brown Franklin Gibson Howard Jackson Jefferson Madison Monroe Pierce Polk Posey Vernon Washington CDP Fredericksburg Unincorporated communities Bartle Becks Mill Blue River Brimstone Corners Bunker Hill Canton Claysville Daisy Hill Fair Acres Fairview Farabee Fayetteville Georgetown Gooseport Haleysbury Harristown Highland Hitchcock Kossuth Martin Heights Martinsburg McCol Place McKinley Millport Mount Carmel New Liberty New Philadelphia New Salem Old Pekin Organ Springs Plattsburg Prowsville Pumpkin Center Rosebud Rush Creek Valley Shorts Corner Smedley South Boston Indiana portal United States portal Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fredericksburg,_Indiana&oldid=992682211 " Categories: Towns in Washington County, Indiana Populated places established in 1815 1815 establishments in Indiana Territory Former municipalities in Indiana Populated places disestablished in 2012 Hidden categories: Pages with non-numeric formatnum arguments Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Pages using infobox settlement with possible area code list	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredericksburg,_Indiana
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_948309332#9_1041329800	Title: Fredonian Rebellion - Wikipedia Headings: Fredonian Rebellion Fredonian Rebellion Contents Background Prelude Conflict Aftermath Popular culture Notes See also References Sources Content: Mistakenly believing that he had the authority to determine the validity of existing land claims, Edwards demanded written proof of ownership in September or the land would be forfeited and sold at auction. His action was at least partially driven by prejudice; Edwards scorned those who were poorer or of a different race. By removing less-prosperous settlers, he could assign their lands to wealthy planters, like himself, from the Southern United States. Very few of the English-speaking residents had valid titles. Those who had not arrived as filibusters had been duped by fraudulent land speculators. Most of the Spanish-speaking landowners had lived on grants made to their families 70 or more years previously and were unable to produce any paperwork. Anticipating the potential conflict between the new empresario and the long-time residents of the area, the acting alcalde of the municipality, Luis Procela, and the municipality clerk, Jose Antonio Sepulveda, began validating old Spanish and Mexican land titles, a function legally assigned to the state land commissioner. In response, Edwards accused the men of forging deeds, further angering the residents. By December 1825, Edwards had recruited 50 families to emigrate from the United States.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredonian_Rebellion
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_951585248#0_1044899619	Title: Free good - Wikipedia Headings: Free good Free good See also References Content: Free good - Wikipedia Free good From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search A free good is a good that is not scarce, and therefore is available without limit. A free good is available in as great a quantity as desired with zero opportunity cost to society . A good that is made available at zero price is not necessarily a free good. For example, a shop might give away its stock in its promotion, but producing these goods would still have required the use of scarce resources. Examples of free goods are ideas and works that are reproducible at zero cost, or almost zero cost. For example, if someone invents a new device, many people could copy this invention, with no danger of this "resource" running out. Other examples include computer programs and web pages. Earlier schools of economic thought proposed a third type of free good: resources that are scarce but so abundant in nature that there is enough for everyone to have as much as they want. Examples in textbooks included seawater and air .	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_good
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_973381748#18_1067747286	Title: Friendly, West Virginia - Wikipedia Headings: Friendly, West Virginia Friendly, West Virginia Contents History Geography Demographics 2010 census 2000 census See also References Content: Archived from the original on 2012-07-02. Retrieved 2013-01-24. ^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015. v t e Municipalities and communities of Tyler County, West Virginia, United States County seat: Middlebourne Cities Paden City ‡ Sistersville Towns Friendly Middlebourne Unincorporated communities Adonis Akron Bens Run Bert Big Moses Blue Booher Braden Centerville Conaway Dale Everett Frew Iuka Josephs Mills Kidwell Link Little Long Reach Luzon McKim Meeker Plum Run Polard Pursley Sancho Sandusky Shiloh Shirley Stringtown Sunnyside Tyler Vincen ‡ Watkins Wick Wilbur Footnotes ‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties United States portal v t e Municipalities of West Virginia Cities Beckley Benwood Bluefield Bridgeport Buckhannon Cameron Ceredo Charles Town Charleston Chester Clarksburg Dunbar Elkins Fairmont Follansbee Gary Glen Dale Grafton Hinton Huntington Hurricane Kenova Keyser Kingwood Lewisburg Logan Madison Mannington Marmet Martinsburg McMechen Montgomery Morgantown Moundsville Mount Hope Mullens New Cumberland New Martinsville Nitro Oak Hill Paden City Parkersburg Parsons Pennsboro Petersburg Philippi Pleasant Valley Point Pleasant Princeton Ranson Ravenswood Richwood Ripley Romney Ronceverte Salem Shinnston Sistersville Smithers South Charleston Spencer St. Albans St. Marys Stonewood Thomas Vienna War Weirton Welch Wellsburg Weston Westover Wheeling White Sulphur Springs Williamson Williamstown Towns Addison (Webster Springs) Albright Alderson Anawalt Anmoore Ansted Athens Auburn Bancroft Barrackville Belmont Bath (Berkeley Springs) Bayard Belington Belle Bethany Beverly Blacksville Bolivar Bradshaw Bramwell Brandonville Bruceton Mills Buffalo Burnsville Cairo Camden-on-Gauley Capon Bridge Carpendale Cedar Grove Chapmanville Chesapeake Clay Clendenin Cowen Danville Davis Davy Delbarton Durbin East Bank Eleanor Elizabeth Elk Garden Ellenboro Fairview Falling Spring Farmington Fayetteville Flatwoods Flemington Fort Gay Franklin Friendly Gassaway Gauley Bridge Gilbert Glasgow Glenville Grant Town Grantsville Granville Hambleton Hamlin Handley Harman Harpers Ferry Harrisville Hartford City Hedgesville Henderson Hendricks Hillsboro Hundred Huttonsville Iaeger Jane Lew Junior Kermit Kimball Leon Lester Lost Creek Lumberport Mabscott Man Marlinton Mason Masontown Matewan Matoaka Meadow Bridge Middlebourne Mill Creek Milton Mitchell Heights Monongah Montrose Moorefield New Haven Newburg North Hills Northfork Nutter Fort Oakvale Oceana Paw Paw Pax Peterstown Piedmont Pine Grove Pineville Poca Pratt Pullman Quinwood Rainelle Reedsville Reedy Ridgeley Rivesville Rowlesburg Rupert Sand Fork Shepherdstown Smithfield Sophia Star City Summersville Sutton Sylvester Terra Alta Thurmond Triadelphia Tunnelton Union Wardensville Wayne West Hamlin West Liberty West Logan West Milford West Union White Hall Whitesville Winfield Womelsdorf (Coalton) Worthington Villages Barboursville Beech Bottom Bethlehem Clearview Valley Grove Windsor Heights Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friendly,_West_Virginia&oldid=1020139851 " Categories: Towns in West Virginia Towns in Tyler County, West Virginia West Virginia populated places on the Ohio River Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata AC with 0 elements	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendly,_West_Virginia
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_992904128#0_1092265390	Title: Functional zoning - Wikipedia Headings: Functional zoning Functional zoning References Content: Functional zoning - Wikipedia Functional zoning From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: " Functional zoning" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) Functional zoning or functional city zoning is a method used for dividing land use by its function. Typically, land use is divided in two ways, by its function and by its physical characteristics. An example of functional zoning would be an area that has designated zones based on a function such as an industrial zone, a recreational zone and a residential zone. An example of an area zoned by its physical characteristics is defined in terms of characteristics like development density, minimum lot size, and building coverage, placement and height. Functional zoning tends to create or increase car dependency, while mixed-use zoning tends to enable walking, making it more sustainable. It has been criticized for causing the squandering of land, energy, and time.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_zoning
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_992904128#1_1092266911	Title: Functional zoning - Wikipedia Headings: Functional zoning Functional zoning References Content: Typically, land use is divided in two ways, by its function and by its physical characteristics. An example of functional zoning would be an area that has designated zones based on a function such as an industrial zone, a recreational zone and a residential zone. An example of an area zoned by its physical characteristics is defined in terms of characteristics like development density, minimum lot size, and building coverage, placement and height. Functional zoning tends to create or increase car dependency, while mixed-use zoning tends to enable walking, making it more sustainable. It has been criticized for causing the squandering of land, energy, and time. References ^ a b cDubrova, Stanislav; Podlipskiy, Ivan; Kurilenko, Vitaliy; Siabato, Willington. " Functional city zoning.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_zoning
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1000319598#4_1101084321	Title: Futurist architecture - Wikipedia Headings: Futurist architecture Futurist architecture Contents History of Italian Futurism Italian Futuristic artists and architects Art Deco Main article: Art Deco § Architecture Futurism after World War II Googie architecture Neo-Futurism Main article: Neo-Futurism References Sources External links Content: The Chrysler Building is a notable example of Art Deco futurist architecture. Futurism after World War II Googie architecture Main article: Googie architecture After World War II, Futurism was considerably weakened and redefined itself thanks to the enthusiasm towards the Space Age, the Atomic Age, the car culture, and the wide use of plastic. For example, this trend is found in the architecture of Googies in the 1950s in California. Futurism in this case is not a style, but a rather free and uninhibited architectural approach, which is why it was reinterpreted and transformed by generations of architects the following decades, but in general it includes amazing shapes with dynamic lines and sharp contrasts, and the use of technologically advanced materials. Neo-Futurism Main article: Neo-Futurism Pioneered from late 1960s and early 1970s by Finnish architects Eero Saarinen; and Alvar Aalto, American architect Adrian Wilson and Charles Luckman; Danish architects Henning Larsen and Jørn Utzon; the architectural movement was later named Neo-Futurism by French architect Denis Laming.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurist_architecture
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1004237783#0_1105402882	Title: G. Zachary Terwilliger - Wikipedia Headings: G. Zachary Terwilliger G. Zachary Terwilliger Contents Education Legal career United States attorney Personal life See also References External links Content: G. Zachary Terwilliger - Wikipedia G. Zachary Terwilliger From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search American attorney G. Zachary Terwilliger United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia In office May 25, 2018 – January 15, 2021 (Interim through August 28, 2018) President Donald Trump Preceded by Dana Boente Succeeded by Raj Parekh (acting) Personal details Born George Zachary Terwilliger ( 1981-03-22) March 22, 1981 (age 40) Washington, D.C. Mother Carol Terwilliger Father George J. Terwilliger III Education University of Virginia ( BA) College of William and Mary ( JD) George Zachary Terwilliger (born March 22, 1981) is an American attorney who served as the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia from May 25, 2018 to January 15, 2021. Contents 1 Education 2 Legal career 3 United States attorney 4 Personal life 5 See also 6 References 7 External links Education Terwilliger received his bachelor of arts degree from the University of Virginia and his juris doctor, with highest honors, from the William and Mary School of Law. Legal career After his graduation from law school, Terwilliger served as a law clerk for Chief Judge Kevin Michael Moore of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida. He previously served as an assistant United States attorney in the Eastern District of Virginia for approximately nine years, where he prosecuted organized crime, human trafficking, complex violent crime, and financial fraud offenses. He also served as leader on multiple, regional task forces as well as counselor to the U.S. attorney. During his time as an assistant United States attorney, he was detailed to the Senate Judiciary Committee where he served as a criminal counsel to Chairman Charles Grassley . Prior to becoming a U.S. attorney, Terwilliger served as an associate deputy attorney general in the Office of the Deputy Attorney General with responsibility for overseeing aspects of the department's Criminal Division and management of staff within the Office of Deputy Attorney General. United States attorney On May 24, 2018, United States Attorney General Jeff Sessions named Terwilliger as the interim U.S. attorney. Senators Tim Kaine and Mark Warner recommended Terwilliger to serve permanently as United States attorney. On July 13, 2018, President Donald Trump announced his intent to nominate Terwilliger to be the U.S. attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Zachary_Terwilliger
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1004237783#1_1105405815	Title: G. Zachary Terwilliger - Wikipedia Headings: G. Zachary Terwilliger G. Zachary Terwilliger Contents Education Legal career United States attorney Personal life See also References External links Content: During his time as an assistant United States attorney, he was detailed to the Senate Judiciary Committee where he served as a criminal counsel to Chairman Charles Grassley . Prior to becoming a U.S. attorney, Terwilliger served as an associate deputy attorney general in the Office of the Deputy Attorney General with responsibility for overseeing aspects of the department's Criminal Division and management of staff within the Office of Deputy Attorney General. United States attorney On May 24, 2018, United States Attorney General Jeff Sessions named Terwilliger as the interim U.S. attorney. Senators Tim Kaine and Mark Warner recommended Terwilliger to serve permanently as United States attorney. On July 13, 2018, President Donald Trump announced his intent to nominate Terwilliger to be the U.S. attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia. On July 17, 2018, his nomination was sent to the United States Senate. On August 23, 2018, his nomination was reported out of committee by a voice vote. On August 28, 2018, the United States Senate confirmed his nomination by a voice vote. On January 5, 2020, The United States Attorney General's Office released a statement confirming that Terwilliger would resign as the U.S. attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia effective January 15, 2020. Personal life Terwilliger's father is George J. Terwilliger III, the former United States Deputy Attorney General under George H. W. Bush and United States Attorney for the District of Vermont under Bush and Ronald Reagan.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Zachary_Terwilliger
