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4020878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adinkerke | Adinkerke | Adinkerke (French: Adinkerque) is a village in the municipality of De Panne in western Belgium close to the French border. It forms a conurbation with the coastal town of De Panne, which in turn is part of the west Belgian coastal conurbation. Adinkerke railway station is also the western terminus of the Belgian coast tram line to De Panne; Nieuwpoort, Ostend and beyond. Near the city is Plopsaland, formerly Meli Park.
The 'kerke' suffix is common in west Flanders as an area surrounding a church (similar to kirk in Scotland and North East England). The closest French towns are Ghyvelde and Bray-Dunes, which can be accessed via the E40 (A16) motorway, N39 (N1) main road, or N386 (D 60) minor road in addition to a canal. The roads names in brackets employ French nomenclature once crossing the border.
There are regular NMBS trains to Brussels. Access by train to Dunkirk is via Gare de Lille Flandres which is in France. The line across the border is out of use. Dk' bus run buses from the station forecourt to Gare de Dunkerque. A campaign group called Trekhaak-73 is seeking to re-open the railway line.
History
In the First World War, from June to November 1917 the Commonwealth XV Corps held the front from the Belgian coast to St. Georges . The 24th and 39th Casualty Clearing Stations were posted at Oosthoek (between Adinkerke and Veurne) from July to November, and the 1st Canadian Casualty Clearing Station was at Adinkerke for a short time in June and July.
During the Second World War, the British Expeditionary Force was involved in the later stages of the defence of Belgium following the German invasion in May 1940, and suffered many casualties in covering the withdrawal to Dunkirk. Commonwealth forces did not return until September 1944, but in the intervening years, many airmen were shot down or crashed in raids on strategic objectives in Belgium, or while returning from missions over Germany.
Adinkerke Military Cemetery contains 365 burials (168 Commonwealth dead of the First World War, 55 from the Second World War, also 142 Czech, Slovak and German war graves). Further Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) graves can be found in the Adinkerke Churchyard Extension, which contains a Belgian military cemetery as well as 67 Commonwealth burials.
Tobacco
Belgium has lower taxes on tobacco than France or the UK; as Adinkerke is the closest Belgian town accessible to the French ferry ports, it attracts many French smokers and British booze cruisers every day to make the trip across the border to buy cheaper tobacco. Adinkerke has the unusual claim to fame of having the greatest number of tobacconists per capita of any area in Europe.
Previously, tobacconists were open around the clock, which provided the advantage of offering other commercial and fuel services that would not normally be found in a town of such a small size. While this may have proved beneficial to travellers, local people were inconvenienced by the constant traffic, so the local mayor ordered the tobacco stores to close during the night. Due to the smuggling associated with reduced tobacco duty, it is not uncommon for the E40 to be closed at night at junction 1 and French and Belgian police to question drivers and passengers of vehicles on the N34 road over the motorway.
A weak euro combined with increasingly expensive tobacco prices has resulted in more and more UK shoppers to make the day trip to Adinkerke to stock up on cheap tobacco. Tax increases have made the UK the second most expensive place to buy tobacco in Europe. Adinkerke tobacco shops cater to English shoppers, selling popular UK brands and accepting payment in sterling.
Notes and references
Populated places in West Flanders
De Panne |
4020879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Battle%20of%20Fort%20Sumter | Second Battle of Fort Sumter | The Second Battle of Fort Sumter was fought on September 8, 1863, in Charleston Harbor. Confederate General P. G. T. Beauregard, who had commanded the defenses of Charleston and captured Fort Sumter in the first battle of the war, was in overall command of the defenders. In the battle, Union forces under Major General Quincy Gillmore attempted to retake the fort at the mouth of the harbor. Union gunners pummeled the fort from their batteries on Morris Island. After a severe bombing of the fort, Beauregard, suspecting an attack, replaced the artillerymen and all but one of the fort's guns with 320 infantrymen, who repulsed the naval landing party. Gillmore had reduced Fort Sumter to a pile of rubble, but the Confederate flag still waved over the ruins.
Background
Union efforts to retake Charleston Harbor began on April 7, 1863, when Rear Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont, commander of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, led the ironclad frigate New Ironsides, the tower ironclad Keokuk, and the monitors Weehawken, Pasaic, Montauk, Patapsco, Nantucket, Catskill, and Nahant in an attack on the harbor's defenses (The 1863 Battle of Fort Sumter was the largest deployment of monitors in action up to that time). The attack was unsuccessful, the Union's best ship, USS New Ironsides never effectively engaged, and the ironclads fired only 154 rounds, while receiving 2,209 from the Confederate defenders . Due to damage received in the attack, the USS Keokuk sank the next day, off the southern tip of Morris Island. Over the next month, working at night to avoid the attention of the Federal squadron, the Confederates salvaged Keokuk's two eleven-inch Dahlgren guns . One of the Dahlgren guns was promptly placed in Fort Sumter.
The Confederates, in the meantime, were strengthening Fort Sumter. A workforce of just under 500 slaves, under the supervision of Confederate army engineers, were filling casemates with sand, protecting the gorge wall with sandbags, and building new traverse, blindages, and bombproofs. Some of Fort Sumter's artillery had been removed, but 40 pieces still were mounted. Fort Sumter's heaviest guns were mounted on the barbette, the fort's highest level, where they had wide angles of fire and could fire down on approaching ships. The barbette was also more exposed to enemy gunfire than the casemates in the two lower levels of the fort.
A special military decoration, known as the Gillmore Medal, was later issued to all Union service members who had performed duty at Fort Sumter under the command of Major-General Quincy Adams Gillmore
Fort Sumter Armaments, August 17, 1863
Battle
After the devastating bombardment, both Major General Quincy A. Gillmore and Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren, now commanding the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron, determined to launch a boat assault on Fort Sumter for the night of September 8–9, 1863. Cooperation between the Army and Navy was poor. Dahlgren refused to place his sailors and marines under the command of an army officer, so two flotillas set out towards Fort Sumter that night. The army flotilla was detained off Morris Island by the low tide. By the time they could proceed, the navy assault had already been defeated and the army flotilla returned to shore.
The navy's assault involved 400 sailors and marines in 25 boats. The operation was a fiasco from beginning to end. Poor reconnaissance, planning and communication all characterized the operation. Commander Thomas H. Stevens, Jr., commanding the monitor Patapsco, was placed in charge of the assault. When Commander Stevens protested that he "knew nothing of [the assault's] organization " and "made some remonstrances on this grounds and others." Dahlgren replied "There is nothing but a corporal's guard [about 6–10 men] in the fort, and all we have to do is go and take possession." . This underestimation of the Confederate forces on Dahlgren's part may explain why he was hostile to a joint operation wishing to reserve the credit for the victory to the navy. Fewer than half of the boats landed. Most of the boats that did land landed on the right flank or right gorge angle, rather than on the gorge where there was a passable breach. The Union sailors and marines who did land could not scale the wall. The Confederates fired upon the landing party and as well as throwing hand grenades and loose bricks. The men in the boats that had not landed fired muskets and revolvers blindly at the fort, endangering the landing party more than the garrison. The landing party took shelter in shell holes in the wall of the fort. In response to a signal rocket fired by the garrison, Fort Johnson and the Confederate warship CSS Chicora opened fire upon the boats and landing party. The boats that could withdraw withdrew, and the landing party surrendered. The Union casualties were 8 killed, 19 wounded, and 105 captured (including 15 of the wounded). The Confederates did not suffer any casualties in the assault.
Aftermath
After the unsuccessful boat assault, the bombardment recommenced and proceeded with varying degree of intensity, doing more damage to Fort Sumter until the end of the war. The garrison continued to suffer casualties. The Confederates continued to salvage guns and other material from the ruins and harassed the Union batteries on Morris Island with sharpshooters. The Confederates mounted four columbiads, one columbiad rifled, and two rifled 42-pounders, in the left face, bottom tier casemates. The last Confederate commander, Major Thomas A. Huguenin, a graduate from The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, never surrendered Fort Sumter, but General William T. Sherman's advance through South Carolina finally forced the Confederates to evacuate Charleston on February 17, 1865, and abandon Fort Sumter. The Federal government formally took possession of Fort Sumter on February 22, 1865, with a flag-raising ceremony. One Union soldier was killed and another Union soldier was mortally wounded during the surrender ceremony (see above). Fifty-two Confederate soldiers were killed there during the remainder of the war. While a number of slaves were killed while working at the fort, the exact number is unknown.
Notes
References
CWSAC Report Update
Ripley, Warren (1984). Artillery and Ammunition of the Civil War. Charleston, S.C.: The Battery Press. .
Wise, Stephen R. (1994). Gate of Hell: Campaign for Charleston Harbor, 1863. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press. .
Operations against the Defenses of Charleston (American Civil War)
Confederate victories of the American Civil War
Battles of the American Civil War in South Carolina
Battle of Fort Sumter II
Naval battles of the American Civil War
United States Marine Corps in the 18th and 19th centuries
Conflicts in 1863
1863 in South Carolina
History of Charleston, South Carolina
September 1863 events
19th-century in Charleston, South Carolina |
4020880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20Europe | Social Europe | Social Europe (ISSN 2628-7641), is a leading European digital media publisher and a forum for debate and innovative thinking. Social Europe states about itself that it uses the values of freedom, sustainability and equality as the foundation on which its contributors examine important policy issues. Social Europe was founded by Henning Meyer and is focused on publishing new and pioneering answers to issues in economics, politics and employment & labor.
Social Europe is published by Social Europe Publishing & Consulting GmbH based in Berlin. Between 2005 and 2018 Social Europe was published from London.
Social Europe is the winner of an 2018 .eu Web Award in the House of EU category. The House of EU award presented annually by EURid celebrates the best website that represent blogs, news outlets, and the media. The 2018 .eu Web Awards competition recorded over 200 nominations with close to 10.000 votes during the nomination and voting period. The winners were announced at the 2018 awards gala, which took place at the Theatre du Vaudeville in Brussels on 21 November 2018.
Since its foundation, Social Europe has published high-profile authors such as Zygmunt Bauman Sheri Berman, Jayati Gosh, Jürgen Habermas, Michael Higgins, Paul Mason, and Adam Tooze. Articles published on Social Europe have been commented on or referenced in publications such as The Atlantic, The Guardian, Harvard Business Review and Die Zeit.
References
External links
Social Europe Mission Statement
Publishing companies of Europe
Mass media companies of Europe
Mass media in Europe
Media freedom in Europe |
4020883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution%20Trail | Constitution Trail | The Constitution Trail is a multi-use rail trail located in Illinois. It occupies an abandoned Illinois Central Gulf Railroad corridor that runs through the 'Twin Cities' of Bloomington and Normal in McLean County, Illinois.
The trail, which is owned by the municipalities of Bloomington and Normal, is used by bikers, inline skaters, walkers, runners and skiers, and covers approximately . of former railways. It features the Camelback Bridge in Normal, a site on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. Its official opening was May 6, 1989. In 2000, the trail was officially named a "Millennium Trail" by the White House Millennium Council.
Trail description
Constitution Trail consists of over 45 miles of trail and connects to the historic Route 66 Trail in McLean County. The trail features 32 trailheads around the cities of Normal and Bloomington with multiple historic sites and points of
interest throughout the trail system.
Trail branches
Illinois Central: The main trail that runs north-south through the Bloomington-Normal area. The trailhead starts north of Normal at the Kerrick Parking and Access Point () and ends after 6.5 miles at Croxton Ave, Bloomington ().
Northtown: Splits off from the Illinois Central branch and runs along the Ironwood Golf Course. Trail is almost 3 miles long.
Bloomer Line: Splits off from the Illinois Central branch at the Allers Shelter Wayside and Connie Link Ampitheater. This branch runs west-east and is roughly 4.5 miles long.
Collegiate: Splits off from the Illinois Central branch at the Normal Parks & Rec Office and ends at the Heartland Community College after 3.5 miles.
Southtown: A 7-mile branch with the trailhead beginning at Pepper Ridge Park and ending at Streid Drive.
Interurban: A little over 4.5 miles, this branch begins at the West Route 9 Wayside and ends at the Evergreen Memorial Cemetery.
Route 66: Follows US Route 66 as it cuts southwest through Normal and Bloomington. There is an access point at Pepper Ridge Park in Bloomington. From Bloomington to Normal the trail is 7.8 miles. The total trail length is 37.2 miles.
Trail amenities
Amenities include restrooms, shelters/gazebos, parking, benches, water fountains, trash receptacles, and picnic tables.
References
External links
Town of Normal
City of Bloomington
Official website of The Constitution Trail
Rail trails in Illinois
Illinois Central Railroad
Bloomington–Normal
Protected areas of McLean County, Illinois
Tourist attractions in Bloomington–Normal
1989 establishments in Illinois
Protected areas established in 1989 |
4020884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie%20Mae%20Reid | Willie Mae Reid | Willie Mae Reid (born April 20, 1928) is an American politician who ran as the Socialist Workers Party candidate for Mayor of Chicago in 1975, winning 16,693 votes but coming in third place against Richard J. Daley. The number had fallen from the number of signatures she'd acquired to get on the ballot, 66,000. She also ran as their vice presidential candidate in 1976 (Presidential candidate: Peter Camejo) and 1992 (Presidential candidate: James "Mac" Warren), winning 91,314 votes.
Bibliography
The racist offensive against busing: the lessons of Boston, how to fight back (1974)
Last hired, first fired. Affirmative action vs seniority NY: Pathfinder Press. 1975.
Black Women's Struggle for Equality NY: Pathfinder Press. (1976) (co-author)
Which way for the women's movement? How to win against the attacks on women's rights NY: Pathfinder Press. (1977) (co-author)
References
Living people
African-American candidates for Vice President of the United States
American Trotskyists
American women writers
Politicians from Chicago
1976 United States vice-presidential candidates
1992 United States vice-presidential candidates
20th-century American politicians
Socialist Workers Party (United States) vice presidential nominees
Female candidates for Vice President of the United States
Communist women writers
Socialist Workers Party (United States) politicians from Illinois
1928 births |
4020896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Scott%20%28mathematician%29 | Elizabeth Scott (mathematician) | Elizabeth Leonard Scott (November 23, 1917 – December 20, 1988) was an American mathematician specializing in statistics.
Scott was born in Fort Sill, Oklahoma. Her family moved to Berkeley, California when she was 4 years old. She attended the University of California, Berkeley where she studied astronomy. She earned her Ph.D. in 1949 in astronomy, and received a permanent position in the Department of Mathematics at Berkeley in 1951.
She wrote over 30 papers on astronomy and 30 on weather modification research analysis, incorporating and expanding the use of statistical analyses in these fields. She also used statistics to promote equal opportunities and equal pay for female academics.
In 1957 Scott noted a bias in the observation of galaxy clusters. She noticed that for an observer to find a very distant cluster, it must contain brighter-than-normal galaxies and must also contain a large number of galaxies. She proposed a correction formula to adjust for (what came to be known as) the Scott effect.
Dr. Scott was a Fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics.
The Committee of Presidents of Statistical Societies awards a prize in her honor, the Elizabeth L. Scott Award, for "fostering opportunities in statistics for women".
References
1917 births
1988 deaths
American statisticians
Women statisticians
Fellows of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics
Presidents of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics
20th-century American mathematicians
20th-century women mathematicians
University of California, Berkeley alumni |
4020905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCN | BCN | BCN may refer to:
Places
Barcelona El Prat Airport, IATA code
an abbreviation for the city of Barcelona
Port of Barcelona, by shortened form of the UN/LOCODE ESBCN without the country prefix
Baja California, geographical ISO 3166 code MX-BCN
Birmingham Canal Navigations, a network of the English canal system in Birmingham, Wolverhampton
Companies and organizations
BCN Competicion, a Spanish Formula 3000/GP2 Series motorsport team bought by Ocean Racing Technology in 2008
Broadcasting Corporation of Newfoundland, public radio service of Newfoundland prior to absorption into the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in 1949
Broadcasting Corporation of Niue, government-owned broadcaster operating Niue's only television and radio channels
Library of Congress of Chile ()
Rinker School of Building Construction at the University of Florida, formerly abbreviated BCN
Publications and literature
Y Beibl Cymraeg Newydd, a Welsh Bible translation
Bi Community News, a United Kingdom magazine serving the bisexual community
Breaking Cat News, a syndicated comic strip
Other uses
Bicyclononyne, a small molecule used in the bioorthogonal chemistry of antibody-drug conjugates
Board Certified in Neurofeedback, a certification administered by the Biofeedback Certification International Alliance
Boron carbonitride, another name for heterodiamond, a superhard material
Büro Center Nibelungenplatz, a skyscraper in Frankfurt am Main, Germany
A model designation of the Type B videotape
See also |
4020918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seo%20Bong-soo | Seo Bong-soo | Seo Bong-soo (born February 1, 1953) is a professional Go player.
Biography
Seo Bong-soo turned professional in 1970. By 1986 he became the 4th ever Korean 9 dan. He was Cho Hunhyun's biggest rival in the 1980s and frequently challenged Cho in major title events. During their career, Seo and Cho played against each other in more than 350 official games, which is a world record. He was a part of the "Gang of Four" of Korean Go in 1990s, the rest being Cho Hunhyun, Lee Chang-ho, and Yoo Changhyuk. He made an amazing run of wins in 1997 during the 5th SBS Cup. He played as fourth captain for Korea, and singlehandedly beat the entire Chinese team as well as what was left of the Japanese team--a winning streak of 9 straight games.
Titles
Ranks #6-t in total number of titles in Korea.
References
External links
Interview
1953 births
Living people
South Korean Go players |
4020935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KZQZ | KZQZ | KZQZ was a commercial radio station that was licensed to serve St. Louis, Missouri at 1430 AM, and broadcast from 1922 to 2020. As WEB it was one of the first radio stations to have been established and licensed in the Greater St. Louis metropolitan area, and was known for most of its life as WIL. The Federal Communications Commission revoked the license for the station and its three co-owned stations in March 2020 after discovering that a convicted felon had effective control of the stations in their last years; despite the revocation, KZQZ and KQQZ continued to broadcast without a valid license into April 2020.
History
Experimental broadcasts by The Benwood Company
KZQZ traces its founding to April 5, 1922, the date that radio station WEB was first licensed to The Benwood Company of St. Louis. This makes it one of four St. Louis radio stations awarded a license in the spring of 1922.
In the year-and-a-half prior to WEB's first license, the Benwood Company and its owners had made several experimental broadcasts on an irregular schedule. The Benwood Company was a small electrical firm, specializing in radio, that was named after its co-founders, the company's president William E. Woods, and vice president Lester Arthur "Eddie" Benson. On election night November 2, 1920, the two men broadcast election results provided by the St. Louis Post-Dispatch newspaper, over a radiotelephone transmitter operated at Woods' home at 4312 De Tonty Street. (At least three other stations made election night broadcasts: the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company at East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania under a Special Amateur authorization, 8ZZ (now KDKA), the Detroit News''' "Detroit News Radiophone" station, operating under an amateur station authorization, 8MK (now WWJ), and the Buffalo Evening News, over an amateur station operated by Charles C. Klinck, Jr.)
Benson and Woods continued to work on developing radiotelephone equipment, and an early December 1920 newspaper article stated that they had successfully communicated with an automobile over a distance of 30 miles (48 kilometers). At the time, it was noted that "The wireless telephone will be the last word in luxury tourists", and it also could be installed on police department automobiles for emergency communication. The two also made a few additional experimental radio broadcasts, from a variety of sites and apparently under multiple station licenses, although details are limited. On January 29, 1922 it was announced that Woods was preparing a radio concert for the upcoming Friday evening featuring the City Club Quartet, to be followed at noon on Saturday by an address by Beatrice Forbes Robertson on the "Causes and Cure of Labor Unrest".
The St. Louis Star began working in conjunction with The Benwood Company, a partnership that would expand over the next few years. The newspaper arranged for Benson and Woods to conduct a broadcast on February 9, 1922 from the Benwood building located at 1110 Olive Street, and following its successful completion the effort was hailed by the paper as "the first elaborate program given by wireless in this section of the United States". A second Star-promoted broadcast was made two weeks later, on February 23. It was announced that a third concert would be held on March 16, 1922, transmitting on the standard amateur radio station wavelength of 200 meters (1500 kHz) from Benson's home at 4942 Wiesehan Avenue. However, this broadcast was canceled shortly before it was scheduled to take place, when L. R. Schmidt, in charge of monitoring the federal government's ninth Radio Inspection district, notified the participants that he had begun strictly enforcing a rule, adopted effective December 1, 1921, that banned amateur radio stations from making broadcasts intended for the general public.
WEB
The December 1, 1921 regulations mandated that stations wishing to make broadcasts now had to hold a Limited Commercial license that explicitly authorized the broadcasts. The Benwood Company filed the necessary paperwork, and on April 5, 1922 was issued a broadcasting station license with the randomly assigned call letters of WEB. The authorization included permission to use both wavelengths that had been set aside by the government for broadcasting stations: 360 meters (833 kHz) for "entertainment" and 485 meters (619 kHz) for "market and weather news".
WEB was the fourth St. Louis radio station to receive a broadcasting license, preceded by the St. Louis Post-Dispatch's KSD (March 14, 1922, now KTRS), St. Louis University's WEW (March 23, 1922), and the Stix-Baer-Fuller department store's WCK (April 3, 1922, deleted November 30, 1928 as WSBF). At this time all broadcasters transmitted their entertainment programs on 360 meters, so the stations in a given area had to establish a time-sharing agreement specifying the time periods during which each would operate. A Benwood Company advertisement that appeared in early May listed WEB's schedule as 6:30 to 8:00 p.m. on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday evenings. In late April it was announced that WEB had installed a 300-watt transmitter — a high power for the time — consisting of six 50-watt tubes.
WIL
In November 1924, ownership of WEB was transferred to the Benson Radio Company, and in January 1925 the station's call sign was changed to WIL. Shortly thereafter primary responsibility for the station's operations was taken over by the Star. A new studio was built on the eighth floor of the Star building, and the station licensee was changed to "St. Louis Star and the Benson Co." After a short series of tests, the newspaper announced that regular programming from the new studio would start on January 31, and the station's schedule would be 10p.m. to midnight on Monday, Wednesday and Saturday, and 9p.m. to 11p.m. on Friday. WIL was now broadcasting on 1100 kHz, a frequency it shared with WCK. This arrangement lasted until early 1927, when the Benson Radio Broadcasting Company resumed as the sole operator, and the station's studios were moved to the Missouri Hotel Building.
There were numerous frequency shifts during the WIL's early history, until, in mid-1929, the station was assigned to part-time operation on a low-powered "local" frequency, 1200 kHz. It initially shared this frequency with two other St. Louis stations, WMAY and KFWF, but after both of these stations were deleted in the early 1930s WIL was able to operate fulltime.
A station advertisement in a 1933 issue of Broadcasting magazine claimed a number of "firsts" for WIL, including:
first commercial station on the air in St. Louis
first to broadcast police news
first to broadcast election returns and
first to have its own news-gathering organization.
In the 1930s, WIL branded itself as "The Biggest Little Station in the Nation". Under the provisions of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement, in March 1941 it, along with all the other stations transmitting on 1200 kHz, was moved to 1230 kHz. In 1949, WIL received permission to shift to a "regional" frequency, 1430 kHz, where it and its successors have been ever since. This new frequency also resulted in a major power increase, from 250 to 5,000 watts.
WIL replaced KXOK (now KYFI) as St. Louis's ABC Radio affiliate on April 28, 1957. Later that year, the Bensons sold WIL, along with Fort Lauderdale, Florida sister station WWIL, to H. &. E. Balaban Corp. for $650,000. Beginning in the 1950s WIL was the first station in St. Louis to air a popular music format, and it was an early career stop in the late 1950s and early 1960s for some personalities who later achieved success in New York City radio, including WABC's Dan Ingram and Ron Lundy. It also boasted Jack Carney. WIL's rating eventually shrank due to competition from Storz Broadcasting's KXOK.
In 1967, the Balabans sold WIL and its FM sister station, WIL-FM at 92.3 MHz, to LIN Broadcasting for $1.65 million; LIN immediately announced plans to program WIL as an all-news station. After one year, LIN changed WIL's format to country music on July 8, 1968. It became St. Louis's top country music outlet, while featuring personalities such as Davey Lee.
In the mid-1970s, facing competition from startup country station WGNU-FM in Granite City, Illinois at 106.5 (now WARH), WIL's programs began to be simulcast over WIL-FM. By the early 1980s, WIL-FM was established as the top country music station in town, so the programming at the two stations was again separated, with WIL, on the AM band, adopting a classic country format.
LIN Broadcasting put its radio stations up for sale on September 23, 1986; that November, it agreed to sell WIL and WIL-FM, along with its stations in Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Rochester, New York, to Heritage Communications in a $23 million deal. The following year, as part of Heritage's merger with Tele-Communications Inc., its stations were spun off to the company's executives for $200 million, forming Heritage Media.
WRTH
On June 21, 1990, WIL switched to an adult standards format, using Unistar's "Hits of the '40s, '50s and '60s" programming. That December, it announced a call sign change to WRTH, which took effect on January 18, 1991. The station inherited the format and call sign used for many years at 590 AM in Wood River, Illinois (now KFNS AM).
Sinclair Broadcast Group announced that it would acquire the Heritage Media stations for $630 million on July 14, 1997; the sale was completed in early 1998. Heritage was in the process of being acquired by News Corporation, which had no interest in operating radio stations. Emmis Communications announced plans to acquire Sinclair's St. Louis stations in June 1999; a year later, following subsequent litigation, Emmis agreed to only acquire six radio stations for $220 million, with Sinclair retaining television station KDNL-TV. Emmis then turned around and swapped WRTH, WIL-FM, and WVRV (now WXOS), along with its own WKKX (now WARH), to Bonneville International in exchange for KZLA-FM in Los Angeles; both deals were completed in October 2000.
Facing the aging demographics of the nostalgia format, WRTH to a short-lived 50s/60s oldies format, dubbed "Real Oldies 1430", on June 27, 2003. The adult standards format returned October 12, 2004.
Return to WIL
The call sign was changed back to WIL on June 29, 2005; on July 1, the station relaunched as "Country Legends 1430" with a classic country format.
On July 20, 2006, severe thunderstorms caused major damage around St. Louis, leaving hundreds of thousands without electricity, and knocking down one of WIL's transmitting towers. (At the same time, two of the KTRS AM 550 towers were toppled, and KSLG AM 1380 was knocked off the air as well.) WIL had to apply for a special temporary authority from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to operate non-directionally with reduced power until the tower was replaced.
KZQZ
In January 2008, Bonneville agreed to sell the station to the Entertainment Media Trust for $1.2 million; the deal did not include the rights to the WIL call sign. Following the sale's completion, on March 5, 2008, the call sign was changed to KZQZ, and the format was changed to oldies, branded as "Krazy Q".
KZQZ and its sister Entertainment Media Trust stations had their licenses revoked on March 20, 2020 for being controlled by Bob Romanik, a convicted felon. Despite the license revocation, KZQZ programming continued on 1430 kHz, effectively as pirate radio, until early April 2020, just after the St. Louis Post-Dispatch'' published stories about the continuing illegal broadcasts.
FCC Auction 109
The FCC announced on February 8, 2021, that the former EMT-licensed AM allocations in the St. Louis market, including KZQZ's frequency, would go up for auction on July 27, 2021. No bids were received for any of the four frequencies during the eight-day auction.
References
External links
(covering 1927–1981 as WIL)
1922 establishments in Missouri
Radio stations disestablished in 2020
2020 disestablishments in Missouri
Radio stations established in 1922
American Basketball Association flagship radio stations
ZQZ
Defunct radio stations in the United States
ZQZ |
4020936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donation%20of%20Sutri | Donation of Sutri | The Donation of Sutri was an agreement reached at Sutri by Liutprand, King of the Lombards and Pope Gregory II in 728. At Sutri, the two reached an agreement by which the city and some hill towns in Latium (like Vetralla) were given to the Papacy, "as a gift to the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul" according to the Liber Pontificalis. The pact formed the first extension of papal territory beyond the confines of the Duchy of Rome and was the first of two land transfers from Liutprand to the Church of Rome.
History
The Lombard peoples had long been adherents to the Christian sect of Arianism, but they had converted to Catholicism over time. After his election as King of the Lombards in 712, Liutprand faced a series of challenges from the strength of aristocratic families and the threat of secession from the grand duchies in his domain. The duchies of Spoleto and Benevento in Langobardia Minor were particularly autonomous from Liutprand's central power and were separated from the rest of the kingdom by the informal division of the that ran through the center of Italy, from Rome to north of Ravenna.
Liutprand began to centralize the power of his kingdom. Meanwhile, he found support from Rome and the Papal State once disputes over iconoclasm turned them against the Byzantine Empire, which had attempted to conquer the territory that divided it into two parts. Liutprand seized the moment when the Italian territories governed by the Byzantines rejected the emperor Leo III the Isaurian's support of iconoclasm. Liutprand's military campaign began with his goal to take the territory that divided Langobardia in two—the duchy of Rome and the Byzantine Corridor.
When the Pope understood Liutprand's intentions—that he would probably decide to conquer Rome—he felt endangered. For many years, the Byzantine Empire had ceased to intervene militarily for Rome, using its energies only for the defense of Ravenna. The course of Liutprand's campaign changed, however, when in 728, the Lombards conquered the fortress of Narni, the strategic center of the Via Flaminia. Having lost the Roman road, the Byzantines concentrated their defenses upon the , the only Roman road that left Rome and crossed Umbria and Picenum.
Controlling the Via Amerina were the fortresses of Todi, Amelia, and Orte. Further south, the castra of Bomarzo, Sutri, and Blera safeguarded the Via Cassia. In 728, Liutprand took the castle of Sutri, which held strategic importance in the duchy of Rome and dominated the highway at Nepi on the roads to Perugia and Tuscany.
Pope Gregory II asked Liutprand directly to renounce the territories he had just conquered and to return them to the control of the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna. By that time, Liutprand had already quelled the rebelling duchies of Spoleto and Benevento. Softened by the entreaties of Pope Gregory II, he restored Sutri "as a gift to the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul" directly to the Papal State. According to Gustav Schnürer, This expression of the "Liber pontificalis" was erroneously interpreted to mean that in this gift the beginning of the States of the Church was to be recognized. This is incorrect inasmuch as the popes continued to acknowledge the imperial Government, and Greek officials appear in Rome for some time longer. True it is, however, that here for the first time we meet the association of ideas on which the States of the Church were to be constructed. The pope asked the Lombards for the return of Sutri for the sake of the Princes of the Apostles and threatened punishment by these sainted protectors. The pious Liutprand was undoubtedly susceptible to such pleas, but never to any consideration for the Greeks. For this reason he gave Sutri to Peter and Paul, that he might not expose himself to their punishment. What the pope then did with it would be immaterial to him.
The pact was the first extension of Papal territory beyond the confines of the Duchy of Rome.
Political context
At the end of the 7th century, under Pope Gregory I, the Catholic church had been forced to replace the Byzantine administration in providing for the population of Rome and the surrounding countryside. The population had suffered under several famines and plagues during that time. With the assent to the Papacy's intervention by the Byzantine Empire and the Exarchate of Ravenna, the Pope placed the duchy of Rome's civil and military administration under his control. Often, to defend the territory and in the name of the Emperor, the same Pope Gregory had to exercise the duchy's imperium (the command of the military garrison) over the Byzantine troops stationed in Rome.
In this period, the duchy's de facto acquisition by the Pope lead to a new political role for the Papacy in the territory and its surroundings. This was not by virtue of a formal territorial sovereignty, but by the recognition of the states surrounding it and the peoples living within it. The heightened political clout of the Church, that also had religious authority, also lead to a restructuring of the Papal household to address its increased secular responsibilities.
The Lombardic donations of the first castles in the 8th century, including Sutri, formally intended "for the Apostles Peter and Paul", took place in recognition of the consolidated political role of the Church, which the Lombard kings saw as a power in the political equilibrium of the Italian peninsula. That belief was strengthened by the traditions of Papal primacy and Apostolic succession—the Papacy's moral authority had come to be recognized even by the Germanic peoples: the Franks, the Visigoths of Spain, the Burgundians, the Anglo-Saxons of England, and the Lombards themselves.
On the other hand, the Papacy was already the owner of numerous territories, the , documented churches and monasteries given to the Pope. These had been received by the end of the 4th century, as testified by the Edict of Milan through which Constantine and Licinius ordered that previously confiscated goods be returned to the Church and as described in the Liber Pontificalis. In the years just before the Donation of Sutri, other restitutions of land had come to the Catholic Church from the Lombards, like lands in Alpi Cozie and the city of Cumae.
The Donation of Sutri, which occurred during the revolt against the Byzantine iconoclast decrees, placed the Roman population on the side of the Pope, against the representatives of the Byzantine Empire. The Donation was one of the few times the Papal State aligned itself against the legitimate rulers of territory surrounding Rome. The recognition of the Papal State's authority, even if it was de facto and not de jure, by the Lombards would be accentuated in the following years by the successors of Gregory II (Popes Gregory III and Zachary), thanks to the growing disinterest and distance of the Byzantine Emperors.
Legacy
In 739, Pope Gregory III addressed a letter to Charles Martel, master of the Frankish kings' royal palace in which appeared, for the first time, the phrase "populus peculiaris beati Petri". The Pope was referring to the population of the duchies of Rome, Ravenna, and the Pentapolis as living together in a republic, of which Saint Peter was the protector and eponymous hero.
Between 739 and 741, the following were added to the land ceded with Sutri: Gallese, Amelia, Orte, Blera, and Bomarzo. And again in 743, Liutprand titled to Pope Zachary four cities that he had occupied—Vetralla, Palestrina, Ninfa, and Norma—as well as restoring to the Pope part of the Sabina that had been taken by the dukes of Spoleto thirty years before. Liutprand, having temporarily eased the tensions between the Lombardic dukes of Spoleto and Benevento, avoided a civil war.
The Donation of Sutri was followed in 754 by the Donation of Pepin, affirmed in Pavia by the Frankish king Pepin the Short.
Through the close pacts with the Frankish sovereigns from the second half of the 9th century, the Papal State was no longer solely the patrimony of the archbishop of Rome, but as a body with recognized jurisdiction to which Pepin the Short guaranteed military protection in 754 against potential aggression by the Lombardic kings. The following restitutions of the Lombardic kings to the Papacy in 774, including Ravenna and the Pentapoli—induced by pacts with the Franks—spoke directly of a return to the "republic of Romans' of which the bishop of Rome was recognized as leader.
Another consequence of the Donation of Sutri was the drafting of the false document, the Donation of Constantine. According to the document, retrodated to 321, the Roman Emperor Constantine had ceded to the Catholic Church of Pope Sylvester I the civil jurisdiction of the city of Rome, Italy, and the entire Western Roman Empire. The authenticity of the Donation of Constantine was greatly debated among the Catholic canon law synods after the year 1000 and was questioned by the Germanic and Frankish chanceries. While they couldn't place the document itself in doubt, they had evidence that the plan was inconsistent with the claimed prerogatives of the Church.
Given the uncertain secular power of the Church when the Donation of Constantine was forged (the 9th and 10th centuries), the document reflects the new role occupied by the Papal State and the jurisdictional status it intended to retain, especially regarding Rome. This was a claim particularly useful for the new representatives of the Holy Roman Empire, that was born in the year 800 thanks to the support of the Papal State.
See also
Translatio imperii
Inter caetera
Caesaropapism
Byzantine Papacy
References
Bibliography
External links
Santo Gregorio
Kingdom of the Lombards
8th century in the Papal States
8th-century treaties
728
Western Christianity
History of the Papal States
Catholicism and politics
History of Catholicism in Italy
de:Kirchenstaat#Schenkung von Sutri |
4020949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maher | Maher | Maher may refer to:
Name
Maher (given name), an Arabic given name
Maher (surname), list of people with the name
Places
Maher Island, an Antarctic island
Maher, Colorado, an unincorporated community in the United States
Maher, West Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States
Maher Building, a historic building in Florida, United States
Mahers, Newfoundland and Labrador, a settlement in Canada
Other uses
Maher Cup, an Australian rugby league football trophy
Maher (NGO), an Indian non-profit organization
Maher (community), a social group of India
Maher (god), an Aksumite god
See also
Waltons Stores (Interstate) Ltd v Maher, leading case in Australian contract law
Maher v. Town Council of Portland, Canadian constitutional law court decision dealing with the constitutional guarantees for denominational schools
Mehr (disambiguation)
Mahar (tribe) of Sindh and Punjab, Pakistan
Mahir or Maher, Arabic given name |
4020950 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County%20Route%20581%20%28New%20Jersey%29 | County Route 581 (New Jersey) | County Route 581 (CR 581) is a county highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. The highway extends from Main Street (Route 49) in Quinton Township to Bridgeton Pike (Route 77) in Harrison Township.
Route description
CR 581 begins at an intersection with Route 49 in Quinton Township, Salem County, heading east-northeast on two-lane undivided Alloway Road. The road runs through areas of farms and woods along with homes. The setting becomes more rural as the road continues east and crosses into Alloway Township. Residential development increases as the road runs through the community of Alloway and crosses CR 540. The route intersects CR 611 before becoming Commissioners Pike and making a turn northeast at Alloway Lake and intersecting CR 603. CR 581 enters rural areas with some homes again at this point and crosses CR 672 before entering Pilesgrove Township. Within Pilesgrove Township, the road has intersections with CR 614 and CR 615.
Crossing into Upper Pittsgrove Township, the route reaches the US 40 intersection. Continuing more to the north-northeast, CR 581 has junctions with CR 619 and CR 660. Upon crossing Oldmans Creek, the road continues into South Harrison Township in Gloucester County and intersects CR 694 and CR 538. Residential development increases past the intersection with the latter as the route enters Harrison Township. CR 581 comes to its northern terminus at an intersection with Route 77 in the community of Mullica Hill.
History
The Commissioners' Pike used to be known as the Commissioners' Road. Due to its renaming, the road was likely maintained by the Mullica Hill and Pole Tavern Turnpike Company, chartered in 1851 to maintain a road from Mullica Hill to Daretown.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
County Route 581
581
581
581 |
4020958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten%20Year%20Rule | Ten Year Rule | The Ten Year Rule was a British government guideline, first adopted in August 1919, that the armed forces should draft their estimates "on the assumption that the British Empire would not be engaged in any great war during the next ten years".
The suggestion for the rule came from Winston Churchill, who in 1919 was Secretary of State for War and Air. Former Prime Minister Arthur Balfour unsuccessfully argued to the Committee of Imperial Defence, which adopted the rule, that "nobody could say that from any one moment war was an impossibility for the next ten years ... we could not rest in a state of unpreparedness on such an assumption by anybody. To suggest that we could be nine and a half years away from preparedness would be a most dangerous suggestion."
In 1928 Churchill, as Chancellor of the Exchequer, successfully urged the Cabinet to make the rule self-perpetuating, and hence it was in force unless specifically countermanded. In 1931 the Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald wanted to abolish the Ten Year Rule because he thought it unjustified based on the international situation. This was bitterly opposed by the Foreign Secretary Arthur Henderson who succeeded in keeping the rule.
There were very large cuts in defence spending as a result of this rule, with defence spending going down from £766 million in 1919–20, to £189 million in 1921–22, to £102 million in 1932. In April 1931 the First Sea Lord, Sir Frederick Field, claimed in a report to the Committee of Imperial Defence that the Royal Navy had declined not only in relative strength compared to other Great Powers but "owing to the operation of the 'ten-year-decision' and the clamant need for economy, our absolute strength also has ... been so diminished as to render the fleet incapable, in the event of war, of efficiently affording protection to our trade". Field also claimed that the navy was below the standard required for keeping open Britain's sea communications during wartime and that if the navy moved to the East to protect the Empire there would not be enough ships to protect the British Isles and its trade from attack and that no port in the entire British Empire was "adequately defended".
The Ten Year Rule was abandoned by the Cabinet on 23 March 1932, but this decision was countered with: "this must not be taken to justify an expanding expenditure by the Defence Services without regard to the very serious financial and economic situation" which the country was in due to the Great Depression.
Recent reference
In 2010, the Royal Navy decided to retire HMS Ark Royal, Britain's only aircraft carrier, in 2011. This was five years earlier than previously planned and up to ten years before the planned entry into service of the new Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers. A group of retired admirals criticized the decision, calling it a new "10-year rule".
See also
British re-armament
Notes
20th-century military history of the United Kingdom |
4020964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaubier | Chaubier | Chaubier is a washed rind French Cheese made from half goat's milk and half cow's milk. The cheese was produced by the Soignon division of DCI's cheese section. The cheese was discontinued in 2012 with small amounts of the cheese being available in 2013 from distributors.
DCI has discontinued all references to the cheese on their website as of 1/1/2013.
References
http://www.nalascheese.com/store/Cheese/Cheese-Type/Firm-Cheese/Chaubier/
http://www.igourmet.com/shoppe/Chaubier.asp
http://www.crackerscheese.com/home/chaubier
French cheeses
Goat's-milk cheeses
Cow's-milk cheeses |
4020984 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WXOS | WXOS | WXOS (101.1 FM) is a commercial radio station affiliated with ESPN Radio and licensed to East St. Louis, Illinois, broadcasting to the Greater St. Louis area. Owned by Hubbard Broadcasting, its studio facilities are located on Olive Boulevard in St. Louis, while its transmitter is located in south St. Louis County near Concord.
Programming
WXOS, an ESPN Radio affiliate, carries ESPN shows on nights and weekends. The station is the flagship station for the St. Louis Blues. It also previously held the rights to Saint Louis Billikens men's basketball which it acquired from KFNS, until 2020 saw the Bills move to KMOX. Play-by-play announcer Bob Ramsey joined 101 ESPN as a member of the Fast Lane when the station launched. 101 ESPN also airs the College Football Playoff, the World Series, the NBA Finals, and other events from ESPN Radio.
Sportswriter and The Fast Lane Producer Michelle Smallmon had been filling the spot left by Chris Duncan on The Fast Lane. However, that spot was permanently filled by Brad Thompson in 2014. Smallmon later became a co-host on "The Bernie Miklasz Show" in 2018 but left the show in 2019. As of May 2020, Randy Karraker and Smallmon co-host the station's morning drive program, "Karraker & Smallmon".
WXOS held the radio rights to the St. Louis Rams of the National Football League from 2009 to 2015 after which they relocated to Los Angeles. Rams games were previously aired on KLOU.
History
WXOS has adopted several call letters and formats since it began airing on May 13, 1966. The station first broadcast under WMRY and had studios based out of the Our Lady of the Snows shrine near Belleville. The station, however, never broadcast a religious format. Rather, they aired non-commercial pop music with periodic positive motivational messages from different faiths interspersed. In the mid-1980s, the station became a commercial station, and aired a progressive rock format. Their studios were relocated to an office park in St. Louis County, Missouri. In January 1991, the station flipped to soft AC as "Sunny 101", WSNL. Two months later, the station flipped to "mellow rock" as WFXB, "The Fox", and simulcasted on KFXB (105.7 FM). In February 1993, the simulcasting ended, though 101.1 would continue to carry the mellow rock format, which would evolve to a AAA format, and then an "Arrow"-type classic hits format, while still being called "The Fox." On November 24, 1994, the station would return to AAA as "101 The River" and the WVRV call letters. By Summer of 1997, the format evolved to modern AC. In 2004, the format shifted to adult top 40, but retained the "River" moniker and call letters.
On September 8, 2006, at 11:00 a.m., WVRV changed its format to Rhythmic adult contemporary, changed its moniker to "MOViN 101.1", and adopted the slogan of "Makes You Feel Good." The first song on "MOViN" was "Good Vibrations" by Marky Mark & the Funky Bunch. They were the fourth station to adopt the "MOViN" moniker, after KQMV Seattle, KMVN Los Angeles and KYMV Salt Lake City. The announcement was made with no prior notification to its on-air personalities, and they were dismissed on short notice, as is the norm in format switches. The station announced that it would go 90 days without personalities before DJs would be announced. Under the Rhythmic AC format, the station's playlist consisted of "adult rhythmic hits from today, the 1980s and 1990s, plus a sprinkling of rhythmic classics." The station would change call letters to WMVN shortly afterward.
The first on-air DJs were former Steve & DC castmember Jill Devine (10a-3p), Mysti (2-7p) and Raven Rush (7p-mid), who joined on December 15. On February 12, 2007, former KYKY morning show co-host Steph Duran joined MOViN' for mornings. Prior to joining WMVN, Duran had been at KZON and KUPD in Phoenix. She was joined on September 1, 2007 by co host Eric Schmidt. Schmidt had previously worked at WMVN sister station WARH. A veteran of the St. Louis market he had also worked at WVRV, KPNT, WXTM, WMLL, KCLC, and KFAV. WMVN was programmed by Jules Riley, who also programs WARH.
After an economic-related shakeup on March 3, 2008, Mysti and Raven Rush were let go. Schmidt moved to the 2-7p slot and Steph Duran took a solo morning shift. The format was shifted to Hot AC after this.
On September 22, 2008, it was announced that WMVN would flip to an all-sports format on January 1, 2009, featuring a combination of local and ESPN Radio programming. The station would also change call letters to the current WXOS. To prepare for the change, on October 10, WMVN began stunting with all-Christmas music, which lasted until the full format flip occurred.
Bonneville International announced the sale of WXOS, as well as 16 other stations, to Twin Cities-based Hubbard Broadcasting on January 19, 2011. The sale was completed on April 29, 2011.
References
External links
Station website
Sports in St. Louis
µ
XOS
Sports radio stations in the United States
ESPN Radio stations
Radio stations established in 1966
Hubbard Broadcasting
1966 establishments in Missouri |
4020995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser%20capture%20microdissection | Laser capture microdissection | Laser capture microdissection (LCM), also called microdissection, laser microdissection (LMD), or laser-assisted microdissection (LMD or LAM), is a method for isolating specific cells of interest from microscopic regions of tissue/cells/organisms (dissection on a microscopic scale with the help of a laser).
Principle
Laser-capture microdissection (LCM) is a method to procure subpopulations of tissue cells under direct microscopic visualization. LCM technology can harvest the cells of interest directly or can isolate specific cells by cutting away unwanted cells to give histologically pure enriched cell populations. A variety of downstream applications exist: DNA genotyping and loss of heterozygosity (LOH) analysis, RNA transcript profiling, cDNA library generation, proteomics discovery and signal-pathway profiling. The total time required to carry out this protocol is typically 1–1.5 h.
Extraction
A laser is coupled into a microscope and focuses onto the tissue on the slide. By movement of the laser by optics or the stage the focus follows a trajectory which is predefined by the user. This trajectory, also called element, is then cut out and separated from the adjacent tissue. After the cutting process, an extraction process has to follow if an extraction process is desired. More recent technologies utilize non-contact microdissection.
There are several ways to extract tissue from a microscope slide with a histopathology sample on it. Press a sticky surface onto the sample and tear out. This extracts the desired region, but can also remove particles or unwanted tissue on the surface, because the surface is not selective. Melt a plastic membrane onto the sample and tear out. The heat is introduced, for example, by a red or infrared (IR) laser onto a membrane stained with an absorbing dye. As this adheres the desired sample onto the membrane, as with any membrane that is put close to the histopathology sample surface, there might be some debris extracted. Another danger is the introduced heat: Some molecules like DNA, RNA, or protein don't allow to be heated too much or at all for the goal of being isolated as purely as possible.
For transport without contact. There are three different approaches. Transport by gravity using an upright microscope (called GAM, gravity-assisted microdissection) or transport by laser pressure catapult; the most recent generation utilizes a technology based on laser induced forward transfer (LIFT). With cut-and-capture, a cap coated with an adhesive is positioned directly on the thinly cut (5-8 μm) tissue section, the section itself resting on a thin membrane (polyethylene naphthalene). An IR laser gently heats the adhesive on the cap fusing it to the underlying tissue and an UV laser cuts through tissue and underlying membrane. The membrane-tissue entity now adheres to the cap and the cells on the cap can be used in downstream applications (DNA, RNA, protein analysis).
Procedure
Under a microscope using a software interface, a tissue section (typically 5-50 micrometres thick) is viewed and individual cells or clusters of cells are identified either manually or in semi-automated or more fully automated ways allowing the imaging and then automatic selection of targets for isolation. Currently six primary isolation/collection technologies exist using a microscope and device for cell isolation. Four of these typically use an ultraviolet pulsed laser (355 nm) for the cutting of the tissues directly or the membranes/film, and sometimes in combination with an IR laser responsible for heating/melting a sticky polymer for cellular adhesion and isolation. IR laser provides a more gentle approach to microdissection. A fifth ultraviolet laser based technology uses special slides coated with an energy transfer coating which, when activated by the laser pulse, propels the tissue or cells into a collection cap.
The laser cutting width is usually less than 1 μm, thus the target cells are not affected by the laser beam. Even live cells are not damaged by the laser cutting and are viable after cutting for cloning and reculturing as appropriate.
The various technologies differ in the collection process, possible imaging methods (fluorescence microscopy/bright field microscopy/differential interference contrast microscopy/phase contrast microscopy/ etc.) and the types of holders and tissue preparation needed before the imaging and isolation. Most are primarily dedicated micro-dissection systems, and some can be used as research microscopes as well, only one technology (#2 here, Leica) uses an upright microscope, limiting some of the sample handling capabilities somewhat, especially for live cell work.
The first technology (used by Carl Zeiss PALM) cuts around the sample then collects it by a "catapulting" technology. The sample can be catapulted from a slide or special culture dish by a defocused U.V laser pulse which generates a photonic force to propel the material off the slide/dish, a technique sometimes called Laser Micro-dissection Pressure Catapulting (LMPC). The dissected material is sent upward (up to several millimetres) to a microfuge tube cap or other collector which contains either a buffer or a specialized tacky material in the tube cap that the tissue will adhere to. This active catapulting process avoids some of the static problems when using membrane-coated slides.
Another process follows gravity-assisted microdissection method that turns on gravity to collect samples in tube cap under the slide used (used by ION LMD system, Jungwoo F&B). In case of this system, it moves the motorized stage to cut the cells of interests, keeping the laser beam fixed. And the system uses a 355 nm Solid-state laser(UV-A) which is the safest way to cut the tissues without RNA or DNA damage.
Another closely related LCM process (used by Leica) cuts the sample from above and the sample drops via gravity (gravity-assisted microdissection) into a capture device below the sample. The different point with upper one is, the laser beam here is moving to cut tissue by moving dichroic mirror.
When the cells (on a slide or special culture dish) of choice are in the center of the field of view, the operator selects the cells of interest using instrument software. The area to be isolated when a near-IR laser to activate transfer film on a cap placed on the tissue sample, melting the adhesive which then fuses the film with the underlying cells of choice (see Arcturus systems); and/or by activating a UV laser to cut out the cell of interest. The cells are then lifted off the thin tissue section, leaving all unwanted cells behind. The cells of interest are then viewed and documented prior to extraction.
The fourth UV based technology (used by Molecular Machines and Industries AG) offers a slight difference to the 3rd technology here by essentially creating a sandwich of sorts with slide>sample>and membrane overlying the sample by the use of a frame slide whose membrane surface is cut by the laser and ultimately picked up from above by a special adhesive cap.
A fifth UV based technology uses standard glass slides coated with an inert energy transfer coating and a UV based laser microdissection system (typically a Leica LMD or PALM Zeiss machine). Tissue sections are mounted on top of the energy transfer coating. The energy from a UV laser is converted to kinetic energy upon striking the coating, vaporizing it, instantly propelling selected tissue features into the collection tube. The energy transfer coated slides, commercialized under the trade name DIRECTOR slides by Expression Pathology Inc. (Rockville, MD), offer several advantages for proteomic work. They also do not autofluoresce, so they can be used for applications using fluorescent stains, DIC or polarized light.
In addition to tissue sections, LCM can be performed on living cells/organisms, cell smears, chromosome preparations, and plant tissue.
Applications
The laser capture microdissection process does not alter or damage the morphology and chemistry of the sample collected, nor the surrounding cells. For this reason, LCM is a useful method of collecting selected cells for DNA, RNA and/or protein analyses. LCM has also been used to isolate acellular structures, such as amyloid plaques. LCM can be performed on a variety of tissue samples including blood smears, cytologic preparations, cell cultures and aliquots of solid tissue. Frozen and paraffin embedded archival tissue may also be used.
References
External links
East Carolina University: LCM for "Dummies"
Yale Rice Transcriptional Atlas Project employing Laser Capture Microdissection
Cell imaging
Biological techniques and tools
Laser medicine |
4021008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cha%20Gui-hyun | Cha Gui-hyun | Cha Gui-Hyun (차귀현) is a football player from South Korea.
He was a member of the South Korean Youth (U-20) team in early 1990s and went on to play as a professional in the K-League.
Club history
Daejeon Citizen (1997–1998)
Chunnam Dragons (1999)
See also
List of South Korean footballers
Sport in South Korea
List of Koreans
External links
K League Player record 차귀현
South Korean footballers
Daejeon Hana Citizen FC players
Jeonnam Dragons players
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Association football forwards |
4021011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangstress | Gangstress | Gangstress is the second studio album by American rapper Khia. The album was released by Thug Misses Entertainment and Warlock Records on July 11, 2006 in the United States. The album was fully produced by Khia. It debuted at #67 on the Billboard'''s Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart.
Release
The release party for Gangstress was hosted at BED, a New York City nightclub featuring mattresses scattered around the space.
Chart performanceGangstress debuted at number 67 on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart dated July 29, 2006. It spent a total of three weeks on the chart, compared to 29 and 20 weeks, respectively, for the two editions of her debut album. The album did not enter the Billboard 200, in contrast to Thug Misses'', which had peaked within the top 40.
Track listing
All songs written by Khia Chambers
"Answering Machine" – 3:40
"Respect Me" – 4:49
"Thugmisses Speaks, Pt. 1" – 0:19
"Bitch Muthafucka Got Damn" – 4:10
"Grandma" – 1:00
"Ah Ha" – 3:50
"I've Been High" – 4:02
"Thugmisses Speaks, Pt. 2" – 0:15
"I've Been Called a Bitch" – 4:14
"Pop's" – 2:11
"Thugmisses Thugniggaz" – 4:36
"Sunshine" – 1:12
"Fucking Me Tonight" – 4:11
"Questions for the Niggaz" – 0:39
"Snatch the Cat Back" – 4:32
"Insufficient Funds" – 1:10
"Bryan Brooks" – 2:56
"Hit the Door" – 4:23
"Thugmisses Speaks, Pt. 3" – 0:13
"Don't Trust" – 4:11
"Thugmisses Speaks, Pt. 4" – 0:13
"For the Love of Money" – 4:20
"Forgive Me for My Sins" – 5:12
Bonus DVD
"Khia Live" (featuring Khia performing her hits live)
"Photoshoot"
"On the Radio" (Interview)
"Back to T-Town" ("Memory Lane")
"Interview"
Charts
Personnel
Khia – rapping
JA – rapping on "Hit the Door"
References
External links
[ Gangstress track listing at Billboard.com]
[ Gangstress chart history at Billboard.com]
2006 albums
2006 live albums
2006 video albums
Khia albums
Live video albums
RED Distribution albums |
4021016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape%20response | Escape response | Escape response, escape reaction, or escape behavior is a mechanism by which animals avoid potential predation. It consists of a rapid sequence of movements, or lack of movement, that position the animal in such a way that allows it to hide, freeze, or flee from the supposed predator. Often, an animal's escape response is representative of an instinctual defensive mechanism, though there is evidence that these escape responses may be learned or influenced by experience.
The classical escape response follows this generalized, conceptual timeline: threat detection, escape initiation, escape execution, and escape termination or conclusion. Threat detection notifies an animal to a potential predator or otherwise dangerous stimulus, which provokes escape initiation, through neural reflexes or more coordinated cognitive processes. Escape execution refers to the movement or series of movements that will hide the animal from the threat or will allow for the animal to flee. Once the animal has effectively avoided the predator or threat, the escape response is terminated. Upon completion of the escape behavior or response, the animal may integrate the experience with its memory, allowing it to learn and adapt its escape response.
Escape responses are anti-predator behaviour that can vary from species to species. The behaviors themselves differ depending upon the species, but may include camouflaging techniques, freezing, or some form of fleeing (jumping, flying, withdrawal, etc.). In fact, variation between individuals is linked to increased survival. In addition, it is not merely increased speed that contributes to the success of the escape response; other factors, including reaction time and the individual's context can play a role. The individual escape response of a particular animal can vary based on an animal's previous experiences and its current state.
Evolutionary importance
The ability to perform an effective escape maneuver directly affects the fitness of the animal, because the ability to evade predation enhances an animal's chance of survival. Those animals that learn to or are simply able to avoid predators have contributed to the wide variety of escape responses seen today. Animals that are able to adapt their responses in ways different from their own species have displayed increased rates of survival. Because of this, it is common for the individual escape response of an animal to vary according to reaction time, environmental conditions, and/or past and present experience.
Arjun et al. (2017) found that it is not necessarily the speed of the response itself, but the greater distance between the targeted individual and the predator when the response is executed. In addition, the escape response of an individual is directly related to the threat of the predator. Predators that pose the biggest risk to the population will evoke the greatest escape response. Therefore, it may be an adaptive trait selected for by natural selection.
Law & Blake (1996) argue that many morphological characteristics could contribute to an individual's efficient escape response, but the escape response has undoubtedly been molded by evolution. In their study, they compared more recent sticklebacks to their ancestral form, the Paxton Lake stickleback, and found that the performance of the ancestral form was significantly lower. Therefore, one may conclude that this response has been ripened by evolution.
Neurobiology
How the escape responses are initiated neurologically, and how the movements are coordinated is dependent on the species. The behaviors alone vary widely, so, in a similar manner, the neurobiology of the response can be highly variable between species.
‘Simple’ escape responses are commonly reflex movements that will quickly move the animal away from the potential threat. These neural circuits operate quickly and effectively, rapidly taking in sensory stimuli and initiating the escape behavior through well-defined neuron systems.
Complex escape responses often require a mixture of cognitive processes. This may stem from a difficult environment to escape from, or the animal having multiple potential escape methods. Initially, the animal must recognize the threat of predation, but following the initial recognition the animal might have to quickly determine the best route of escape, based on prior experience. This means rapid integration of incoming information with prior knowledge, and then coordination of motor movements deemed necessary. Complex escape responses generally require a more robust neural network.
Researchers will often evoke an escape response to test the potency of hormones and/or medication and their relationship to stress. As such, the escape response is fundamental to anatomical and pharmacological research.
Role of learning
Habituation
A series of initially threatening encounters that do not lead to any true adverse outcomes for the animal can drive the development of habituation. Habituation is an adaptation strategy that refers to the diminishing response of an animal to a stimulus following repetitive exposures of the animal to that same stimulus. In other words, the animal learns to distinguish between innately threatening situations and may choose to not go through with their escape response. This is a highly variable phenomenon, where the stimulus itself is highly specific, and the experience is highly context dependent. This suggests that there is no one mechanism by which a species will develop habituation to a stimulus, instead habituation may arise from the integration of experiences. A number of cognitive processes may operate during one single threatening experience, but the levels at which these processes are integrated will determine how the individual animal will potentially respond next.
Caenorhabditis elegans, commonly identified as nematodes, have been used as a model species for studies observing their characteristic “tap-withdrawal response”. The tapping on serves as the fear-provoking, mechanical stimulus which C. elegans worms will move away from. If the tapping stimulus continues without any direct effects on the worms, they will gradually stop responding to the stimulus. This response is modulated by a series of mechanosensory neurons (AVM, ALM, PVD, and PLM) which synapse with interneurons (AVD, AVA, AVB, and PVC) transmitting the signal to motor neurons that cause the back-and-forth movements. Habituation to the tapping reduces activity of the initial mechanosensory neurons, seen as decrease in calcium channel activity and neurotransmitter release.
The primary force driving escape habituation is suspected to be energy conservation. If an animal learns that a certain threat will not actively cause harm to it, then the animal can choose to minimize its energy costs by not performing its escape. For example, Zebra danios, also known as Zebrafish, who are habituated to predators are more latent to flee than those who were not habituated to predators. However, habituation did not affect the fish's angle of escape from the predator.
Learned Helplessness
If an animal cannot react via a startle or avoidance response, they will develop learned helplessness as a result of receiving or perceiving repeated threatening stimuli and believing the stimuli is unavoidable. The animal will submit and not react, even if the stimuli previously triggered instinctual responses or if the animal is provided an escape opportunity. In these situations, escape responses are not used because the animal has almost forgotten their innate response systems.
Helplessness is learned through habituation, because the brain is programmed to believe control is not present. In essence, animals operate under the assumption they have the free will to fight, flee or freeze as well as engage in other behaviors. When escape responses fail, they develop helplessness.
A common, theoretical example of learned helplessness is an elephant, trained by humans who condition the elephant to believe it cannot escape punishment. As a young elephant, it would be chained down with a pick to keep it from leaving. As it grows, the elephant would have the ability to easily overpower the tiny pick. Development of learned helplessness keeps the elephant from doing so, believing that it is trapped and the effort is futile.
In a more natural setting, learned helplessness would most often be displayed by animals that live in group settings. If food were scarce and one individual was always overpowered when it came time to get food, it would soon believe that no matter what it did, getting food would be impossible. It would have to find food on its own or submit to the idea it will not eat.
Startle Response
Startle response is an unconscious response to sudden or threatening stimuli. In the wild, common examples would be sharp noises or quick movements. Because these stimuli are so harsh they are connected to a negative effect. This reflex causes a change in body posture, emotional state, or a mental shift to prepare for a specific motor task.
A common example would be cats and how, when startled, their arrector pili muscles contract, making the hair stand up and increase their apparent size. Another example would be excessive blinking due to the contraction of the orbicularis oculi muscle when an object is rapidly moving toward an animal; this is often seen in humans.
Halichoerus grypus, or Grey seals, respond to acoustic startle stimuli by fleeing from the noise. The acoustic startle reflex is only activated when the noise is over eighty decibels, which promotes stress and anxiety responses that encourage flight.
Flight Zone
Flight zone and flight distance are interchangeable and refer to the distance needed to keep an animal under the threshold that would trigger a startle response.
A flight zone can be circumstantial, because a threat can vary in size (individually or in group number). Overall, this distance is the measure of an animal's willingness to take on risks. This differentiates a flight zone from personal distance an animal prefers and social distance (how close other species are willing to be).
An applicable analogy would be a reactive dog. When the flight zone is large, the dog will maintain an observant stance, but a startle response will not occur. As the threatening stimuli moves forward and decreases the flight zone, the dog will exhibit behaviors that fall into a startle or avoidance response.
Avoidance Response
The avoidance response is a form of negative reinforcement which is learned through operant conditioning. This response is usually beneficial, as it reduces risk of injury or death for animals, also because it is an adaptive response and can change as the species evolves. Individuals are able to recognize certain species or environments that need to be avoided, which can allow them to increase the flight distance to ensure safety.
When scared, octopus release ink to distract their predators enough that they can burrow into a safe area. Another example of avoidance is the fast-start response in fish. They are able to relegate musculoskeletal control which allows them to withdraw from the environment with the threatening stimuli. It is believed that the neural circuits have adapted over time to more quickly react to a stimulus. Interestingly, fish that keep to the same groups will be more reactive than those who are not.
Examples
In birds
Avian species also display unique escape responses. Birds are uniquely vulnerable to human interference in the form of aircraft, drones, cars, and other technology. There has been a lot of interest in how these structures will and do affect the behaviors of terrestrial and aquatic birds.
One study, Weston et al., 2020, observed how flight initiation changed according to the distance of the drone from the birds. It was found that as the drone approached the tendency of birds to take flight to escape it increased dramatically. This was positively affected by the altitude at which the birds were exposed to the drone. In another experiment by Devault et al. (1989), brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) were exposed to a demonstration of traffic traveling at speeds between 60 – 360 km/hr. When approached by a vehicle travelling at 120 km/h, the birds only allotted 0.8s to escape before a possible collision. This study showed that fast traffic speeds may not allow enough time for birds to initiate an escape response.
In fish
In fish and amphibians, the escape response appears to be elicited by Mauthner cells, two giant neurons located in the rhombomere 4 of the hindbrain.
Generally, when faced with a dangerous stimuli, fish will contract their axial muscle, resulting a C-shaped contraction away from the stimulus. This response occurs in two separate stages: a muscle contraction that allows them to speed away from a stimulus (stage 1), and a sequential contralateral movement (stage 2). This escape is also known as a "fast-start response". The majority of the fish respond to an external stimulus (pressure changes) within 5 to 15 milliseconds, while some will exhibit a slower response taking up to 80 milliseconds. While the escape response generally only propels the fish a small distance away, this distance is long enough to prevent predation. While many predators use water pressure to catch their prey, this short distance prevents them from feeding on the fish via suction.
Particularly in the case of fish, it has been hypothesized that the differences in escape response are due to the evolution of neural circuits over time. This can be witnessed by observing the difference in the extent of stage 1 behaviour, and the distinct muscle activity in stage 2 of the C-start or fast-start response.
In larval zebrafish (Danio rerio), they sense predators using their lateral line system. When larvae are positioned lateral to a predator, they will escape in a likewise lateral direction. According to game theory, zebrafish who are positioned lateral and ventral to the predator are more likely to survive, rather than any alternate strategy. Finally, the faster (cm/s) the predator is moving, the faster downward the fish will move to escape predation.
Recent research in guppies has shown that familiarity can affect the reaction time involved in the escape response. Guppies that were placed in familiar groups were more likely to respond than guppies who were assigned to unfamiliar groups. Wolcott et al. (2017) suggest that familiar groups may lead to reduced inspection and aggression among conspecifics. The theory of limited attention states that the brain has a limited amount of information processing, and, as an individual is engaged in more tasks, the less resources it can provide to one given task. As a result, they have more attention that they can devote toward anti-predator behaviour.
In insects
When house flies (Musca domestica) encounter an aversive stimulus, they jump rapidly and fly away from the stimulus. A recent research suggests that the escape response in Musca domestica is controlled by a pair of compound eyes, rather than by the ocelli. When one of the compound eyes was covered, the minimum threshold to elicit an escape response increased. In short, the escape reaction of Musca domestica is evoked by the combination of both motion and light.