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1009028301#15_1110566522	Title: GMB (trade union) - Wikipedia Headings: GMB (trade union) GMB (trade union) GMB Contents Structural history Thorne Credit Union Cost Landmark Uber employment tribunal case Political activity Leadership General Secretaries Deputy General Secretaries Presidents Sports sponsorship Criticism See also References External links Content: Workers’ rights were hard won, GMB isn’t about to sit back and let them be eroded or removed by the latest loophole employers have come up with to make a few extra quid. Political activity GMB offices in Liverpool GMB is one of the three largest affiliates to the Labour Party. It is a significant financial contributor to the Party's national and local organisation. GMB gives Labour up to £2m a year in affiliation fees and other funds, making it the third largest union donor to the party. In 1991, GMB was the first British trade union to set up an office in Brussels and has been particularly engaged in seeking to influence European Union legislation that sets minimum standards for workers and for health and safety across the EU single market. In 2008, GMB Congress voted to withdraw local funding from around a third of the 108 Labour MPs whose constituencies received support from GMB, due to the perception that some MPs within the party were treating workers with "contempt" and generally not working in the interests of the working class and GMB members. Despite this the Congress opposed disaffiliation from the party. In the 2010 Labour Leadership Election, GMB endorsed Ed Miliband over his competitor and brother David Miliband . In 2013, GMB announced it was cutting its affiliation fund from £1.2m to £150,000 by reducing the number of members it affiliates from 420,000 to 50,000. In 2013, GMB Congress, the lay member ruling body, adopted a 14-point plan to encourage GMB members to become active in the Labour Party and to stand as Labour candidates for public office (Parliament and local government).	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMB_(trade_union)
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1009028301#16_1110568704	Title: GMB (trade union) - Wikipedia Headings: GMB (trade union) GMB (trade union) GMB Contents Structural history Thorne Credit Union Cost Landmark Uber employment tribunal case Political activity Leadership General Secretaries Deputy General Secretaries Presidents Sports sponsorship Criticism See also References External links Content: In 2008, GMB Congress voted to withdraw local funding from around a third of the 108 Labour MPs whose constituencies received support from GMB, due to the perception that some MPs within the party were treating workers with "contempt" and generally not working in the interests of the working class and GMB members. Despite this the Congress opposed disaffiliation from the party. In the 2010 Labour Leadership Election, GMB endorsed Ed Miliband over his competitor and brother David Miliband . In 2013, GMB announced it was cutting its affiliation fund from £1.2m to £150,000 by reducing the number of members it affiliates from 420,000 to 50,000. In 2013, GMB Congress, the lay member ruling body, adopted a 14-point plan to encourage GMB members to become active in the Labour Party and to stand as Labour candidates for public office (Parliament and local government). GMB has two representatives on the National Executive Committee (NEC) of the Labour Party, Mary Turner and Cath Speight. In Ireland, GMB is affiliated to the Irish Labour Party. While in the 2015 Labour Leadership Election GMB didn't endorse a candidate, in the 2016 Labour Leadership Election, the union endorsed Owen Smith against incumbent leader Jeremy Corbyn . Under Jeremy Corbyn 's leadership of the Labour Party, the GMB has clashed with the party over the issues of Trident renewal and fracking, both of which are opposed by Corbyn. In the 2020 Labour Leadership Election, GMB endorsed Lisa Nandy who subsequently finished last in the final round of voting.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMB_(trade_union)
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1010137797#0_1111981764	Title: Satellite navigation - Wikipedia Headings: Satellite navigation Satellite navigation Contents Classification History and theory Applications Global navigation satellite systems GPS GLONASS BeiDou Galileo Regional navigation satellite systems NavIC QZSS Comparison of systems Augmentation Related techniques DORIS LEO satellites See also Notes References Further reading External links Information on specific GNSS systems Organizations related to GNSS Supportive or illustrative sites Content: Satellite navigation - Wikipedia Satellite navigation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from GNSS) Jump to navigation Jump to search "GNSS" redirects here. For the irrigation project in Andhra Pradesh, see Galeru Nagari Sujala Sravanthi Project. Use of satellite signals for geo-spatial positioning The U.S. Space Force 's Global Positioning System was the first global satellite navigation system and was the first to be provided as a free global service. Part of a series on Spaceflight History Space Race Timeline of spaceflight Space probes Lunar missions Applications Earth observation satellites Spy satellites Communications satellites Military satellite Satellite navigation Space telescopes Space exploration Space tourism Space colonization Spacecraft Robotic spacecraft Satellite Space probe Cargo spacecraft Human spaceflight Space capsule Space station Spaceplane Space launch Spaceport Launch pad Expendable and reusable launch vehicles Escape velocity Non-rocket spacelaunch Spaceflight types Sub-orbital Orbital Interplanetary Interstellar Intergalactic Space agencies ASA CSA CNSA ESA CNES DLR ISRO ISA ISA ASI NADA KARI JAXA NZSA Roscosmos SSAU UKSA NASA Space forces PLASSF AAE IRGCASF VKS USSF Space commands NORAD CDE DSA NATO SC KV UKSC USSPACECOM Private spaceflight Axiom Space ARCAspace Astra Bigelow Aerospace Blue Origin Copenhagen Suborbitals Northrop Grumman Perigee Aerospace Rocket Lab Sierra Nevada Corporation SpaceX Virgin Galactic XCOR Aerospace Spaceflight portal v t e A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location ( longitude, latitude, and altitude / elevation) to high precision (within a few centimeters to metres) using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. The system can be used for providing position, navigation or for tracking the position of something fitted with a receiver (satellite tracking). The signals also allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high precision, which allows time synchronisation. These uses are collectively known as Positioning, Navigation and Timing ( PNT ). Satnav systems operate independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the positioning information generated. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system ( GNSS ).	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNSS
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1010137797#1_1111985082	Title: Satellite navigation - Wikipedia Headings: Satellite navigation Satellite navigation Contents Classification History and theory Applications Global navigation satellite systems GPS GLONASS BeiDou Galileo Regional navigation satellite systems NavIC QZSS Comparison of systems Augmentation Related techniques DORIS LEO satellites See also Notes References Further reading External links Information on specific GNSS systems Organizations related to GNSS Supportive or illustrative sites Content: The system can be used for providing position, navigation or for tracking the position of something fitted with a receiver (satellite tracking). The signals also allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high precision, which allows time synchronisation. These uses are collectively known as Positioning, Navigation and Timing ( PNT ). Satnav systems operate independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the positioning information generated. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system ( GNSS ). As of September 2020 [update] , the United States ' Global Positioning System (GPS), Russia 's Global Navigation Satellite System ( GLONASS ), China 's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and the European Union 's Galileo are fully operational GNSSs. Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) is a (US) GPS satellite-based augmentation system to enhance the accuracy of GPS, with satellite navigation independent of GPS scheduled for 2023. The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) plans to expand to a global version in the long term. Global coverage for each system is generally achieved by a satellite constellation of 18–30 medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites spread between several orbital planes. The actual systems vary, but use orbital inclinations of >50° and orbital periods of roughly twelve hours (at an altitude of about 20,000 kilometres or 12,000 miles).	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNSS
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1010137797#2_1111987318	Title: Satellite navigation - Wikipedia Headings: Satellite navigation Satellite navigation Contents Classification History and theory Applications Global navigation satellite systems GPS GLONASS BeiDou Galileo Regional navigation satellite systems NavIC QZSS Comparison of systems Augmentation Related techniques DORIS LEO satellites See also Notes References Further reading External links Information on specific GNSS systems Organizations related to GNSS Supportive or illustrative sites Content: As of September 2020 [update] , the United States ' Global Positioning System (GPS), Russia 's Global Navigation Satellite System ( GLONASS ), China 's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and the European Union 's Galileo are fully operational GNSSs. Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS) is a (US) GPS satellite-based augmentation system to enhance the accuracy of GPS, with satellite navigation independent of GPS scheduled for 2023. The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) plans to expand to a global version in the long term. Global coverage for each system is generally achieved by a satellite constellation of 18–30 medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites spread between several orbital planes. The actual systems vary, but use orbital inclinations of >50° and orbital periods of roughly twelve hours (at an altitude of about 20,000 kilometres or 12,000 miles). Contents 1 Classification 2 History and theory 3 Applications 4 Global navigation satellite systems 4.1 GPS 4.2 GLONASS 4.3 BeiDou 4.4 Galileo 5 Regional navigation satellite systems 5.1 NavIC 5.2 QZSS 6 Comparison of systems 7 Augmentation 8 Related techniques 8.1 DORIS 8.2 LEO satellites 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links 13.1 Information on specific GNSS systems 13.2 Organizations related to GNSS 13.3 Supportive or illustrative sites Classification GNSS systems that provide enhanced accuracy and integrity monitoring usable for civil navigation are classified as follows: GNSS-1 is the first generation system and is the combination of existing satellite navigation systems (GPS and GLONASS), with Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) or Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS). In the United States, the satellite based component is the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), in Europe it is the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), and in Japan it is the Multi-Functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS). Ground based augmentation is provided by systems like the Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS). GNSS-2 is the second generation of systems that independently provides a full civilian satellite navigation system, exemplified by the European Galileo positioning system.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNSS
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1010137797#6_1111996396	Title: Satellite navigation - Wikipedia Headings: Satellite navigation Satellite navigation Contents Classification History and theory Applications Global navigation satellite systems GPS GLONASS BeiDou Galileo Regional navigation satellite systems NavIC QZSS Comparison of systems Augmentation Related techniques DORIS LEO satellites See also Notes References Further reading External links Information on specific GNSS systems Organizations related to GNSS Supportive or illustrative sites Content: Regional Satellite Navigation Systems such as India's NAVIC, and Japan's QZSS. Continental scale Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS) for example the Australian GRAS and the joint US Coast Guard, Canadian Coast Guard, US Army Corps of Engineers and US Department of Transportation National Differential GPS (DGPS) service. Regional scale GBAS such as CORS networks. Local GBAS typified by a single GPS reference station operating Real Time Kinematic (RTK) corrections. As many of the global GNSS systems (and augmentation systems) use similar frequencies and signals around L1, many "Multi-GNSS" receivers capable of using multiple systems have been produced. While some systems strive to interoperate with GPS as well as possible by providing the same clock, others do not. History and theory Ground based radio navigation is decades old. The DECCA, LORAN, GEE and Omega systems used terrestrial longwave radio transmitters which broadcast a radio pulse from a known "master" location, followed by a pulse repeated from a number of "slave" stations. The delay between the reception of the master signal and the slave signals allowed the receiver to deduce the distance to each of the slaves, providing a fix . The first satellite navigation system was Transit, a system deployed by the US military in the 1960s.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNSS
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1019268283#0_1122787096	Title: Gaius Marius - Wikipedia Headings: Gaius Marius Gaius Marius Contents Life Early career Subordinate to Metellus Run for the consulship War in Numidia Cimbri and Teutones As consul Reforms to the military Battle with the Germanic tribes Sixth consulship 90s BC Social War Sulla and the First Civil War Seventh consulship and death Legacy Reforms to the legions Assemblies and foreign affairs Political violence Timeline Consulships See also Notes References Books Articles Ancient sources External links Content: Gaius Marius - Wikipedia Gaius Marius From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the Roman statesman who reorganized the army, and was seven times consul. For his son, see Gaius Marius minor. For other people with the name Marius, see Maria gens. Roman general, statesman and military reformer Gaius Marius Bust formerly called Gaius Marius at Munich Glyptothek, later identified as of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus Born c. 157 BC Cereatae, Latium, Roman Republic Died 13 January 86 BC (aged 70–71) Rome, Italy Occupation General and politician Office Tribune of the plebs (119 BC) Consul (107, 104–100, 86 BC) Political party Populares Opponent (s) Sulla Spouse (s) Julia (aunt of Julius Caesar) Children Gaius Marius the Younger Military career Years 134–87 BC Wars Numantine War Cimbrian War Jugurthine War Social War Sulla's first civil war Awards 2 Roman triumphs Gaius Marius ( Latin: [ ˈɡaːijʊs ˈmarijʊs]; c. 157 BC – 13 January 86 BC) was a Roman general, politician, and statesman. Victor of the Cimbric and Jugurthine wars, he held the office of consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. He was also noted for his important reforms of Roman armies. He set the precedent for the shift from the militia levies of the middle Republic to the professional soldiery of the late Republic; he also improved the pilum, a javelin, and made large-scale changes to the logistical structure of the Roman army.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Marius