Cockroaches are also well known for their escape response. When individuals sense a wind puff, they will turn and escape in the opposite direction. The sensory neurons in the paired caudal cerci (singular: cercus) at the rear of the animal send a message along the ventral nerve cord. Then, one of two responses are elicited: running (through the ventral giant interneurons) or flying/running (through the dorsal giant interneurons).
In mammals
Mammals can display a wide range of escape responses. Some of the most common escape responses include withdrawal reflexes, fleeing, and, in some instances where outright escape is too difficult, freezing behaviors.
Higher-order mammals often display withdrawal reflexes. Exposure to danger, or a painful stimulus (in nociceptor-mediated loops), initiate a spinal reflex loop. Sensory receptors transmit the signal to the spine where it is rapidly integrated by interneurons and consequently an efferent signal is sent down motor neurons. The effect of the motor neurons is to contract the muscles necessary to pull the body, or body part away from the stimulus.
Some mammals, like squirrels and other rodents, have defensive neural networks present in the midbrain that allow for quick adaptation of their defense strategy. If these animals are caught in an area without refuge, they can quickly change their strategy from fleeing to freezing. Freezing behavior allows for the animal to avoid detection by the predator.
In one study, Stankowich & Coss (2007) studied the flight initiation distance of Columbian black-tailed deer. According to the authors, the flight initiation distance is the distance between prey and predator when the prey attempts an escape response. They found that the angle, distance, and speed that the deer escaped was related to the distance between the deer and its predator, a human male in this experiment.
Other examples
Squids have developed a multitude of anti-predator escape responses, including: jet-driven escape, postural displays, inking and camouflage. Inking and jet-driven escape are arguably the most salient responses, in which the individual squirts ink at the predator as it speeds away. These blobs of ink can vary in size and shape; larger blobs can distract the predator while smaller blobs can provide a cover under which the squid can disappear. Finally, the released ink also contains hormones such as L-dopa and dopamine that can warn other conspecifics of danger while blocking olfactory receptors in the targeted predator.
Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) are also well known for their escape responses. Unlike squids, who may engage more salient escape responses, the cuttlefish has few defences so it relies on more conspicuous means: jet-driven escape and freezing behaviour. However, it appears that the majority of cuttlefish use a freezing escape response when avoiding predation. When the cuttlefish freeze, it minimizes the voltage of their bioelectric field, making them less susceptible to their predators, mainly sharks.
References
Ethology
Animals by adaptation |
4021051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarlor%20Mercenary | Zarlor Mercenary | Zarlor Mercenary is a vertically scrolling shooter for the Atari Lynx handheld console, developed by Epyx and published by Atari Corporation.
Gameplay
Zarlor Mercenary is a vertically scrolling shoot 'em up in which the player controls a spacecraft destroying enemy spaceships and buildings in order to earn money which can be used to buy upgrades between levels. At the end of each level there is a boss ship or landing craft that needs to be destroyed. Up to four players can play simultaneously using the Comlynx. Noted in the game manual you don't start with life but a fleet of ships. In single-player you start off with four ships, in two player mode you start off with three ships each. With three and four players you only start the game with two ships each.
There are seven different pilot mercenaries to choose from, each having their own permanent unique weapon or skill. When playing in multiplayer mode, each player has a unique colour, you can either work together or towards completing the game. However one can purchase the weapon attachment backstabber that can kill another pilot causing him to loose money. Ship health is displayed on the right as a vertical green bar, this will deplete to yellow and flash red when near destruction. Ships left in the fleet are displayed as blue dots, while the mega bomb is displayed as a red dot.
After each mission there is a shop run by the Merchant of Venus. Here you can purchase and sell extra items. These include extra ships, which is like buying extra lives. Speed Up, Wing Cannons, Super Shield (regenerating shielding), Power Shots, Laser, Auto Fire, Mega Bomb, Back Shooter and Side Shooter. There are also two items for use in multiplayer mode. Invisibility so you can hide from other players and Back stabber which will attack your allied friends and not the enemy as well as protecting your loot so you don't lose it in that life.
Plot
The war had been going on for years between the Mendicant and the Zarlor races. It wasn't going anywhere so the Zarlors decided to hire outside help. There are six key installations on the Mendicant's home planet of Yorith. The first mission is the Cadmar Desert where you are to locate and destroy a super weapon. The second mission Mesort Swamp holds a secret base. Third mission is in the Docrit Sea where you have to destroy the Mendicant Navy. Forth mission titled Sedimor Domes is to attack a moon in the sector. Mardic Ice is the fifth mission where you fly to the ice caps of Mardi Koldavia, these ice caps are described as radioactive and here the Mendicants have built nuclear reactors, power plants and weapons factories. The sixth and final mission is Cedmite City the only city on the Mendicant planet, the Zarlors have ask for everything to be destroyed, all to be cleared out for colonisation.
Development
Peter Engelbrite at Epyx who was known for including easter eggs and mini-games in Atari Lynx games also included a version of the cellular automata, Conway's Game of Life in Zarlor Mercenary.
Reception
In Computer and Video Games, Paul Glancey called Zarlor Mercenary "a decent-looking shoot 'em up, but quite difficult and not overly exciting to play." Clayton Walnum wrote in STart, "As you struggle to destroy the attacking aliens and blast the ground targets, you'll begin to understand what people mean by the term 'control pad ache'. This blastathon will please all players with a thirst for destruction."
In a 1999 retrospective review, Robert Jung of IGN stated "A great no-nonsense action game, perfect for people who love the 'shoot it if it exists' philosophy. The game itself is not easy, and the addition of four-player teamups and cash payments/transfers/power-ups ensure quite a bit of variety to the game. Though there are only six levels, they are quite varied, and should offer many challenging hours to the average player." Kyle Knight of AllGame praised the graphics but stated that "Zarlor Mercenary moves sluggishly". In July 2013 GamesRadars Jeff Dunn wrote that Zarlor Mercenary along with Blue Lightning were the "obscure but excellent games" for the Lynx.
References
External links
Zarlor Mercenary on GameSpot
Zarlor Mercenary on AtariAge
1990 video games
Atari Lynx games
Atari Lynx-only games
Epyx games
Vertically scrolling shooters
Video games developed in the United States
Cellular automata in computer games |
4021059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippon%20Suisan%20Kaisha | Nippon Suisan Kaisha | , more commonly known as Nissui, is a marine products company based in Japan. It had annual revenues of US$5.1 billion in 2014. The company was established in 1911, and is a commercial fishing and marine product procurement corporation. Its goal is to “Establish a global supply chain of marine products.”
The company is the second-largest of its kind in Japan after Maruha Nichiro Holdings and owns Gorton's, a US frozen seafood company, among other companies. The company is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is constituent of the Nikkei 225 stock index. Its main competitors are Maruha Nichiro and Kyokuyo Co., Ltd.
Its former headquarters, built in Tobata (Kita Kyushu) in 1929, is now an exhibit center.
In 2005, the company divested its whaling fleet following controversy for its role in the modern global whaling industry (see Whaling in Japan).
As of 2013, the company has 61 subsidiaries and 44 associated companies across Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Asia, Europe and North and South America.
History
1908 – Founder Ichiro Tamura constructed Daiichi-Maru (199 gross tons), the first steel-frame trawler in Japan
1911 – Ichiro Tamura established the Tamura Steamship Fishery Division in Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi Prefecture, and started trawling in cooperation with Kosuke Kunishi and other people (foundation of Nippon Suisan)
1920 – Hayatomo Fishery Research Group, the first private fishery research organization in Japan, was established
1929 – The base of fishery moved from Shimonoseki to Tobata, Fukuoka Prefecture
1934 – First whaling expedition conducted in the Antarctic Ocean
1937 – Company name changed to Nippon Suisan
1946 – First postwar whaling expedition conducted in the Antarctic Ocean with permission of the General Headquarters (GHQ)
1949 – Nippon Suisan listed its shares on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
1952 – North Sea fisheries reopened and NISSUI's mother ship-type salmon and trout fleet began fishing.
1966 – Head office moved to the present address (Nippon Building in Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo)
1974 – Unisea founded in the U.S
1978 – EMDEPES founded in Santiago, Chile, as a fishery base
1988 – NISSUI acquired Salmones Antartica, a salmon and trout aquaculture company in Chile
1990 – NISSUI obtained approval to make "EPA-E NISSUI," a drug substance
1995 – involved in financing a management-buyout of ANZCO Foods (just over 25% shareholding; minor partner to Itoham Foods), a meat producer in New Zealand
2001 – Acquired 50% of shares of Sealord, a fishery company in New Zealand
Acquired from Unilever Gorton's and Blue Water, pre-cooked frozen seafood brands for household use in North America
2002 – Acquired 25% of shares of Alaska Ocean Seafood
2004 – Founded NAL Peru, a procurement company specializing in fish meat and fish oil, in Lima, Peru
Founded Europacifico, a marketer of marine products, in Vigo, Spain
2005 – Acquired King & Prince Seafood, a U.S. company of pre-cooked frozen seafood for business use
2006 – Acquired three marketers of marine products: Nordic Seafood in Denmark, F.W. Bryce in the U.S. and Nordsee in Brazil
2007 – Acquired shares of Cité Marine S.A.S., a processed seafood company in France
DOSA was established in Chile in order to administrating, marketing, and distributing for group fishery companies in Chile
2008 – Qingdao Nissui Food Research and Development founded
Acquired 25% of shares of Glacier Fish Company
Hokkaido Fine Chemicals Co., Ltd. founded
2009 – TN Fine Chemicals Co., Ltd. founded
Acquired Hokkaido Fine Chemicals Co from Nikkashi
2010 – Acquired shares of Delmar
Nordic Seafood A/S becomes consolidated subsidiary
2011 – Opening The Nissui Pioneer Exhibition Center
2012 – The Medium-Term Management Plan 2014(MVIP) was initiated.
2013 – "Yumigahama Suisan Co.,Ltd" was established for domestic Coho Salmon farming.
2014 – Head office moved to Nishi-Shimbashi Square in Minato-ku, Tokyo.
2015 – Nissui sells part of its shareholding in ANZCO Foods to Itoham Foods
2018 – Nissui sells remaining part of its shareholding in ANZCO Foods to Itoham Foods
2019 – Acquired 75% of shares of Flatfish Ltd
See also
Fishing industry in Japan
References
External links
Company website
Yahoo! Finance company profile
Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
Food and drink companies based in Tokyo
Food and drink companies established in 1911
Fuyo Group
Japanese companies established in 1911
Whaling firms |
4021067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menominie | Menominie | Menominie is a common misspelling for:
Menominee
Menomonee
Menomonie |
4021068 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KSFI | KSFI | KSFI is a radio station operating at frequency 100.3 FM in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States. KSFI maintains studio facilities located at the KSL Broadcast House building in Salt Lake City's Triad Center (which also house KRSP-FM and the KSL-AM-FM-TV partners), and its transmitter is located on Farnsworth Peak in the Oquirrh Mountains, southwest of Salt Lake City.
History
On October 31, 1940, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) awarded the first fifteen commercial FM station construction permits, including an assignment for Salt Lake City on 44.7 MHz to the Radio Service Corporation of Utah, which was also the licensee of AM station KSL. The FM station was issued the call sign K47SL.
There were numerous delays before broadcasting began. In early 1941, the FCC began an investigation whether newspaper ownership of radio stations should be restricted, which put K47SL's authorization on hold, because approximately twenty percent of Radio Service Corporation of Utah stock was held by the publisher of the Salt Lake Tribune and Salt Lake Telegram newspapers. As of June 1943, K47SL was included in a list of "other construction permit authorizations outstanding for FM stations not on the air".
Effective November 1, 1943, the FCC modified its policy for FM call letters, and the station was assigned new call letters of KSL-FM. Equipment and staffing shortages resulted in additional delays, until the station commenced broadcasting on December 26, 1946, at 100.1 MHz, quickly changed to 100.3 MHz.
Originally owned by the Deseret News, it became a part of Bonneville International when the Latter Day Saints Church formed it as the parent of its broadcasting outlets in 1964. "FM 100" was a pioneer of Bonneville's "beautiful music" format, but in late 1977 it was sold to Simmons.
Simmons changed the call letters to KSFI (Simmons Family Incorporated) on January 6, 1978, and began adding more vocal selections to the music mix, eventually evolving the format to soft adult contemporary. Bonneville reacquired the station (along with Star 102.7 and Arrow 103.5) from Simmons in 2003. According to the website of its owner, Bonneville International, FM100 is the top-performing adult contemporary station in Utah.
References
External links
FM100 Official Site
FCC History Cards for KSFI (covering 1940-1981 as K47SL / KFI-FM / KSFI)
Bonneville International
SFI
Mainstream adult contemporary radio stations in the United States
Mass media in Salt Lake City
Radio stations established in 1946
1946 establishments in Utah |
4021090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%20American%20League%20Championship%20Series | 1976 American League Championship Series | The 1976 American League Championship Series was a best-of-five playoff pitting the New York Yankees against the Kansas City Royals for the American League pennant and the right to represent the American League in the 1976 World Series. The Yankees defeated the Royals in five games to advance to win their first pennant in twelve years.
Chris Chambliss would cap a memorable series with the first ever walk-off home run to end a League Championship Series, a feat not matched again for 27 years.
Summary
New York Yankees vs. Kansas City Royals
Game summaries
Game 1
The opener was played on a bright Saturday afternoon at Royals Stadium and pitted Yankee ace Jim "Catfish" Hunter against left-hander and ex-Yankee Larry Gura. The Yankees got off to a quick start, scoring two in the first aided by a pair of George Brett throwing errors. Hunter was in top form and went the distance, not going to a three-ball count the entire game. While the Royals were able to halve that margin going into the ninth, Roy White's two-run double in the top of the frame gave the Yanks two insurance runs that were the final scoring in a tidy 4–1 win.
Game 2
Five Yankee errors helped key the Royals series-tying win. Lefty Paul Splittorff was solid with innings of work in relief of Brooklyn native Dennis Leonard, while Yankee reliever Dick Tidrow was ineffective and permitted three more Kansas City runs to score in the eighth after relieving starter Ed Figueroa with one out in the sixth. The series, now tied at one, moved to New York and newly remodelled Yankee Stadium for the remaining three games.
Game 3
The first Yankee post-season home game since 1964 started ominously for the Bombers, as the Royals tagged righty Dock Ellis for three runs in the first. He settled down immediately after though and went eight solid innings, aided by several double plays and two base runners caught stealing. The Yankees narrowed the margin to one in the fourth on a Chris Chambliss two-run homer off Andy Hassler and then tacked on three more in the sixth, as Kansas City manager Whitey Herzog carted in four relievers in that inning alone. Sparky Lyle got the save by pitching a scoreless ninth inning, as the Bronx Bombers took a two games to one lead.
Game 4
Hoping to wrap up the series in four games, Yankee manager Billy Martin brought back Catfish Hunter on three days' rest while the Royals did the same, bringing back Larry Gura. Neither fared well, as Gura gave up six hits and two runs in two innings, while Hunter lasted three and surrendered five runs on five hits. Though the Yankees' bullpen was able to hold Kansas City to only two runs over six innings, winning pitcher Doug Bird only gave up one in , while lefty Steve Mingori pitched and allowed only one tally, picking up the save. The Yankee offense was highlighted by Graig Nettles' two homers and three RBI. The series was then knotted at two, with a deciding Game 5 to be played the next night.
Game 5
The deciding game was a fitting ending to a thrilling series, as both teams fought tooth and nail to bring home the AL flag. It culminated in a moment of sheer, unbridled joy for the winners and stunned disbelief for the losers. The Yankees started Ed Figueroa on three days rest, as the Royals did likewise, starting Dennis Leonard. The Royals jumped out on top in the first, as Brett doubled and scored on John Mayberry's two-run homer. The Yankees quickly countered in their half, with Mickey Rivers tripling and scoring on Roy White's infield single. White went to third after Thurman Munson singled. Herzog removed Leonard and brought in Game 2 winner Paul Splittorff, who limited the damage by allowing only Chambliss' sacrifice fly. The Royals countered with one in the second, but the Yanks jumped ahead in the third, as they tacked on two; one on a Munson single and the other on a Chambliss' ground out. The Yanks added on in the sixth, scoring twice; once on a Munson single and a second time on a Brett throwing error. Figueroa held that lead going into the eighth. After Al Cowens led off with a single, Billy Martin brought in lefty Grant Jackson. He allowed a single to pinch hitter Jim Wohlford. Brett then stunned the sell-out crowd of 56,821 by planting Jackson's second pitch just over the short right-field wall, tying the game at six. All this was a prelude to the bottom of the ninth inning, when, at 11:43 pm, Chris Chambliss turned on Kansas City reliever Mark Littell's first pitch and sent it over the right center field wall. Thousands of fans vaulted over the dugouts and walls and celebrated the Yankees' first pennant in 12 years. Chambliss reached second, then dodged hordes of spectators in trying to reach third. He then proceeded to make a beeline towards the safety of the clubhouse, as the area around home plate and much of the field was covered with celebrating fans. Some time later, Chambliss was escorted back out onto the field to touch home, but the plate had been stolen. He touched the area where the plate had been. He was later informed by the umpires that given the circumstances of the situation, they would have counted the run regardless.
Composite box
1976 ALCS (3–2): New York Yankees over Kansas City Royals
Aftermath
Chambliss was later cornered in the Yankee locker room by Graig Nettles, who asked him if he had touched home. Chambliss responded that he had not, because there were too many people in the way. Nettles then told him that home plate umpire Art Frantz was waiting for him out on the field for him to touch home so that the home run could be ruled official. Chambliss was then escorted out to the field and touched the area where home had been.
Kansas City manager Whitey Herzog did not attempt to contest the home run, although major league rules state that a player must touch all the bases on any hit or when running the bases. In this case, the mayhem on the field made that task impossible, and the magnitude of the game was such that Herzog would have never tried to have it restarted or protested it due to a technicality. As mentioned above, the umpires had already decided that his home run counted.
As a result, MLB amended rule 4.09 calling it "The Chris Chambliss Rule"
The exception states: Rule 4.09(b) Comment: An exception will be if fans rush onto the field and physically prevent the runner from touching home plate or the batter from touching first base. In such cases, the umpires shall award the runner the base because of the obstruction by the fans. This had the effect of codifying the decision the umpires made in Game 5.
Brett's home run was the first of nine that he hit in ALCS competition. Six of those came against the Yankees: one in 1976, three in 1978, and two in 1980. His other three ALCS home runs, which came in the 1985 ALCS, were all against one pitcher, Doyle Alexander of the Blue Jays. Alexander was a Yankee in 1976. He warmed up in the bullpen during Game 5, and started the first game of the World Series for them against the Cincinnati Reds.
The series also contained some interesting side stories. Kansas City pitcher Larry Gura publicly criticized Yankee manager Billy Martin prior to the series, saying that Martin treated him shabbily in the short time Martin was his manager in New York. Gura was on the Yankees' roster from spring training till the time he was traded to Kansas City on May 16. He did not appear in any games for the Yankees in that time. Martin responded by saying that if he had him there with the Yankees at that moment, he'd get rid of him again. George Brett also had harsh words for Martin, as he claimed that Martin had lied to his brother, pitcher Ken Brett, when Ken spent the first two months of 1976 with the Yanks. George's brother appeared in two games for the Yankees over two months, and was then traded to the Chicago White Sox.
This was the first of three consecutive ALCS between the two teams. They also went head to head in 1977 and 1978, with the Yankees coming out on top again. The Royals, however, exacted a big measure of revenge when they met again in the 1980 ALCS and swept the Bombers in three straight.
References
Further reading
Catfish: My Life in Baseball. Mcgraw-Hill by Jim "Catfish" Hunter, Armen Keteyian(April 1, 1988)
50 Greatest Yankee Games, Fifty Greatest Yankee Games. John Wiley & Sons Inc by Cecilia Tan (04/01/2005)
Dog Days : The New York Yankees' Fall from Grace and Return to Glory, 1964–1976. iUniverse, Incorporated – Paperback October 2000 by Philip Bashe.
Yankees Century : 100 Years of New York Yankees Baseball. Houghton Mifflin 09/01/02 by Richard A. Johnson and Glenn Stout
External links
1976 ALCS at Baseball-Reference
American League Championship Series
American League Championship Series
New York Yankees postseason
Kansas City Royals postseason
American League Championship Series
20th century in Kansas City, Missouri
American League Championship Series
American League Championship Series
1970s in the Bronx
Yankee Stadium (1923) |
4021097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20universities%20and%20colleges%20in%20Ethiopia | List of universities and colleges in Ethiopia | This is a list of universities and colleges in Ethiopia. It includes both public and private institutions.
Universities and colleges
References
Universities
Ethiopia
Ethiopia |
4021099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County%20Route%20579%20%28New%20Jersey%29 | County Route 579 (New Jersey) | County Route 579 (CR 579) is a county highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. The highway extends from John Fitch Parkway (Route 29) in Trenton to Route 173 in Greenwich Township.
Route description
CR 579 begins at an intersection with Route 29 in Trenton, Mercer County, heading north on two-lane undivided Sullivan Way. The road crosses under the Delaware and Raritan Canal and an abandoned railroad, making a turn to the northwest. The route passes between the Trenton Country Club to the southwest and the Trenton Psychiatric Hospital to the northeast as it enters Ewing Township. CR 579 enters and crosses CR 643, heading into wooded areas as it passes the Katzenbach School for the Deaf. The route passes under a railroad line that is part of CSX's Trenton Subdivision and SEPTA's West Trenton Line near the West Trenton station that serves as the terminus of the SEPTA line, at which point it becomes Grand Avenue and passes through the residential community of West Trenton. CR 579 crosses CR 634, becoming Bear Tavern Road, and turns northwest as it passes near Trenton-Mercer Airport, intersecting CR 600. The route interchanges with Interstate 295 (I-295) and heads into wooded residential areas, intersecting CR 647 before joining CR 637 on Jacobs Creek Road. Here, the road enters forested areas and crosses the Jacobs Creek into Hopewell Township, heading north. CR 579 splits from CR 637 and continues northwest onto Bear Tavern Road, crossing the Jacobs Creek again and turning north into a mix of fields, woods, and homes. The route crosses CR 546 and continues through farmland and woodland with a few residences. The route becomes Harbourton-Rocktown Road and comes to a junction with CR 623 before passing through more forested areas and coming to the CR 518 intersection.
A short distance later, CR 579 continues into West Amwell Township in Hunterdon County, continuing through more rural areas of farms, woods, and homes before intersecting Route 31. The two routes run concurrent to the northwest on the border between West Amwell Township to the west and East Amwell Township to the east, becoming a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane that crosses entirely into East Amwell Township before resuming along the border of East and West Amwell Townships. The road becomes a divided highway and crosses entirely into East Amwell Township again before it comes to an interchange with US 202, where Route 31 heads north along US 202. CR 579 becomes two-lane undivided Linvale-Harbourton Road and heads into the residential community of Ringoes in East Amwell Township, forming a brief concurrency with Route 179. The route splits from Route 179 at the CR 602 intersection and heads north on John Ringo Road, passing homes and fields before crossing under the Black River and Western Railroad. The road heads into agricultural areas and intersects CR 604, at which point CR 579 becomes Ringoes-Croton Road and forms the border between East Amwell Township to the west and Raritan Township to the east before running between Delaware Township to the west and Raritan Township to the east. The road turns more to the northwest as it passes a mix of woods and residential subdivisions, coming to an intersection with CR 523. CR 579 turns southwest for a brief concurrency with CR 523 before winding northwest again along Ringoes-Croton Road. The road passes a mix of farms, woods, and residential neighborhoods before running north into agricultural areas.
The route crosses Route 12 and continues through rural areas of farms, woods, and homes, entering Franklin Township. Here, the road runs through open farmland and comes to the CR 616 intersection, where CR 579 turns northwest into the residential community of Quakertown. The road passes more rural residences and farms before turning north at the CR 615 junction and intersecting CR 513 in the community of Pittstown. CR 579 has a brief concurrency with CR 513, forming the border between Alexandria Township to the west and Franklin Township to the east. CR 579 splits from CR 513 by heading northwest onto Pittstown-Bloomsbury Road. The road continues along the border between Alexandria Township to the southwest and Union Township to the northeast through farmland, woodland, and some housing areas, reaching an intersection with CR 625. The road enters more forested surroundings with some homes prior to the CR 614 intersection. A short distance past CR 614, the route becomes the border between Alexandria Township to the southwest and Bethlehem Township to the northeast, passing some farms and development before heading into forested areas of Musconetcong Mountain. The road winds across the mountain and fully enters Bethlehem Township. Upon passing over Norfolk Southern's Lehigh Line, CR 579 continues into Bloomsbury and becomes Church Street. In Bloomsbury, the road passes through residential areas and crosses Norfolk Southern's Central Running Track line at-grade. After crossing the Musconetcong River into Greenwich Township, Warren County, CR 579 immediately reaches its northern terminus at Route 173.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
County Route 579
Photos of County Route 579
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4021104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank%20War | Bank War | The Bank War was a political struggle that developed over the issue of rechartering the Second Bank of the United States (B.U.S.) during the presidency of Andrew Jackson (1829–1837). The affair resulted in the shutdown of the Bank and its replacement by state banks.
The Second Bank of the United States was established as a private organization with a 20-year charter, having the exclusive right to conduct banking on a national scale. The goal behind the B.U.S. was to stabilize the American economy by establishing a uniform currency and strengthening the federal government. Supporters of the Bank regarded it as a stabilizing force in the economy due to its ability to smooth out variations in prices and trade, extend credit, supply the nation with a sound and uniform currency, provide fiscal services for the treasury department, facilitate long-distance trade, and prevent inflation by regulating the lending practices of state banks. Jacksonian Democrats cited instances of corruption and alleged that the B.U.S. favored merchants and speculators at the expense of farmers and artisans, appropriated public money for risky private investments and interference in politics, and conferred economic privileges on a small group of stockholders and financial elites, thereby violating the principle of equal opportunity. Some found the Bank's public–private organization to be unconstitutional, and argued that the institution's charter violated state sovereignty. To them, the Bank symbolized corruption while threatening liberty.
In early 1832, the president of the B.U.S., Nicholas Biddle, in alliance with the National Republicans under Senators Henry Clay (Kentucky) and Daniel Webster (Massachusetts), submitted an application for a renewal of the Bank's twenty-year charter four years before the charter was set to expire, intending to pressure Jackson into making a decision prior to the 1832 presidential election, in which Jackson would face Clay. When Congress voted to reauthorize the Bank, Jackson vetoed the bill. His veto message was a polemical declaration of the social philosophy of the Jacksonian movement that pitted "the planters, the farmers, the mechanic and the laborer" against the "monied interest", benefiting the wealthy at the expense of the common people. The B.U.S. became the central issue that divided the Jacksonians from the National Republicans. Although the Bank provided significant financial assistance to Clay and pro-B.U.S. newspaper editors, Jackson secured an overwhelming election victory.
Fearing economic reprisals from Biddle, Jackson swiftly removed the Bank's federal deposits. In 1833, he arranged to distribute the funds to dozens of state banks. The new Whig Party emerged in opposition to his perceived abuse of executive power, officially censuring Jackson in the Senate. In an effort to promote sympathy for the institution's survival, Biddle retaliated by contracting Bank credit, inducing a mild financial downturn. A reaction set in throughout America’s financial and business centers against Biddle's maneuvers, compelling the Bank to reverse its tight money policies, but its chances of being rechartered were all but finished. The economy did well during Jackson's time as president, but his economic policies, including his war against the Bank, are sometimes blamed for contributing to the Panic of 1837.
Resurrection of a national banking system
The First Bank of the United States was established at the direction of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton in 1791. Hamilton supported the foundation of a national bank because he believed that it would increase the authority and influence of the federal government, effectively manage trade and commerce, strengthen the national defense, and pay the debt. It was subject to attacks from agrarians and constructionists led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. They believed that it was unconstitutional because the Constitution did not expressly allow for it, would infringe on the rights of the states, and would benefit a small group while delivering no advantage to the many, especially farmers. Hamilton's view won out and the Bank was created. More states and localities began to charter their own banks. State banks printed their own notes which were sometimes used out-of-state, and this encouraged other states to establish banks in order to compete. The bank, as established, acted as a source of credit for the US government, and as the only chartered interstate bank, but lacked the powers of a modern central bank: It did not set monetary policy, regulate private banks, hold their excess reserves, or act as a lender of last resort, and could issue only money backed by its capitalization and not fiat money.
President Madison and Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin supported recharter of the First Bank in 1811. They cited "expediency" and "necessity," not principle. Opponents of the Bank defeated recharter by a single vote in both the House and Senate in 1811. State banks opposed recharter of the national bank because when state bank notes were deposited with the First Bank of the United States, the Bank would present these notes to state banks and demand gold in exchange, which limited the state banks' ability to issue notes and maintain adequate reserves of specie, or hard money. At that time, bank notes could be exchanged for a fixed value of gold or silver.
The arguments in favor of reviving a national system of finance, as well as internal improvements and protective tariffs, were prompted by national security concerns during the War of 1812. The chaos of the war had, according to some, "demonstrated the absolute necessity of a national banking system". The push for the creation of a new national bank occurred during the post-war period of American history known as the Era of Good Feelings. There was a strong movement to increase the power of the federal government. Some people blamed a weak central government for America's poor performance during much of the War of 1812. Humiliated by its opposition to the war, the Federalist Party, founded by Hamilton, collapsed. Nearly all politicians joined the Republican Party, founded by Jefferson. It was hoped that the disappearance of the Federalist Party would mark the end of party politics. But even in the new single party system, ideological and sectional differences began to flare up once again over several issues, one of them being the campaign to recharter the Bank.
In 1815, Secretary of State James Monroe told President Madison that a national bank "would attach the commercial part of the community in a much greater degree to the Government [and] interest them in its operations…This is the great desideratum [essential objective] of our system." Support for this "national system of money and finance" grew with the post-war economy and land boom, uniting the interests of eastern financiers with southern and western Republican nationalists. The roots for the resurrection of the Bank of the United States lay fundamentally in the transformation of America from a simple agrarian economy to one that was becoming interdependent with finance and industry. Vast western lands were opening for white settlement, accompanied by rapid development, enhanced by steam power and financial credit. Economic planning at the federal level was deemed necessary by Republican nationalists to promote expansion and encourage private enterprise. At the same time, they tried to "republicanize Hamiltonian bank policy." John C. Calhoun, a representative from South Carolina and strong nationalist, boasted that the nationalists had the support of the yeomanry, who would now "share in the capital of the Bank".
Despite opposition from Old Republicans led by John Randolph of Roanoke, who saw the revival of a national bank as purely Hamiltonian and a threat to state sovereignty, but with strong support from nationalists such as Calhoun and Henry Clay, the recharter bill for the Second Bank of the United States was passed by Congress. The charter was signed into law by Madison on April 10, 1816. The Second Bank of the United States was given considerable powers and privileges under its charter. Its headquarters was established in Philadelphia, but it could create branches anywhere. It enjoyed the exclusive right to conduct banking on a national basis. It transferred Treasury funds without charge. The federal government purchased a fifth of the Bank's stock, appointed a fifth of its directors, and deposited its funds in the Bank. B.U.S. notes were receivable for federal bonds.
"Jackson and Reform": Implications for the B.U.S.
Panic of 1819
The rise of Jacksonian democracy was achieved through harnessing the widespread social resentments and political unrest persisting since the Panic of 1819 and the Missouri Crisis of 1820. The Panic was caused by the rapid resurgence of the European economy after the Napoleonic Wars, where improved agriculture caused the prices of American goods to drop, and a scarcity of specie due to unrest in the Spanish American colonies. The situation was exacerbated by the B.U.S. under Bank President William Jones through fraud and the rapid emission of paper money. He eventually began to call in loans, but nonetheless was removed by the Bank's directors. Langdon Cheves, who replaced Jones as president, worsened the situation by reducing the Bank's liabilities by more than half, lessening the value of Bank notes, and more than tripling the Bank's specie held in reserve. As a result, the prices of American goods abroad collapsed. This led to the failure of state banks and the collapse of businesses, turning what could have been a brief recession into a prolonged depression. Financial writer William M. Gouge wrote that "the Bank was saved and the people were ruined".
After the Panic of 1819, popular anger was directed towards the nation's banks, particularly the B.U.S. Many people demanded more limited Jeffersonian government, especially after revelations of fraud within the Bank and its attempts to influence elections. Andrew Jackson, previously a major general in the United States Army and former territorial governor of Florida, sympathized with these concerns, privately blaming the Bank for causing the Panic by contracting credit. In a series of memorandums, he attacked the federal government for widespread abuses and corruption. These included theft, fraud, and bribery, and they occurred regularly at branches of the National Bank. In Mississippi, the Bank did not open branches outside of the city of Natchez, making small farmers in rural areas unable to make use of its capital. Members of the planter class and other economic elites who were well-connected often had an easier time getting loans. According to historian Edward E. Baptist, "A state bank could be an ATM machine for those connected to its directors."
One such example was in Kentucky, where in 1817 the state legislature chartered forty banks, with notes redeemable to the Bank of Kentucky. Inflation soon rose and the Kentucky Bank became in debt to the National Bank. Several states, including Kentucky, fed up with debt owed to the Bank and widespread corruption, laid taxes on the National Bank in order to force it out of existence. In McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), the Supreme Court ruled that the Bank was both constitutional and that, as an agent of the federal government, it could not be taxed.