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1019268283#1_1122789372	Title: Gaius Marius - Wikipedia Headings: Gaius Marius Gaius Marius Contents Life Early career Subordinate to Metellus Run for the consulship War in Numidia Cimbri and Teutones As consul Reforms to the military Battle with the Germanic tribes Sixth consulship 90s BC Social War Sulla and the First Civil War Seventh consulship and death Legacy Reforms to the legions Assemblies and foreign affairs Political violence Timeline Consulships See also Notes References Books Articles Ancient sources External links Content: c. 157 BC – 13 January 86 BC) was a Roman general, politician, and statesman. Victor of the Cimbric and Jugurthine wars, he held the office of consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. He was also noted for his important reforms of Roman armies. He set the precedent for the shift from the militia levies of the middle Republic to the professional soldiery of the late Republic; he also improved the pilum, a javelin, and made large-scale changes to the logistical structure of the Roman army. Rising from a well-off provincial Italian family in Arpinum, Marius rose to high office on his excellent record of military victories. For his victory over invading Germanic tribes in the Cimbrian War, he was dubbed "the third founder of Rome" (the first two being Romulus and Camillus ). His life and career, by breaking with many of the precedents that bound the ambitious upper class of the Roman Republic together and instituting a soldiery loyal not to the Republic but to their commanders, was highly significant in Rome's transformation from Republic to Empire. After losing a short civil war against Sulla, being exiled, returning, and then militarily seizing Rome in 87 BC, Marius became consul for the seventh time and died shortly after assuming office. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early career 1.2 Subordinate to Metellus 1.3 Run for the consulship 1.4 War in Numidia 1.5 Cimbri and Teutones 1.5.1 As consul 1.5.2 Reforms to the military 1.5.3 Battle with the Germanic tribes 1.6 Sixth consulship 1.7 90s BC 1.8 Social War 1.9 Sulla and the First Civil War 1.10 Seventh consulship and death 2 Legacy 2.1 Reforms to the legions 2.2 Assemblies and foreign affairs 2.3 Political violence 3 Timeline 4 Consulships 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Life Early career In 157 BC, Marius was born in Cereatae, a small village near the Latin town of Arpinum in southern Latium.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Marius
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1019268283#2_1122792013	Title: Gaius Marius - Wikipedia Headings: Gaius Marius Gaius Marius Contents Life Early career Subordinate to Metellus Run for the consulship War in Numidia Cimbri and Teutones As consul Reforms to the military Battle with the Germanic tribes Sixth consulship 90s BC Social War Sulla and the First Civil War Seventh consulship and death Legacy Reforms to the legions Assemblies and foreign affairs Political violence Timeline Consulships See also Notes References Books Articles Ancient sources External links Content: Rising from a well-off provincial Italian family in Arpinum, Marius rose to high office on his excellent record of military victories. For his victory over invading Germanic tribes in the Cimbrian War, he was dubbed "the third founder of Rome" (the first two being Romulus and Camillus ). His life and career, by breaking with many of the precedents that bound the ambitious upper class of the Roman Republic together and instituting a soldiery loyal not to the Republic but to their commanders, was highly significant in Rome's transformation from Republic to Empire. After losing a short civil war against Sulla, being exiled, returning, and then militarily seizing Rome in 87 BC, Marius became consul for the seventh time and died shortly after assuming office. Contents 1 Life 1.1 Early career 1.2 Subordinate to Metellus 1.3 Run for the consulship 1.4 War in Numidia 1.5 Cimbri and Teutones 1.5.1 As consul 1.5.2 Reforms to the military 1.5.3 Battle with the Germanic tribes 1.6 Sixth consulship 1.7 90s BC 1.8 Social War 1.9 Sulla and the First Civil War 1.10 Seventh consulship and death 2 Legacy 2.1 Reforms to the legions 2.2 Assemblies and foreign affairs 2.3 Political violence 3 Timeline 4 Consulships 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Life Early career In 157 BC, Marius was born in Cereatae, a small village near the Latin town of Arpinum in southern Latium. The town had been conquered by the Romans in the late 4th century BC and was initially given Roman citizenship without voting rights ( Civitas sine suffragio ). Only in 188 BC, thirty years before his birth, did the town receive full citizenship. Although Plutarch claims that Marius's father was a labourer, this is almost certainly false since Marius had connections with the nobility in Rome, he ran for local office in Arpinum, and he had marriage relations with the local nobility in Arpinum, which all combine to indicate that he was born into a locally important family of equestrian status. While many of the problems he faced in his early career in Rome show the difficulties that faced a "new man" ( novus homo) in being accepted into the stratified upper echelons of Roman society, Marius – even as a young man – was not poor or even middle class, he was most assuredly born into inherited wealth gained, most likely, from large land holdings. In fact, his family's resources were definitely large enough to support not just one member of the family in Roman politics:	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Marius
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1023104081#1_1127413286	Title: Galileo (satellite navigation) - Wikipedia Headings: Galileo (satellite navigation) Galileo (satellite navigation) Galileo Contents History Main objectives Funding Tension with the United States GPS and Galileo Cooperation with the United States First experimental satellites: GIOVE-A and GIOVE-B Funding again, governance issues Clock failures Outages 2019 2020 International involvement System description Space segment Ground segment Signals Services Open Service (OS) High Accuracy Service (HAS; resulting from the re-scope of the former Galileo Commercial Service) Public Regulated Service (PRS; encrypted) Search and Rescue Service (SAR) Concept European GNSS Service Centre Search and rescue Constellation Galileo satellite test beds: GIOVE In-Orbit Validation (IOV) satellites Full Operational Capability (FOC) satellites Second generation (G2G) satellites Applications and impact Science projects using Galileo Receivers Coins See also Competing systems Other Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links Content: System (GPS) GLONASS (Russia) BeiDou (BDS) (China) Galileo (Europe) NAVIC (India) Quasi-Zenith Sat. Sys. ( QZSS) (Japan) Discrete Global Grid and Geocoding Standards (history) NGVD 29 Sea Level Datum 1929 OSGB36 Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936 SK-42 Systema Koordinat 1942 goda ED50 European Datum 1950 SAD69 South American Datum 1969 GRS 80 Geodetic Reference System 1980 ISO 6709 Geographic point coord. 1983 NAD 83 North American Datum 1983 WGS 84 World Geodetic System 1984 NAVD 88 N. American Vertical Datum 1988 ETRS89 European Terrestrial Ref. Sys. 1989 GCJ-02 Chinese obfuscated datum 2002 Geo URI Internet link to a point 2010 International Terrestrial Reference System Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID) Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) v t e Galileo is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that went live in 2016, created by the European Union through the European Space Agency (ESA), operated by the European GNSS Agency (GSA), headquartered in Prague, Czech Republic, with two ground operations centres in Fucino, Italy, and Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany. The €10 billion project is named after the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei. One of the aims of Galileo is to provide an independent high-precision positioning system so European nations do not have to rely on the US GPS, or the Russian GLONASS systems, which could be disabled or degraded by their operators at any time. The use of basic (lower-precision) Galileo services is free and open to everyone. The higher-precision capabilities are available for paying commercial users.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(satellite_navigation)
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1027890561#9_1132727430	Title: GameSpy - Wikipedia Headings: GameSpy GameSpy Contents History Shutdown The GameSpy Debriefings References External links Content: Shutdown GameSpy Industries (the entity responsible for GameSpy multiplayer services) was bought from IGN Entertainment by Glu Mobile in August 2012, and proceeded in December to raise integration costs and shut down servers for many older games, including Star Wars: Battlefront, Sniper Elite, Microsoft Flight Simulator X, Saints Row 2, and Neverwinter Nights, with no warning to developers or players, much to the outrage of communities of those games. GameSpy Technologies remained operational as a separate entity since. In February 2013, following the acquisition of IGN Entertainment by Ziff Davis, IGN's "secondary" sites were shut down, ending GameSpy's editorial operations. In April 2014, Glu announced that it would shut down the GameSpy servers on May 31, 2014, so its developers could focus on work for Glu's own services. Games that still used GameSpy are no longer able to offer online functionality or multiplayer services through GameSpy. While some publishers announced plans to migrate GameSpy-equipped games to other platforms (such as Steam or in-house servers), some publishers, such as Nintendo (who used the GameSpy servers as the basis of its Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection platform for DS and Wii games) did not, particularly due to the age of the affected games. Electronic Arts, in particular, announced 24 PC games, including titles such as Battlefield 2, the Crysis series, Saints Row 2 and the Star Wars: Battlefront series, that would be affected by the end of GameSpy service. Fan-created Game mods restored online functionality with alternative servers.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpy
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1039092800#0_1145566769	Title: Gardener - Wikipedia Headings: Gardener Gardener Contents Description Garden design and maintenance Design Maintenance See also References Content: Gardener - Wikipedia Gardener From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Person who tends gardens For other uses, see Gardener (disambiguation). Gardeners at work, painting by Abel Grimmer, Flemish painter, 1607 A gardener is someone who practices gardening, either professionally or as a hobby . Contents 1 Description 2 Garden design and maintenance 3 Design 4 Maintenance 5 See also 6 References Description A Gardener. Hendrick Danckerts, Royal Gardener John Rose and King Charles II, 1675 Gardener on a stepladder collecting fruit c.1910 A gardener is any person involved in gardening, arguably the oldest occupation, from the hobbyist in a residential garden, the home-owner supplementing the family food with a small vegetable garden or orchard, to an employee in a plant nursery or the head gardener in a large estate . Garden design and maintenance The garden designer is someone who will design the garden, and the gardener is the person who will undertake the work to produce the desired outcome. Design The term gardener is also used to describe garden designers and landscape architects, who are involved chiefly in the design of gardens, rather than the practical aspects of horticulture. Garden design is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from gardening, which generally means garden maintenance. Vita Sackville-West, Gertrude Jekyll and William Robinson were garden designers as well as gardeners. Garden design is the creation of a plan for the construction of a garden, in a design process. The product is the garden, and the garden designers attempt to optimize the given general conditions of the soil, location and climate, ecological, and geological conditions and processes to choose the right plants in corresponding conditions.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardener
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1061714762#8_1172110112	Title: Gender-responsive prisons - Wikipedia Headings: Gender-responsive prisons Gender-responsive prisons Contents Gender bias vs gender responsiveness What is gender-responsiveness for women offenders in the criminal justice system? History The National Institute of Corrections Gender-Responsive Project Effect on youth Risk factors and needs for women in the criminal justice system Marital status and children Victimization Mental health Substance abuse Assessment Reproductive oppression Opposition Intersectionality Queer and trans politics Penal politics Rehabilitation Health Abolitionist approaches See also References Further reading Content: They also engage in offenses for different reasons than male offenders They pose less of a threat of violence across criminal justice systems than male offenders They follow different pathways into criminal behavior than male offenders Given these differences, the Prisons Division of the National Institute of Corrections (NIC) began to work alongside the University of Cincinnati to research improved strategies for identifying female offenders. The rationale behind this stemmed from the fact that female offenders were often economically marginalized, less violent than men, and more likely to experience childhood and adult victimization, substance abuse, and diagnoses of mental illness. The research aimed to investigate whether these differences required different correctional strategies. The NIC Gender-Responsive Project (NIC GRP) started with a pilot project in Colorado in 1999. It eventually expanded into three larger projects that took place in Maui, Missouri, and Minnesota. At the project sites, female offenders’ gender-specific risk and need factors (including victimization, mental health issues, marginalization, relationship difficulties, and substance abuse) were examined to determine whether they increased the risk for institutional misconduct or community recidivism. They were also used to determine if these factors affected the classification of women in prisons. Overall, these studies supported the use of gender-responsive frisk factors in correctional classification systems. In general, the results indicated that female offenders with gender-responsive risk factors adapted poorly to the prison environment. They were also more likely to incur serious misconduct violations within a year of incarceration in comparison to female offenders who did not display these characteristics.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender-responsive_prisons
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1061714762#9_1172112795	Title: Gender-responsive prisons - Wikipedia Headings: Gender-responsive prisons Gender-responsive prisons Contents Gender bias vs gender responsiveness What is gender-responsiveness for women offenders in the criminal justice system? History The National Institute of Corrections Gender-Responsive Project Effect on youth Risk factors and needs for women in the criminal justice system Marital status and children Victimization Mental health Substance abuse Assessment Reproductive oppression Opposition Intersectionality Queer and trans politics Penal politics Rehabilitation Health Abolitionist approaches See also References Further reading Content: At the project sites, female offenders’ gender-specific risk and need factors (including victimization, mental health issues, marginalization, relationship difficulties, and substance abuse) were examined to determine whether they increased the risk for institutional misconduct or community recidivism. They were also used to determine if these factors affected the classification of women in prisons. Overall, these studies supported the use of gender-responsive frisk factors in correctional classification systems. In general, the results indicated that female offenders with gender-responsive risk factors adapted poorly to the prison environment. They were also more likely to incur serious misconduct violations within a year of incarceration in comparison to female offenders who did not display these characteristics. Some of these gender-responsive risk factors included women who were victimized, had substance abuse or mental health problems, and victims of domestic violence. Other gender-responsive risk factors for women in the criminal justice system will be available below. Effect on youth Gender-responsive prisons also deal with children in detention centers. According to research conducted between 1991 and 2003, the percent of girls being put in detention centers has increased by 98%. Advocates for gender-response detention centers use statistics as a form of backing.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender-responsive_prisons