In 1819, Monroe appointed Nicholas Biddle of Philadelphia as Government Director of the Bank. In 1823, he was unanimously elected its president. According to early Jackson biographer James Parton, Biddle "was a man of the pen—quick, graceful, fluent, honorable, generous, but not practically able; not a man for a stormy sea and a lee shore". Biddle believed that the Bank had the right to operate independently from Congress and the Executive, writing that "no officer of the Government, from the President downwards, has the least right, the least authority" to meddle "in the concerns of the Bank".
Rise of Jackson
The end of the War of 1812 was accompanied by an increase in white male suffrage. Most states abolished their property ownership requirements for voting, meaning that nearly all white male adults in the United States were eligible to vote. Jackson, as a war hero, was popular with the masses. With their support, he ran for president in 1824. The election turned into a five-way contest between Jackson, Calhoun, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Clay. All were members of the Republican Party, which was still the only political party in the country. Calhoun eventually dropped out to run for vice president, lowering the number of candidates to four. Jackson won decisive pluralities in both the Electoral College and the popular vote. He did not win an electoral majority, which meant that the election was decided in the House of Representatives, which would choose among the top three vote-getters in the Electoral College. Clay finished fourth. However, he was also Speaker of the House, and he maneuvered the election in favor of Adams, who in turn made Clay Secretary of State, an office that in the past had served as a stepping stone to the presidency. Jackson was enraged by this so-called "corrupt bargain" to subvert the will of the people. As president, Adams pursued an unpopular course by attempting to strengthen the powers of the federal government by undertaking large infrastructure projects and other ventures which were alleged to infringe on state sovereignty and go beyond the proper role of the central government. Division during his administration led to the end of the single party era. Supporters of Adams began calling themselves National Republicans. Supporters of Jackson became known as Jacksonians and, eventually, Democrats.
In 1828, Jackson ran again. Most Old Republicans had supported Crawford in 1824. Alarmed by the centralization in the Adams administration, most of them flocked to Jackson. The transition was made relatively easy by the fact that Jackson's own principles of government, including commitment to reducing the debt and returning power to the states, were largely in line with their own. Jackson ran under the banner of "Jackson and Reform", promising a return to Jeffersonian principles of limited government and an end to the centralizing policies of Adams. The Democrats launched a spirited and sophisticated campaign. They characterized Adams as a purveyor of corruption and fraudulent republicanism, and a menace to American democracy. At the heart of the campaign was the conviction that Andrew Jackson had been denied the presidency in 1824 only through a "corrupt bargain"; a Jackson victory promised to rectify this betrayal of the popular will.
Although slavery was not a major issue in Jackson's rise to the presidency, it did sometimes factor into opposition to the Second Bank, specifically among those in the South who were suspicious of how augmented federal power at the expense of the states might affect the legality of slavery. Democrat Nathaniel Macon remarked, "If Congress can make banks, roads and canals under the Constitution, they can free any slave in the United States." In 1820, John Tyler of Virginia wrote that "if Congress can incorporate a bank, it might emancipate a slave".
Jackson was both the champion and beneficiary of the revival of the Jeffersonian North–South alliance. The Jacksonian movement reasserted the Old Republican precepts of limited government, strict construction, and state sovereignty. Federal institutions that conferred privileges producing "artificial inequality" would be eliminated through a return to strict constructionism. The "planter of the South and the plain Republican of the North" would provide the support, with the aid of universal white male suffrage. In the end, Jackson won the election decisively, taking 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote.
The Jacksonian coalition had to contend with a fundamental incompatibility between its hard money and paper money factions, for which reason Jackson’s associates never offered a platform on banking and finance reform, because to do so "might upset Jackson's delicately balanced coalition". Jackson and other advocates of hard money believed that paper money was part of "a corrupting and demoralizing system that made the rich richer, and the poor poorer". Gold and silver was the only way of having a "fair and stable" currency. The aversion to paper money went back before the American Revolution. Inflation caused during the Revolutionary War by printing enormous amounts of paper money added to the distrust, and opposition to it was a major reason for Hamilton's difficulties in securing the charter of the First Bank of the United States. Supporters of soft money tended to want easy credit. Aspiring entrepreneurs, a number of them on the cotton frontier in the American southwest, resented the Bank not because it printed paper money, but because it did not print more and loan it to them. Banks have to lend more money than they take in. When banks lend money, new money is actually created, which is called "credit". This money has to be paper; otherwise, a bank can only lend as much as it takes in and hence new currency cannot be created out of nothing. Paper money was therefore necessary to grow the economy. Banks making too many loans would print an excess of paper money and deflate the currency. This would lead to lenders demanding that the banks take back their devalued paper in exchange for specie, as well as debtors trying to pay off loans with the same deflated currency, seriously disrupting the economy.
Because of the failure to emphasize the distinction between hard money and paper money, as well as the Bank's popularity, the Second Bank of the United States was not a major issue in the 1828 elections. In fact, Biddle voted for Jackson in the election. Jackson himself, though naturally averse to the Bank, had recommended the establishment of a branch in Pensacola. He also signed a certificate with recommendations for president and cashier of the branch in Nashville. The Bank had largely recovered in the public eye since the Panic of 1819 and had grown to be accepted as a fact of life. Its role in managing the nation's fiscal affairs was central. The Bank printed much of the nation's paper money, which made it a target for supporters of hard money, while also restricting the activities of smaller banks, which created some resentment from those who wanted easy credit. As of 1830, the Bank had $50 million in specie in reserve, approximately half the value of its paper currency. It tried to ensure steady growth by forcing state-chartered banks to keep specie reserves. This meant that smaller banks lent less money, but that their notes were more reliable. Jackson would not publicly air his grievances with the B.U.S. until December 1829.
Prelude to war
Initial attitudes
When Jackson entered the White House in March 1829, dismantling the Bank was not part of his reform agenda. Although the President harbored an antipathy toward all banks, several members of his initial cabinet advised a cautious approach when it came to the B.U.S. Throughout 1829, Jackson and his close advisor, William Berkeley Lewis, maintained cordial relations with B.U.S. administrators, including Biddle, and Jackson continued to do business with the B.U.S. branch bank in Nashville.
The Second Bank's reputation in the public eye partially recovered throughout the 1820s as Biddle managed the Bank prudently during a period of economic expansion. Some of the animosity left over from the Panic of 1819 had diminished, though pockets of anti-B.U.S. sentiment persisted in some western and rural locales. According to historian Bray Hammond, "Jacksonians had to recognize that the Bank's standing in public esteem was high."
Unfortunately for Biddle, there were rumors that the Bank had interfered politically in the election of 1828 by supporting Adams. B.U.S. branch offices in Louisville, Lexington, Portsmouth, Boston, and New Orleans, according to anti-Bank Jacksonians, had loaned more readily to customers who favored Adams, appointed a disproportionate share of Adams men to the Bank's board of directors, and contributed Bank funds directly to the Adams campaign. Some of these allegations were unproven and even denied by individuals who were loyal to the President, but Jackson continued to receive news of the Bank's political meddling throughout his first term. To defuse a potentially explosive political conflict, some Jacksonians encouraged Biddle to select candidates from both parties to serve as B.U.S. officers, but Biddle insisted that only one's qualifications for the job and knowledge in the affairs of business, rather than partisan considerations, should determine hiring practices. In January 1829, John McLean wrote to Biddle urging him to avoid the appearance of political bias in light of allegations of the Bank interfering on behalf of Adams in Kentucky. Biddle responded that the "great hazard of any system of equal division of parties at a board is that it almost inevitably forces upon you incompetent or inferior persons in order to adjust the numerical balance of directors".
By October 1829, some of Jackson’s closest associates, especially Secretary of State Martin Van Buren, were developing plans for a substitute national bank. These plans may have reflected a desire to transfer financial resources from Philadelphia to New York and other places. Biddle carefully explored his options for persuading Jackson to support recharter. He approached Lewis in November 1829 with a proposal to pay down the national debt. Jackson welcomed the offer and personally promised Biddle he would recommend the plan to Congress in his upcoming annual address, but emphasized that he had doubts as to the Bank's constitutionality. This left open the possibility that he could stymie the renewal of the Bank's charter should he win a second term.
Annual address to Congress, December 1829
In his annual address to Congress on December 8, 1829, Jackson praised Biddle's debt retirement plan, but advised Congress to take early action on determining the Bank's constitutionality and added that the institution had "failed in the great end of establishing a uniform and sound currency". He went on to argue that if such an institution was truly necessary for the United States, its charter should be revised to avoid constitutional objections. Jackson suggested making it a part of the Treasury Department.
Many historians agree that the claim regarding the Bank’s currency was factually untrue. According to historian Robert V. Remini, the Bank exercised "full control of credit and currency facilities of the nation and adding to their strength and soundness". The Bank's currency circulated in all or nearly all parts of the country. Jackson's statements against the Bank were politically potent in that they served to "discharge the aggressions of citizens who felt injured by economic privilege, whether derived from banks or not". Jackson’s criticisms were shared by "anti-bank, hard money agrarians" as well as eastern financial interests, especially in New York City, who resented the national bank's restrictions on easy credit. They claimed that by lending money in large amounts to wealthy well-connected speculators, it restricted the possibility for an economic boom that would benefit all classes of citizens. After Jackson made these remarks, the Bank's stock dropped due to the sudden uncertainty over the fate of the institution.
A few weeks after Jackson's address, Biddle began a multi-year, interregional public relations campaign designed to secure a new Bank charter. He helped finance and distribute thousands of copies of pro-B.U.S. articles, essays, pamphlets, philosophical treatises, stockholders' reports, congressional committee reports, and petitions. One of the first orders of business was to work with pro-B.U.S. Jacksonians and National Republicans in Congress to rebut Jackson's claims about the Bank's currency. A March 1830 report authored by Senator Samuel Smith of Maryland served this purpose. This was followed in April by a similar report written by Representative George McDuffie of South Carolina. Smith's report stated that the B.U.S. provided "a currency as safe as silver; more convenient, and more valuable than silver, which... is eagerly sought in exchange for silver". This echoed the arguments of Calhoun during the charter debates in 1816. After the release of these reports, Biddle went to the Bank's board to ask for permission to use some of the Bank's funds for printing and dissemination. The board, which was composed of Biddle and like-minded colleagues, agreed. Another result of the reports was that the Bank's stock rose following the drop that it experienced from Jackson's remarks.
In spite of Jackson's address, no clear policy towards the Bank emerged from the White House. Jackson’s cabinet members were opposed to an overt attack on the Bank. The Treasury Department maintained normal working relations with Biddle, whom Jackson reappointed as a government director of the Bank. Lewis and other administration insiders continued to have encouraging exchanges with Biddle, but in private correspondence with close associates, Jackson repeatedly referred to the institution as being "a hydra of corruption" and "dangerous to our liberties". Developments in 1830 and 1831 temporarily diverted anti-B.U.S. Jacksonians from pursuing their attack on the B.U.S. Two of the most prominent examples were the Nullification Crisis and the Peggy Eaton Affair. These struggles led to Vice President Calhoun's estrangement from Jackson and eventual resignation, the replacement of all of the original cabinet members but one, as well as the development of an unofficial group of advisors separate from the official cabinet that Jackson's opponents began to call his "Kitchen Cabinet". Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet, led by the Fourth Auditor of the Treasury Amos Kendall and Francis P. Blair, editor of the Washington Globe, the state-sponsored propaganda organ for the Jacksonian movement, helped craft policy, and proved to be more anti-Bank than the official cabinet.
Annual address to Congress, December 1830
In his second annual address to Congress on December 7, 1830, the president again publicly stated his constitutional objections to the Bank's existence. He called for a substitute national bank that would be wholly public with no private stockholders. It would not engage in lending or land purchasing, retaining only its role in processing customs duties for the Treasury Department. The address signaled to pro-B.U.S. forces that they would have to step up their campaign efforts.
On February 2, 1831, while National Republicans were formulating a recharter strategy, Jacksonian Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri launched an attack against the legitimacy of the Bank on the floor of the Senate, demanding an open debate on the recharter issue. He denounced the Bank as a "moneyed tribunal" and argued for "a hard money policy against a paper money policy". After the speech was over, National Republican Senator Daniel Webster of Massachusetts called for a vote to end discussions on the Bank. It succeeded by a vote of 23 to 20, closer than he would have liked. According to Benton, the vote tally was "enough to excite uneasiness but not enough to pass the resolution". The Globe, which was vigorously anti-B.U.S., published Benton's speech, earning Jackson's praise. Shortly after, the Globe announced that the President intended to stand for reelection.
Recharter
Post-Eaton cabinet and compromise efforts
After replacing most of his original cabinet members, Jackson included two Bank-friendly executives in his new official cabinet: Secretary of State Edward Livingston of Louisiana and Secretary of the Treasury Louis McLane of Delaware.
McLane, a confidant of Biddle, impressed Jackson as a forthright and principled moderate on Bank policy. Jackson called their disagreements an "honest difference of opinion" and appreciated McLane's "frankness". The Treasury Secretary's goal was to ensure that the B.U.S. survived Jackson’s presidency, even in a diminished condition. He secretly worked with Biddle to create a reform package. The product presented to Jackson included provisions through which the federal government would reduce operations and fulfill one of Jackson's goals of paying down the national debt by March 1833. The debt added up to approximately $24 million, and McLane estimated that it could be paid off by applying $8 million through the sale of government stock in the Bank plus an additional $16 million in anticipated revenue. The liquidation of government stock would necessitate substantial changes to the Bank's charter, which Jackson supported. After the liquidation of the debt, future revenues could be applied to funding the military. Another part of McLane's reform package involved selling government lands and distributing the funds to states, a measure consistent with Jackson's overall belief in reducing the operations of the central government. With this accomplished, the administration would permit re-authorization of the national bank in 1836. In return, McLane asked that Jackson not mention the Bank in his annual address to Congress. Jackson enthusiastically accepted McLane's proposal, and McLane personally told Biddle about his success. Biddle stated that he would have preferred that Jackson, rather than remaining silent on the question of recharter, would have made a public statement declaring that recharter was a matter for Congress to decide. Nonetheless, he agreed to the overall plan.
These reforms required a rapprochement between Jackson and Biddle on the matter of recharter, with McLane and Livingston acting as liaisons. The President insisted that no bill arise in Congress for recharter in the lead up to his reelection campaign in 1832, a request to which Biddle assented. Jackson viewed the issue as a political liability—recharter would easily pass both Houses with simple majorities—and as such, would confront him with the dilemma of approving or disapproving the legislation ahead of his reelection. A delay would obviate these risks. Jackson remained unconvinced of the Bank's constitutionality.
Annual address to Congress, December 1831
Jackson acceded to McLane's pleas for the upcoming annual address to Congress in December, assuming that any efforts to recharter the Bank would not begin until after the election. McLane would then present his proposals for reform and delay of recharter at the annual Treasury Secretary's report to Congress shortly thereafter.
Despite McLane's attempts to procure a modified Bank charter, Attorney General Roger B. Taney, the only member of Jackson's cabinet at the time who was vehemently anti-B.U.S., predicted that ultimately Jackson would never relinquish his desire to destroy the central bank. Indeed, he was convinced that Jackson had never intended to spare the Bank in the first place. Jackson, without consulting McLane, subsequently edited the language in the final draft after considering Taney’s objections. In his December 6 address, Jackson was non-confrontational, but due to Taney's influence, his message was less definitive in its support for recharter than Biddle would have liked, amounting to merely a reprieve on the Bank’s fate. The following day, McLane delivered his report to Congress. The report praised the Bank’s performance, including its regulation of state banks, and explicitly called for a post-1832 rechartering of a reconfigured government bank.
The enemies of the Bank were shocked and outraged by both speeches. The Jacksonian press, disappointed by the president’s subdued and conciliatory tone towards the Bank, launched fresh and provocative assaults on the institution. McLane’s speech, despite its call for radical modifications and delay in recharter, was widely condemned by Jacksonians. They described it as "Hamiltonian" in character, accused it of introducing "radical modifications" to existing Treasury policy and attacked it as an assault on democratic principles. For example, Representative Churchill C. Cambreleng wrote, "The Treasury report is as bad as it can possibly be—a new version of Alexander Hamilton's reports on a National Bank and manufacturers, and totally unsuited to this age of democracy and reform." Secretary of the Senate Walter Lowrie described it as "too ultra federal". The Globe refrained from openly attacking Secretary McLane, but in lieu of this, reprinted hostile essays from anti-Bank periodicals. After this, McLane secretly tried to have Blair removed from his position as editor of the Globe. Jackson found out about this after Blair offered to resign. He assured Blair that he had no intention of replacing him. Troubled by accusations that he had switched sides, Jackson said, "I had no temporizing policy in me." Although he did not fire McLane, he kept him at a greater distance. Taney's influence meanwhile continued to grow, and he became the only member of the President's official cabinet to be admitted to the inner circle of advisors in the Kitchen Cabinet.
National Republican Party offensive
National Republicans continued to organize in favor of recharter. Within days of Jackson's address, party members gathered at a convention on December 16, 1831, and nominated Senator Clay for president. Their campaign strategy was to defeat Jackson in 1832 on the Bank re-authorization issue. To that end, Clay helped introduce recharter bills in both the House and Senate.
Clay and Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster warned Americans that if Jackson won reelection, he would abolish the Bank. They felt secure that the B.U.S. was sufficiently popular among voters that any attack on it by the President would be viewed as an abuse of executive power. The National Republican leadership aligned themselves with the Bank not so much because they were champions of the institution, but more so because it offered what appeared to be the perfect issue on which to defeat Jackson.
Administration figures, among them McLane, were wary of issuing ultimatums that would provoke anti-B.U.S. Jacksonians. Biddle no longer believed that Jackson would compromise on the Bank question, but some of his correspondents who were in contact with the administration, including McDuffie, convinced the Bank president that Jackson would not veto a recharter bill. McLane and Lewis, however, told Biddle that the chances of recharter would be greater if he waited until after the election of 1832. "If you apply now," McLane wrote Biddle, "you assuredly will fail,—if you wait, you will as certainly succeed." Most historians have argued that Biddle reluctantly supported recharter in early 1832 due to political pressure from Clay and Webster, though the Bank president was also considering other factors. Thomas Cadwalader, a fellow B.U.S. director and close confidant of Biddle, recommended recharter after counting votes in Congress in December 1831. In addition, Biddle had to consider the wishes of the Bank's major stockholders, who wanted to avoid the uncertainty of waging a recharter fight closer to the expiration of the charter. Indeed, Jackson had predicted in his first annual message of 1829 that the Bank's stockholders would submit an early application to Congress.
On January 6, 1832, bills for Bank recharter were introduced in both houses of Congress. In the House of Representatives, McDuffie, as Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, guided the bill to the floor. Fellow Jacksonian George M. Dallas introduced the bill into the Senate. Clay and Webster secretly intended to provoke a veto, which they hoped would damage Jackson and lead to his defeat. They did however assure Biddle that Jackson would not veto the bill so close to the 1832 election. The proposals included some limited reforms by placing restrictions on the Bank's powers to own real estate and create new branches, give Congress the ability to prevent the Bank from issuing small notes, and allow the president to appoint one director to each branch of the Bank.
Jacksonian counter-offensive
The alliance between Biddle and Clay triggered a counter-offensive by anti-B.U.S. forces in Congress and the executive branch. Jackson assembled an array of talented and capable men as allies. Most notably, these were Thomas Hart Benton in the Senate and future president James K. Polk, member of the House of Representatives from Tennessee, as well as Blair, Treasury Auditor Kendall, and Attorney General Roger Taney in his cabinets. On February 23, 1832, Jacksonian Representative Augustin Smith Clayton of Georgia introduced a resolution to investigate allegations that the Bank had violated its charter. The intent was to put pro-Bank forces on the defensive. These delaying tactics could not be blocked indefinitely since any attempt to obstruct the inquiry would raise suspicions among the public. Many legislators benefited from the largesse supplied by Bank administrators. The plan was approved, and a bipartisan committee was sent to Philadelphia to look into the matters. Clayton's committee report, once released, helped rally the anti-Bank coalition.
The months of delay in reaching a vote on the recharter measure served ultimately to clarify and intensify the issue for the American people. Jackson’s supporters benefited in sustaining these attacks on the Bank even as Benton and Polk warned Jackson that the struggle was "a losing fight" and that the recharter bill would certainly pass. Biddle, working through an intermediary, Charles Jared Ingersoll, continued to lobby Jackson to support recharter. On February 28, Cambreleng expressed hope that if the recharter bill passed, the President would "send it back to us with his veto—an enduring moment of his fame". The following day, Livingston predicted that if Congress passed a bill that Jackson found acceptable, the President would "sign it without hesitation". In the words of historian Bray Hammond, "This was a very large 'if,' and the secretary came to realize it." Jackson decided that he had to destroy the Bank and veto the recharter bill. Many moderate Democrats, including McLane, were appalled by the perceived arrogance of the pro-Bank forces in pushing through early recharter and supported his decision. Indeed, Livingston was alone in the cabinet, for only he opposed a veto, and Jackson ignored him. Taney's influence grew immensely during this period, and Cambreleng told Van Buren that he was "the only efficient man of sound principles" in Jackson's official cabinet.
Biddle traveled to Washington, D.C. to personally conduct the final push for recharter. For the past six months he had worked in concert with B.U.S. branch managers to elicit signatures from citizens for pro-B.U.S. petitions that would be aired in Congress. Congressmen were encouraged to write pro-Bank articles, which Biddle printed and distributed nationally. Francis Blair at the Globe reported these efforts by the B.U.S. president in the legislative process as evidence of the Bank’s corrupting influence on free government. After months of debate and strife, pro-B.U.S. National Republicans in Congress finally prevailed, winning reauthorization of the Bank's charter in the Senate on June 11 by a vote of 28 to 20. The House was dominated by Democrats, who held a 141–72 majority, but it voted in favor of the recharter bill on July 3 by a tally of 107 to 85. Many Northern Democrats joined the anti-Jacksonians in supporting recharter.
The final bill sent to Jackson's desk contained modifications of the Bank's original charter that were intended to assuage many of the President's objections. The Bank would have a new fifteen-year charter; would report to the Treasury Department the names of all of the Bank's foreign stockholders, including the amount of shares they owned; would face stiff penalties if it held onto property for longer than five years, and would not issue notes in denominations of less than twenty dollars. Jacksonians argued that the Bank often cheated small farmers by redeeming paper with discounted specie, meaning that a certain amount was deducted. They alleged that this was unfair to farmers and allowed creditors to profit without creating tangible wealth, while a creditor would argue that he was performing a service and was entitled to profit from it. Biddle joined most observers in predicting that Jackson would veto the bill. Not long after, Jackson became ill. Van Buren arrived in Washington on July 4, and went to see Jackson, who said to him, "The Bank, Mr. Van Buren, is trying to kill me, but I shall kill it."
Veto
Contrary to the assurances Livingston had been rendering Biddle, Jackson determined to veto the recharter bill. The veto message was crafted primarily by members of the Kitchen Cabinet, specifically Taney, Kendall, and Jackson's nephew and aide Andrew Jackson Donelson. McLane denied that he had any part in it. Jackson officially vetoed the legislation on July 10, 1832, delivering a carefully crafted message to Congress and the American people. One of the most "popular and effective documents in American political history", Jackson outlined a major readjustment to the relative powers of the government branches.
The executive branch, Jackson averred, when acting in the interests of the American people, was not bound to defer to the decisions of the Supreme Court, nor to comply with legislation passed by Congress. He believed that the Bank was unconstitutional and that the Supreme Court, which had declared it constitutional, did not have the power to do so without the "acquiescence of the people and the states". Further, while previous presidents had used their veto power, they had only done so when objecting to the constitutionality of bills. By vetoing the recharter bill and basing most of his reasoning on the grounds that he was acting in the best interests of the American people, Jackson greatly expanded the power and influence of the president. He characterized the B.U.S. as merely an agent of the executive branch, acting through the Department of the Treasury. As such, declared Jackson, Congress was obligated to consult the chief executive before initiating legislation affecting the Bank. Jackson had claimed, in essence, legislative power as president. Jackson gave no credit to the Bank for stabilizing the country's finances and provided no concrete proposals for a single alternate institution that would regulate currency and prevent over-speculation—the primary purposes of the B.U.S. The practical implications of the veto were enormous. By expanding the veto, Jackson claimed for the president the right to participate in the legislative process. In the future, Congress would have to consider the president's wishes when deciding on a bill.
The veto message was "a brilliant political manifesto" that called for the end of monied power in the financial sector and a leveling of opportunity under the protection of the executive branch. Jackson perfected his anti-Bank themes. He stated that one fifth of the Bank's stockholders were foreign and that, because states were only allowed to tax stock owned by their own citizens, foreign citizens could more easily accumulate it. He pitted the idealized "plain republican" and the "real people"—virtuous, industrious and free—against a powerful financial institution—the "monster" Bank, whose wealth was purportedly derived from privileges bestowed by corrupt political and business elites. Jackson's message distinguished between "equality of talents, of education, or of wealth", which could never be achieved, from "artificial distinctions", which he claimed the Bank promoted. Jackson cast himself in populist terms as a defender of original rights, writing:
To those who believed that power and wealth should be linked, the message was unsettling. Daniel Webster charged Jackson with promoting class warfare. Webster was at around this time annually pocketing a small salary for his "services" in defending the Bank, although it was not uncommon at the time for legislators to accept monetary payment from corporations in exchange for promoting their interests.
In presenting his economic vision, Jackson was compelled to obscure the fundamental incompatibility of the hard-money and easy credit wings of his party. On one side were Old Republican idealists who took a principled stand against all paper credit in favor of metallic money. Jackson's message criticized the Bank as a violation of states' rights, stating that the federal government's "true strength consists in leaving individuals and States as much as possible to themselves." Yet the bulk of Jackson’s supporters came from easy lending regions that welcomed banks and finance, as long as local control prevailed. By diverting both groups in a campaign against the central bank in Philadelphia, Jackson cloaked his own hard-money predilections, which, if adopted, would be as fatal to the inflation favoring Jacksonians as the B.U.S. was purported to be.
Despite some misleading or intentionally vague statements on Jackson's part in his attacks against the Bank, some of his criticisms are considered justifiable by certain historians. It enjoyed enormous political and financial power, and there were no practical limits on what Biddle could do. It used loans and "retainer's fees", such as with Webster, to influence congressmen. It assisted certain candidates for offices over others. It also regularly violated its own charter. Senator George Poindexter of Mississippi received a $10,000 loan from the Bank after supporting recharter. Several months later, he received an additional loan of $8,000 despite the fact that the original loan had not been paid. This process violated the Bank's charter.
Too late, Clay "realized the impasse into which he had maneuvered himself, and made every effort to override the veto". In a speech to the Senate, Webster rebuked Jackson for maintaining that the president could declare a law unconstitutional that had passed Congress and been approved by the Supreme Court. Immediately after Webster spoke, Clay arose and strongly criticized Jackson for his unprecedented expansion, or "perversion", of the veto power. The veto was intended to be used in extreme circumstances, he argued, which was why previous presidents had used it rarely if at all. Jackson, however, routinely used the veto to allow the executive branch to interfere in the legislative process, an idea Clay thought "hardly reconcilable with the genius of representative government". Benton replied by criticizing the Bank for being corrupt and actively working to influence the 1832 election. Clay responded by sarcastically alluding to a brawl that had taken place between Thomas Benton and his brother Jesse against Andrew Jackson in 1813. Benton called the statement an "atrocious calumny". Clay demanded that he retract his statements. Benton refused and instead repeated them. A shouting match ensued in which it appeared the two men might come to blows. Order was eventually restored and both men apologized to the Senate, although not to each other, for their behaviors. The pro-Bank interests failed to muster a supermajority—achieving only a simple majority of 22–19 in the Senate—and on July 13, 1832, the veto was sustained.
The election of 1832
Jackson's veto immediately made the Bank the main issue of the 1832 election. With four months remaining until the November general election, both parties launched massive political offensives with the Bank at the center of the fight.
Jacksonians framed the issue as a choice between Jackson and "the People" versus Biddle and "the Aristocracy", while muting their criticisms of banking and credit in general. "Hickory Clubs" organized mass rallies, while the pro-Jackson press "virtually wrapped the country in anti-Bank propaganda". This, despite the fact that two-thirds of the major newspapers supported Bank recharter.
The National Republican press countered by characterizing the veto message as despotic and Jackson as a tyrant. Presidential hopeful Henry Clay vowed "to veto Jackson" at the polls. Overall, the pro-Bank analysis tended to soberly enumerate Jackson's failures, lacking the vigor of the Democratic Party press. Biddle mounted an expensive drive to influence the election, providing Jackson with copious evidence to characterize Biddle as an enemy of republican government and American liberty through meddling in politics. Some of Biddle's aides brought this to his attention, but he chose not to take their advice. He also had tens of thousands of Jackson's veto messages circulated throughout the country, believing that those who read it would concur in his assessment that it was in essence "a manifesto of anarchy" addressed directly to a "mob". "The campaign is over, and I think we have won the victory", Clay said privately on July 21.
Jackson's campaign benefited from superior organization skills. The first ever Democratic Party convention took place in May 1832. It did not officially nominate Jackson for president, but, as Jackson wished, nominated Martin Van Buren for vice president. Jackson's supporters hosted parades and barbecues, and erected hickory poles as a tribute to Jackson, whose nickname was Old Hickory. Jackson typically chose not to attend these events, in keeping with the tradition that candidates not actively campaign for office. Nevertheless, he often found himself swarmed by enthusiastic mobs. The National Republicans, meanwhile, developed popular political cartoons, some of the first to be employed in the nation. One such cartoon was entitled "King Andrew the First". It depicted Jackson in full regal dress, featuring a scepter, ermine robe, and crown. In his left hand he holds a document labelled "Veto" while standing on a tattered copy of the Constitution. Clay was also damaged by the candidacy of William Wirt of the Anti-Masonic Party, which took National Republican votes away in crucial states, mostly in the northeast. In the end, Jackson won a major victory with 54.6% of the popular vote, and 219 of the 286 electoral votes. In Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi, Jackson won with absolutely no opposition. He also won the states of New Hampshire and Maine, fracturing the traditional Federalist/National Republican dominance in New England. The House also stood solidly for Jackson. The 1832 elections provided it with 140 pro-Jackson members compared to 100 anti-Jacksons.
Jackson's dismantling of the B.U.S.
Renewal of war and 1832 address to Congress
Jackson regarded his victory as a popular mandate to eliminate the B.U.S. before its 20-year term ended in 1836. During the final phase of the 1832 election campaign, Kendall and Blair had convinced Jackson that the transfer of the federal deposits—20% of the Bank's capital—into private banks friendly to the administration would be prudent. Their rationale was that Biddle had used the Bank's resources to support Jackson's political opponents in the 1824 and 1828 elections, and additionally, that Biddle might induce a financial crisis in retaliation for Jackson's veto and reelection. The President declared the Bank "Scotched, not dead".
In his December 1832 State of the Union Address, Jackson aired his doubts to Congress whether the B.U.S. was a safe depository for "the people's money" and called for an investigation. In response, the Democratic-controlled House conducted an inquiry, submitting a divided committee report (4–3) that declared the deposits perfectly safe. The committee's minority faction, under Jacksonian James K. Polk, issued a scathing dissent, but the House approved the majority findings in March 1833, 109–46. Jackson, incensed at this "cool" dismissal, decided to proceed as advised by his Kitchen Cabinet to remove the B.U.S. funds by executive action alone. The administration was temporarily distracted by the Nullification Crisis, which reached its peak intensity from the fall of 1832 through the winter of 1833. With the crisis over, Jackson could turn his attention back to the Bank.
Search for a Treasury secretary
Kendall and Taney began to seek cooperative state banks which would receive the government deposits. That year, Kendall went on a "summer tour" in which he found seven institutions friendly to the administration in which it could place government funds. The list grew to 22 by the end of the year. Meanwhile, Jackson sought to prepare his official cabinet for the coming removal of the Bank's deposits. Vice President Martin Van Buren tacitly approved the maneuver, but declined to publicly identify himself with the operation, for fear of compromising his anticipated presidential run in 1836. Treasury Secretary McLane balked at the removal, saying that tampering with the funds would cause "an economic catastrophe", and reminded Jackson that Congress had declared the deposits secure. Jackson subsequently shifted both pro-Bank cabinet members to other posts: McLane to the Department of State, and Livingston to Europe, as U.S. Minister to France. The President replaced McLane with William J. Duane, a reliable opponent of the Bank from Pennsylvania. Duane was a distinguished lawyer from Philadelphia whose father, also William Duane, had edited the Philadelphia Aurora, a prominent Jeffersonian newspaper. Duane's appointment, aside from continuing the war against the Second Bank, was intended to be a sign of the continuity between Jeffersonian ideals and Jacksonian democracy. "He's a chip of the old block, sir", Jackson said of the younger Duane. McLane met Duane in December 1832 and urged him to accept appointment as Treasury Secretary. He sent a letter of acceptance to Jackson on January 13, 1833, and was sworn in on June 1.
By the time Duane was appointed, Jackson and his Kitchen Cabinet were well-advanced in their plan to remove the deposits. Despite their agreement on the Bank issue, Jackson did not seriously consider appointing Taney to the position. He and McLane had disagreed strongly on the issue, and his appointment would have been interpreted as an insult to McLane, who "vigorously opposed" the idea of Taney being appointed as his replacement.