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1062273200#8_1172630869	Title: Gender bender - Wikipedia Headings: Gender bender Gender bender Contents Gender binary Subsidiary cultures Gender bending in practice Cross-dressing and androgyny Drag Literature Software Non-political gender bending Judith Butler and gender as performance Gender and childraising Examples The Cockettes Marc Bolan David Bowie and Lou Reed New York Dolls Rocky Horror (Picture) Show Prince Grace Jones Annie Lennox Phranc Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence Boy George RuPaul It's Pat Marilyn Manson Eddie Izzard Lady Gaga In films See also References External links Content: Crossing these lines has been interpreted by some Christians as a moral transgression. Subsidiary cultures Other cultures - often indigenous peoples, or subcultures that exist within Western cultures - may conceptualize gender as having more than two options, and even see their people as potentially fulfilling more than one gender role. Some indigenous peoples of North America have historically had more than two gender roles as part of their social structure, while others, who may or may not have embraced this diversity historically, may accept modern two spirit people as part of their communities now. Other cultures may see people as being capable of embodying more than one gender role at different times, or of being "in the middle", "embracing both male and female spirit". One such example is the Bugis people of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. People of the Bugis society have a total of five genders. These genders include what would traditionally be seen as cisgender man and woman, as well as transgender men and women, and the androgynous Bissu shamans. Gender bending in practice Often, parody and exaggeration are used to transgress gender roles, usually to expose them as artificial. For example, a person who engages in gender bending may purposefully exaggerate conventional notions of femininity, or masculinity. Gender bending can also be achieved through cross-dressing and androgyny, both of which challenge and contribute to dismantling the gender binary by separating expression or performance of gender from perceptions of biological or physiological sex.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_bender
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1064015469#1_1173921978	Title: Social construction of gender - Wikipedia Headings: Social construction of gender Social construction of gender Contents Basic concepts Status (feminist theory) Social constructionism Gender Gender roles Gender identity Sexuality/sexual orientation Core gender identity Intersections of gender identity with other identities Gender as accomplishment Accountability Sex and sex category Applications of gender performance Infancy and young childhood Teen years Queer identity Political potential and limits During development Gender-based harassment Adolescent view of adulthood Depression Body image Education Media Research methods Promoting social change and criticisms Social change Criticism and opportunities to "undo" gender Nature versus nurture See also References Further reading Content: Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (October 2012) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) The social construction of gender is a theory in feminism and sociology about the manifestation of cultural origins, mechanisms, and corollaries of gender perception and expression in the context of interpersonal and group social interaction. Specifically, the social construction of gender stipulates that gender roles are an achieved "status" in a social environment, which implicitly and explicitly categorize people and therefore motivate social behaviors. A related matter in feminist theory is the relationship between the ascribed status of assigned sex ( male or female) and their achieved status counterparts in gender ( masculine and feminine ). Contents 1 Basic concepts 1.1 Status (feminist theory) 1.2 Social constructionism 1.3 Gender 1.3.1 Gender roles 1.3.2 Gender identity 1.3.3 Sexuality/sexual orientation 1.3.3.1 Core gender identity 1.3.3.2 Intersections of gender identity with other identities 1.3.4 Gender as accomplishment 1.3.5 Accountability 1.4 Sex and sex category 2 Applications of gender performance 2.1 Infancy and young childhood 2.2 Teen years 2.3 Queer identity 2.4 Political potential and limits 3 During development 3.1 Gender-based harassment 3.2 Adolescent view of adulthood 3.3 Depression 3.4 Body image 3.5 Education 3.6 Media 4 Research methods 5 Promoting social change and criticisms 5.1 Social change 5.2 Criticism and opportunities to "undo" gender 5.3 Nature versus nurture 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading Basic concepts See also: Socialization § Gender socialization, and Sociology of gender § Gender and socialization Status (feminist theory) Main article: Feminist theory In the context of feminist theory, the word status deviates from its colloquial usage meaning rank or prestige but instead refers to a series of strata or categories by which societies are divided, in some ways synonymous with "labels" or "roles". The semantic distinctions of "labels" and "roles" are homogenized into the term "status" and then re-differentiated by the division into "ascribed status" and "achieved status" respectively.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_performativity
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1064015469#7_1173938710	Title: Social construction of gender - Wikipedia Headings: Social construction of gender Social construction of gender Contents Basic concepts Status (feminist theory) Social constructionism Gender Gender roles Gender identity Sexuality/sexual orientation Core gender identity Intersections of gender identity with other identities Gender as accomplishment Accountability Sex and sex category Applications of gender performance Infancy and young childhood Teen years Queer identity Political potential and limits During development Gender-based harassment Adolescent view of adulthood Depression Body image Education Media Research methods Promoting social change and criticisms Social change Criticism and opportunities to "undo" gender Nature versus nurture See also References Further reading Content: Materialist theories, which underline the structural aspects of the social environment that are responsible for perpetuating certain gender roles; Discursive theories, which stress the creation, through language and culture, of meanings that are associated with gender. They also argue that both the materialist and discursive theories of social construction of gender can be either essentialist or non-essentialist. This means that some of these theories assume a clear biological division between women and men when considering the social creation of masculinity and femininity, while other contest the assumption of the biological division between the sexes as independent of social construction. Gender Main article: Gender Gender is used as a means of describing the distinction between the biological sex and socialized aspects of femininity and masculinity. According to West and Zimmerman, is not a personal trait; it is "an emergent feature of social situations: both as an outcome of and a rationale for various social arrangements, and as a means of legitimating one of the most fundamental divisions of society." As a social construct, gender is considered an achieved status by feminist theory, typically (though not exclusively) one which is achieved very early in childhood.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_performativity
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1064108259#4_1173959580	Title: Gender polarization - Wikipedia Headings: Gender polarization Gender polarization See also References Content: for example, if a person is a male, then he will likely grow to develop specific ways of looking at the world, with certain behaviors seen as 'masculine', and learn to dress, walk, talk, and even think in a socially-approved way for men. Further, any deviation from these scripts was seen as problematic, possibly defined as "immoral acts" which flout religious customs, or seen as "psychologically pathological". Bem argued that because of past polarization, women were often restricted to family-oriented roles in the private sphere, while men were seen as professional representatives in the public sphere. Cultures vary substantially by what is considered to be appropriate for masculine and feminine roles, and by how emotions are expressed. See also Gender binary Gender discrimination Gender identity Gender role Heterosexuality Separate spheres Stereotypes References ^ a b Christine Monnier, 2011, Global Sociology, Gendered Society – Basic Concepts Archived 2014-08-26 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved Aug. 22, 2014, "... Another aspect of such a list of gender traits is that there is no overlap ... societies and cultures create polarized version of gender where one is the opposite of the other...Popular culture is indeed a major conveyor ... " ^ Questioning Gender: A Sociological Exploration, Robyn Ryle, Pine Forge Press, 2012, [1], Retrieved Aug. 22, 2014, Chapter 4 page 135, "..Gender polarization ... describes the way in which behaviors and attitudes that are viewed as appropriate for men are seen as inappropriate for women and vice versa...." ^ What do we mean by "sex" and "gender"? ( World Health Organization (WHO > Programmes and Projects > Gender, Women and Health)), as accessed Aug. 24, 2010 (no author or date & boldfacing omitted). ^ 5 October 2013, BBC, Why can men grow facial hair but women cannot, Retrieved May 24, 2016, "...Androgens are present in both sexes ... Men have more androgens than women..." ^ a b Sandra Lipsitz Bem, A Nation Divided: Diversity, Inequality, and Community in American Society, edited by Phyllis Moen, Donna Dempster-McClain, Henry A. Walker, Cornell University Press, 1999, Gender, Sexuality and Inequality: When Many Become One, Who is the One and What Happens to the Others?,	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_polarization
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1064373369#3_1174170993	Title: Gender role - Wikipedia Headings: Gender role Gender role Contents Background Theories of gender as a social construct Major theorists Talcott Parsons Geert Hofstede John Money Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman Biological factors Culture Religion Christianity Islam Hinduism Studies on marriage in the U.S. Communication of gender roles in the United States Media Social Interaction Changing gender roles in marriage Changing roles Gender stereotype differences in cultures: East and West Communication Nonverbal communication Communication and gender cultures Communication and sexual desire Gender stereotypes General In the workplace Economic and social consequences Implicit gender stereotypes Gender inequality online Politics and gender issues In political office Feminism and women's rights Men's rights Gender neutrality Transgender and cross-dressing Sexual orientation Criminal justice Gender roles in family violence See also References External links Content: Gender expression The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender roles as "socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women". Debate continues as to what extent gender and gender roles are socially constructed (i.e. non-biologically influenced), and to what extent "socially constructed" may be considered synonymous with "arbitrary" or "malleable". Therefore, a concise authoritative definition of gender roles or gender itself is elusive. In the sociology of gender, the process whereby an individual learns and acquires a gender role in society is termed gender socialization. Gender roles are culturally specific, and while most cultures distinguish only two ( boy and girl or man and woman ), others recognize more. Androgyny, for example, has been proposed as a third gender. An "androgyne" or "androgynous person" is someone with qualities pertaining to both the male and female gender. Other societies have claimed to identify more than five genders, and some non-Western societies have three genders: man, woman, and third gender. Some individuals (not necessarily from such a culture) identify with no gender at all.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1064373369#4_1174173401	Title: Gender role - Wikipedia Headings: Gender role Gender role Contents Background Theories of gender as a social construct Major theorists Talcott Parsons Geert Hofstede John Money Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman Biological factors Culture Religion Christianity Islam Hinduism Studies on marriage in the U.S. Communication of gender roles in the United States Media Social Interaction Changing gender roles in marriage Changing roles Gender stereotype differences in cultures: East and West Communication Nonverbal communication Communication and gender cultures Communication and sexual desire Gender stereotypes General In the workplace Economic and social consequences Implicit gender stereotypes Gender inequality online Politics and gender issues In political office Feminism and women's rights Men's rights Gender neutrality Transgender and cross-dressing Sexual orientation Criminal justice Gender roles in family violence See also References External links Content: Androgyny, for example, has been proposed as a third gender. An "androgyne" or "androgynous person" is someone with qualities pertaining to both the male and female gender. Other societies have claimed to identify more than five genders, and some non-Western societies have three genders: man, woman, and third gender. Some individuals (not necessarily from such a culture) identify with no gender at all. Many transgender people reject the idea that they constitute a separate third gender, and identify simply as men or women. However, biological differences between (some) trans women and cisgender women have historically been treated as relevant in certain contexts, especially those where biological traits may yield an unfair advantage such as sport. Gender role is not the same thing as gender identity, which refers to the internal sense of one's own gender, whether or not it aligns with categories offered by societal norms. The point at which these internalized gender identities become externalized into a set of expectations is the genesis of a gender role. Theories of gender as a social construct Main article:	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1064834785#1_1174408949	Title: Gender system - Wikipedia Headings: Gender system Gender system Contents Gender binary Gender systems around the world Native American The Mohave Alyha Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico Machi (Mapuche Shamans) of Chile Indian Hindu Hijras Sādhin Brazil Naples and Southern Italy Polynesia Thailand Philippines The cultural definition of homosexuality The Alternative Model of Gender Gendered violence See also References Bibliography Content: Western cultures incl. Europe, and gender binary are omitted in the body, apart from incorrect categorisation of Italy not being in Europe?! Please help improve this article if you can. (January 2019) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (January 2019) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (January 2019) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) Gender systems are the social structures that establish the number of genders and their associated gender roles in every society. A gender role is "everything that a person says and does to indicate to others or to the self the degree that one is either male, female, or androgynous.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_systems