Under the Bank charter terms of 1816, the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury was empowered, with Congress, to make all decisions regarding the federal deposits. On his first day at his post, Secretary Duane was informed by Kendall, who was in name his subordinate in the Treasury Department, that Duane would be expected to defer to the President on the matter of the deposits. Duane demurred, and when Jackson personally intervened to explain his political mandate to ensure the Bank’s demise, his Treasury Secretary informed him that Congress should be consulted to determine the Bank's fate. Van Buren had cautiously supported McLane's proposal to delay the matter until January 1, 1834. Jackson declined. To Van Buren, he wrote, "Therefore to prolong the deposits until after the meeting of Congress would be to do the very act [the B.U.S.] wishes, that is, to have it in its power to distress the community, destroy the state Banks, and if possible to corrupt congress and obtain two thirds, to recharter the Bank." Van Buren capitulated.
Jackson's position ignited protest not only from Duane but also McLane and Secretary of War Lewis Cass. After weeks of clashing with Duane over these prerogatives, Jackson decided that the time had come to remove the deposits. On September 18, Lewis asked Jackson what he would do in the event that Congress passed a joint resolution to restore the deposits, Jackson replied, "Why, I would veto it." Lewis then asked what he would do if Congress overrode his veto. "Under such circumstances," he said, standing up, "then, sir, I would resign the presidency and return to the Hermitage." The following day, Jackson sent a messenger to learn whether Duane had come to a decision. Duane asked to have until the 21st, but Jackson, wishing to act immediately, sent Andrew Donelson to tell him that this was not good enough, and that he would announce his intention to summarily remove the deposits the next day in Blair's Globe, with or without Duane's consent. Sure enough, the following day, a notice appeared in the Globe stating that the deposits would be removed starting on or before October 1. Secretary Duane had promised to resign if he and Jackson could not come to an agreement. When questioned by Jackson about this earlier promise, he said, "I indescreetly said so, sir; but I am now compelled to take this course." Under attack from the Globe, Duane was dismissed by Jackson days later, on September 22, 1833. Two days later, McLane and Cass, feeling Jackson had ignored their advice, met with the President and suggested that they resign. They eventually agreed to stay on the condition that they would attend to their own departments and not say anything publicly which would bolster the Bank's standing.
Attorney General Taney was immediately made Secretary of the Treasury in order to authorize the transfers, and he designated Kendall as special agent in charge of removal. With the help of Navy Secretary Levi Woodbury, they drafted an order dated September 25 declaring an official switch from national to deposit banking. Beginning on October 1, all future funds would be placed in selected state banks, and the government would draw on its remaining funds in the B.U.S. to cover operating expenses until those funds were exhausted. In case the B.U.S. retaliated, the administration decided to secretly equip a number of the state banks with transfer warrants, allowing money to be moved to them from the B.U.S. These were to be used only to counteract any hostile behavior from the B.U.S.
Removal of the deposits and panic of 1833–34
Taney, in his capacity as an interim treasury secretary, initiated the removal of the Bank's public deposits, spread out over four quarterly installments. Most of the state banks that were selected to receive the federal funds had political and financial connections with prominent members of the Jacksonian Party. Opponents referred to these banks derisively as "pet banks" since many of them financed pet projects conceived by members of the Jackson administration. Taney attempted to move tactfully in the process of carrying out the removals so as not to provoke retaliation by the B.U.S. or eviscerate the central bank's regulatory influence too suddenly. He presented five state-charted "pet" banks with drafts endorsed by the U.S. Treasury totaling $2.3 million. If Biddle presented any of the state banks with notes and demanded specie as payment, the banks could present him with the drafts to remove the deposits from the Bank and protect their liquidity. However, one of the banks drew prematurely on B.U.S. reserves for speculative ventures. At least two of the deposit banks, according to a Senate report released in July 1834, were caught up in a scandal involving Democratic Party newspaper editors, private conveyance firms, and elite officers in the Post Office Department. Jackson predicted that within a matter of weeks, his policy would make "Mr. Biddle and his Bank as quiet and harmless as a lamb".
Biddle urged the Senate to pass joint resolutions for the restoration of the deposits. He planned to use "external pressure" to compel the House to adopt the resolutions. Clay demurred. Historian Ralph C.H. Catterall writes, "Just as in 1832 Biddle cared 'nothing for the campaign,' so in 1833 Henry Clay cared little or nothing for the bank." Webster and John C. Calhoun, who was now a senator, broke away from Clay. Webster drafted a plan to charter the Bank for 12 years, which received support from Biddle, but Calhoun wanted a 6 year charter, and the men could not come to an agreement.
In the end, Biddle responded to the deposit removal controversy in ways that were both precautionary and vindictive. On October 7, 1833, Biddle held a meeting with the Bank's board members in Philadelphia. There, he announced that the Bank would raise interest rates in the coming months in order to stockpile the Bank's monetary reserves. In addition, Biddle reduced discounts, called in loans, and demanded that state banks honor the liabilities they owed to the B.U.S. At least partially, this was a reasonable response to several factors that threatened the Bank's resources and continued profitability. Jackson's veto and the decreasing likelihood of obtaining a new federal charter meant that the Bank would soon have to wind up its affairs. Then there was the removal of the public deposits, congressional testimony indicating that the Jacksonians had attempted to sabotage the Bank's public image and solvency by manufacturing bank runs at branch offices in Kentucky, the responsibility of maintaining a uniform currency, the administration's goal of retiring the public debt in a short period, bad harvests, and expectations that the Bank would continue to lend to commercial houses and return dividends to stockholders. "This worthy President thinks that because he has scalped Indians and imprisoned Judges, he is to have his way with the Bank. He is mistaken", Biddle declared.
Yet there was also a more punitive motivation behind Biddle's policies. He deliberately instigated a financial crisis to increase the chances of Congress and the President coming together in order to compromise on a new Bank charter, believing that this would convince the public of the Bank's necessity. In a letter to William Appleton on January 27, 1834, Biddle wrote:
At first, Biddle's strategy was successful. As credit tightened across the country, businesses closed and men were thrown out of work. Business leaders began to think that deflation was the inevitable consequence of removing the deposits, and so they flooded Congress with petitions in favor of recharter. By December, one of the President's advisors, James Alexander Hamilton, remarked that business in New York was "really in very great distress, nay even to the point of General Bankruptcy ". Calhoun denounced the removal of funds as an unconstitutional expansion of executive power. He accused Jackson of ignorance on financial matters.
Jackson, however, believed that large majorities of American voters were behind him. They would force Congress to side with him in the event that pro-Bank congressmen attempted to impeach him for removing the deposits. Jackson, like Congress, received petitions begging him to do something to relieve the financial strain. He responded by referring them to Biddle. When a New York delegation visited him to complain about problems being faced by the state's merchants, Jackson responded saying:
Go to Nicholas Biddle. We have no money here, gentlemen. Biddle has all the money. He has millions of specie in his vaults, at this moment, lying idle, and yet you come to me to save you from breaking. I tell you, gentlemen, it's all politics.
The men took Jackson's advice and went to see Biddle, whom they discovered was "out of town". Biddle rejected the idea that the Bank should be "cajoled from its duty by any small driveling about relief to the country." Not long after, it was announced in the Globe that Jackson would receive no more delegations to converse with him about money. Some members of the Democratic Party questioned the wisdom and legality of Jackson's move to terminate the Bank through executive means before its 1836 expiration. But Jackson's strategy eventually paid off as public opinion turned against the Bank.
Origins of the Whig Party and censure of President Jackson
By the spring of 1834, Jackson's political opponents—a loosely-knit coalition of National Republicans, anti-Masons, evangelical reformers, states' rights nullifiers, and some pro-B.U.S. Jacksonians—gathered in Rochester, New York to form a new political party. They called themselves Whigs after the British party of the same name. Just as British Whigs opposed the monarchy, American Whigs decried what they saw as executive tyranny from the president. Philip Hone, a New York merchant, may have been the first to apply the term in reference to anti-Jacksonians, and it became more popular after Clay used it in a Senate speech on April 14. "By way of metempsychosis," Blair jeered, "ancient Tories now call themselves Whigs." Jackson and Secretary Taney both exhorted Congress to uphold the removals, pointing to Biddle's deliberate contraction of credit as evidence that the central bank was unfit to store the nation's public deposits.
The response of the Whig-controlled Senate was to try to express disapproval of Jackson by censuring him. Henry Clay, spearheading the attack, described Jackson as a "backwoods Caesar" and his administration a "military dictatorship". Jackson retaliated by calling Clay as "reckless and as full of fury as a drunken man in a brothel". On March 28, Jackson was officially censured for violating the U.S. Constitution by a vote of 26–20. The reasons given were both the removal of the deposits and the dismissal of Duane. The opposing parties accused one another of lacking credentials to represent the people. Jacksonian Democrats pointed to the fact that Senators were beholden to the state legislatures that selected them; the Whigs pointing out that the chief executive had been chosen by electors, and not by popular vote.
The House of Representatives, controlled by Jacksonian Democrats, took a different course of action. On April 4, it passed resolutions in favor of the removal of the public deposits. Led by Ways and Means Committee chairman James K. Polk, the House declared that the Bank "ought not to be rechartered" and that the deposits "ought not to be restored". It voted to continue allowing the deposit banks to serve as fiscal agents and to investigate whether the Bank had deliberately instigated the panic. Jackson called the passage of these resolutions a "glorious triumph", for it had essentially sealed the Bank's destruction.
When House committee members, as dictated by Congress, arrived in Philadelphia to investigate the Bank, they were treated by the Bank's directors as distinguished guests. The directors soon stated, in writing, that the members must state in writing their purpose for examining the Bank's books before any would be turned over to them. If a violation of charter was alleged, the specific allegation must be stated. The committee members refused, and no books were shown to them. Next, they asked for specific books, but were told that it might take up to 10 months for these to be procured. Finally, they succeeded in getting subpoenas issued for specific books. The directors replied that they could not produce these books because they were not in the Bank's possession. Having failed in their attempt to investigate, the committee members returned to Washington.
In Biddle's view, Jackson had violated the Bank's charter by removing the public deposits, meaning that the institution effectively ceased functioning as a central bank tasked with upholding the public interest and regulating the national economy. Thenceforth, Biddle would only consider the interests of the Bank's private stockholders when he crafted policy. When the committee members reported their findings to the House, they recommended that Biddle and his fellow directors be arrested for "contempt" of Congress, although nothing came of the effort. Nevertheless, this episode caused an even greater decline in public opinion regarding the Bank, with many believing that Biddle had deliberately evaded a congressional mandate.
The Democrats did suffer some setbacks. Polk ran for Speaker of the House to replace Andrew Stevenson, who was nominated to be minister to Great Britain. After southerners discovered his connection to Van Buren, he was defeated by fellow Tennessean John Bell, a Democrat-turned-Whig who opposed Jackson's removal policy. The Whigs, meanwhile, began to point out that several of Jackson's cabinet appointees, despite having acted in their positions for many months, had yet to be formally nominated and confirmed by the Senate. For the Whigs, this was blatantly unconstitutional. The unconfirmed cabinet members, appointed during a congressional recess, consisted of McLane for Secretary of State, Benjamin F. Butler for Attorney General, and Taney for Secretary of the Treasury. McLane and Butler would likely receive confirmation easily, but Taney would definitely be rejected by a hostile Senate. Jackson had to submit all three nominations at once, and so he delayed submitting them until the last week of the Senate session on June 23. As expected, McLane and Butler were confirmed. Taney was rejected by a vote of 28–18. He resigned immediately. To replace Taney, Jackson nominated Woodbury, who, despite the fact that he also supported removal, was confirmed unanimously on June 29. Meanwhile, Biddle wrote to Webster successfully urging the Senate not to support Stevenson as minister.
The Bank's final years
Demise of the Bank of the United States
The economy improved significantly in 1834. Biddle received heavy criticism for his contraction policies, including by some of his supporters, and was compelled to relax his curtailments. The Bank's Board of Directors voted unanimously in July to end all curtailments. The Coinage Act of 1834 passed Congress on June 28, 1834. It had considerable bipartisan support, including from Calhoun and Webster. The purpose of the act was to eliminate the devaluation of gold in order for gold coins to keep pace with market value and not be driven out of circulation. The first Coinage Act was passed in 1792 and established a 15 to 1 ratio for gold to silver coins. Commercial rates tended towards about 15.5-1. Consequentially, a $10 gold eagle was really worth $10.66 and 2/3. It was undervalued and thus rarely circulated. The act raised the ratio to 16 to 1. Jackson felt that, with the Bank prostrate, he could safely bring gold back. It was not as successful as Jackson hoped. However, it did have a positive effect on the economy, as did good harvests in Europe. The result was that the recession that began with Biddle's contraction was brought to a close. For his part, Jackson expressed his willingness to recharter the Bank or establish a new one, but first insisted that his "experiment" in deposit banking be allowed a fair trial.
Censure was the "last hurrah" of the Pro-Bank defenders and soon a reaction set in. Business leaders in American financial centers became convinced that Biddle's war on Jackson was more destructive than Jackson's war on the Bank. All recharter efforts were now abandoned as a lost cause. The national economy following the withdrawal of the remaining funds from the Bank was booming and the federal government through duty revenues and sale of public lands was able to pay all bills. On January 1, 1835, Jackson paid off the entire national debt, the only time in U.S. history that has been accomplished. The objective had been reached in part through Jackson's reforms aimed at eliminating the misuse of funds, and through the veto of legislation he deemed extravagant. In December 1835, Polk defeated Bell and was elected Speaker of the House.
On January 30, 1835, what is believed to be the first attempt to kill a sitting President of the United States occurred just outside the United States Capitol. When Jackson was leaving through the East Portico after the funeral of South Carolina Representative Warren R. Davis, Richard Lawrence, an unemployed house painter from England, tried to shoot Jackson with two pistols, both of which misfired. Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane, and Lawrence was restrained and disarmed. Lawrence offered a variety of explanations for the shooting. He blamed Jackson for the loss of his job. He claimed that with the President dead, "money would be more plenty", (a reference to Jackson's struggle with the Bank) and that he "could not rise until the President fell". Finally, Lawrence told his interrogators that he was a deposed English king—specifically, Richard III, dead since 1485—and that Jackson was his clerk. He was deemed insane and was institutionalized. Jackson initially suspected that a number of his political enemies might have orchestrated the attempt on his life. His suspicions were never proven.
In January 1837, Benton introduced a resolution to expunge Jackson's censure from the Senate record. It began nearly 13 consecutive hours of debate. Finally, a vote was taken, and it was decided 25–19 to expunge the censure. Thereafter, the Secretary of the Senate retrieved the original manuscript journal of the Senate and opened it to March 28, 1834, the day that the censure was applied. He drew black lines through the text recording the censure and beside it wrote: "Expunged by order of the Senate, this 16th day of January, 1837". Jackson proceeded to host a large dinner for the "expungers". Jackson left office on March 4 of that year and was replaced by Van Buren. Including when taking into account the recession engineered by Biddle, the economy expanded at an unprecedented rate of 6.6% per year from 1830 to 1837.
In February 1836, the Bank became a private corporation under Pennsylvania commonwealth law. This took place just weeks before the expiration of the Bank's charter. Biddle had orchestrated the maneuver in an effort to preserve the institution rather than allowing it to dissolve. This managed to keep the Philadelphia branch operating at a price of nearly $6 million. In trying to keep the Bank alive, Biddle borrowed large sums of money from Europe and attempted to make money off the cotton market. Cotton prices eventually collapsed because of the depression (see below), making this business unprofitable. In 1839, Biddle submitted his resignation as Director of the B.U.S. He was subsequently sued for nearly $25 million and acquitted on charges of criminal conspiracy, but remained heavily involved in lawsuits until the end of his life. The Bank suspended payment in 1839. After an investigation exposed massive fraud in its operations, the Bank officially shut its doors on April 4, 1841.
Speculative boom and Panic of 1837
Jackson's destruction of the B.U.S. is believed by some to have helped set in motion a series of events that would eventually culminate in a major financial crisis known as the Panic of 1837. The origins of this crisis can be traced to the formation of an economic bubble in the mid-1830s that grew out of fiscal and monetary policies passed during Jackson's second term, combined with developments in international trade that concentrated large quantities of gold and silver in the United States. Among these policies and developments were the passage of the Coinage Act of 1834, actions pursued by Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, and a financial partnership between Biddle and Baring Brothers, a major British merchant banking house. British investment in the stocks and bonds that capitalized American transportation companies, municipal governments, and state governments added to this phenomenon.
Woodbury ensured that banks' specie ratios remained consistent with those of the early 1830s. However, since lending was tied directly to the amount of gold and silver that banks stored in their vaults, the influx of precious metals into the United States encouraged American banks to print more paper money. The money supply and number of bank notes in circulation increased significantly in these years. State-chartered financial institutions, unshackled from the regulatory oversight previously provided by the B.U.S., started engaging in riskier lending practices that fueled a rapid economic expansion in land sales, internal improvement projects, cotton cultivation, and slavery. The federal government earned an average of about $2 million each year from land sales in the 1820s. This number increased to about $5 million in 1834, $15 million in 1835, and $25 million in 1836. In 1836, President Jackson signed the Deposit and Distribution Act, which transferred funds from the Treasury Department’s budget surplus into various deposit banks located in the interior of the country. The treasury secretary could no longer regulate lending requirements in the deposit banks as a result of this legislation. Soon afterward, Jackson signed the Specie Circular, an executive order mandating that sales of public lands in parcels over 320 acres be paid for only in gold and silver coin. Both of these measures diverted precious metals from the Atlantic Coast to western regions, leaving the nation’s financial centers vulnerable to external shocks.
Another major problem was that bountiful crop harvests in cotton from the United States, Egypt, and India created a supply glut. The resulting drop in the price of cotton precipitated much of the damage of the financial panic. This is because cotton receipts not only gave value to many American credit instruments, but they were inextricably linked to the bubble then forming in the American Southwest (then centered in Louisiana and Mississippi). Southern planters bought large amounts of public land and produced more cotton to try to pay off their debts. The price of cotton steadily declined during Jackson's second term. In late 1836, the Bank of England began denying credit to American cotton producers. The Bank's directors raised interest rates from three to five percent and restricted some of the open trade practices that they had previously granted to American import merchants. The directors had grown alarmed that their specie reserves had dwindled to four million pounds, which they blamed on the purchase of American securities and poor harvests that forced England to import much of its food (if food imports created a trade deficit, this could lead to specie exports). Within months, cotton prices entered a full free-fall.
In March 1837, Hermann, Briggs & Company, a major cotton commission house in New Orleans, declared bankruptcy, prompting the New York bill brokerage company, J.L. & S. Joseph & Company, to do the same. In May, New York banks suspended specie payments, meaning that they refused to redeem credit instruments in specie at full face value. Over the next several years, domestic trade slumped, the price of banking, railroad, and insurance company stocks declined, and unemployment rose. 194 of the 729 banks with charters closed their doors. Thousands of people in manufacturing districts lost their jobs as credit dried up. Farmers and planters suffered from price deflation and debt-default spirals. By the summer of 1842, eight states and the Florida territory had defaulted on their debts, which outraged international investors.
Whigs and Democrats blamed each other for the crisis. The Whigs attacked Jackson's specie circular and demanded recharter of the Bank. Democrats defended the circular and blamed the panic on greedy speculators. Jackson insisted that the circular was necessary because allowing land to be purchased with paper would only fuel speculator greed more, thereby worsening the crisis. The circular, he claimed, was necessary to prevent excessive speculation.
Legacy
The Bank War far from settled the status of banking in the United States. Van Buren's solution to the Panic of 1837 was to create an Independent Treasury, where public funds would be managed by government officials without assistance from banks. A coalition of Whigs and conservative Democrats refused to pass the bill. It was not until 1840 that the Independent Treasury system was finally approved. When Whig candidate William Henry Harrison was elected in 1840, the Whigs, who also held a majority in Congress, repealed the Independent Treasury, intending to charter a new national bank. However, Harrison died after only a month in office, and his successor, John Tyler, vetoed two bills to reestablish the Bank. The nation returned to deposit banking. The Independent Treasury was recreated under the Polk presidency in 1846. The United States would not have another central banking system again until the Federal Reserve was established in 1913.
The Bank War has proven to be a controversial subject in the scholarly community long after it took place. Quite a few historians over the years have proven to be either extremely celebratory or extremely critical of Jackson's war on the Bank. However, many agree that some sort of compromise to recharter the Bank with reforms to restrict its influence would have been ideal.
1930s Jackson biographer Marquis James commemorates Jackson's war against the Bank as the triumph of ordinary men against greedy and corrupt businessmen. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., who wrote The Age of Jackson (1945), adopts a similar theme, celebrating Jacksonian democracy and representing it as the triumph of Eastern workers. Schlesinger portrays Jackson's economic program as a progressive precursor to the New Deal under Franklin D. Roosevelt. Robert V. Remini believes that the Bank had "too much power, which it was obviously using in politics. It had too much money which it was using to corrupt individuals. And so Jackson felt he had to get rid of it. It is a pity because we do need a national bank, but it requires control." He refutes the idea that the collapse of the Bank was responsible for the Panic of 1837, which he describes as "a world-wide economic collapse", but concedes that it "may have exacerbated" the crisis.
Richard Hofstadter accepts that the Bank had too much power to interfere in politics but excoriates Jackson for making war on it. "By destroying Biddle's Bank Jackson had taken away the only effective restraint on the wildcatters... he had strangled a potential threat to democratic government, but at an unnecessarily high cost. He had caused Biddle to create one depression and the pet banks to aggravate a second, and he had left the nation committed to a currency and credit system even more inadequate than the one he had inherited." Hofstadter criticizes Schlesinger's contention that Jackson's program was a forerunner to the New Deal, arguing that the two were distinct because Jackson wanted less government involvement in finance and infrastructure, while Roosevelt wanted more. Hammond, in his Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War, renews the criticism of Schlesinger. He praises the Bank and Biddle's conduct, claiming that Jackson's war on it created a periodic of economic instability that would not be remedied until the creation of the Federal Reserve in 1913. Historian Jon Meacham, in his 2008 biography of Jackson, concludes that the destruction of the Bank went against the country's interests.
Daniel Walker Howe criticizes Jackson's hard money policies and claims that his war on the Bank "brought little if any benefit" to the common men who made up the majority of his supporters. In the end, he believes, the government was deprived of the stabilizing influence of a national bank and instead ended up with inflationary paper currency. "It was America's failure that the future of the national bank could have been resolved through compromise and a larger measure of government supervision", Howe writes. "Jackson and Biddle were both too headstrong for the country's good. The great Bank War turned out to be a conflict both sides lost."
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Carpenter, Daniel, and Benjamin Schneer. "Party formation through petitions: The Whigs and the Bank War of 1832–1834." Studies in American Political Development 29.2 (2015): 213–234.
1830s in the United States
History of banking in the United States |
4021105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prise%202 | Prise 2 | Prise 2 (French: "Take 2") is a Canadian French language specialty channel owned by Groupe TVA, a division of Quebecor Media.
Prise 2 broadcasts television series and films, primarily from Quebec and the United States, from the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.
History
In October 2005, TVA Group was granted approval by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) to launch a television channel called Nostalgie, described as "a national, French-language Category 2 specialty programming undertaking devoted to television and movie classics."
The channel was launched on February 9, 2006 as Prise 2.
On August 27, 2012, Groupe TVA launched Prise 2 HD, a HD feed simulcasting the standard definition feed. It is currently available on Vidéotron, Bell Satellite TV and Bell Fibe TV.
Programming
References
External links
Digital cable television networks in Canada
French-language television networks in Canada
Television channels and stations established in 2006
2006 establishments in Quebec |
4021111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KEII | KEII | KEII (690 AM) is a commercial radio station in Blackfoot, Idaho, broadcasting to the Idaho Falls-Pocatello, Idaho area. The station airs a variety hits format branded as Cannonball 101.
KEII is a division of Riverbend Communications LLC., which is owned by Frank L. VanderSloot.
History
KTII was first licensed, as KBLI, in 1951, to the Blackfoot Broadcasting Company, with 250 watts on 1490 kHz. In 1957 the station moved to 690 kHz, and in 1991 the call letters were changed to KECN.
Expanded Band assignment
On March 17, 1997, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) announced that eighty-eight stations had been given permission to move to newly available "Expanded Band" transmitting frequencies, ranging from 1610 to 1700 kHz, with KECN authorized to move from 690 to 1620 kHz. The expanded band station was assigned the call letters KBLI on November 10, 1997.
The FCC's initial policy was that both the original station and its expanded band counterpart could operate simultaneously for up to five years, after which owners would have to turn in one of the two licenses, depending on whether they preferred the new assignment or elected to remain on the original frequency, although this deadline was extended multiple times. It was ultimately decided to remain on the original frequency, and the license for KBLI on 1620 kHz was cancelled on February 7, 2006.
Later history
The call letters of the original station on 690 kHz were changed to KZNR in 2001, and KSLJ in 2004. Following the deletion of the expanded band operation on 1620 kHz in 2006, the KBLI call sign was returned to 690 kHz. On October 21, 2014, the call letters became KEII.
On September 10, 2018 KEII and simulcaster KEIR 1260 Idaho Falls (under new KNBL calls) changed their format from religious to variety hits, branded as "Cannonball 101".
References
External links
FCC History Cards for KEII (covering 1950-1980 as KBLI)
EII
Radio stations established in 1951
1951 establishments in Idaho
Adult hits radio stations in the United States |
4021116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Gabriel%27s%20Priory | St. Gabriel's Priory | St. Gabriel's Priory, formerly St. Gabriel's Abbey (), is a Benedictine nunnery in Sankt Johann bei Herberstein, Styria, Austria.
History
The community was founded as a priory in 1889 in Smíchov, now part of Prague, and was raised to the rank of an abbey in 1893. St. Gabriel's was the first women's community to join the Beuronese Congregation within the Benedictine Confederation. After World War I, the predominantly German-speaking community relocated from the newly-independent Czechoslovakia to Schloss Bertholdstein, a castle in Pertlstein in the present municipality of Fehring in Styria.
In 1942, the nunnery was commandeered by the National Socialists; the nuns were expelled and were unable to return until 1946.
In October 2007 the nuns joined the Federation of Sisters of St. Lioba and, as a priory once again, moved to Sankt Johann bei Herberstein in the municipality of Feistritztal, Styria, in November 2008.
The main source of income of the community is from making vestments and church embroidery and taking care of guests.
References
Further reading
Ulrike-Johanna Wagner-Höher: Die Benediktinerinnen von St. Gabriel / Bertholdstein (1889–1919). Eos-Verlag, St. Ottilien 2008
Inge Steinsträßer: Wanderer zwischen den politischen Mächten. Pater Nikolaus von Lutterotti OSB (1892–1955) und die Abtei Grüssau in Niederschlesien. Böhlau Verlag 2009, , p. 72 (fn. 4), p. 77 (fn. 31), p. 87 (fn. 79)
Benedictine monasteries in Austria
Monasteries in Styria
Benedictine nunneries in Austria
1889 establishments in Austria-Hungary
Establishments in the Duchy of Styria |
4021117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBOE%20S%26P%20500%20BuyWrite%20Index | CBOE S&P 500 BuyWrite Index | The CBOE S&P 500 BuyWrite Index (ticker symbol BXM) is a benchmark index designed to show the hypothetical performance of a portfolio that engages in a buy-write strategy using S&P 500 index call options.
Description
The term buy-write is used because the investor buys stocks and writes call options against the stock position. The writing of the call option provides extra income for an investor who is willing to forego some upside potential.
The BXM Index is designed to show the hypothetical performance of a strategy in which an investor buys a portfolio of the S&P 500 stocks, and also sells (or writes) covered call options on the S&P 500 Index.
History
Investors have used exchange-listed options to engage in buy-write strategies since the 1970s, but prior to 2002 there was no major benchmark for buy-write strategies. To develop the CBOE S&P 500 BuyWrite Index (ticker BXM), the Chicago Board Options Exchange commissioned Professor Robert Whaley of Vanderbilt University. In April 2002, the index was announced with the publication of Whaley's "Return and Risk of CBOE Buy-Write Monthly Index" in Journal of Derivatives (Winter 2002).
Investors have used covered call strategies for more than three decades. As noted in a magazine article “Buy Writing Makes Comeback as Way to Hedge Risk.” Pensions & Investments, (May 16, 2005), two developments have enhanced the interest in covered call strategies in recent years: (1) in 2002 the Chicago Board Options Exchange introduced the first major benchmark index for covered call strategies, the CBOE S&P 500 BuyWrite Index (ticker BXM), and (2) in 2004 the Ibbotson Associates consulting firm published a case study on buy-write strategies. In 2006 Callan Associates published A Review of the CBOE S&P 500 BuyWrite Index.
The BXM Index won the Most Innovative Benchmark Index award at the 2004 Super Bowl of Indexing Conference.
Many active strategies employing volatility patterns as signals for more than 16 years have provided a systematic approach that employs behavioral investment theories based on "herding investor biases" and other psychological biases inherent in active trading strategies have been created since the discovery of the groundbreaking study was published initially in November 2005 by Lehman Brothers and subsequently validated, publicised and formed the foundation and innovation that ultimately resulted in the development an entirely new method of active investing and ultimately led to the creation of an entirely new actively-managed investment category offering investors an innovative, consistently profitable field with superior return-to-risk field in asset management attracting more than $50 billion invested in funds and ETFs as of 2016."
More than forty new buy-write investment products have been introduced since mid-2004 (see examples below).
See also
CBOE S&P 500 PutWrite Index
Chicago Board Options Exchange
References
Blake, R. "Investors Are Dusting Off an Old Strategy, Options Overlay; When It Works, It Offers Both Yield Enhancement and Risk Management." Institutional Investor, (Sept. 2002), pp. 173 – 174.
Callan Associates. A Review of the CBOE S&P 500 BuyWrite Index (BXM). (October 2006).
Crawford, Gregory. “Buy Writing Makes Comeback as Way to Hedge Risk.” Pensions & Investments, (May 16, 2005).
Demby, E. R. “Maintaining Speed -- In a Sideways or Falling Market, Writing Covered Call Options Is One Way To Give Your Clients Some Traction.” Bloomberg Wealth Manager, (February 2005).
Feldman, Barry and Dhuv Roy. "Passive Options-Based Investment Strategies: The Case of the CBOE S&P 500 BuyWrite Index." The Journal of Investing, (Summer 2005).
Ferry, John. "An Array of Options - A Buy-write Strategy Can Add Some Octane to Portfolios When the Markets Lack Direction." Worth Magazine, (April 2005), pp. 102 – 104.
Hadi, Mohammed. "Buy-Write Strategy Could Help in Sideways Market." Wall Street Journal. (April 29, 2006) pg. B5.
Hill, Joanne, Venkatesh Balasubramanian, Krag (Buzz) Gregory, and Ingrid Tierens. "Finding Alpha via Covered Index Writing." Financial Analysts Journal. (Sept.-Oct. 2006). pp. 29–46.
Keenan, C. “Mass Appeal It's Still a Niche Market, But More Assets Are Flowing Into Mutual Funds That Use Hedge Fund Techniques.” Institutional Investor, ( July 2004).
Moran, Matthew. “Risk-adjusted Performance for Derivatives-based Indexes – Tools to Help Stabilize Returns.” The Journal of Indexes. (Fourth Quarter, 2002) pp. 34 – 40.
Renicker, Ryan, Devapriya Mallick. "Enhanced Call Overwriting." Lehman Brothers Equity Derivatives Strategy. (Nov 17, 2005).
Roeder, David. "New Funds Try Options to Boost Stock Income." Chicago Sun-Times, (October 10, 2004).
Schneeweis, Thomas, and Richard Spurgin. "The Benefits of Index Option-Based Strategies for Institutional Portfolios" The Journal of Alternative Investments, (Spring 2001), pp. 44 – 52.
Smith, Steven. "Covered Calls Move Closer to the Masses" TheStreet.com (April 2003)
Smith, Steven. “Options on Covered Calls.” RealMoney, (Dec. 20, 2006).
Tan, Kopin, "Yield Boost -- Firms Market Covered-call Writing to Up Returns." Barron's, (Oct. 25, 2004).
Tergesen, Anne. "Taking Cover with Covered Calls." Business Week, (May 21, 2001), pp. 132.
Wasik, J. “Used Wisely, Options Can Help Dodge Stock Losses.” Bloomberg News, (May 15, 2005).
Whaley, Robert. "Risk and Return of the CBOE BuyWrite Monthly Index" The Journal of Derivatives, (Winter 2002), pp. 35 – 42.
Woolley, S. “Squeeze Your Portfolio Harder,” BusinessWeek, (December 27, 2004).
External links
Yahoo! Covered Calls
Covered Calls Worksheet
American stock market indices
S&P Global
Options (finance) |
4021123 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Coffee%20Pot | White Coffee Pot | White Coffee Pot Family Inns was a privately held Baltimore, Maryland, restaurant chain and coffeeshop that first did business in 1932. During the 1960s and 1970s, they opened a chain of fast-food restaurants White Coffee Pot, Jr. Major competitors included national chains Gino's (which sold Kentucky Fried Chicken), Denny's and Friendly's.
The last White Coffee Pot restaurant closed in Brooklyn Park, Maryland, in 1993. The company shared ownership with the Horn and Horn Smorgasbord Cafeteria chain, and some locations became Cactus Willie's all-you-can-eat restaurants.
See also
Little Tavern, another Baltimore-based restaurant
List of chicken restaurants
References
External links
Ghosts of Baltimore website
Defunct restaurants in Maryland
Defunct restaurant chains in the United States
Poultry restaurants
1932 establishments in Maryland
1993 disestablishments in Maryland
Restaurants in Baltimore
Restaurants established in 1932 |
4021127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin%20population%20statistics | Berlin population statistics | Berlin is the most populous city in the European Union, as calculated by city-proper population (not metropolitan area).
Demographics
Population by borough
Historical development of Berlin's population
The spike in population in 1920 is a result of the Greater Berlin Act.
Population by nationality
On 31 December 2010 the largest groups by foreign nationality were citizens from Turkey (104,556), Poland (40,988), Serbia (19,230), Italy (15,842), Russia (15,332), United States (12,733), France (13,262), Vietnam (13,199), Croatia (10,104), Bosnia and Herzegovina (10,198), UK (10,191), Greece (9,301), Austria (9,246), Ukraine (8,324), Lebanon (7,078), Spain (7,670), Bulgaria (9,988), the People's Republic of China (5,632), Thailand (5,037). There is also a large Arabic community, mostly from Lebanon, Palestine and Iraq. Additionally, Berlin has one of the largest Vietnamese communities outside Vietnam, with about 83,000 people of Vietnamese origin.
See also
Demographics of Berlin
Demographics of Cologne
Demographics of Hamburg
Demographics of Munich
References
External links
Berlin State Statistical Office
Berlin State Statistical Office (old homepage)
Schwenk, Herbert, Berliner Stadtentwicklung von A bis Z: Kleines Handbuch zum Werden und Wachsen der deutschen Hauptstadt, 2nd edition. Berlin: Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein, 1998.
Geography of Berlin
History of Berlin
Demographics of Germany
Demographics by city |
4021137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee%20Kyung-soo | Lee Kyung-soo | Lee Kyung-soo (이경수; born October 28, 1973) is a former South Korean football defender, who predominantly played in the South Korean K-League.
Club career
Lee's foray as a professional footballer began with the Suwon Samsung Bluewings as a draftee, and he spent two seasons with the club without ever featuring in the K-League before departing for single season spells with Ulsan Hyundai Horang-i and Cheonan Ilhwa Chunma. A two-year stint at Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors followed. Despite spending six years at K-League clubs, Lee had still to establish himself as a first team regular, accumulating a mere 24 games in the K-League, with a few matches in Cup competitions.
Lee then dropped out of the K-League ranks to spend the 2002 season with amateur side Seoul City FC before returning to the K-League with Daegu FC for their inaugural season in the K-League. He finally was able to consider himself as a regular starter in Daegu's side for the 2003 season, playing 22 matches in the K-League. However, the following season he fell out of favour and saw much less match play. By this time Chinese Super League side Sichuan Guancheng was showing interest in Lee's services, and he subsequently signed with the club for the 2004 season. He spent only a single season in China before returning to South Korea for a final season in the K-League with Daejeon Citizen.
Management career
After retiring as a player at the conclusion of the 2005 K-League season, Lee took up a coaching position with FC MB. MB means initial of Hong Myung-bo's given name.
International career
Lee was a member of the South Korea under-20 football team. He was also a squad member of the South Korea under-23 football team (which participated at the 1996 Olympics), even though at the time of the 1996 Olympics, he was still at Soongsil University. It was only after the Olympics that he began his professional career in the K-League.
External links
1973 births
Living people
Association football defenders
South Korean footballers
South Korean expatriate footballers
Suwon Samsung Bluewings players
Ulsan Hyundai FC players
Seongnam FC players
Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors FC players
Daegu FC players
Daejeon Hana Citizen FC players
K League 1 players
Expatriate footballers in China
Footballers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Olympic footballers of South Korea
South Korean expatriate sportspeople in China |
4021140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caf%C3%A9%20Flesh | Café Flesh | Café Flesh is a 1982 post-apocalyptic cult pornographic science fiction film designed and directed by Stephen Sayadian (under the pseudonym "Rinse Dream") and co-written by Sayadian and Jerry Stahl (credited as "Herbert W. Day"). Music was composed and produced by noted music producer Mitchell Froom (and later appeared in his album, Key of Cool).
Two sequels, Café Flesh 2 and Café Flesh 3, were released in 1997 and 2003, without the participation of the original creators. The sequels were written and directed by Antonio Passolini and did not have the same degree of popularity and cult appeal as the first film.
Plot
In the aftermath of nuclear apocalypse, 99% of the survivors are sex Negatives – they become violently ill if they attempt to have sex. The minority sex Positives are forced to engage in carnal theater for the entertainment of the Negatives at Café Flesh. Everyone is excited about the arrival at the club of the famous Positive Johnny Rico, and one Negative woman is beginning to question her negativeness as she and her boyfriend grow more distant from each other.
History
By the early 1970s, the pornographic film industry had gained popularity, through the success of films such as Behind the Green Door and Deep Throat. During this period, there were many attempts to create artistic pornography, including The Devil in Miss Jones. There were also non-pornographic films with hardcore sex, such as I Am Curious (Yellow) and In the Realm of the Senses. By the early 1980s, home video technology shifted the porn industry, and pornography theaters were becoming less successful.
In 1982, Café Flesh, which mixed sex, satire, and avant-garde theater, was released. The film was created and co-written by Stephen Sayadian, under the name "Rinse Dream", and journalist Jerry Stahl, under the name "Herbert W. Day". Sayadin and Stahl made the film in two separate parts, using the non-pornographic elements of the film to attract financiers.
Two actors involved in this film went on to notable work in mainstream productions. Lead actress Michelle Bauer, using the name Pia Snow in this film, became a prolific B-movie actress. Richard Belzer, a noted comedian at the time who later became known for his roles in Homicide: Life on the Street and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, appears as an audience member, but does not appear in any of the sexual scenes.
Criticism
Scholar Bradford K. Mudge has said of Café Flesh, that it, "Like all great satire...stands in parodic opposition to the very generic forms out of which it evolved. Its brilliance results from a bifurcated vision: it dramatizes at once the death of pornography and its disturbing resurrection as culture itself. In so doing, the film marks a juncture—historically arbitrary to be sure—when 'pornography' is finally capable of critical self-reflection, capable of seeing its own 'imagination' as distinct from but integral to both its aesthetic predecessors and its larger cultural environment."
Awards
Café Flesh won the 1984 AVN Award for Best Art Direction - Film and has been inducted into the XRCO Hall of Fame. Café Flesh 2 won the 1998 XRCO Award for Best Video and the 1999 AVN Award for Best Video Feature and Best Special Effects.
References
External links
Review of the film
"Cafe Flesh" by Molly Case, SexyFandom, November 12, 2004
1980s pornographic films
1980s science fiction films
1982 films
Films about nuclear war and weapons
Films set in the future
American post-apocalyptic films
American satirical films
Films with screenplays by Jerry Stahl
AVN Award winners
1980s English-language films
1980s American films |
4021143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Meru%20%28Buddhism%29 | Mount Meru (Buddhism) | Mount Meru (also Sumeru (Sanskrit) or Sineru (Pāli) or Kangrinboqe) is the name of the central world-mountain in Buddhist cosmology. Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru (Pāli Meru), to which is added the approbatory prefix su-, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru".
The concept of Sumeru is closely related to the central Mount Meru of Hindu cosmology, but it differs from the Hindu concept in several particulars.
Characteristics
According to Vasubandhu's (philosophical writings), Sumeru is 80,000 yojanas tall. The exact measure of one yojana is uncertain, but some accounts put it at about 24,000 feet, or approximately 4-1/2 miles, but other accounts put it at about 7-9 miles. It also descends beneath the surface of the surrounding waters to a depth of 80,000 yojanas, being founded upon the basal layer of Earth. Sumeru is often used as a simile for both size and stability in Buddhist texts.
Sumeru is said to be shaped like an hourglass, with a top and base of 80,000 yojanas square, but narrowing in the middle (i.e., at a height of 40,000 yojanas) to 20,000 yojanas square.
Sumeru is the polar center of a mandala-like complex of seas and mountains. The square base of Sumeru is surrounded by a square moat-like ocean, which is in turn surrounded by a ring (or rather square) wall of mountains, which is in turn surrounded by a sea, each diminishing in width and height from the one closer to Sumeru. There are seven seas and seven surrounding mountain-walls, until one comes to the vast outer sea which forms most of the surface of the world, in which the known continents are merely small islands. The known world, which is on the continent of Jambudvipa, is directly south of Sumeru.
The dimensions stated in the are shown in the table below:
The 80,000 yojana square top of Sumeru constitutes the "heaven" (devaloka), which is the highest plane in direct physical contact with the earth. The next 40,000 yojanas below this heaven consist of sheer precipice, narrowing in like an inverted mountain until it is 20,000 yojanas square at a heigh of 40,000 yojanas above the sea.
From this point Sumeru expands again, going down in four terraced ledges, each broader than the one above. The first terrace constitutes the "heaven" of the Four Great Kings and is divided into four parts, facing north, south, east and west. Each section is governed by one of the Four Great Kings, who faces outward toward the quarter of the world that he supervises.
40,000 yojanas is also the height at which the Sun and Moon circle Sumeru in a clockwise direction. This rotation explains the alteration of day and night; when the Sun is north of Sumeru, the shadow of the mountain is cast over the continent of Jambudvīpa, and it is night there; at the same time it is noon in the opposing northern continent of Uttarakuru, dawn in the eastern continent of Pūrvavideha, and dusk in the western continent of Aparagodānīya. Half a day later, when the Sun has moved to the south, it is noon in Jambudvīpa, dusk in Pūrvavideha, dawn in Aparagodānīya, and midnight in Uttarakuru.
The next three terraces down the slopes of Sumeru are each longer and broader by a factor of two. They contain the followers of the Four Great Kings, namely nāgas, , gandharvas, and .
The names and dimensions of the terraces on the lower slopes of Sumeru are given below:
Below Sumeru, in the seas around it, is the abode of the Asuras who are at war with the gods.
Abandonment
Certain traditional Buddhist ideas about the world are incompatible with modern science and have been abandoned by numerous modern Buddhists. One of the most well known of these ideas is Mount Meru. According to Donald S. Lopez Jr., "the human realm that Buddhist texts describe is a flat earth, or perhaps more accurately a flat ocean, its waters contained by a ring of iron mountains. In that ocean is a great central mountain, surrounded in the four cardinal directions by island continents."
As Lopez notes, as early as the 18th century, Buddhist scholars like Tominaga Nakamoto (1715–1746) began to question this classical Buddhist cosmography, holding that they were adopted by the Buddha from Indian theories, but that they were incidental and thus not at the heart of Buddha's teaching. While some traditional Buddhists did defend the traditional cosmology, others like Shimaji Mokurai (1838–1911) argued that it was not foundational to Buddhism and was merely an element of Indian mythology. Others like Kimura Taiken (1881–1930), went further and argued that this traditional cosmography was not part of original Buddhism.
The issue of Mount Meru was also discussed by modern Buddhist intellectuals like Gendün Chöphel and the 14th Dalai Lama. According to Chöphel, the Meru cosmology is a provisional teaching taught in accord with the ideas of ancient India, but not appropriate for the modern era. Similarly, the 14th Dalai Lama writes that "my own view is that Buddhism must abandon many aspects of the Abhidharma cosmology". The Dalai Lama sees the falsehood of this traditional cosmology as not affecting the core of Buddhism (the teaching of the four noble truths and liberation) since it is "secondary to the account of the nature and origins of sentient beings".
See also
Semeru — a mountain in Indonesia, named after Sumeru
Mandala (Southeast Asian history)
References
Sources
Lopez Jr., Donald S. (2009). Buddhism and Science: A Guide for the Perplexed. University of Chicago Press.
External links
Painting of Sumeru found in Buddhist cave sanctuary in Xinjiang
Mount Meru According to the Abhidharmakośa (Huntington Archive) Stūpa as Mount Meru (ibid.)
Buddhist cosmology
Locations in Buddhist mythology
Mount Meru (mythology)
Locations in Chinese mythology |
4021144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xethanol | Xethanol | Xethanol was one of the smaller producers of corn ethanol in the United States, and one of the few publicly traded companies developing technology for producing cellulose ethanol. Ethanol fuel will have increased production from a current level of about per year (19 Gl/a, almost exclusively from corn) to over annually (76 Gl/a, mainly from cellulosic materials). Potentially of ethanol could be produced annually in a sustainable manner from domestic biomass resources. To achieve these goals some believe it will be necessary to develop and commercialize technology for the production of ethanol from cellulose and hemicellulose. Xethanol says it plans to increase production and profitability with new technology it has under development.
Xylose Technologies, Inc. (XTI), a subsidiary of Xethanol, is conducting collaborative research through a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) with the USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory (FPL) located on the campus of the University of Wisconsin–Madison. The work focuses on genetically engineering proprietary yeast strains for the efficient production of xylitol from xylose. Xylose, an abundant five carbon sugar found predominantly in hemicellulose of angiosperms, can be converted to xylitol through biochemical or chemical reduction. The USDA and other university research labs have hundreds of such CRADAs with many companies exploring the technology.
History
Xethanol was formed as a Delaware corporation in 2000 through a reverse merger with Zen Pottery Equipment. It is based in New York City and has operated two production facilities in Iowa since 2003. It began with the acquisition of Permeate Refining, Inc., and in 2004, Xethanol purchased a second plant which operates as Xethanol Biofuels, LLC. In early 2005 it acquired Superior Separation Technologies, Inc. from UTEK Corporation. It has announced plans to build new ethanol plants in Florida, Georgia and South Carolina through a newly formed subsidiary known as CoastalXethanol LLC.
In August 2006, investors and scientists following Xethanol's progress were disturbed by a series of accusations brought against Xethanol on a website called ShareSleuth.com. Follow-up articles appearing in theStreet.com reiterated the story and claimed that it was difficult for reporters and stock analysts to get information from Xethanol officials. A Soleil Securities alternative energy analyst cut Xethanol's rating to "Sell-target $1.53" from "Hold-target $10" after he became disillusioned by the response from Xethanol. The analyst had been trying to obtain information from Xethanol for institutions interested in investing.
The ShareSleuth article revealed that people connected with the Xethanol's secondary stock offering had been sanctioned by the SEC and that the resume of Xethanol's chief executive officer, Christopher D'Arnaud Taylor had been inflated. In response, D'Arnaud Taylor, as well as several of his associates who dominated the company's board of directors, resigned or took less prominent roles. The ShareSleuth article pointed out that one of the company's smaller facilities was shuttered and rusting. The company noted that it had not been operational when they purchased it, and that it was intended for use in pilot development operations. However, there was no explanation why company officials suggested in interviews that the facility was in use, and later that "it is being renovated as we speak."
This rapid increase in Xethanol's stock price could be attributed largely to President Bush's 2006 State of the Union Address on January 31 in which he announced that the administration was undertaking a major new effort to develop technology for the production of "cellulosic ethanol" from agricultural materials such as switchgrass. This speech was followed the next day by an announcement from the Department of Energy that it would be funding 40% of the capital costs of two large (700 ton per day) cellulosic ethanol demonstration plants.
Even though there are about five companies currently working on production of ethanol from cellulose, Xethanol was virtually the only company public at the time. Within days, its stock price shot up to $6 per share. Even though much of the population had never heard of switch grass, the idea of a renewable source of energy sparked their interest. Xethanol's small capitalization combined with a public anxious about rising petroleum costs and global warming drove Xethanol's run-up in price. The decrease in share price—along with falling share prices of other companies associated with ethanol production—followed as investors began to realize the technological differences between making ethanol from corn starch or sugar cane and making it from cellulose. In a Securities and Exchange Commission filing in September 2006, Xethanol acknowledged that it was not as close to the breakthrough technology as previously represented. The value of the technologies it had purchased were written down as an accounting measure, and Xethanol also warned that it did not have the financing to complete its previously announced plans.
Renaming and bankruptcy
On August 28, 2008, Xethanol relaunched itself as Global Energy Holdings Group, Inc., with the intention to diversify away from ethanol to other alternative fuels including woody biomass, orange peels, and methane from landfills.
By September, 2009, Global Energy Holdings had filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.
See also
Biofuel
Ethanol
References
Alcohol fuel producers |
4021147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Branch%20Correctional%20Institution | North Branch Correctional Institution | North Branch Correctional Institution (NBCI) is a high-tech, maximum security prison or "hyper-max prison" operated by the Maryland Department of Public Safety and Correctional Services in Cresaptown, unincorporated Allegany County, Maryland, near Cumberland.
Background
NBCI initially opened in January 2003 as an extension of the earlier adjacent Western Correctional Institution, with full independent operation beginning in the summer 2008 with the completion of housing unit construction. Final construction costs amounted to more than $175 million. In 2011, operating costs totaled $50,613,215 for 1,471 inmates, equating to approximately $34,407 per inmate per year. With 555 employees as of 2011, NBCI is the eighth-largest employer in Allegany County.
Security and safety
Since the closure of the Maryland House of Correction in Jessup, Maryland in 2007 NBCI has housed the most serious offenders within the state of Maryland, including death row inmates (before the death penalty sentences were commuted to LWOP following Maryland's abolition of the death penalty). At the time of its construction, the NBCI was one of the most technologically advanced prisons in the world, and was the first of its kind in the United States.
The prison was constructed using an "inverted fortress" style of building placement, with a master control tower sitting in the middle of a complex that is ringed with housing units and support structures. The control tower is designed for maximum oversight with minimal staffing, requiring only two officers to maintain the entire security system. It has an unobstructed view of the entire grounds, as well as a complete surveillance of every area accessed by inmates. Additionally, the tower has control over all security doors, cameras, and even the flow of water into individual cells. Instead of one large cell block, the prison features separate housing blocks all zoned and protected so the movement of inmates is eased, reducing the risk of riots and violence.
Four units of 256 cells house the inmate population. Each cell is just over 60 square feet and is constructed of cast concrete that prevents seams in construction in which to hide contraband. Cell door windows are made of ballistic-resistant glass to allow easier observation and enhance officer safety. The cell's furnishings are relatively minimal. The beds are bolted directly into the concrete and the bolts are rounded down so the inmates cannot remove them to use the beds to ram the doors. The toilets and sinks are brushed stainless steel instead of porcelain to avoid porcelain shards being broken off and being made into weapons. The piping behind the fixtures is also reinforced so if an inmate were to remove the fixture, they cannot escape, and even if they could successfully tunnel through they would end up in the plumbing box which has a similar cell door. The cell doors are by far the most evolved feature of the prison as opposed to the classic cell bar doors. The doors feature micro-perforations to allow corrections officers to speak with inmates and vice versa. The cell doors also have small slots that can be opened to provide meals to inmates perceived to be too dangerous to be let out to the dining area; and to handcuff the inmates before exiting providing corrections officers maximum control over inmate movement. The door frames are filled with concrete to prevent tampering. The walls of the cells are coated with a high grade epoxy paint resistant to scratching, chipping, and even acid. The perimeter consists of fifteen miles of inwardly curved razor wire and motion sensors, as well as regular patrols and fence inspections. Trained dogs are used to find illicit materials, including cell phones.
Notable incidents
In March 2008, several inmates were injured in what was deemed excessive use of force at the NBCI. These inmates had allegedly been assaulted by North Branch staff shortly after transfer to the facility from nearby Roxbury Correctional Institution after being uncooperative and violent towards RCI officers. This incident led to six NBCI officers being fired and assault charges being filed.
Several homicides have occurred since operations began. On February 10, 2013, an inmate was found dead in his cell in what was described as an apparent homicide. An inmate's death in January at a Baltimore hospital was ruled a homicide. The inmate had been assaulted by another inmate at NBCI the previous November. An inmate was found dead in his cell on September 27, 2012, after an apparent strangulation. This led to the indictment of his cellmate on murder charges in January 2013. On December 8, 2011, an inmate was found unresponsive in his cell. His death was ruled a homicide by strangulation.
On Monday May 8, 2013, an inmate stabbed a correctional officer several times in the head, neck and upper torso at around 8:40am. Officials with the Maryland Department of Public Safety and Correctional Services said the officer, who is in his 30s and a four-year DPSCS veteran, was taken by ambulance to Western Maryland Regional Medical Center with non-life threatening injuries.
Notable inmates
Current
Anthony Grandison – drug dealer and murderer – formerly on death row.
Vernon Lee Evans – contract killer convicted of murdering two witnesses in 1983 – formerly on death row.
Jarrod Warren Ramos - perpetrator of the 2018 Capital Gazette shooting.
Eulalio Tordil – Homeland Security officer who killed three people and wounded three others in a 24-hour span in 2016.
Alexander Wayne Watson – serial killer convicted of four murders between 1986 and 1994.
Former
Adnan Masud Syed – convicted of murder in the January 1999 killing of Hae Min Lee, released in September 2022 after the conviction was overturned.
In popular culture
NBCI has been featured on the television programs MegaStructures, Big, Bigger, Biggest, and Lockdown.
References
External links
North Branch Correctional Institution
Budget 2003 details on NBCI
Government buildings completed in 2003
Buildings and structures in Allegany County, Maryland
Capital punishment in Maryland
Prisons in Maryland
2003 establishments in Maryland |
4021156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby%20It%27s%20You | Baby It's You | "Baby It's You" is a song written by Burt Bacharach (music), Luther Dixon (credited as Barney Williams), and Mack David (lyrics). It was recorded by the Shirelles and the Beatles, and was a hit for both. The highest-charting version of "Baby It's You" was by the band Smith, who took the song to number five on the US charts in 1969.
The Shirelles' original version
The song was produced by Luther Dixon. When released as a single in 1961, it became a Top 10 smash on the Pop and R&B Charts, reached number three on the R&B chart and peaked at number eight on Billboard's Hot 100 chart. It later appeared on the album Baby It's You, named to capitalize upon the success of the single. The vocal arrangements on this version proved influential in subsequent versions, including that by the Beatles. One notable feature of the song is its minor-to-major key chord changes on the verses.
The Beatles' version
British rock band the Beatles performed "Baby It's You" as part of their stage act from 1961 until 1963, and recorded it on February 11, 1963 for their first album, Please Please Me, along with "Boys", another song by the Shirelles. American label Vee-Jay Records included it on Introducing... The Beatles and Songs, Pictures and Stories of the Fabulous Beatles. Capitol included it on The Early Beatles. The Beatles' version differs from the Shirelles' by repeating the second verse instead of the first.
A live version was released on Live at the BBC in 1994. On this version, Lennon does not repeat part of the second verse after the solo (as he did on the studio version), but repeats part of the first verse, which is the way the Shirelles sang the song. The song was issued as a CD single and a vinyl single in 1995 in both the UK and the US, the Beatles' first in nearly a decade. Both versions have four tracks, making it an EP instead of a regular issue single. The three additional tracks, while from BBC recordings, did not appear on Live at the BBC. Tracks 2 and 4 were later included on On Air – Live at the BBC Volume 2, but this recording of track 3 remains unique to this release. The single reached number seven in the UK and number 67 on the Billboard Hot 100.
1995 release track listing
"Baby It's You" (Bacharach/David/Williams) – 2:45
"I'll Follow the Sun" (Lennon–McCartney) – 1:51
"Devil in Her Heart" (Drapkin) – 2:23
"Boys" (Dixon/Farrell) – 2:29
Music video
A live music video was released in 1994 to promote the single. It consisted of a combination of the Beatles dancing and still photographs, and was later included on a DVD or Blu-ray that comes with the 2015 release 1+.
Personnel
John Lennon – vocals, rhythm guitar
Paul McCartney – bass, backing vocals
George Harrison – lead guitar, backing vocals
Ringo Starr – drums
George Martin – celesta
Norman Smith – engineer
Charts
Smith version
Smith's version appeared on their debut album, A Group Called Smith. The single was released on Dunhill Records (4206) in 1969. It was their first and most successful release. This version alters the traditional vocal arrangement as performed by the Shirelles and the Beatles in favor of a more belted, soulful vocal. The single hit number five on the Billboard Hot 100, and was ranked number 28 in Billboard's year-end chart of 1969. The Smith version was used in Quentin Tarantino's Death Proof.
Charts
References
1961 songs
Songs with lyrics by Mack David
Songs with music by Burt Bacharach
The Shirelles songs
The Beatles songs
1961 singles
1969 singles
1995 singles
Oricon International Singles Chart number-one singles
Song recordings produced by George Martin
Scepter Records singles
Apple Records singles
Songs written by Luther Dixon |
4021159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20awards%20and%20nominations%20received%20by%20Selena | List of awards and nominations received by Selena | Selena was an American Tejano pop singer. She has been called the "Queen of Tejano music" by many media outlets including Entertainment Weekly, Billboard magazine, Los Angeles Magazine and Vibe. The singer had released eleven albums, six with her band Selena y Los Dinos and five without them: Mis Primeras Grabaciones (1984), Alpha (1986), Muñequito de Trapo (1987), And the Winner Is... (1987), Preciosa (1988), Dulce Amor (1988), Selena (1989), Ven Conmigo (1990), Entre a Mi Mundo (1992), Selena Live! (1993), Amor Prohibido (1994) and Dreaming of You (1995). They have sold more than 60 million copies worldwide. Her 10 award-winning songs include "Como La Flor", "Amor Prohibido", "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom", "Techno Cumbia", "Si Una Vez", "Tú Sólo Tú", "I Could Fall in Love", "Dreaming of You", "Siempre Hace Frio" and "No Quiero Saber".
Selena was nominated for 86 awards, with 67 wins. She won 36 Tejano Music Awards, 14 Billboard Latin Music Awards, 10 Lo Nuestro Awards, five BMI Awards and one award from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. In 1995, she was inducted into the Billboard Latin Music Hall of Fame. The Spirit of Hope Award was created in Selena's honor in 1996, and was awarded to Latin artists who participated in humanitarian and civic causes. By 1998, Selena and Proyecto Uno were the first artists to have won a Billboard Latin Music Award in two different genres.
Awards and nominations
ASCAP
The American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) honors its top members in a series of annual awards shows in seven different music categories: pop, rhythm and soul, film and television, Latin, country, Christian and concert music. Selena received one award from one nomination.
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|rowspan="1"| 1995 || "I Could Fall in Love" || Among Most Performed Song ||
|}
Bandamax Music Awards
The Bandamax Music Awards are a 24-hour cable television music channel owned by Televisa under Televisa Networks. It is available in Mexico, United States, and Latin America. This channel focuses on Mexican and Southern US group music: Banda, Duranguense, Norteña, and Mariachi. Selena has received 1 nomination.
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| 2015 || Selena || The Most Influential Artist on Social Media||
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|}
BMI Music Awards
Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) annually hosts award shows that honor the songwriters, composers and music publishers of the year's most-performed songs in the BMI catalog. Selena received all five awards that she was nominated for.
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|rowspan="4"| 1995 || "Amor Prohibido" || BMI Pop Music Award ||
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| "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" || Most Performed Song of the Year ||
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| "No Me Queda Mas" || Song of the Year ||
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| "Dreaming of You" || Singles With Over a Million Airplay Impressions ||
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| 1996 || "Si Una Vez" || Song of the Year ||
|}
Billboard Latin Music Awards
The Billboard Latin Music Awards is an annual awards show broadcast on the television network Telemundo, honoring Latin artists. Selena received 16 awards from 19 nominations.
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|rowspan="2"| 1994 || Selena || Regional Mexican Artist of the Year, Female ||
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| Selena Live! || Regional Mexican Album of the Year, Female ||
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|rowspan="5"| 1995 || Selena || Hot Latin Tracks, Artist of the Year ||
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| Amor Prohibido || Regional Mexican Album of the Year, Female ||
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| "Amor Prohibido" || Regional Mexican Song of the Year ||
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| "No Me Queda Mas" || Music Video of the Year ||
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| Selena || Spirit of Hope Award ||
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|rowspan="4"| 1996 || Selena || Hot Latin Tracks Artist of the Year ||
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| "Tú Sólo Tú" || Regional Mexican Hot Latin Track of The Year ||
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| "Tú Sólo Tú" || Regional Mexican Hot Latin Video of The Year ||
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| Dreaming of You || Pop Album of the Year, Female ||
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| 2001 || All My Hits — Todos Mis Exitos Vol. 2 || Latin Greatest-Hit Album of the Year ||
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| 2002 || Live! The Last Concert || Pop album of the year, Female ||
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|rowspan="2"| 2011 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
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| Selena || Digital Download Artist of the Year ||
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|rowspan="2"| 2016 || Selena || Top Latin Albums Artist of the Year, Female ||
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| Selena || Latin Pop Albums Artist of the Year, Solo ||
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|rowspan="3"| 2017 || Selena || Top Latin Albums Artist of the Year, Female ||
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| Selena || Latin Pop Albums Artist of the Year, Solo ||
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| Lo Mejor de... Selena || Latin Pop Album of the Year ||
|}
Billboard Mexican Music Awards
The Billboard Mexican Music Awards are awarded annually by the Billboard magazine in the United States. Selena has received one nomination.
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| 2013 || Selena || Digital Download Artist of the Year ||
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|}
Grammy Awards
The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States. Selena received two awards from four nominations.
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|1994 || Selena Live! || rowspan="2"|Best Mexican/American Album ||
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|1995 || Amor Prohibido ||
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| 2021 || Selena || rowspan="2"|Lifetime Achievement Award ||
|}
Hollywood walk of fame
|-
|-
|2017
|Selena
|Hollywood Walk of Fame
|
|}
Lo Nuestro Awards
The Lo Nuestro Awards is an awards show honoring the best of Latin music, presented by television network Univision. Selena received 12 awards from 12 nominations.
|-
| 1992 || Selena || Regional Mexican Female Artist ||
|-
|rowspan="3"| 1993 || Selena || Regional Mexican Female Artist ||
|-
|Entre a Mi Mundo || Regional Mexican Album of the Year ||
|-
| "Como La Flor" || Regional Mexican Song of the Year ||
|-
|rowspan="3"| 1994 || Selena || Regional Mexican Female Artist ||
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| Selena Live! || Regional Mexican Album of the Year ||
|-
| "No Debes Jugar" || Regional Mexican Song of the Year ||
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|rowspan="4"| 1995 || Selena || Female Pop Artist of the Year ||
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| Selena || Regional Mexican Female Artist ||
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| Amor Prohibido || Regional Mexican Album of the Year ||
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| "Amor Prohibido" || Regional Mexican Song of the Year ||
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| 1996 || Selena || Special Tribute Artist of the Year ||
|}
Tejano Music Awards
Nominated for 48, Selena won 44Tejano Music Awards, which are awarded annually in San Antonio, Texas, honoring Tejano acts.
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| 1986 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
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|rowspan="4"| 1987 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
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| Selena || Most Promising Band of the Year ||
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| Alpha || Album of the Year – Orchestra ||
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| "Dame Un Beso" || Song of the Year ||
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|rowspan="3"| 1988 || Selena || Female Entertainer of the Year ||
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| "Terco Corazon" || Song of the Year ||
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| And the Winner Is ... || Album of the Year – Orchestra ||
|-
|rowspan="3"| 1989 || Selena || Female Entertainer of the Year ||
|-
| Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
|-
| Dulce Amor || Album of the Year – Orchestra ||
|-
|rowspan="4"| 1990 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
|-
| Selena || Female Entertainer of the Year ||
|-
| Selena || Album of the Year – Orchestra ||
|-
| "Amame, Quiéreme" || Vocal Duo of the Year ||
|-
|rowspan="3"| 1991 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
|-
| Selena || Female Entertainer of the Year ||
|-
| Ven Conmigo || Album of the Year – Orchestra ||
|-
|rowspan="3"| 1992 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
|-
| Selena || Female Entertainer of the Year ||
|-
| "La Carcacha" || Song of the Year ||
|-
|rowspan="4"| 1993 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
|-
| Selena || Female Entertainer of the Year ||
|-
| Entre a Mi Mundo || Album of the Year – Orchestra ||
|-
| "Como La Flor" || Single of the Year ||
|-
|rowspan="4"| 1994 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
|-
| Selena || Female Entertainer of the Year ||
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| Selena Live! || Album of the Year – Orchestra ||
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| "No Debes Jugar" || Single of the Year ||
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|rowspan="5"| 1995 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
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| Selena || Female Entertainer of the Year ||
|-
| Amor Prohibido || Album of the Year – Orchestra ||
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| "Amor Prohibido" || Single of the Year ||
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| "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" || Song of the Year ||
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|rowspan="6"| 1996 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
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| Selena || Female Entertainer of the Year ||
|-
| Selena y Los Dinos || Showband of the Year ||
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| Dreaming of You || Album of the Year – Overall ||
|-
| "Tú Sólo Tú" || Song of the Year ||
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| "I Could Fall in Love" || Tejano Crossover Song of the Year ||
|-
|rowspan="4"| 1997 || Selena || Female Vocalist of the Year ||
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| Selena || Female Entertainer of the Year ||
|-
| "Siempre Hace Frio" || Song of the Year ||
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| "No Quiero Saber" || Tejano Crossover Song of the Year ||
|-
| 2001 || Selena || Lifetime Achievement Award ||
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|rowspan="3"| 2010 || Selena || Best Female Vocalist of the 1980s ||
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| Selena || Best Female Vocalist of the 1990s ||
|-
| "Bidi Bidi Bom Bom" || Best 1990s Song ||
|-
|}
References
Selena
Awards |
4021161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eibingen%20Abbey | Eibingen Abbey | Eibingen Abbey (, full name: Benedictine Abbey of St. Hildegard) is a community of Benedictine nuns in Eibingen near Rüdesheim in Hesse, Germany. Founded by Hildegard of Bingen in 1165, it was dissolved in 1804, but restored, with new buildings, in 1904. The nuns produce wine and crafts. They sing regular services, which have been at times recorded. The church is also used as a concert venue. The abbey is a Rhine Gorge World Heritage Site.