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1064834785#2_1174410698	Title: Gender system - Wikipedia Headings: Gender system Gender system Contents Gender binary Gender systems around the world Native American The Mohave Alyha Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico Machi (Mapuche Shamans) of Chile Indian Hindu Hijras Sādhin Brazil Naples and Southern Italy Polynesia Thailand Philippines The cultural definition of homosexuality The Alternative Model of Gender Gendered violence See also References Bibliography Content: Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (January 2019) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (January 2019) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message) Gender systems are the social structures that establish the number of genders and their associated gender roles in every society. A gender role is "everything that a person says and does to indicate to others or to the self the degree that one is either male, female, or androgynous. This includes but is not limited to sexual and erotic arousal and response." Gender identity is one's own personal experience with gender role and the persistence of one's individuality as male, female, or androgynous, especially in self-awareness and behavior. A gender binary is one example of a gender system. Contents 1 Gender binary 2 Gender systems around the world 2.1 Native American 2.1.1 The Mohave Alyha 2.2 Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico 2.3 Machi (Mapuche Shamans) of Chile 2.4 Indian Hindu 2.4.1 Hijras 2.4.2 Sādhin 2.5 Brazil 2.6 Naples and Southern Italy 2.7 Polynesia 2.8 Thailand 2.9 Philippines 3 The cultural definition of homosexuality 4 The Alternative Model of Gender 5 Gendered violence 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography Gender binary Main article: Gender binary Gender binary is the classification of sex and gender into two distinct, opposite and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_systems
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1064834785#3_1174413045	Title: Gender system - Wikipedia Headings: Gender system Gender system Contents Gender binary Gender systems around the world Native American The Mohave Alyha Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico Machi (Mapuche Shamans) of Chile Indian Hindu Hijras Sādhin Brazil Naples and Southern Italy Polynesia Thailand Philippines The cultural definition of homosexuality The Alternative Model of Gender Gendered violence See also References Bibliography Content: This includes but is not limited to sexual and erotic arousal and response." Gender identity is one's own personal experience with gender role and the persistence of one's individuality as male, female, or androgynous, especially in self-awareness and behavior. A gender binary is one example of a gender system. Contents 1 Gender binary 2 Gender systems around the world 2.1 Native American 2.1.1 The Mohave Alyha 2.2 Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico 2.3 Machi (Mapuche Shamans) of Chile 2.4 Indian Hindu 2.4.1 Hijras 2.4.2 Sādhin 2.5 Brazil 2.6 Naples and Southern Italy 2.7 Polynesia 2.8 Thailand 2.9 Philippines 3 The cultural definition of homosexuality 4 The Alternative Model of Gender 5 Gendered violence 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography Gender binary Main article: Gender binary Gender binary is the classification of sex and gender into two distinct, opposite and disconnected forms of masculine and feminine. Gender binary is one general type of a gender system. Sometimes in this binary model, "sex", "gender" and "sexuality" are assumed by default to align. Gender systems around the world In cultures where the gender binary is prominent and important, transgender people are a major exception to the societal norms related to gender. Intersex people, those who cannot be biologically determined as either male or female, are another obvious deviation. Other cultures have their own practices independent of the Western gender binary.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_systems
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1064834785#4_1174415173	Title: Gender system - Wikipedia Headings: Gender system Gender system Contents Gender binary Gender systems around the world Native American The Mohave Alyha Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico Machi (Mapuche Shamans) of Chile Indian Hindu Hijras Sādhin Brazil Naples and Southern Italy Polynesia Thailand Philippines The cultural definition of homosexuality The Alternative Model of Gender Gendered violence See also References Bibliography Content: Gender binary is one general type of a gender system. Sometimes in this binary model, "sex", "gender" and "sexuality" are assumed by default to align. Gender systems around the world In cultures where the gender binary is prominent and important, transgender people are a major exception to the societal norms related to gender. Intersex people, those who cannot be biologically determined as either male or female, are another obvious deviation. Other cultures have their own practices independent of the Western gender binary. Native American When European settlers first arrived in North America, they discovered different Native American tribes had different concepts of sex and gender. In the Native North American society " berdaches " were given that name to identify them as gender variants. The Europeans "attempted to explain the berdache from various functional perspectives...in terms of the contributions these sex/gender roles made to social structure or culture." The term "berdache" was deemed inappropriate and insulting as time passed and awareness increased, so a new term was coined in 1990, " Two-Spirit ." There were many roles for male and female Two-Spirits, productive specialization, supernatural sanction and gender variation.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_systems
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1064834785#7_1174420641	Title: Gender system - Wikipedia Headings: Gender system Gender system Contents Gender binary Gender systems around the world Native American The Mohave Alyha Juchitán, Oaxaca, Mexico Machi (Mapuche Shamans) of Chile Indian Hindu Hijras Sādhin Brazil Naples and Southern Italy Polynesia Thailand Philippines The cultural definition of homosexuality The Alternative Model of Gender Gendered violence See also References Bibliography Content: The roles varied greatly between tribes. For example, a male variant might have to wear male clothing during warfare, but women's clothing any other time. These gender roles were often decided at a young age. If a boy was interested in women's activities, or vice versa, a gender variant role would likely be undertaken in adulthood. " In some societies, same-sex sexual desire or practice did figure into the definition of one’s gender variant role, in others, it did not." In the case of the Navajo, there are four genders: man, woman, masculine female-bodied nádleeh, and feminine male-bodied nádleeh. Intercourse between two people of different genders, regardless of biological sex, was not stigmatized. In the majority of Native American societies, biological sex played no part in any gender variant role. The Mohave Alyha In Mohave society, pregnant women believed they had dreams forecasting the anatomic sex of their children.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_systems
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1065041668#4_1174594722	Title: Gendered sexuality - Wikipedia Headings: Gendered sexuality Gendered sexuality Contents Gender and sex in gendered sexuality Sexual orientation and gendered sexuality Sociocultural perspective Social role theory Sexual double standard Research Social constructionism Research Objectification theory Mass media Health consequences See also References Content: A study by McCabe, Tanner & Heiman illustrates that gender, at least in the Western world, informs how we understand and conceive of the construct of sexuality. Their study was aimed to discover how men and women gender their meanings of sex and sexuality, if at all, and their results suggest that men and women do talk about sex and sexuality in gendered terms. The most frequent categories of gendering sex/sexuality conversations were: Sex is only physical for men, and only emotional for women Sex is more important for men than women Women's physical appearance is important Sexual desire and/or pleasure does not significantly apply to women The researchers also commented that these four areas of gendering sexuality occurred among the participants without any suggestions or hints towards these particular subject areas. The researchers conclusions stated that gender, in some way, dictates how we learn and what we know about sex and sexuality. Sexual orientation and gendered sexuality See also: Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities and Pansexuality Although gendered sexuality is often viewed through the constructs of male, female and heterosexuality, it can also be used in regard to other gender and sexual variant individuals such as gender dysphoria or those who identify as transgender, transsexual, intersex, homosexual or bisexual. Sociocultural perspective The sociocultural perspective of gendered sexuality holds emphasis on the idea that men and women are social beings informed by the social group of which they are a part, and that the social and cultural aspects of these groups influence the traits prescribed to males and females. The sociocultural perspective deems these traits as performative, in opposition to an evolutionary perspective that describes them through notions of essentialism and innateness. When looking at gendered sexuality through a sociocultural lens, behaviour that is considered appropriate will be influenced by four areas of social interactions:	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendered_sexuality
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1065041668#5_1174597291	Title: Gendered sexuality - Wikipedia Headings: Gendered sexuality Gendered sexuality Contents Gender and sex in gendered sexuality Sexual orientation and gendered sexuality Sociocultural perspective Social role theory Sexual double standard Research Social constructionism Research Objectification theory Mass media Health consequences See also References Content: Sexual orientation and gendered sexuality See also: Gender roles in non-heterosexual communities and Pansexuality Although gendered sexuality is often viewed through the constructs of male, female and heterosexuality, it can also be used in regard to other gender and sexual variant individuals such as gender dysphoria or those who identify as transgender, transsexual, intersex, homosexual or bisexual. Sociocultural perspective The sociocultural perspective of gendered sexuality holds emphasis on the idea that men and women are social beings informed by the social group of which they are a part, and that the social and cultural aspects of these groups influence the traits prescribed to males and females. The sociocultural perspective deems these traits as performative, in opposition to an evolutionary perspective that describes them through notions of essentialism and innateness. When looking at gendered sexuality through a sociocultural lens, behaviour that is considered appropriate will be influenced by four areas of social interactions: behaviour-related aspects, situation-related aspects, partner (s)-related aspects and subject-related aspects. Behaviour-related aspects The sexual behaviour that is evaluated most positively will determine what sexual behaviours are most acceptable in relation to gender. These behaviours apply to specific groups, whereby positive evaluations drive what is socially acceptable and therefore, which behaviours drive overall behaviour. In regard to gendered sexuality, Vanwesenbeck suggests that gendered sexual behaviour, if positively accepted by a social group, is more likely to occur within that social group in comparison to if it was negatively evaluated. In regard to a Western context, this can be seen within heterosexuality in males and females.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendered_sexuality
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1065041668#10_1174606909	Title: Gendered sexuality - Wikipedia Headings: Gendered sexuality Gendered sexuality Contents Gender and sex in gendered sexuality Sexual orientation and gendered sexuality Sociocultural perspective Social role theory Sexual double standard Research Social constructionism Research Objectification theory Mass media Health consequences See also References Content: This societal expectation influences the behaviors of men and women seeking marital status. Subject-related aspects This final postulate rests on the individual, or the subject, and how much a person strives to meet societal gender norms. There are several theories under the label of sociocultural perspectives which have been theorized to influence gendered sexuality. Social role theory Social Role Theory dictates that people are a product of societal social roles set in place via cultural traditions, whereby society instructs all individuals what roles are appropriate for which individuals under particular circumstances. Social role theory can dictate many different types of social roles, in particular, gender roles. These gender roles imply that men and women have their own particular roles assigned to them via their sex, and that these roles are typical and desirable of their particular sex. Gender roles are both restrictive and opportunistic, whereby they dictate an individual's potential through their identification as male or female. In the Western context, this can be seen particularly through the historic gendered division of labour where men and women are fit into different professional roles dictated by their physical capabilities, typically via sex. Vanwesenbeeck suggests that: "... It's not the biological potential, or sex, per se that causes gender (role) differences to emerge, but the way society differentially treats these potentials" (p. 888).	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendered_sexuality
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1068673725#0_1178751478	Title: General Certificate of Education - Wikipedia Headings: General Certificate of Education General Certificate of Education Contents England and Wales Examination Boards (England) Scotland Northern Ireland Today Former qualifications University admissions Worldwide use Bangladesh Brunei Cameroon Hong Kong Malaysia Pakistan Singapore Sri Lanka References Content: General Certificate of Education - Wikipedia General Certificate of Education From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Academic qualification in the British Commonwealth The General Certificate of Education ( GCE) is a subject-specific family of academic qualifications that awarding bodies in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Crown dependencies and a few Commonwealth countries, notably Cyprus, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Malaysia and Singapore, confer on students. ( The Scottish education system is different from those in the other countries of the United Kingdom). The GCE is composed of three levels; they are, in increasing order of difficulty: the Ordinary Level ("O Level"); the Advanced Subsidiary Level ("A1 Level" or "AS Level"), higher than the O Level, serving as a level in its own right, and functioning as a precursor to the full Advanced Level; and Advanced Level ("A Level"). Contents 1 England and Wales 1.1 Examination Boards (England) 2 Scotland 3 Northern Ireland 4 Today 5 Former qualifications 6 University admissions 7 Worldwide use 7.1 Bangladesh 7.2 Brunei 7.3 Cameroon 7.4 Hong Kong 7.5 Malaysia 7.6 Pakistan 7.7 Singapore 7.8 Sri Lanka 8 References England and Wales This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Certificate_of_Education
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1076534300#9_1187080097	Title: Generosity - Wikipedia Headings: Generosity Generosity Contents Other uses Etymology In religion In knowledge And this I pray, that your charity may more and more abound in knowledge, and in all understanding अपूर्व: कोपि कोशोयं विद्यते तव भारति \| व्ययतो वॄद्धिम् आयाति क्षयम् आयाति संचयात् \|\| Research and scholarship See also References External links Content: According to the Bible, having all the knowledge in the world is useless, without the desire for charity (sharing): And though I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and have not charity, I am nothing. — KJV: 1 Corinthians 13:2 And this I pray, that your charity may more and more abound in knowledge, and in all understanding — Douay-Rheims: Philippians 1:9 In the Bible, obstruction of the flow of knowledge is suggested to be the destruction of mankind: my people are destroyed from lack of knowledge. " Because you have rejected knowledge, I also reject you as my priests; because you have ignored the law of your God, I also will ignore your children." — Hosea 4:6 Vidya Daan (विद्या दान) translated as knowledge charity, a concept in daan, is a tenet of all Dharmic religions that also values the sharing of knowledge.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generosity