History
The original community was founded in 1165 by Hildegard of Bingen. This was the second community founded by her. It was disestablished in 1804. After the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss (German mediatization), the land once owned by the convent became part of the domains of the prince of Nassau-Weilburg who, in 1831, even bought both the monastery and its church.
The community was reestablished by Charles, 6th Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg in 1904 and resettled from St. Gabriel's Abbey in Prague. The nunnery belongs to the Beuronese Congregation within the Benedictine Confederation. A new building was erected in Neo-Romanesque style. In 1941, the nuns were expelled by the Nazis; they were not able to return until 1945. In 1988, the sisters founded Marienrode Priory at Hildesheim, which became independent of Eibingen in 1998.
The nuns work in the vineyard and in the craft workshops, besides undertaking the traditional duties of hospitality. A visitor watched the nuns using GPS systems, computers and modern kitchen tools. They can be heard (but not seen) singing their regular services. The nuns have recorded their Vespers. A first recording was made in 1973 and contained only two works by Hildegard of Bingen, a Kyrie and O virga ac diadema. A second recording appeared in 1979, to remember the 800th anniversary of Hildegard's death, including the same pieces and antiphones, a hymn, a responsory and parts of Ordo virtutum. In 1989, a third recording appeared, conducted by P. Johannes Berchmans Göschl, a scholar of Gregorian chant. A reviewer of Gramophone noted about a 1998 recording: "These nuns are living the same life as that of Hildegard's community, singing daily the same Benedictine Office, breathing the same air and trying to capture the spirit of their great twelfth-century predecessor."
Abbesses
Hildegard of Bingen (1098–1179), first abbess and founder of the community
From 1603 the abbesses held the title of "Abbess of Rupertsberg and Eibingen".
Kunigunde Frey von Dehrn, abbess around 1600
Anna Lerch von Dirmstein, abbess until 1666
Kunigunde Schütz von Holtzhausen, abbess from 1666 to 1669
Scholastica von Manteuffel, abbess from 1670
Maria Antonetta Mühl zu Ulmen, abbess from 1711
Philippine zu Guttenberg, last abbess from 1790 to 1804.
Since the re-establishment of the community in 1904:
Regintrudis Sauter, abbess from 1908 to 1955
Fortunata Fischer, abbess from 1955 to 1978
Edeltraut Forster, abbess from 1978 to 1998
Gisela Happ, prioress-administrator from 1998 to 2000
Clementia Killewald, abbess from 2000 to 2016
Dorothea Flandera, abbess from 2016
Heritage
The abbey is a Rhine Gorge World Heritage Site. The church has been used for concerts of the Rheingau Musik Festival, such as a "BachTrompetenGala" with organist Edgar Krapp and a concert with the New York Polyphony in 2014. The sculptor Karlheinz Oswald made in 1998 a life-size bronze statue called Hildegard of Bingen, with one copy in the Bingen museum, another in the garden in front of the abbey church.
References
External links
Hildegardisvesper Vespers from Eibingen Abbey, YouTube, 20 September 2011
The Hildegard of Bingen Trail in Germany spiritualtravels.info
Sites › Rüdesheim › Abbey St. Hildegard landderhildegard.de
Eibingen, Germany: Benedictine Abbey of Eibingen (Saint Hildegard of Bingen) thecatholictravelguide.com
Gregor Kollmorgen: St. Hildegard Abbey newliturgicalmovement.org 11 November 2010
Monasteries in Hesse
1160s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1165 establishments in Europe
Religious organizations established in the 1160s
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
Benedictine nunneries in Germany
World Heritage Sites in Germany
Buildings and structures in Rheingau-Taunus-Kreis
Hildegard of Bingen |
4021162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KCVI | KCVI | KCVI (101.5 FM, "K-Bear 101") is a commercial radio station in Idaho Falls, Idaho, broadcasting to the East Idaho area. KCVI airs an active rock music format. The station is owned and operated by Riverbend Communications.
Current on-air staff
Viktor Wilt
Peaches
Howie Rock
Lou Brutus
Jade Davis
Former on-air staff
Piper Phynnie
Ian
Brad Royal
Phyllis
References
External links
KCVI official website
CVI
Active rock radio stations in the United States |
4021165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlora%20War | Vlora War | The Vlora War or the War of 1920 ( or Lufta e Njëzetës; ) was a series of battles between Italian forces garrisoned throughout the Vlorë region of Albania (an Italian protectorate) and Albanian nationalists, who were divided into small groups of fighters. The war lasted three months until an armistice; it had great impact in the struggle of Albania for the safeguard of its territories while Albanian borders and future were discussed in the Paris Peace Conference. The Vlora War is seen as a turning point in the establishment of Albanian independence.
Background
Before entering the First World War as an ally of Triple Entente the Kingdom of Italy had signed the secret Treaty of London: Italy promised to declare war against Germany and Austria-Hungary within a month in exchange of some territorial gains at the end of the war. The promised territories of Albania to Italy were treated in Articles 6 and 7 of the treaty:
Article 6
Italy shall receive full sovereignty over Valona, the island of Saseno and surrounding territory....
Article 7
Having obtained the Trentino and Istria by Article 4, Dalmatia and the Adriatic islands by Article 5, and also the gulf of Valona, Italy undertakes, in the event a small, autonomous, and neutralized state being formed in Albania Italy not to oppose the possible desire of France, Great Britain, and Russia to repartition the northern and the southern districts of Albania between Montenegro, Serbia, and Greece. The southern coast of Albania, from the frontier of the Italian territory of Valona to Cape Stilos, is to be neutralized. The Italy will be conceded the right of concluding the foreign relations of Albania; in any case, Italy will be bound to secure for Albania a territory sufficiently extensive to enable its frontiers to join those of Greece and Serbia to the west of Lake Ochrida ..
In 1920 in allies in the Paris Peace Conference had still reached no decision on Albania's future, but Italy's claims to sovereignty over Vlorë had never been seriously challenged. Italian Prime Minister Francesco Saverio Nitti had also hoped to obtain a mandate over the rest of the country according to the secret Treaty of London.
Orders of battle
Albanian order of battle
Italian order of battle
Course of war
The war started on June 4, after Italian General Settimo Piacentini refused to hand over the Vlora district to the Albanian government. Albania had previously forced much of the Italian occupation to leave the country, but after demands by Ahmet Zogu, the then interior-minister of Albania, to continue the evacuation were rejected by Italy, the Albanians announced the establishment of the National Defense Committee under the leadership of Qazim Koculi and began to gather volunteers. Ahmet Lepenica became the commander in chief of the detachment consisting of around 4000 men. The Albanian insurgents were poorly armed and not everyone even carried a gun; some were armed with nothing but sticks and stones. In and around Vlora were around 25,000 Italian soldiers who were stationed in the area with artillery.
The Albanians engaged in fighting in the Vlora region and soon the rebels were bolstered by volunteers in the region. This increased the size of the force to upwards of 10,000 irregulars, which also included the Banda e Vatrës, an Albanian military band that was formed in the United States that travelled 23 days by boat from the US to Durrës. However during the course of warfare not more than 4,000 Albanians engaged. The advance of the Albanian troops as well as communist revolutionary movements and riots within the army in Italy made reinforcements to the Italian soldiers in Vlora impossible. Morale crumbled among the Italian soldiers barricaded inside Vlora, without orders and with malaria and communist agitation spreading among the ranks.
On August 2, 1920, the Albanian-Italian protocol was signed under which Italy would retreat from Albania. That ended Italian claims for Vlora and a mandate over Albania, rescuing the territory of the Albanian state from further partition. A ceasefire was announced on August 5, ending all Italo-Albanian hostilities.
Armistice
After three months of warfare, an armistice agreement was signed between the Italian and the Albanian governments. It had these main points:
The Italian Government completely acknowledged the independence, territorial integrity, and sovereignty of Albania, within the frontiers defined in 1913 by the Conference of Ambassadors in London.
The Italian government relinquished its protectorate proclaimed in 1917 and the occupation and administration of Vlorë and its hinterland, and renounced all claims against Albania and all interference in Albanian political affairs, and abandoned the idea of a mandate over the country.
The Italian government agreed to withdraw its war materials from Vlorë and its hinterland, to evacuate all its holdings on the Albanian mainland, and to repatriate at an early date the Italian troops actually stationed in Vlorë and on the littoral, and all its forces still remaining in other parts of Albanian territory with the exception of the garrison on the island of Sazan at the entrance of the Vlorë bay; Italy retained the permanent possession only of the island of Sazan, but remained in temporary occupation of Cape Linguetta and cape Treporti, both dominating Vlorë bay, with the right to fortify them; the detachment of troops at Shkodër was also to remain in that town.
There would take place an exchange of prisoners, the liberation of arrested persons under a general mutual amnesty, and the settlement of outstanding questions concerning the private interests of Albanian and Italian subjects.
It was the first diplomatic pact between Albania and a foreign power. Albania had used all its influence to obtain full and unreserved recognition by the Western powers of the independence of Albania within 1913 borders. Benito Mussolini described Italian failure at Vlora as "Albanian Caporetto".
References
Further reading
Akademia e Shkencave e RPSSH "Fjalori Enciklopedik Shqiptar", Tirana, 1985.
Pearson, Owen. Albania in the Twentieth Century: A History. Volume One. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2006 ().
Sette, Alessandro. From Paris to Vlorë. Italy and the Settlement of the Albanian Question (1919-1920), in The Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920) and Its Aftermath: Settlements, Problems and Perceptions, eds. S. Arhire, T. Rosu, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne, 2020.
Military history of Italy
Military history of Albania
Conflicts in 1920
1920 in Albania
Wars involving Albania
Wars involving Italy
Battle Of
Vlora
1920 in Italy |
4021168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotren | Biotren | The Biotren () is an at-grade urban commuter rail system that serves a large part of the city of Concepción, Chile, capital of the region of Bío-Bío, also known as Greater Concepción or Concepción Metropolitan Area, both synonyms of "city" according to the urbanistic standards and laws of Chile, of which this city is the second biggest, most populous and important of the country. Biotren connects the boroughs or comunas of Concepción Centro (downtown borough), Talcahuano, Hualpén, San Pedro de la Paz, Chiguayante and Hualqui. The system is managed by Ferrocarriles Suburbanos de Concepción S.A. (Fesub), which name comes from the former metrorail system of the city and is a subsidiary of Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado (EFE), Chilean State Railways. Biotren is part of the Plan and Authority of Integrated Transit of Concepción, Biovías.
The system was partially inaugurated on 24 November 2005 in a ceremony that counted with the presence of the then President of Chile, Ricardo Lagos.
History
It began to fully operate in 2006 because during the year 2005 the railroad lines were being upgraded for the new system. The AEL and AES trains that the former system used were replaced by UT-440 MC(Modelo Concepcion) units that were specially upgraded for the city of Valencia, Spain by Renfe.
Architecture
Biotren stations or Bio Stations have a totally renewed architecture compared to the former system. The platforms have roofs and access for the handicapped. The fare is paid at the entrance and exit of the stations using a prepayment card called Biovías, with a deferred payment system according to the distance travelled. The card's recharge can be made in any station.
Rolling stock
The Empresa de Los Ferrocarriles del Estado (EFE) invested a total of US $16.800.000 for the trains used in the system.
The current fleet is composed of eight trains UT-440 Modelo Concepción of three wagons each, bought from the Red Nacional de Ferrocarriles Españoles (Spain State Railways, RENFE). The trains are painted orange and have 321 seats (20 folding seats) and a capacity of 590 passengers.
Lines
Line 1
Line 1: It crosses all Concepción from North to South, from "Mercado" Terminus Station (Port of Talcahuano) to "Hualqui" Terminus Station (Hualqui).
Bio Stations:
Mercado
El Arenal
Hospital Higueras
Los Cóndores
Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María
Lorenzo Arenas
Concepción
Chiguayante
Pedro Medina
Manquimávida
Leonera
Hualqui
Line 2
Line 2: It crosses the Bío-Bío river on the upgraded Puente Ferroviario (Railroad Bridge) Bío-Bío, the longest of its kind in Chile. The line starts, from downtown to west side, in the "Concepción" Exchange (or Intermodal) Station (Civic District, Concepción Centro) and ends in the "intermodal coronel" Terminus Station (comuna de coronel).
Bio Stations:
Concepción
Juan Pablo II
Diagonal Bío-Bío
Alborada
Costa Mar
El Parque
Lomas Coloradas
Cardenal Raúl Silva Henríquez
Hito Galvarino
Los Canelos
Huinca
Cristo Redentor
Laguna Quiñenco
Coronel
Exchange System
The Exchange or Intermodal Bio Stations have personal bicycle parking lockers for those who arrive by cycle paths (except for El Arenal) to take the Biotren and synchronization with combination buses called Biobuses.
See also
List of suburban and commuter rail systems
Metrotrén
References
External links
Plan and Authority of Integrated Transit of Concepción, Biovías.
Subsidiaries of EFE General information about Ferrocarriles Suburbanos de Concepción S.A.
Concepción, Chile
Rapid transit in Chile
Transport in Biobío Region
2005 establishments in Chile |
4021175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter%20Star%20Party | Winter Star Party | The Winter Star Party, aka WSP, is an annual convention of amateur astronomers where the primary activity is nighttime astronomical observation. This February event is run at Camp Wesumkee located on Scout Key in the Lower Florida Keys. It is hosted by the Southern Cross Astronomical Society of Miami, Florida.
Most attendees camp on site. BBC Sky at Night magazine rated WSP as one of the top 10 star parties in the world. WSP was first established in 1984 by Tippy D'Auria.
See also
List of astronomical societies
References
External links
Official Website: https://www.scas.org/winter-star-party/
Amateur astronomy organizations
Star parties
Florida culture
Science events in the United States
Annual events in Florida
1984 establishments in Florida |
4021176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudden%20Death%20%281995%20film%29 | Sudden Death (1995 film) | Sudden Death is a 1995 American sports action-thriller film directed by Peter Hyams and starring Jean-Claude Van Damme, Powers Boothe, and Dorian Harewood. The film was released in the United States on December 22, 1995. Set at the Pittsburgh Civic Arena, the film was written by Gene Quintano, based on a story by Karen Elise Baldwin, the wife of then-Pittsburgh Penguins owner Howard Baldwin, who was a co-producer. It was the second collaboration between Van Damme and Hyams, after Timecop (1994).
The film grossed $64 million at the box office on a $35 million budget and received mixed reviews at the time of its release, although retrospective reviews have been more positive and it is seen by many as one of Van Damme's best.
Plot
Darren McCord is a French Canadian-born firefighter for the Pittsburgh Bureau of Fire now serving as the fire marshal for the Pittsburgh Civic Arena, after being unable to save a young girl from a house fire two years prior. During the 1995 Stanley Cup Finals between the Pittsburgh Penguins and the Chicago Blackhawks (a fictional rematch of the 1992 Stanley Cup Finals), a group of terrorists take the Vice President of the United States and several other VIPs hostage in a luxury suite. Former CIA operative Joshua Foss has the arena wired with explosives, and plans to blow it up at the end of the game, while having hundreds of millions of dollars wired into several off shore accounts.
Darren takes his son Tyler and daughter Emily to Game 7 of the Stanley Cup Finals as a birthday gift for Tyler. A spat between brother and sister causes Emily to run off before getting kidnapped by Carla, the sole female member of the terrorists (who is disguised as the local mascot Iceburgh after killing the original performer). Carla places Emily in the suite with the other hostages about to be executed. Not wanting his son to go missing, Darren orders Tyler to stay in his seat while he goes searching for Emily. Carla is about to kill Darren, but he evades her attacks in a fight and kills her. Afterward, Darren asks for a security guard's help, but the guard is another terrorist in disguise and reveals their criminal operation before being killed by Darren. Now aware of the situation, Darren finds a mobile phone in the executive offices and uses it to contact Secret Service Agent Matthew Hallmark; Hallmark advises Darren to stand by while the agents take charge. He angrily refuses, saying that he will handle this himself.
The Secret Service and the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police team up to surround the arena and a standoff ensues. Meanwhile, Darren manages to find and disarm a few of the bombs (as well as killing and evading a few of Foss' men), whilst Foss himself kills several hostages after the end of the first and second periods. Hallmark finally makes his way inside and meets Darren, who explains where the rest of the bombs are most likely located. Hallmark is revealed to be in league with Foss, and tries to kidnap Tyler, but fails. Hallmark then reveals his true self to Darren, who sets him on fire and ultimately kills him. Darren then uses Hallmark's phone to contact Foss, who taunts that he is holding his daughter captive.
As time ticks down, Darren disables more bombs, but is severely slowed by confrontations with Foss' men. At one point, Darren, dressed as the Pittsburgh goalie to escape the thugs, enters the game and successfully defends a shot on goal. As the third period runs down, Luc Robitaille scores the game-tying goal for Pittsburgh in the last second, prompting sudden death overtime and prolonging the game. Deciding that there's no time left to find the remaining bombs, Darren climbs to the roof of the arena. He fights off two of Foss' henchmen; one of them falls onto the score display, blowing it up. As the arena erupts into chaos, Darren advances upon the owner's box from above and forces his way in, rescuing Emily, the Vice President and the remaining hostages. Darren and Emily reunite with Tyler and set out to leave the arena.
Foss manages to escape and blend in with the panicking crowd. He sets off one of the bombs, flooding part of the arena, and recaptures Emily when she recognizes him. They head towards the top of the arena, where a helicopter is waiting to lift Foss away. Darren intervenes and saves his daughter before Foss could shoot her. As Foss attempts to flee, Darren shoots the pilot, causing the chopper to stall and fall into the arena, sending a screaming Foss to his death as the chopper explodes on impact with the ice.
Darren is led to an awaiting Pittsburgh Bureau of EMS medic unit while his children tell the paramedics of his heroism. As a contented Darren is loaded into the ambulance, it is presumed that he was restored back to his position.
Cast
Jean-Claude Van Damme as Chief Darren Francis Thomas McCord, a former Pittsburgh firefighter who now works as a fire marshal at the Pittsburgh Civic Arena
Powers Boothe as Joshua Foss, a Secret Service agent and mastermind of the terrorists
Raymond J. Barry as U.S. Vice President Daniel Binder
Whittni Wright as Emily McCord, Darren's daughter
Ross Malinger as Tyler McCord, Darren's son
Dorian Harewood as Matthew Hallmark, a Secret Service agent in charge of the vice-president's protection detail; later revealed to be Foss's second-in-command
Kate McNeil as Kathi McCord, Darren's ex-wife
Jennifer D. Bowser as Joan Cometti, the woman who normally plays Iceburgh
Michael Gaston as Hickey, Foss's computer hacker
Paul Mochnick as Andrew Ferrara, chef for the Pittsburgh Civic Arena
Audra Lindley as Angeline Ferrara, Andrew's wife
Brian Delate as Thomas Blair, Secret Service agent taken hostage
Faith Minton as Carla, Foss's only henchwoman disguised as the Pittsburgh Penguins mascot
Jack Erdie as Scratch, one of Foss' henchmen
Bernard Canepari as Jefferson, the Penguins' equipment manager
Jophery Brown as Wootton, one of Foss' henchmen
Manny Perry as Brody, one of Foss' henchmen
Steve Aranson as Dooley, in charge of the arena's big board
Michael R. Aubele as Ace
Bill Dalzell as George Spota, head of security for the Pittsburgh Civic Arena
Ed Evanko as Baldwin, one of the team owners taken hostage by the villains
Jeff Habberstad as Lewis, one of Foss' henchmen
John Hateley as Briggs, one of Foss' henchmen
Kane Hodder as Murphy
Jeff Howell as Usborn
Fred Mancuso as Billy Pratt, Foss's henchmen
Brad Moniz as Toowey, one of Foss's henchmen
Brian Smrz as Demsky
Milton E. Thompson as Sergeant Kurtz, a Chicago PD dispatch officer
Fred Waugh as Bluto, one of Foss's henchmen
Dean E. Wells as Kloner, one of Foss' henchmen
Raymond Laine as Mullard
Thomas Saccio as Foss's Helicopter Pilot
Brian Hutchison as Young Secret Service Agent
Hockey figures
Jay Caufield as Brad Tolliver
Bill Clement as Pre-game announcer
Cleveland Lumberjacks players as Chicago Blackhawks players
Ian Moran as Chris Chelios
Jeff Jimerson as Himself (credited "Anthem Singer")
Mike Lange as Himself (credited "Play-by-Play Announcer")
Luc Robitaille as Himself
Paul Steigerwald as Himself (credited "Color Commentator")
Markus Näslund as Himself (uncredited)
Bernie Nicholls as Himself (uncredited)
Ken Wregget as Himself (uncredited)
John Barbero as PA Announcer (uncredited)
Mark Kachowski as Himself
Production
Development and writing
Sudden Death was based on a spec script by Gene Quintano called Arena.
Howard Baldwin, chairman of the Pittsburgh Penguins, was one of the film's backers. He had a two-year deal with Universal. Baldwin wanted to use footage from the October 1 game opener between Pittsburgh and Chicago, but the game was delayed due to a lockout. He arranged an exhibition game, but the players from Pittsburgh and Chicago apparently did not display the correct intensity. So they arranged another game involving players from the Johnstown Chiefs and Wheeling Thunderbirds of the East Coast Hockey League (now ECHL). Crowd shots were done over one night using between 2,000 and 3,000 extras, plus cardboard cut outs to make the stadium seem like 17,000.
Filming
Sudden Death was filmed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where it is set, and Middletown, New York, in 98 days between August 29 and December 7, 1994. Parts were filmed at the then-unopened and now closed Veterans Hospital in Aspinwall, Pennsylvania.
The final helicopter crash was filmed with a 400 ft crane that could pick up and lower the helicopter into the arena. Nine cameras recorded the event, which was filmed several times, and hundreds of emergency vehicles were on standby in case of an accident.
Reception
Box office
Sudden Death opened in the United States on the weekend of December 22, 1995, in eighth place, making $4,782,445 at 1681 theaters, with a poor $2,845 per screen average, and a $20,350,171 final tally. Internationally it fared better, with a worldwide gross of nearly $64 million. In other countries, it made close to 50 million in profit with video sales.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 50% based on 36 reviews, with an average rating of 5.11/10. The website's consensus states "Sudden Death may not be a classic, but exciting set pieces and strong work from Jean-Claude Van Damme help this action thriller pay off part of its Die Hard debt." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two and half stars out of four and stated that, "Sudden Death isn't about common sense. It's about the manipulation of action and special-effects sequences to create a thriller effect, and at that it's pretty good."
Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times called it "A treat for Jean-Claude Van Damme fans, a superior action thriller loaded with jaw-dropping stunts and special effects, and strong in production values."
XTV Guide gave it 2 out of 4 calling it "Good clean fun, with just the right ratio of explosions to dialogue."
Bruce Fretts of Entertainment Weekly said the film wants to be a "comical Die Hard knockoff" but criticizes the director for the "inept editing and a plodding pace". He gave it a D− grade.
In 2013 Den of Geek included it at 5 in a list of the Top 10 Van Damme movies.
In 2022, Lloyd Farley from Collider included Sudden Death in a list of the best movies of Van Damme.
Novelization
The novelization of the film was written by American writer Stephen Mertz. The audio book is read by Powers Boothe.
Remake
On August 20, 2019, it was reported that a sequel-remake titled Welcome to Sudden Death was in production from both Universal 1440 and Netflix, originally set for a June 2020 release date. The film stars Michael Jai White and Gary Owen in a more comedic take on the material. It was released on September 29, 2020, to mostly negative reviews.
References
External links
Pittsburgh Hockey.net Sudden Death (1995)
1995 films
1995 action thriller films
American action thriller films
1990s English-language films
Fictional portrayals of the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police
Films about terrorism in the United States
Films directed by Peter Hyams
Films set in 1995
Films set in Pittsburgh
Films shot in New York (state)
Films shot in Pittsburgh
Films about firefighting
American ice hockey films
Pittsburgh Penguins
Sports in Pittsburgh
Universal Pictures films
Films scored by John Debney
Films with screenplays by Gene Quintano
1990s American films |
4021180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KFTZ | KFTZ | KFTZ (103.3 MHz, "Z103") is a Top-40 (CHR) radio station located in Idaho Falls, Idaho. It is licensed, owned and operated by Riverbend Communications.
References
External links
FTZ
Contemporary hit radio stations in the United States |
4021184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitality | Vitality | Vitality (, , ) is the capacity to live, grow, or develop. More simply it is the property of having life. The perception of vitality is regarded as a basic psychological drive and, in philosophy, a component to the will to live. As such, people seek to maximize their vitality or their experience of vitality—that which corresponds to an enhanced physiological capacity and mental state.
Overview
The pursuit and maintenance of health and vitality have been at the forefront of medicine and natural philosophy throughout history. Life depends upon various biological processes known as vital processes. As such, vitality is also the characteristic distinction of living from non-living things.
Historically, these vital processes have been viewed as having either mechanistic or non-mechanistic causes. The latter of which is characteristic of vitalism, the doctrine that the phenomena of life cannot be explained by purely chemical and physical mechanisms.
Prior to the 19th century, theoreticians often held that human lifespan had been less limited in the past, and that aging was due to a loss of, and failure to maintain, vitality.
A commonly held view was that people are born with finite vitality, which diminishes over time until illness and debility set in, and finally death.
Religion
In traditional cultures, the capacity for life is often directly equated with the or . This can be found in the Hindu concept , where vitality in the body derives from a subtle principle in the air and in food, as well as in Hebrew and ancient Greek texts.
Jainism
See also
Jīvitindriya
Urban vitality
Vitalism
References
Jain philosophical concepts
Natural philosophy
Philosophy of life
Quality of life |
4021186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marienrode%20Priory | Marienrode Priory | Marienrode Priory is a Benedictine nunnery in Marienrode, a district of Hildesheim in Germany.
An Augustinian monastery was founded here in 1125 by the Bishop of Hildesheim, Berthold I von Alvensleben, in a place then known as Baccenrode. It lasted until 1259. The site was re-settled later, at first by Augustinians and afterwards as a Cistercian monastery. The Cistercians gave the community its current name of Marienrode which has officially been used since 1439. The foundation stone of the present church was laid in 1412. The church was built in gothic style with three naves and completed in 1462. The Baroque ridge turret was added in the 18th century. In the church, there are two noteworthy baroque altars dating from 1750 approximately and a gothic sandstone sculpture of Saint Mary which was made in 1460. The organ dates from the middle of the 18th century. Most of the present buildings of the monastery consisting of sandstone were built in the 18th century. In the inner court there is a noteworthy pigeon tower. After the secularization of 1806, the monastery was used as a farm until 1987.
A small chapel of the priory, Saint Cosmas and Damian, which was built in 1792 was converted into a small Protestant church in 1830. It is not only used by the Protestants living in Marienrode, but also by those from Neuhof and Hildesheimer Wald, two districts of Hildesheim which do not have churches. The altar dates from 1835 and the organ from the end of the 18th century. According to Cistercian tradition, the chapel has a ridge turret instead of a tower.
From 1983, the new Bishop of Hildesheim, Josef Homeyer, was active in the re-establishment of monastic houses. As a result, Marienrode Priory was re-settled by ten Benedictine nuns from Eibingen Abbey on 5 May 1988. Since 1998, Marienrode has been an independent priory within the Beuronese Congregation.
Around the priory, a small village (Marienrode) developed which was incorporated into Hildesheim in 1974. The former village school which was operated by the priory was built in 1716. The windmill of Marienrode was built in 1839 and used as such until 1939. From the village it can be reached through a tree-lined avenue consisting of 200-year-old lindens, with a historic pavement. The large fishpond in the South of the village was laid out by the Cistercians in the Middle Ages.
Sources
Segers-Glocke, Christiane: Baudenkmale in Niedersachsen, Band 1.4 - Hildesheim, p. 260-269. Hameln 2007.
External links
Marienrode Priory Website
Website of St. Hildegard's Abbey
1120s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1125 establishments in Europe
Religious organizations established in the 1120s
Christian organizations established in 1988
Buildings and structures in Hildesheim
Monasteries in Lower Saxony
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
Benedictine nunneries in Germany
Buildings and structures in Hildesheim (district) |
4021188 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome%20microdissection | Chromosome microdissection | Chromosome microdissection is a technique that physically removes a large section of DNA from a complete chromosome. The smallest portion of DNA that can be isolated using this method comprises 10 million base pairs - hundreds or thousands of individual genes.
Scientists who study chromosomes are known as cytogeneticists. They are able to identify each chromosome based on its unique pattern of dark and light bands. Certain abnormalities, however, cause chromosomes to have unusual banding patterns. For example, one chromosome may have a piece of another chromosome inserted within it, creating extra bands. Or, a portion of a chromosome may be repeated over and over again, resulting in an unusually wide, dark band (known as a homogeneously staining region). Some chromosomal aberrations have been linked to cancer and inherited genetic disorders, and the chromosomes of many tumor cells exhibit irregular bands. To understand more about what causes these conditions, scientists hope to determine which genes and DNA sequences are located near these unusual bands. Chromosome microdissection is a specialized way of isolating these regions by removing the DNA from the band and making that DNA available for further study.
To prepare cells for chromosome microdissection, a scientist first treats them with a chemical that forces them into metaphase: a phase of the cell's life-cycle where the chromosomes are tightly coiled and highly visible. Next, the cells are dropped onto a microscope slide so that the nucleus, which holds all of the genetic material together, breaks apart and releases the chromosomes onto the slide. Then, under a microscope, the scientist locates the specific band of interest, and, using a very fine needle, tears that band away from the rest of the chromosome. The researcher next produces multiple copies of the isolated DNA using a procedure called PCR (polymerase chain reaction). The scientist uses these copies to study the DNA from the unusual region of the chromosome in question.
References
Scalenghe F, Turco E, Edstrom JE, Pirrotta V, Melli M.: Microdissection and cloning of DNA from a specific region of Drosophila melanogaster polytene chromosomes. Chromosoma. 1981;82(2):205-16.
External links
National Institutes of Health
National Institutes of Health Laser Microdissection Core Facility
Applied genetics |
4021193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBCI | NBCI | NBCI may refer to:
National Bureau of Criminal Investigation, the detective branch of the Irish Garda (police)
North Branch Correctional Institution, a prison in Maryland, USA
NBC Interactive, a one-time web portal (nbci.com) operated by American television network NBC - Part of it was Xoom.com |
4021194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saracinesca | Saracinesca | Saracinesca is a novel by F. Marion Crawford, first published as a serial in Blackwood's Magazine and then as a book in New York (Macmillan) and Edinburgh (Blackwood) in 1887. Set chiefly in Rome of twenty years earlier, the novel paints a rich picture of the period, detailing the spiritual and economic problems of the aristocracy at a time when its influence and status were under attack from the emerging forces of modernity. This romance tells the tale of Giovanni Saracinesca and his courting of Corona d'Astradente, complete with intrigue and sword fights (Crawford was an expert fencer). It can be categorized as a work of historical fiction in that it relates a time when the author was only a child, and also in the sense that the particulars of that time and place are carefully delineated. In a sense, Crawford had been researching for this book all his life: his parents had witnessed the brief 1848 revolution, and his cousin, in her memoirs of Crawford, insisted that "[t]here is little doubt that Crawford as a boy had heard first-hand descriptions of [the] exciting events" of the 1860s.
Saracinesca proved to be both an immediate hit and Crawford's greatest critical success. It was also a commercial triumph: he negotiated separate contracts for the serial printing and the simultaneous American and British publication, as well as future royalties. He followed it with two brilliant sequels, Sant' Ilario and Don Orsino, the three of which are usually considered a trilogy. Subsequent sequels, such as Corleone, continue the saga of Saracinesca family, but with a diversion from the previous focus on the drama and status of family members into heavily plotted, incident-heavy melodrama. Characters from Saracinesca and its sequels also appear in A Lady of Rome (1906) and The White Sister (1909).
Crawford, though an American by parentage and citizenship, was born in the Italian resort of Bagni de Lucca, spent most of his life abroad, and wrote Saracinesca while living in Sant' Agnello di Sorrento, Italy.
References
John Pilkington, Jr. (1964): Francis Marion Crawford, Twayne Publishers Inc. (Library of Congress Catalog Number: 64-20717)
Maud Howe Elliott (1934): My Cousin, F. Marion Crawford, The Macmillan Company
John Charles Moran (1981) : An F. Marion Crawford Companion, Greenwood Press
External links
1887 American novels
Works originally published in Blackwood's Magazine
Novels first published in serial form
Novels set in Rome
Fiction set in the 1860s
Novels by Francis Marion Crawford |
4021197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County%20Route%20577%20%28New%20Jersey%29 | County Route 577 (New Jersey) | County Route 577 (CR 577) is a county highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. The highway extends from CR 509 in Westfield to Route 23 and Bloomfield Avenue (CR 506) in Verona.