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1082660948#0_1193742474	Title: Genocide - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide Genocide Contents Etymology Crime Pre-criminalization view International law Intent "Intent to destroy" "In whole or in part" "A national, ethnic, racial or religious group" Acts Killing members of the group Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group Article II (b) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide UN Security Council Resolution 1674 Municipal law Criticisms of definitions International prosecution By ad hoc tribunals Nuremberg Tribunal (1945–1946) International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994 to present) Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2003 to present) By the International Criminal Court Darfur, Sudan Examples Stages, risk factors, and prevention See also Research References Further reading Articles Books External links Documents Research institutes, advocacy groups, and other organizations Content: Genocide - Wikipedia Genocide Jump to navigation Jump to search Intentional destruction of all or a significant part of a racial, ethnic, religious or national group For other uses, see Genocide (disambiguation). Part of a series on Genocide Issues List by death toll Chronological list Cultural genocide Genocidal rape Genocidal massacre Utilitarian genocide Incitement to genocide Psychology Denial Risk factors Prevention Effects on youth Studies Perpetrators, victims, and bystanders War and genocide Genocide of indigenous peoples Dzungar genocide, 1750s Black War, 1825–1831 Moriori genocide, 1835-c.1860 California genocide, 1846–1873 Circassian genocide, 1860s Selk'nam genocide, 1890s–1900s Herero and Namaqua genocide, 1904–1907 Late Ottoman genocides Greeks, 1914–1922 Assyrians, 1914–1924 Armenians, 1915–1923 World War II (1941–1945) The Holocaust Romani genocide Nazi crimes against the Polish nation Genocide of Serbs by the Ustashe Population transfer in the Soviet Union Genocide of Bosniaks and Croats by the Chetniks Cold War Bangladesh genocide (1971) East Timor genocide (1974–1999) Cambodian genocide (1975–1979) Guatemalan genocide (1981–1983) Anfal genocide (1986–1989) Genocides in postcolonial Africa Ikiza genocide (1972) Gukurahundi (1983-1987) Isaaq genocide (1988–1989) Rwandan genocide (1994) Massacres of Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997) Darfur genocide (2003–) Ethno-religious genocides in contemporary era Bosnian genocide (1995) Yazidi genocide (2014–2019) Uyghur genocide (2014–) Rohingya genocide (2017–) Related topics Democide Ethnic cleansing Ethnocide Forced assimilation Mass killings under communist regimes Holodomor genocide question Anti-communist mass killings Atrocities in the Congo Free State Category v t e Human skulls at the Nyamata Genocide Memorial Genocide is the intentional action to destroy a people—usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group—in whole or in part. A term coined by Raphael Lemkin in his 1944 book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, the hybrid word geno - cide is a combination of the Greek word γένος ( genos, "race, people") and the Latin suffix -caedo ("act of killing"). The United Nations Genocide Convention, which was established in 1948, defines genocide as "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such" including the killing of its members, causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group, deliberately imposing living conditions that seek to "bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part", preventing births, or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. Victims have to be deliberately, not randomly, targeted because of their real or perceived membership of one of the four groups outlined in the above definition. The Political Instability Task Force estimated that, between 1956 and 2016, a total of 43 genocides took place, causing the death of about 50 million people. The UNHCR estimated that a further 50 million had been displaced by such episodes of violence up to 2008. The word genocide has also come to signify a value judgment as it is widely considered the epitome of human evil. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Crime 2.1 Pre-criminalization view 2.2 International law 2.3 Intent 2.3.1 "Intent to destroy" 2.3.2 "In whole or in part" 2.3.3 "A national, ethnic, racial or religious group" 2.4 Acts 2.4.1 Killing members of the group 2.4.2 Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group Article II (b) 2.4.3 Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction 2.4.4 Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group 2.4.5 Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group 2.5 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 2.6 UN Security Council Resolution 1674 2.7 Municipal law 3 Criticisms of definitions 4 International prosecution 4.1 By ad hoc tribunals 4.1.1 Nuremberg Tribunal (1945–1946) 4.1.2 International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) 4.1.3 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994 to present) 4.1.4 Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2003 to present) 4.2 By the International Criminal Court 4.2.1 Darfur, Sudan 5 Examples 6 Stages, risk factors, and prevention 7 See also 7.1 Research 8 References 9 Further reading 9.1 Articles 9.2 Books 10 External links 10.1 Documents 10.2 Research institutes, advocacy groups, and other organizations Etymology Before the term genocide was coined, there were various ways of describing such events. Some languages already had words for such killings, including German ( Völkermord, lit. '	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1082660948#1_1193748931	Title: Genocide - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide Genocide Contents Etymology Crime Pre-criminalization view International law Intent "Intent to destroy" "In whole or in part" "A national, ethnic, racial or religious group" Acts Killing members of the group Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group Article II (b) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide UN Security Council Resolution 1674 Municipal law Criticisms of definitions International prosecution By ad hoc tribunals Nuremberg Tribunal (1945–1946) International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994 to present) Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2003 to present) By the International Criminal Court Darfur, Sudan Examples Stages, risk factors, and prevention See also Research References Further reading Articles Books External links Documents Research institutes, advocacy groups, and other organizations Content: The Political Instability Task Force estimated that, between 1956 and 2016, a total of 43 genocides took place, causing the death of about 50 million people. The UNHCR estimated that a further 50 million had been displaced by such episodes of violence up to 2008. The word genocide has also come to signify a value judgment as it is widely considered the epitome of human evil. Contents 1 Etymology 2 Crime 2.1 Pre-criminalization view 2.2 International law 2.3 Intent 2.3.1 "Intent to destroy" 2.3.2 "In whole or in part" 2.3.3 "A national, ethnic, racial or religious group" 2.4 Acts 2.4.1 Killing members of the group 2.4.2 Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group Article II (b) 2.4.3 Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction 2.4.4 Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group 2.4.5 Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group 2.5 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 2.6 UN Security Council Resolution 1674 2.7 Municipal law 3 Criticisms of definitions 4 International prosecution 4.1 By ad hoc tribunals 4.1.1 Nuremberg Tribunal (1945–1946) 4.1.2 International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) 4.1.3 International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994 to present) 4.1.4 Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2003 to present) 4.2 By the International Criminal Court 4.2.1 Darfur, Sudan 5 Examples 6 Stages, risk factors, and prevention 7 See also 7.1 Research 8 References 9 Further reading 9.1 Articles 9.2 Books 10 External links 10.1 Documents 10.2 Research institutes, advocacy groups, and other organizations Etymology Before the term genocide was coined, there were various ways of describing such events. Some languages already had words for such killings, including German ( Völkermord, lit. ' murder of a people') and Polish ( ludobójstwo, lit. ' killing of a people or nation'). In 1941, Winston Churchill, when describing the German invasion of the Soviet Union, spoke of "a crime without a name". In 1944, Raphael Lemkin coined the term genocide (a combination of the Ancient Greek word génos (γένος, meaning "race" or "people") with the Latin caedere, "to kill") in his book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. The book describes the implementation of Nazi policies in occupied Europe, and cites earlier mass killings.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1082660948#7_1193767780	Title: Genocide - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide Genocide Contents Etymology Crime Pre-criminalization view International law Intent "Intent to destroy" "In whole or in part" "A national, ethnic, racial or religious group" Acts Killing members of the group Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group Article II (b) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide UN Security Council Resolution 1674 Municipal law Criticisms of definitions International prosecution By ad hoc tribunals Nuremberg Tribunal (1945–1946) International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993–2017) International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994 to present) Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2003 to present) By the International Criminal Court Darfur, Sudan Examples Stages, risk factors, and prevention See also Research References Further reading Articles Books External links Documents Research institutes, advocacy groups, and other organizations Content: He kills them and this is his business. If you interfere, you are trespassing." As late as 1959, many world leaders still "believed states had a right to commit genocide against people within their borders", according to political scientist Douglas Irvin-Erickson. International law Members of the Sonderkommando burn corpses of Jews in pits at Auschwitz II-Birkenau, an extermination camp After the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by Nazi Germany prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution that affirmed genocide was a crime under international law and enumerated examples of such events (but did not provide a full legal definition of the crime). In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) which defined the crime of genocide for the first time. Genocide is a denial of the right of existence of entire human groups, as homicide is the denial of the right to live of individual human beings; such denial of the right of existence shocks the conscience of mankind, results in great losses to humanity in the form of cultural and other contributions represented by these human groups, and is contrary to moral law and the spirit and aims of the United Nations. Many instances of such crimes of genocide have occurred when racial, religious, political and other groups have been destroyed, entirely or in part. — UN Resolution 96 (1), 11 December 1946 The CPPCG was adopted by the	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1083035893#0_1193892003	Title: Genocide prevention - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide prevention Genocide prevention Contents The psychological basis of genocide Social psychological factors Risk factors for genocide Early warning signs of genocide The role of the United Nations The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide International criminal tribunals The Responsibility to Protect Criticisms of the United Nations on genocide prevention and intervention Types of prevention Upstream prevention Mid-Stream prevention Downstream prevention Genocide prevention and public health Ongoing prevention efforts Genocide Watch The Alliance Against Genocide United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect Early warning project Genocide task force References External links Content: Genocide prevention - Wikipedia Genocide prevention From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Any act or actions that works toward averting future genocides Multilingual " never again " memorial at Treblinka extermination camp Prevention of genocide is any action that works toward averting future genocides. Genocides take a lot of planning, resources, and involved parties to carry out, they do not just happen instantaneously. Scholars in the field of genocide studies have identified a set of widely agreed upon risk factors that make a country or social group more at risk of carrying out a genocide, which include a wide range of political and cultural factors that create a context in which genocide is more likely, such as political upheaval or regime change, as well as psychological phenomena that can be manipulated and taken advantage of in large groups of people, like conformity and cognitive dissonance. Genocide prevention depends heavily on the knowledge and surveillance of these risk factors, as well as the identification of early warning signs of genocide beginning to occur. One of the main goals of the United Nations with the passage of the Genocide Convention after the Second World War and the atrocities of the Holocaust is to prevent future genocide from taking place. The Genocide Convention and the Responsibility to protect provide the basis for the responsibility of every UN member state to actively prevent genocide and act to stop it in other states when it occurs. However, the United Nations has been heavily criticized for its failure to prevent genocide, especially in the latter half of the twentieth century. Intervention in genocide can occur at many different stages of the progression of a genocide, but the most ideal stage to intervene is before genocide occurs at all, in the form of prevention known as upstream prevention. Preventing genocide in this way requires a constant and thorough assessment of the risk of genocide around the world at any given time, given the known risk factors, early warning signs, and the knowledge of how a genocide progresses. Contents 1 The psychological basis of genocide 1.1 Social psychological factors 2 Risk factors for genocide 3 Early warning signs of genocide 4 The role of the United Nations 4.1 The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 4.2 International criminal tribunals 4.3 The Responsibility to Protect 4.4 Criticisms of the United Nations on genocide prevention and intervention 5 Types of prevention 5.1 Upstream prevention 5.2 Mid-Stream prevention 5.3 Downstream prevention 6 Genocide prevention and public health 7 Ongoing prevention efforts 7.1 Genocide task force 8 References 9 External links The psychological basis of genocide Genocide is not something that only trained, sadistic killers take part in, but rather it is something that ordinary people can do with the proper “training” via cognitive restructuring and social conditioning.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_prevention
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1083035893#1_1193896050	Title: Genocide prevention - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide prevention Genocide prevention Contents The psychological basis of genocide Social psychological factors Risk factors for genocide Early warning signs of genocide The role of the United Nations The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide International criminal tribunals The Responsibility to Protect Criticisms of the United Nations on genocide prevention and intervention Types of prevention Upstream prevention Mid-Stream prevention Downstream prevention Genocide prevention and public health Ongoing prevention efforts Genocide Watch The Alliance Against Genocide United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect Early warning project Genocide task force References External links Content: The Genocide Convention and the Responsibility to protect provide the basis for the responsibility of every UN member state to actively prevent genocide and act to stop it in other states when it occurs. However, the United Nations has been heavily criticized for its failure to prevent genocide, especially in the latter half of the twentieth century. Intervention in genocide can occur at many different stages of the progression of a genocide, but the most ideal stage to intervene is before genocide occurs at all, in the form of prevention known as upstream prevention. Preventing genocide in this way requires a constant and thorough assessment of the risk of genocide around the world at any given time, given the known risk factors, early warning signs, and the knowledge of how a genocide progresses. Contents 1 The psychological basis of genocide 1.1 Social psychological factors 2 Risk factors for genocide 3 Early warning signs of genocide 4 The role of the United Nations 4.1 The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 4.2 International criminal tribunals 4.3 The Responsibility to Protect 4.4 Criticisms of the United Nations on genocide prevention and intervention 5 Types of prevention 5.1 Upstream prevention 5.2 Mid-Stream prevention 5.3 Downstream prevention 6 Genocide prevention and public health 7 Ongoing prevention efforts 7.1 Genocide task force 8 References 9 External links The psychological basis of genocide Genocide is not something that only trained, sadistic killers take part in, but rather it is something that ordinary people can do with the proper “training” via cognitive restructuring and social conditioning. The act of killing for genocidal purposes is not a distinct category of human behavior, but instead demonstrates the potential of ordinary psychological and social psychological processes to be manipulated and escalated into violence in certain environments and conditions. One of the major puzzles in studying both the occurrence of and prevention of genocide, therefore, is understanding what makes those "normal" cognitive processes, both on the individual and collective levels, vulnerable to manipulation by outsiders, and which social and political conditions provide a breeding ground for that manipulation into violence. On the individual level, the psychological concept of Cognitive dissonance plays a large role in a person's transformation from peaceful citizen to violent genocidal killer. Even more specifically, Alexander Hinton, in his 1996 study on the psycho-social factors that contributed to the Cambodian genocide, coined the term "psychosocial dissonance" to add to this well-known psychological concept other anthropological concepts like cultural models and notions of the self. These forms of dissonance, both cognitive and psychosocial, arise when a person is confronted with behavioral expectations that conflict with their own identity or concept of self, and subsequently work subconsciously to resolve those inconsistencies.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_prevention
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1083035893#2_1193900124	Title: Genocide prevention - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide prevention Genocide prevention Contents The psychological basis of genocide Social psychological factors Risk factors for genocide Early warning signs of genocide The role of the United Nations The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide International criminal tribunals The Responsibility to Protect Criticisms of the United Nations on genocide prevention and intervention Types of prevention Upstream prevention Mid-Stream prevention Downstream prevention Genocide prevention and public health Ongoing prevention efforts Genocide Watch The Alliance Against Genocide United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect Early warning project Genocide task force References External links Content: The act of killing for genocidal purposes is not a distinct category of human behavior, but instead demonstrates the potential of ordinary psychological and social psychological processes to be manipulated and escalated into violence in certain environments and conditions. One of the major puzzles in studying both the occurrence of and prevention of genocide, therefore, is understanding what makes those "normal" cognitive processes, both on the individual and collective levels, vulnerable to manipulation by outsiders, and which social and political conditions provide a breeding ground for that manipulation into violence. On the individual level, the psychological concept of Cognitive dissonance plays a large role in a person's transformation from peaceful citizen to violent genocidal killer. Even more specifically, Alexander Hinton, in his 1996 study on the psycho-social factors that contributed to the Cambodian genocide, coined the term "psychosocial dissonance" to add to this well-known psychological concept other anthropological concepts like cultural models and notions of the self. These forms of dissonance, both cognitive and psychosocial, arise when a person is confronted with behavioral expectations that conflict with their own identity or concept of self, and subsequently work subconsciously to resolve those inconsistencies. Hinton claims that there are a number of cognitive "moves" that must occur in order for a person to reduce psychosocial dissonance felt at the onset of genocide, and these moves slowly transform people into their "genocidal selves." These cognitive moves include the dehumanization of victims, the employment of euphemisms to mask violent deeds, the undergoing of moral restructuring, becoming acclimated to the act of killing, and/or denying responsibility for violent actions. The first move, dehumanization, is one of the biggest "steps," as it has been central to every genocide. In The Holocaust, the Cambodian genocide, and the Rwandan genocide, as particularly notable examples, victims were labeled as vermin, cockroaches, rats, or snakes, to separate them entirely from the category of human in this process of dehumanization. When the label of "person" is taken away from entire groups of individuals, acting violently towards them, including murdering them, becomes much easier for the average person.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_prevention
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1083035893#3_1193903511	Title: Genocide prevention - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide prevention Genocide prevention Contents The psychological basis of genocide Social psychological factors Risk factors for genocide Early warning signs of genocide The role of the United Nations The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide International criminal tribunals The Responsibility to Protect Criticisms of the United Nations on genocide prevention and intervention Types of prevention Upstream prevention Mid-Stream prevention Downstream prevention Genocide prevention and public health Ongoing prevention efforts Genocide Watch The Alliance Against Genocide United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect Early warning project Genocide task force References External links Content: Hinton claims that there are a number of cognitive "moves" that must occur in order for a person to reduce psychosocial dissonance felt at the onset of genocide, and these moves slowly transform people into their "genocidal selves." These cognitive moves include the dehumanization of victims, the employment of euphemisms to mask violent deeds, the undergoing of moral restructuring, becoming acclimated to the act of killing, and/or denying responsibility for violent actions. The first move, dehumanization, is one of the biggest "steps," as it has been central to every genocide. In The Holocaust, the Cambodian genocide, and the Rwandan genocide, as particularly notable examples, victims were labeled as vermin, cockroaches, rats, or snakes, to separate them entirely from the category of human in this process of dehumanization. When the label of "person" is taken away from entire groups of individuals, acting violently towards them, including murdering them, becomes much easier for the average person. Social psychological factors In addition to individual-level cognitive "moves," there are also many social psychological factors that influence an "ordinary" group's transformation into killers. First, the concept of social cognition explains the ways in which people think about themselves and those around them. People's social cognition is divided into thinking about others as belonging to in-groups and out-groups, which are defined by collective identity and social bonds. Everyone has a bias for their own group called an In-group bias, but this bias only has negative consequences when people simultaneously hold both extremely positive views of themselves and their in-group and extremely negative views of out-groups. People are also generally socialized to avoid conflict and aggression with other members of their own in-group, so one way of overcoming that barrier to violence is to redefine who belongs to each group so that victims of genocide become excluded from the in-group and are no longer protected by this in-group bias.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_prevention
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1083035893#4_1193906588	Title: Genocide prevention - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide prevention Genocide prevention Contents The psychological basis of genocide Social psychological factors Risk factors for genocide Early warning signs of genocide The role of the United Nations The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide International criminal tribunals The Responsibility to Protect Criticisms of the United Nations on genocide prevention and intervention Types of prevention Upstream prevention Mid-Stream prevention Downstream prevention Genocide prevention and public health Ongoing prevention efforts Genocide Watch The Alliance Against Genocide United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect Early warning project Genocide task force References External links Content: Social psychological factors In addition to individual-level cognitive "moves," there are also many social psychological factors that influence an "ordinary" group's transformation into killers. First, the concept of social cognition explains the ways in which people think about themselves and those around them. People's social cognition is divided into thinking about others as belonging to in-groups and out-groups, which are defined by collective identity and social bonds. Everyone has a bias for their own group called an In-group bias, but this bias only has negative consequences when people simultaneously hold both extremely positive views of themselves and their in-group and extremely negative views of out-groups. People are also generally socialized to avoid conflict and aggression with other members of their own in-group, so one way of overcoming that barrier to violence is to redefine who belongs to each group so that victims of genocide become excluded from the in-group and are no longer protected by this in-group bias. Social influence and social relations also constitute factors vulnerable to manipulation. Many cultures actively encourage conformity, compliance, and obedience in social relations and can have severe social "penalties" for those that do not adhere to the norms, so that group members can feel an intense pressure to engage in violence if other members are also engaging in it. This tendency for people to conform can be manipulated to induce "thoughtless behavior" in large groups of people at once. Research also shows that this pressure to conform, also known as the "conformity effect," increases when there is an authority figure present in the group, and when certain social and institutional contexts increase people's tendency to conform, like the loss of stability, as people tend to adapt to what is expected of them when stability disappears. Other tendencies of human social relationships can similarly push people towards violence, such as prejudice, altruism, and aggression.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_prevention
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1083035893#5_1193909640	Title: Genocide prevention - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide prevention Genocide prevention Contents The psychological basis of genocide Social psychological factors Risk factors for genocide Early warning signs of genocide The role of the United Nations The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide International criminal tribunals The Responsibility to Protect Criticisms of the United Nations on genocide prevention and intervention Types of prevention Upstream prevention Mid-Stream prevention Downstream prevention Genocide prevention and public health Ongoing prevention efforts Genocide Watch The Alliance Against Genocide United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect Early warning project Genocide task force References External links Content: Social influence and social relations also constitute factors vulnerable to manipulation. Many cultures actively encourage conformity, compliance, and obedience in social relations and can have severe social "penalties" for those that do not adhere to the norms, so that group members can feel an intense pressure to engage in violence if other members are also engaging in it. This tendency for people to conform can be manipulated to induce "thoughtless behavior" in large groups of people at once. Research also shows that this pressure to conform, also known as the "conformity effect," increases when there is an authority figure present in the group, and when certain social and institutional contexts increase people's tendency to conform, like the loss of stability, as people tend to adapt to what is expected of them when stability disappears. Other tendencies of human social relationships can similarly push people towards violence, such as prejudice, altruism, and aggression. It is particularly relevant to understand the link between prejudice and violence, as prejudice is often one of the first starting points in the formation of genocidal behavior. The scapegoat theory (or practice of Scapegoating) helps to explain the relationship, as it posits that people have a tendency to lash out on out-groups when they are frustrated, for example in times of political or economic crisis. Risk factors for genocide Main article: Risk factors for genocide There are a variety of political and cultural factors that make states more at risk for movement down a path of mass violence, and an understanding and recognition of the existence of those factors can be crucial in genocide prevention efforts. While studies in this area find varying degrees of risk for each particular factor, there is widespread consensus on which kinds of environments present the greatest risk for the occurrence of genocide.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_prevention
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1083035893#6_1193912570	Title: Genocide prevention - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide prevention Genocide prevention Contents The psychological basis of genocide Social psychological factors Risk factors for genocide Early warning signs of genocide The role of the United Nations The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide International criminal tribunals The Responsibility to Protect Criticisms of the United Nations on genocide prevention and intervention Types of prevention Upstream prevention Mid-Stream prevention Downstream prevention Genocide prevention and public health Ongoing prevention efforts Genocide Watch The Alliance Against Genocide United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect Early warning project Genocide task force References External links Content: It is particularly relevant to understand the link between prejudice and violence, as prejudice is often one of the first starting points in the formation of genocidal behavior. The scapegoat theory (or practice of Scapegoating) helps to explain the relationship, as it posits that people have a tendency to lash out on out-groups when they are frustrated, for example in times of political or economic crisis. Risk factors for genocide Main article: Risk factors for genocide There are a variety of political and cultural factors that make states more at risk for movement down a path of mass violence, and an understanding and recognition of the existence of those factors can be crucial in genocide prevention efforts. While studies in this area find varying degrees of risk for each particular factor, there is widespread consensus on which kinds of environments present the greatest risk for the occurrence of genocide. First, certain situational factors like destabilizing crises and political upheaval make countries more vulnerable to genocide. Forms of political upheaval include civil wars, assassinations, revolutions, coups, defeat in international war, anticolonial rebellions, or any sort of upheaval that results in unconventional regime change or in elites with extremist ideologies coming to power. Almost all genocides of the past half-century have occurred either during or in the immediate aftermath of one of these types of political upheaval. Additionally, the potential for genocidal violence increases when multiple forms of crisis, upheaval, or destabilization occur simultaneously, or when the effects of past crises remain unresolved. Political upheaval is particularly dangerous when a repressive leader is able to come to power.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_prevention
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1083035893#7_1193915337	Title: Genocide prevention - Wikipedia Headings: Genocide prevention Genocide prevention Contents The psychological basis of genocide Social psychological factors Risk factors for genocide Early warning signs of genocide The role of the United Nations The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide International criminal tribunals The Responsibility to Protect Criticisms of the United Nations on genocide prevention and intervention Types of prevention Upstream prevention Mid-Stream prevention Downstream prevention Genocide prevention and public health Ongoing prevention efforts Genocide Watch The Alliance Against Genocide United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect Early warning project Genocide task force References External links Content: First, certain situational factors like destabilizing crises and political upheaval make countries more vulnerable to genocide. Forms of political upheaval include civil wars, assassinations, revolutions, coups, defeat in international war, anticolonial rebellions, or any sort of upheaval that results in unconventional regime change or in elites with extremist ideologies coming to power. Almost all genocides of the past half-century have occurred either during or in the immediate aftermath of one of these types of political upheaval. Additionally, the potential for genocidal violence increases when multiple forms of crisis, upheaval, or destabilization occur simultaneously, or when the effects of past crises remain unresolved. Political upheaval is particularly dangerous when a repressive leader is able to come to power. Authoritarian leaders can propel entire societies into "monolithic cultures" at risk for genocide by incentivizing a strong obedience to the state, a lack of tolerance for diversity, and creating an environment that facilitates Groupthink and conformity. The most dangerous authoritarian leaders often have extremist views about a new society "purified" of unwanted or threatening groups of people, and they promote these ideologies as moral and for the "greater good" of the nation, as they classify certain threatening groups as barriers to national success. Many such leaders in past genocides, like Adolf Hitler, Pol Pot, and Slobodan Milošević, have also shared similar personal characteristics, as charismatic, self-confident, intelligent individuals with a fierce desire for power. Adolf Hitler is saluted by German troops in an	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide_prevention
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1089721544#0_1201580602	Title: Geography of Honduras - Wikipedia Headings: Geography of Honduras Geography of Honduras Contents Topography Interior highlands Caribbean lowlands Pacific lowlands Islands Climate Hurricanes Drought Climate change Hydrography Statistics Extreme Points Natural resources Natural hazards Environmental issues See also References Content: Geography of Honduras - Wikipedia Geography of Honduras From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Geography of Honduras Continent North America Region Central America Coordinates 15°00′N 86°30′W / 15.000°N 86.500°W / 15.000; -86.500 Area Ranked 101st • Total 112,492 km 2 (43,433 sq mi) • Land 99.82% • Water 0.18% Coastline 832 km (517 mi) Borders None Highest point Cerro Las Minas 2,870 metres (9,420 ft) Lowest point Caribbean Sea 0 metres (0 ft) Longest river Ulúa 400 km (250 mi) Largest lake Lake Yojoa 79 km 2 (31 sq mi) Exclusive economic zone 249,542 km 2 (96,349 sq mi) A map of Honduras. Honduras is a country in Central America. Honduras borders the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean. Guatemala lies to the west, Nicaragua south east and El Salvador to the south west. Honduras is the second largest Central American republic, with a total area of 112,890 square kilometres (43,590 sq mi). Honduras has a 700-kilometer (430-mile) Caribbean coastline extending from the mouth of the Río Motagua in the west to the mouth of the Río Coco in the east, at Cape Gracias a Dios. The 922 km (573 mi) southeastern side of the triangle is a land border with Nicaragua. It follows the Río Coco near the Caribbean Sea and then extends southwestward through mountainous terrain to the Gulf of Fonseca on the Pacific Ocean. The southern apex of the triangle is a 153 km (95 mi) coastline on the Gulf Fonseca, which opens onto the Pacific Ocean.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Honduras
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1090070534#9_1201969870	Title: Geography of Jamaica - Wikipedia Headings: Geography of Jamaica Geography of Jamaica Jamaica Contents Geology and landforms Main article: Geology of Jamaica Coasts Climate Vegetation and wildlife Extreme points See also References Content: The largest basin is the Vale of Clarendon, 80 km (50 mi) long and 32 km (20 mi) wide. Queen of Spains Valley, Nassau Valley, and Cave Valley were formed by the same process. Coasts The coastline of Jamaica is one of many contrasts. The northeast shore is severely eroded by the ocean. There are many small inlets in the rugged coastline, but no coastal plain of any extent. A narrow strip of plains along the northern coast offers calm seas and white sand beaches. Behind the beaches is a flat raised plain of uplifted coral reef. The southern coast has small stretches of plains lined by black sand beaches. These are backed by cliffs of limestone where the plateaus end. In many stretches with no coastal plain, the cliffs drop 300 metres (980 ft) straight to the sea.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Jamaica
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1091870353#9_1203811624	Title: Geography of Panama - Wikipedia Headings: Geography of Panama Geography of Panama Contents Elevation Climate Vegetation Harbors Waterways Administrative divisions General facts Extreme points: References Content: List of islands of Panama The Caribbean coastline is marked by several good natural harbors. The numerous islands of the Archipiélago de Bocas del Toro, near the Beaches of Costa Rica, provide an extensive natural roadstead and shield the banana port of Almirante. The over 350 San Blas Islands, near Colombia, are strung out for more than 160 km (99 mi) along the sheltered Caribbean coastline. The major port on the Pacific coastline is Balboa. The principal islands are those of the Archipiélago de las Perlas in the middle of the Gulf of Panama, the penal colony on the Isla de Coiba in the Golfo de Chiriquí, and the decorative island of Taboga, a tourist attraction that can be seen from Panama City. In all, there are some 1,000 islands off the Pacific coast. The Pacific coastal waters are extraordinarily shallow. Depths of 180 metres (591 ft) are reached only outside the perimeters of both the Gulf of Panama and the Golfo de Chiriquí, and wide mud flats extend up to 70 km (43 mi) seaward from the coastlines. As a consequence, the tidal range is extreme. A variation of about 70 centimetres (2.3 ft) between high and low water on the Caribbean coast contrasts sharply with over 700 cm (23 ft) on the Pacific coast, and some 130 km (81 mi) up the Río Tuira, the tidal range is still over 500 cm (16 ft).	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Panama
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1096161199#2_1209002790	Title: Geology of the Death Valley area - Wikipedia Headings: Geology of the Death Valley area Geology of the Death Valley area Contents Early sedimentation Proterozoic complex Pahrump Group Crustal thinning and rifting Passive margin formed A carbonate shelf forms Change to active margin and uplift Development of a plain Extension creates the Basin and Range Volcanism and valley-fill sedimentation Formation of the Walker Lane - part of an incipient plate boundary? Table of formations Table of salts See also References Bibliography External links Content: An accretion wedge of clastic sediment then started to accumulate at the base of the submerged precipice, entombing the region's first known fossils of complex life. These sandy mudflats gave way about 550 Ma to a carbonate platform which lasted for the next 300 million years of Paleozoic time. The passive margin switched to active margin in the early-to-mid Mesozoic when the Farallon Plate under the Pacific Ocean started to dive below the North American Plate, creating a subduction zone; volcanoes and uplifting mountains were created as a result. Erosion over many millions of years created a relatively featureless plain. Stretching of the crust under western North America started around 16 Ma and is thought to be caused by upwelling from the subducted spreading-zone of the Farallon Plate. This process continues into the present and is thought to be responsible for creating the Basin and Range province. By 2 to 3 million years ago this province had spread to the Death Valley area, ripping it apart and creating Death Valley, Panamint Valley and surrounding ranges. These valleys partially filled with sediment and, during colder periods during the current ice age, with lakes. Lake Manly was the largest of these lakes;	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Death_Valley_area
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1096161199#3_1209004791	Title: Geology of the Death Valley area - Wikipedia Headings: Geology of the Death Valley area Geology of the Death Valley area Contents Early sedimentation Proterozoic complex Pahrump Group Crustal thinning and rifting Passive margin formed A carbonate shelf forms Change to active margin and uplift Development of a plain Extension creates the Basin and Range Volcanism and valley-fill sedimentation Formation of the Walker Lane - part of an incipient plate boundary? Table of formations Table of salts See also References Bibliography External links Content: Stretching of the crust under western North America started around 16 Ma and is thought to be caused by upwelling from the subducted spreading-zone of the Farallon Plate. This process continues into the present and is thought to be responsible for creating the Basin and Range province. By 2 to 3 million years ago this province had spread to the Death Valley area, ripping it apart and creating Death Valley, Panamint Valley and surrounding ranges. These valleys partially filled with sediment and, during colder periods during the current ice age, with lakes. Lake Manly was the largest of these lakes; it filled Death Valley during each glacial period from 240,000 years ago to 10,000 years ago. By 10,500 years ago these lakes were increasingly cut off from glacial melt from the Sierra Nevada, starving them of water and concentrating salts and minerals. The desert environment seen today developed after these lakes dried up. Contents 1 Early sedimentation 1.1 Proterozoic complex 1.2 Pahrump Group 2 Crustal thinning and rifting 3 Passive margin formed 4 A carbonate shelf forms 5 Change to active margin and uplift 6 Development of a plain 7 Extension creates the Basin and Range 8 Volcanism and valley-fill sedimentation 9 Formation of the Walker Lane - part of an incipient plate boundary? 10 Table of formations 11 Table of salts 12 See also 13 References 13.1 Bibliography 14 External links Early sedimentation Proterozoic complex Little is known about the history of the oldest exposed rocks in the area due to extensive metamorphism;	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Death_Valley_area
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1096161199#4_1209007124	Title: Geology of the Death Valley area - Wikipedia Headings: Geology of the Death Valley area Geology of the Death Valley area Contents Early sedimentation Proterozoic complex Pahrump Group Crustal thinning and rifting Passive margin formed A carbonate shelf forms Change to active margin and uplift Development of a plain Extension creates the Basin and Range Volcanism and valley-fill sedimentation Formation of the Walker Lane - part of an incipient plate boundary? Table of formations Table of salts See also References Bibliography External links Content: it filled Death Valley during each glacial period from 240,000 years ago to 10,000 years ago. By 10,500 years ago these lakes were increasingly cut off from glacial melt from the Sierra Nevada, starving them of water and concentrating salts and minerals. The desert environment seen today developed after these lakes dried up. Contents 1 Early sedimentation 1.1 Proterozoic complex 1.2 Pahrump Group 2 Crustal thinning and rifting 3 Passive margin formed 4 A carbonate shelf forms 5 Change to active margin and uplift 6 Development of a plain 7 Extension creates the Basin and Range 8 Volcanism and valley-fill sedimentation 9 Formation of the Walker Lane - part of an incipient plate boundary? 10 Table of formations 11 Table of salts 12 See also 13 References 13.1 Bibliography 14 External links Early sedimentation Proterozoic complex Little is known about the history of the oldest exposed rocks in the area due to extensive metamorphism; the rock has been pressure-cooked. This somber, gray, almost featureless crystalline complex is composed of originally sedimentary and igneous rocks with large quantities of quartz and feldspar mixed in. The original rocks were transformed to contorted schist and gneiss, making their original parentage almost unrecognizable. Radiometric dating gives an age of 1700 million years for the metamorphism, placing it in the early part of the Proterozoic eon. A mass of granite now in the Panamint Mountains intruded this complex 1400 mya.	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Death_Valley_area
msmarco_v2.1_doc_17_1096209964#2_1209032897	Title: Geology of the Death Valley area - Wikipedia Headings: Geology of the Death Valley area Geology of the Death Valley area Contents Early sedimentation Proterozoic complex Pahrump Group Crustal thinning and rifting Passive margin formed A carbonate shelf forms Change to active margin and uplift Development of a plain Extension creates the Basin and Range Volcanism and valley-fill sedimentation Table of formations Table of salts See also Notes References External links Content: An accretion wedge of clastic sediment then started to accumulate at the base of the submerged precipice, entombing the region's first known fossils of complex life. These sandy mudflats gave way about 550 Ma to a carbonate platform which lasted for the next 300 million years of Paleozoic time. The passive margin switched to active margin in the early-to-mid Mesozoic when the Farallon Plate under the Pacific Ocean started to dive below the North American Plate, creating a subduction zone; volcanoes and uplifting mountains were created as a result. Erosion over many millions of years created a relatively featureless plain. Stretching of the crust under western North America started around 16 Ma and is thought to be caused by upwelling from the subducted spreading-zone of the Farallon Plate. This process continues into the present and is thought to be responsible for creating the Basin and Range province. By 2 to 3 million years ago this province had spread to the Death Valley area, ripping it apart and creating Death Valley, Panamint Valley and surrounding ranges. These valleys partially filled with sediment and, during colder periods during the current ice age, with lakes. Lake Manly was the largest of these lakes;	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Death_and_Panamint_valleys_area

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