Route description
CR 577 begins at the intersection of Springfield Avenue and East Broad Street (both part of CR 509) in the northern reaches of Westfield. The county road first heads northwest on Springfield Avenue but then curves to the north-northeast. After passing mostly residential neighborhoods, it passes the entrance to the Echo Lake Country Club. The road crosses the Nomahegan Brook and crosses partially into Mountainside then fully into Springfield Township where it passes businesses and apartment complexes. After an interchange with U.S. Route 22 (US 22), CR 577 proceeds further into Springfield Township passing houses, schools, and small businesses. The road name changes to Meisel Avenue and then approaches a complex intersection with Route 82 (its western terminus) and Route 124, both of which carry Morris Avenue. CR 577 has a brief concurrency with Route 124 through the traffic circle-like intersection where Maple Avenue carries the nominal route northbound while Meisel Avenue carries the southbound traffic.
From this intersection, the route heads north as two-lane undivided Main Street. After crossing over Interstate 78 (I-78), the road enters Millburn, Essex County where the road becomes municipally maintained. The road runs through suburban residential developments. In Millburn, CR 577 reaches a junction with CR 527, at which point the route turns east onto a one-way pair that is county maintained. Northbound CR 577 follows three-lane Millburn Avenue and southbound CR 577 follows two-lane Essex Avenue on this pairing, which passes through the commercial downtown of Millburn. At the end of the one-way pair, the route becomes four-lane undivided Millburn Avenue and continues east through a mix of homes and businesses. At the Wyoming Avenue intersection, CR 577 turns northeast onto that road while CR 630 continues along Millburn Avenue.
Wyoming Avenue, which is a two-lane road, carries the route over New Jersey Transit’s Morristown Line and into wooded residential neighborhoods a short distance to the east of the South Mountain Reservation. The road continues through Maplewood before crossing into South Orange, where it reaches CR 510. At this point, CR 577 turns east to form a brief concurrency with CR 510, which is four-lane South Orange Avenue. Upon splitting from that route, CR 577 continues northeast on two-lane Wyoming Avenue. The road enters West Orange and becomes Gregory Avenue. Here, the route crosses CR 508 prior to reaching the CR 660 junction.
At CR 660, CR 577 turns north onto Mt. Pleasant Avenue and crosses First Watchung Mountain as the road makes a turn to the west. This road is four lanes at first, soon narrowing to two lanes. After crossing the mountain, the route intersects Prospect Avenue, which it turns north onto. At this intersection, Prospect Avenue heads south as CR 677 while Mt. Pleasant Avenue continues west as Route 10. Along Prospect Avenue, CR 577 is a two-lane undivided road that turns into a four-lane divided highway as it passes through commercial areas. The route comes to an interchange with I-280 and becomes a five-lane undivided road past that point, with three northbound lanes and two southbound lanes. At the CR 611 intersection, CR 577 becomes three lanes with two lanes southbound and one lane northbound The road runs between homes and the Montclair Golf Course to the west and the Eagle Rock Reservation to the east before becoming two lanes and crossing into Verona. In Verona, CR 577 passes residences before reaching its end at an intersection with CR 506. Past this intersection, the road continues north as Route 23.
History
A spur route, County Route 577 Spur, existed, which is now Essex County Route 677, however some newer signage along the road has brought back the CR 577 Spur designation.
The portion of CR 577 south of Route 124 was previously part of CR 509 Spur. Though the CR 509 Spur designation was officially designated on this section by the state until 2019, CR 577 signage appeared on this section of road prior to then.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
577
577
577 |
4021200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Sestak | Joe Sestak | Joseph Ambrose Sestak Jr. (born December 12, 1951) is an American politician and retired U.S. Navy officer. He represented in the U.S. House of Representatives from 2007 to 2011 and was the Democratic nominee for the United States Senate in 2010. A three-star vice admiral, he was the highest-ranking military official ever elected to the United States Congress at the time of his election. He was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in the 2020 election, launching his campaign on June 23, 2019 and ending it on December 1, 2019, subsequently endorsing Amy Klobuchar.
Graduating second in his class at the United States Naval Academy, Sestak served in the United States Navy for over 31 years and rose to the rank of three-star admiral. He served as the Director for Defense Policy on the National Security Council staff under President Bill Clinton and held a series of operational commands, including commanding the USS George Washington carrier strike group during combat operations in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean in 2002.
Sestak was elected to the House of Representatives in 2006 in a heavily Republican district, and reelected in 2008 by a 20% margin. He declined to run for reelection in 2010, instead running for the Senate. In the Democratic primary he defeated incumbent Senator Arlen Specter, in office since 1981, 54% to 46%, but lost the general election to Republican nominee Pat Toomey in a close race. Sestak sought a rematch with Toomey in the 2016 election, but lost the primary to Katie McGinty by just under ten points, in the closest and costliest Senate primary of the 2016 cycle, while facing opposition from prominent Democrats.
Sestak then became president of FIRST Global, a nonprofit with the objective of promoting STEM education that brought high-school age teams from 157 countries to Washington, D.C., for the inaugural robotics Olympics. In 2022, he announced he was leaving the Democratic Party and joining the centrist Forward Party.
Early life, education and early career
Sestak was born in Secane, Pennsylvania, the son of Kathleen L. (Schlichte) and Joseph Ambrose Sestak His grandfather Martin Šesták came to America from the Slovak village of Dolné Lovčice in 1922, after World War I, while his father, Joseph Sr., was sent to join Martin in America in 1924. Sestak's father graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1942, and then fought in both the Atlantic and the Pacific during World War II, attaining the rank of captain. He continued his service after the war as an engineering officer at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard.
Sestak attended Cardinal O'Hara High School in Springfield, Pennsylvania, where his mother worked as a math teacher. He was deeply inspired by his father and has recalled the time his father spent five hours fixing the family car in the freezing cold of a Philadelphia winter:
I remember going to the window and watching him. And the admiration that I had—just that strong determination of his. Never give in.
Following in his father's footsteps, Sestak was accepted into the U.S. Naval Academy immediately after graduating from high school, during the Vietnam War. In 1974 Sestak graduated second in his class of over 900 midshipmen, with a Bachelor of Science degree in American political systems. Between tours at sea he earned a Master of Public Administration and a PhD in political economy and government from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 1980 and 1984, respectively.
Naval career
As a surface warfare officer Sestak served division officer tours as damage control assistant, combat information center officer and weapons officer on the guided missile destroyer USS Richard E. Byrd, and later as weapons officer on the guided missile destroyer USS Hoel. He then served as aide and flag lieutenant to the admiral in charge of United States Navy surface forces in the Pacific.
In January 1986 Sestak became executive officer of the guided missile frigate USS Underwood and was instrumental in the Underwood's winning the coveted battle E and the Battenberg Cup (awarded to the best ship in the Atlantic fleet). He then served in the Politico-Military Assessment Division of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. On August 30, 1991, Sestak took command of the guided missile frigate USS Samuel B. Roberts, which was named the Atlantic Fleet's best surface combatant in the 1993 Battenberg Cup competition.
In July 1993 Sestak became the head of the Strategy and Concepts Branch in the office of the Chief of Naval Operations. From November 1994 to March 1997 he was the Director for Defense Policy on the National Security Council staff at the White House, where he was responsible for the Clinton Administration's national security strategy, policies, programs, inter-agency and congressional coordination and regional political-military advice. In May 1997 he became the commander of Destroyer Squadron 14.
Sestak then directed the CNO's Strategy and Policy Division (N51), and led the navy's efforts toward the 2000 Quadrennial Defense Review, for which he analyzed military strategic requirements and the economic value of U.S. defense spending. After the September 11 attacks he became the first director of the Navy Operations Group (Deep Blue), the navy's strategic anti-terrorism unit, which sought to redefine strategic, operational and budgetary policies in the Global War on Terrorism, reporting directly to the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Admiral Vern Clark. In 2002 Sestak assumed command of the George Washington Aircraft Carrier Battle Group of 10 U.S. ships and 10,000 sailors, SEALs, Marines, and 100 aircraft. He integrated it with a coalition of 20 allied ships and 5,000 sailors. It conducted combat operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.
Sestak became the director of the CNO's Analysis Group, again reporting directly to CNO Clark as policy adviser and administrator, where he directed independent analysis on strategy, warfare requirements, and resources for the CNO outside of the normal bureaucratic process of the Navy staff. Under Clark, Sestak worked to rein in military spending by maximizing fleet efficiency. In 2004 he was appointed Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Warfare Requirements and Programs (N6/N7), where he implemented his ideas and analyses in the Navy's $350 billion Five Year Defense Plan to transform the Navy from a less effective, expensive platform-centric force structure to a more effective capabilities-based force posture with cyber and sensors. It resulted in a shipbuilding plan that departed from the traditional goal for a 375-ship level to one as low as 260.
On September 11, 2001, Sestak was on duty at the Pentagon, leaving the building moments before it was attacked.
In 2005, Sestak pushed to add a second aircraft carrier in the Pacific to support allies, deter challenges from China, and be closer to potential hot spots such as the Koreas and the Taiwan Strait, saying, "if you don’t have the speed to get to the conflict when you really need to be there, you’re interesting, but irrelevant."
2005 reassignment
In 2005, after CNO Clark retired, Sestak was administratively removed from his position as Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Warfare Requirements and Programs (N6/N7), a three-star position. His removal was one of the first changes made by Admiral Michael Mullen when he took over as the new Chief of Naval Operations in July 2005, according to Navy Times.
Sestak was reverted back to his permanent two-star rank of rear admiral, and was reassigned as a special assistant to the Vice Chief of Naval Operations. He then opted to retire when his three-year-old daughter was diagnosed with malignant brain cancer. Controversy ensued over his departure: it was reported that he was pushed out because he "ruffled feathers" within the Bush Administration and came into conflict with Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld over Sestak's advocacy for spending cuts; Sestak's plan to change the Navy's force structure goals from 375 to as low as 260 by commanding the new emerging capability of cyberspace was controversial.
100 senior and junior officers as well as enlisted personnel who served with Sestak later signed a letter supporting him as "a leader of the highest caliber, a man of tremendous character, and a military officer of uncommon compassion."
In an investigative report by The Philadelphia Inquirer, Chief of Naval Operations Vern Clark said of Sestak:
He did what I asked him to do; I wanted straight talk, and this put him in the cross-hairs. People are going to say what they want to say, but [Sestak] challenged people who did not want to be challenged. The guy is courageous, a patriot's patriot.
Clark told that Associated Press that Sestak "was an incredible officer, the best I've ever seen. Incredible moral courage, the courage to take the independent stand. When everybody else was saying, 'This is what we ought to do,' he would stand up and say, 'I don't see it that way.'" Of Sestak's reassignment by Mullen, Clark told The New York Times, "I put him in that environment where he was in a position to create enemies," adding, "I should have given him better top cover."
After Sestak retired from the United States Navy, his daughter made a full recovery from cancer. He retired as a two-star admiral, not having maintained the rank of three-star admiral long enough to retain it in retirement.
Military decorations
Sestak's decorations include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, Defense Superior Service Medal, two Legion of Merit awards, two Meritorious Service Medals, Joint Service Commendation Medal, three Navy Commendation Medals and the Navy Achievement Medal.
U.S. House of Representatives
Elections
2006
In 2006, with his daughter's recovery going smoothly, Sestak was motivated to run for Congress by the benefits he received under the United States Military's TRICARE health care program, which gave his daughter the care she needed to treat her brain tumor. Sestak stated that, during his travels to find the best treatment for his daughter, he saw children who did not have the same quality of care, or could not afford the necessary care. Sestak made health-care reform a pillar of his campaign in hopes of giving everyone the same care his family had. He called his congressional service a continuation of his military service, "paying back" the country that took care of his daughter.
Sestak began laying the groundwork for a Congressional run in the 7th district, his home district in Pennsylvania, as a Democrat. He was then told he had to first receive the endorsement of the "DCCC". Sestak first thought this meant his hometown's Delaware County Community College, but he was eventually steered toward the correct DCCC, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, and informed its head, Rahm Emanuel, of his candidacy. Emanuel told Sestak he was not ready for to run in a district where registered Republicans outnumbered Democrats 2:1. Sestak decided to run anyway and turned to his brother, Richard, and sisters, Elizabeth and Margaret, who served as his campaign manager, top fundraiser and treasurer, respectively. Sestak challenged ten-term Republican incumbent Curt Weldon in the race, and proved a capable fundraiser. In the second quarter of 2006, he raised $704,000 to Weldon's $692,000; in the third, $1.14 million to $912,000. As of September 30, 2006, Sestak had $1.53 million cash on hand, while Weldon had $1.12 million in the bank after making a $500,000 TV ad buy that had not started as of the close of the third quarter. Sestak received campaign donations from people around the world, including performer Jimmy Buffett, John Grisham, Bill and Hillary Clinton, and many Naval officers.
A late September 2006 poll showed Sestak and Weldon locked in a statistical dead heat. Sestak led Weldon 44-43 among likely voters in a Franklin & Marshall College Keystone Poll released September 29. The poll also found that 49% of registered voters in the district felt it was time for change in the district and only 37% said Weldon deserved reelection. The numbers suggested Sestak had seriously eroded Weldon's previous lead; an April 2006 poll conducted by the pro-Democratic Party organization Democracy Corps had Weldon leading 51% to 41%. On October 6 the nonpartisan Cook Political Report moved the race from "Lean Republican" to "Toss Up". An October 8–10 survey by nonpartisan pollster Constituent Dynamics put Sestak ahead 51–44. On October 13 CQPolitics moved the race from "Leans Republican" to "No Clear Favorite". The race remained a dead heat until late October, when FBI special agents raided the homes of Weldon's daughter and a close friend in connection with a federal corruption probe (neither has ever been charged with a crime). Sestak won by 13 points.
Sestak became the second Democrat to represent the 7th since 1939, and the first since Bob Edgar gave up the seat after six terms to run for Senate. Weldon succeeded him and had held the seat since. The district had historically been a classic Rockefeller Republican area, but had become more competitive at the national level since the 1990s. It had gone Democratic in every presidential election since 1992, even as Weldon never faced a close contest before 2006.
The race was in the national spotlight, as it was profiled in Time magazine as the harbinger of the national political climate of the 2006 elections and the most-watched swing district in the country.
2008
In 2008, Sestak faced Republican nominee Wendell Craig Williams, a U.S. Marine and attorney. Sestak defeated him by a 20-point margin (59.6% to 40.4%), eight points more than his 2006 margin. He purchased no advertisements, and his largest expense was lawn signs.
Legislation and key votes
Sestak wrote various pieces of bipartisan legislation that successfully passed Congress. In 2008 the National Journal placed him "at the ideological center of the House". House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer named Sestak the most productive freshman member of Congress in 2007, with 19 pieces of legislation passing in the House during the 110th Congress, including the Elder Abuse Victims Act, the first bill on elder abuse to pass the House in 17 years. In the 111th United States Congress, Sestak's last term in office, Congress passed more bills written by Sestak than bills written by both of Pennsylvania's senators combined.
Most significantly, Sestak created the House Pediatric Cancer Caucus, which he co-chaired; extended benefits for those seeking work (COBRA) as a part of the JOBS bill; co-wrote the amendment to give small businesses tax credits, as a part of health care reform; and moved the first significant federal funds into autism care and research, nicknamed the "Sestak Amendment".
As Congress's senior veteran, Sestak was an original cosponsor of the repeal of Don't Ask, Don't Tell as well as the repeal of the Defense of Marriage Act. He also strongly advocated ending bailouts to banks in the Wall Street Reform Bill. Sestak voted for the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 but lamented that it did not provide enough accountability measures. He also voted for the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, the American Clean Energy and Security Act, and the Affordable Health Care for America Act.
Some of his legislation that generated attention but eventually failed included researching potential adoption and expansion of thorium-based nuclear power, and the first legislation to restrict the effects of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission.
Social media
In 2007 Sestak's campaign was the first federal campaign to create a Facebook Fan Page. Sestak joined Twitter shortly before he was sworn in for his second term. His congressional account made him the first congressperson on Twitter to use it on an official basis. After he left office his social networks were merged with his personal accounts, which have been verified.
Sestak is said to have been a prime example of the Colbert Bump. After appearing on "The Colbert Report" in 2008, Sestak spoke of the positive impact of social media and viral video clips of the appearance. He appeared on the show even after Democratic leaders Rahm Emanuel and Nancy Pelosi instructed Democrats not to. After his first appearance, Sestak won his election in a landslide in a Republican majority district, and after appearing again in 2009 as a part of his announcement of his candidacy against incumbent Senator Arlen Specter in the 2010 Democratic primary, Sestak won by a surprising eight points. He did not appear on the show during the 2010 general election, which he narrowly lost. The day after the loss, host Stephen Colbert lamented the loss on air, calling Sestak a "friend".
Congressional staff
Sestak and his staff were recognized for their successful tenure and he was voted "The Most Productive Member of Congress".
Sestak focused heavily on the constituent services his office provided the people of his district as he entered Congress just as the Great Recession began, homes were being foreclosed, and health care and other services were being denied as people lost their jobs and missed payments. During his four years in Congress from 2007 to 2011, Sestak's office handled 18,000 cases, between three to four times the number of the average congressional office. "Every person who has worked for me has been tremendous," he said. Sestak hosted an average of 15 large summit gatherings in his district each year on key issues.
Some critics were quick to cite Sestak's handling of his Congressional staff as supporting "the perception that he is a taskmaster with a prickly streak." During his first term in office, Sestak employed 61 people as staff in his official congressional office, while comparable representatives employed a total of 28, 26, and 25 staff members, indicating that Sestak had a high turnover rate, although a number of them were interns or had been hired as temporary staff members. The Hill reported that several former staffers said that "aides are expected to work seven days a week, including holidays, often 14 hours each day, going for months without a day off. These are very long hours even by Capitol Hill standards". A former aide added that Sestak's staff turnover was not as much of a drawback as one might expect. "Other Members rely on their staff to keep themselves informed, but with him, it's top-down," the former aide said. "He knows what he wants to accomplish, so in a sense, he just needs people to dictate to." Sestak acknowledged that his aides spend long hours on duty and that the work is "pretty demanding". He added that the staff was becoming stabler over time, with the turnover rate normalizing by the end of his second term.
Contemporaneous staff accounts were published in the Delaware County Times, including Clarence Tong, a spokesman who had been with Sestak since the campaign, who said "They're getting off. The only person who does work Sunday is someone who travels with the congressman when he goes to different constituent meetings... I think the reality is, my boss doesn't deny he asks a lot of people who work for him ... I think he's someone who's very fair to work for"; Ashley Miller, a former aide, who said, "We were working long hours, there's no doubt about that, but it was absolutely what was needed to do it. None of us were happy leaving things half done at the end of the day"; Bryan Branton, Sestak's former chief of staff, who said, "Every freshman office has to work that much harder because you're starting an office from scratch. The people who have since left the campaign have done so because they had other things they were planning on doing"; and Ryan Rudominer, Sestak's communications director during the campaign, who said, "Just like it took hard work to defeat a 20-year incumbent ... it takes hard work to pass as much legislation as Joe has passed as a first-term congressman, to hold as many summits and town halls as Joe has held and to be as responsive to constituents as Joe is."
2008 presidential election
Sestak endorsed Hillary Clinton for president in the 2008 Democratic primaries and served as her campaign national security adviser, specializing in veterans. He told Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report that he trusted her leadership after serving with her in the White House. In addition to being Clinton's foreign policy adviser, Sestak served as her superdelegate and was a surrogate throughout the primary, making appearances at several rallies and on television, including in an ad emphasizing Clinton's foreign policy strengths.
Sestak endorsed Barack Obama in the general election after Obama received the Democratic nomination.
Committee assignments
Committee on Armed Services
Subcommittee on Seapower and Expeditionary Forces
Subcommittee on Air and Land Forces
Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations
Committee on Education and Labor
Subcommittee on Early Childhood, Elementary and Secondary Education
Subcommittee on Health, Employment, Labor, and Pensions
Committee on Small Business (Vice Chairman)
Subcommittee on Finance and Tax
Subcommittee on Contracting and Technology
Subcommittee on Regulations, Healthcare and Trade
2010 U.S. Senate election
Primary election
Whispers of a possible U.S. Senate campaign appeared in 2008 after Sestak's landslide victory and $3 million campaign surplus after his reelection. Even before Arlen Specter's announcement to switch parties, draft efforts were organized. But after Specter switched from a Republican to a Democrat to ensure that (once Al Franken was seated) Democrats had a filibuster-proof 60-vote majority, Democrats, including President Obama and Governor Rendell, promised to support Specter in both the primary and the general election. Nationwide support mounted for Sestak's possible senatorial campaign, a primary challenge to Specter. Most prominent was a straw poll conducted by the Progressive Change Campaign Committee titled, "Should a Draft Sestak movement be created to take on Sen. Arlen Specter in the Pennsylvania Democratic primary?" Almost 8,000 votes were cast nationwide, with 86% responding yes, including 85% of Pennsylvanians.
Sestak faced significant opposition to his candidacy from President Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, the national Democratic Party and the state party, even though Sestak pointed out Specter's humiliation of Anita Hill during her testimony about her harassment by Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas and other votes of Specter's. Then-Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell said on national television, "Joe Sestak should not run for the Senate in the Democratic primary." Sestak responded, "there's no more kings, there's no more kingmakers in America," and proceeded to visit all 67 counties of Pennsylvania.
On May 27, 2009, Sestak indicated that he intended to challenge Specter in the 2010 Democratic primary (pending a final family decision because he had not "had the time to sit down with my eight-year-old daughter or my wife to make sure that we are all ready to get in"). In June he was overheard saying "[i]t would take an act of God for me to not get in now". In a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll conducted May 20–26, Specter led the Democratic primary with 50 percent, with Sestak at 21 percent and 27 percent undecided. Despite the gap, it was noted that Sestak did not have much statewide recognition at the time, as he represented only one of Pennsylvania's 19 congressional districts.
On August 4 Sestak officially announced his candidacy. His brother, Richard, was his campaign manager. In discussing Specter's switch from the Republican to the Democratic Party, Sestak has said that the switch was "100 percent" motivated by politics.
Democratic opposition
Throughout the primary election the Obama administration and the Democratic Party campaigned heavily against Sestak, as the President, Vice President, and numerous cabinet members and Senators hosted many fundraisers and events for Specter. On September 19, 2009, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid even shut down the entire United States Senate, as he, the President, and many senators instead flew to Philadelphia to host a prominent fundraiser for Specter. The event drew controversy for closing federal business and because the money raised during the event would be given to Republicans and conservative PACs that asked for refunds of contributions given before Specter's party switch. Obama's presidential campaign, called "Organizing for America" during the off years, also led efforts against Sestak. Even the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee (DSCC) decided to spend the maximum "coordinated funds" for Specter, which differ from most party spending in that the committee can use the money to work with the candidate and supplement his or her ad buys.
Job offer to Sestak
In a February 2010 interview Sestak responded affirmatively when asked if the Obama administration had offered him a "federal job" if he would end his candidacy for the Senate. Sestak stated that he had quickly refused the offer. When asked to give the specifics of the offer on Midweek Politics with David Pakman, he refused. The White House initially "vociferously" denied that an offer had been made, and Sestak continued to offer no further details until the Obama administration released White House Counsel Robert F. Bauer's official report on the incident on May 28, clarifying that White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel enlisted former President Bill Clinton to approach Sestak about potential, uncompensated executive branch positions on senior advisory boards and stating Bauer's official opinion that nothing inappropriate, illegal or unethical had taken place. The official report also stated that Clinton had made the offer on behalf of the Obama administration. After the report's release, Sestak issued a statement essentially confirming it.
Republican Congressman Darrell Issa, the minority leader on the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, initially alleged that such an offer and Sestak's failure to report it could be felonies. Legal analysts disagreed, and Issa subsequently backtracked and dismissed the issue; his spokesperson said, "it was a mistake", and Issa said, "as we discovered, that it turns out that Republicans and previous administrations thought it was OK."
Primary result
Specter held a 20-point lead in polls as late as April 2010, and enjoyed support from the Democratic establishment, including Rendell and Philadelphia Mayor Michael Nutter, with the latter trying to mobilize voters in that city for Specter. A moderate Republican, Specter had switched parties after polls showed him likely being defeated by the more conservative Pat Toomey in the Republican primary, a rematch of the 2004 nomination contest where Specter narrowly defeated Toomey. Sestak attacked Specter's switch as "self-interested", and the move was disapproved of by a majority of registered Democrats in Pennsylvania, while a "fervent anti-incumbent mood" prevailed nationwide in the 2010 midterm elections. The Sestak campaign also ran an ad showing Specter with President George W. Bush, which seriously damaged Specter's standing. Sestak gained momentum in the last days of the primary contest as the turnout in Philadelphia for Specter failed to meet expectations.
At a little after 10 p.m. on May 18 the Associated Press called the primary for Sestak, 53% to 47%.
General election
Many cited the Pennsylvania Senate general election as the "marquee race of 2010", a bellwether of the national stage. After securing the Democratic Party's nomination, calling it "a win for the people, over the establishment, over the status quo, even over Washington, DC," Sestak enjoyed a slight lead in the polls against the Republican nominee, former Congressman and Club for Growth President Pat Toomey. But while Sestak tried to recoup his financial losses after a long primary, Toomey had not faced a competitive primary and aired TV ads much earlier than Sestak. Toomey's effective fundraising and advertising allowed him to rise in the polls, at one point gaining a double-digit lead, causing political pundits to move the race from "Toss Up" to "Lean Republican". Many stopped short of calling the race "Solid Republican" as Sestak had a reputation for campaigning until he "sees the whites of their eyes" and 11th-hour comebacks.
Sestak began airing ads in mid-fall and overcame his deficit in opinion polls, closing to within the margin of error. Toomey had been running unanswered ads depicting Sestak as a liberal for several months before the DSCC purchased airtime toward the end of the campaign. At the beginning of election night Sestak led in the exit polls by a wide margin, but as more votes were counted and central Pennsylvania's "red T" area began reporting, Toomey caught up. Counting continued until early morning, as the numbers were too close for a winner to be declared. As the percentages stabilized, it became clear Toomey was the winner. Sestak conceded the race to a ballroom full of his supporters at the Radnor Hotel. Toomey defeated Sestak, 51% to 49%, a margin of 80,229 votes out of almost four million cast, a margin large enough to avoid a recount. Percentage-wise, it was the smallest losing margin of any Pennsylvania Democratic candidate in 2010.
The total spent on the race was $20 million, the most of any federal election in 2010. After Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was decided, conservative Political Action Committees and corporations broke the record for outside spending, airing ads on Toomey's behalf and causing Sestak to be outspent 3 to 1. Sestak received little help from the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee (DSCC), which had spent significantly to assist Specter in the primary. The gap between pro-Toomey and pro-Sestak ads was the largest of any Senate race in the nation. Sestak responded to this outside spending at Philadelphia Constitution Hall, arguing, "It is we, the people. Not we, the corporations, nor we, Wall Street." Despite the funding gap, Sestak outperformed Pennsylvania's Democratic gubernatorial nominee, who lost by 9%, as well as the four Democratic Representatives who lost reelection by broad margins (Patrick Murphy by 7%, Paul Kanjorski by 9%, Kathy Dahlkemper by 11%, and Chris Carney by 10%).
Sestak returned to each of Pennsylvania's 67 counties to thank his supporters, including numerous African American churches, synagogues, and mosques that had welcomed him.
2016 U.S. Senate election
After his defeat, Sestak served as a professor at Cheyney University, the oldest historically black university in America, and as a Distinguished Practice Professor at Carnegie Mellon University's Heinz College. In May 2013 he was named the 2013–14 recipient of the General Omar N. Bradley Chair in Strategic Leadership, a joint initiative among the United States Army War College, Dickinson College and the Pennsylvania State University – Dickinson School of Law. Previous recipients of the Bradley Chair include former Assistant Secretary of State Philip J. Crowley and retired Major General John D. Altenburg. Sestak taught courses on "Ethical Leadership" and "Restoring the American Dream".
Sestak remained active in public service through the Center for Refugee and Disaster Response at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health; the Ploughshares Fund working on nuclear disarmament; the Lenfest Foundation focused on education in Philadelphia, pre-K through early childhood, and those in danger of leaving or having left high school; co-chair with former Republican governor Mark Schweiker of the Pennsylvania State Advisory Committee of the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, focused on U.S. diplomacy and development; and then-Secretary of State Clinton's Advisory Committee on U.S. educational programs.
Primary election
In 2013 Sestak announced he was considering a rematch with Toomey. In September 2014, as he campaigned with 2014 gubernatorial nominee Tom Wolf, he said he would make an official announcement soon. In November 2014 he sent out an email confirming that he would run, and in March 2015 he officially launched his campaign by walking 422 miles across Pennsylvania from the New Jersey to the Ohio borders, holding town hall meetings each day, saying throughout his campaign kickoff and the remainder of the election that "we are in a fight for the soul of America." Sestak simultaneously published his vision in a policy-based book, Walking in Your Shoes to Restore the American Dream, co-authored with Jake Sternberger.
If Sestak had been nominated to run against Toomey in 2016 it would have been the first rematch for a United States Senate seat in Pennsylvania history. But starting in early 2015 after he refused to hire a party-approved campaign manager and other designated staffers as well as Washington, D.C.-based political consultants and firms, Sestak faced considerable opposition from the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee (DSCC) and EMILY's List. Many establishment Democrats also resented Sestak for defeating Arlen Specter in the 2010 primary. Sestak had led consistently in the polls, sometimes by as much as 17 points, though national Democrats including Obama encouraged six candidates to challenge Sestak in the primary, with Katie McGinty emerging as the establishment's preferred nominee. The DSCC provided over $1.5 million to McGinty's campaign, when no other non-incumbent Democrat in the nation received more than $14,000, with over $6 million being spent by pro-McGinty Super PACs on mailings, digital ads, and TV commercials. One of the commercials was an attack ad that the Washington Post assigned its highest rating of falsity and called "a sleazy way to win a campaign." Sestak's initial lead in polls dwindled and McGinty won the April 26 Democratic primary. The national Democrats' meddling in the primary was largely unpopular with their liberal base, as Sestak consistently polled higher than McGinty in a hypothetical matchup against Toomey. The Toomey campaign had also regarded Sestak as a stronger challenger since he was "a political outsider, well-attuned to the public's anti-establishment mood." In what was, at the time, the most expensive election for a U.S. Senate seat, Toomey narrowly defeated McGinty to win reelection.
2020 presidential campaign
On June 23, 2019, Sestak announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for president in the 2020 election in a video posted on his website. Sestak entered the race days before the first Democratic presidential debate was held, and did not participate in any debates held in subsequent months, failing to meet the minimum requirements for eligibility. He attracted very little media attention and never polled above 1%. On December 1, 2019, he ended his bid for the Democratic nomination. He endorsed Amy Klobuchar on February 7, 2020.
Political positions
Abortion
Sestak is pro-choice, holding a 100% rating from NARAL Pro-Choice America and a 0% rating from the National Right to Life Committee. NARAL endorsed Sestak over Specter in the 2010 Democratic primary because of Sestak's opposition to a ban on partial-birth abortion. In 2009 Sestak's invitation to speak to students at the Catholic Malvern Preparatory School was rescinded after parents and alumni objected. The cancellation was protested by many Malvern Seniors who staged a class walkout on the day of the scheduled talk.
Economy
Sestak supports requiring Congress to offset the cost of all new spending. He also supports expanding middle-class tax cuts and letting the Bush tax cuts expire. He voted for the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Tax Extenders and Alternative Minimum Tax Relief Act of 2008.
Education
Sestak voted for the Improving Head Start Act and the College Cost Reduction and Access Act. He has a 100% lifetime rating from the National Education Association.
Environment
Sestak voted for the Waxman Markey American Clean Energy and Security Act (Cap and Trade) program. He has a 96% lifetime rating from the League of Conservation Voters and a 100% rating from PennEnvironment. Sestak was endorsed by the Sierra Club in his 2006 and 2008 Congressional election campaigns. He voted for the Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation Tax Act of 2007 and the New Direction for Energy Independence, National Security and Consumer Protection Act, and was an original cosponsor of the Climate Stewardship Act (H.R. 620) and the Safe Climate Act.
Gun rights
Sestak supports gun control. He has a 100% rating from the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence and an F rating from the National Rifle Association.
Sestak has called for reinstatement of the federal ban on assault weapons.
Healthcare
Sestak credits his support for health care reform as "payback" to the country that gave him and his family health care while he was in the Navy (the TRICARE program), especially for successfully treating his daughter's brain tumor. He supports state-provided preventive care and voted for the CHAMP Act. Sestak originally co-sponsored the Medicare Prescription Drug Price Negotiations Act, the Caroline Pryce Walker Conquer Childhood Cancer Act and co-sponsored H.R. 3800, which establishes a public-private Partnership for Health Care Improvement. He also announced the Pediatric Cancer Caucus, which he will co-chair. He is also a member of the Autism Caucus, Diabetes Caucus, 21st Century Health Care Caucus, Congressional Mental Health Caucus, Nursing Caucus, and Cystic Fibrosis Caucus.
Iran nuclear deal
Sestak cosigned, with 35 other retired admirals and generals, a letter endorsing the proposed 2015 Iran nuclear deal, and went on FOX News to defend the deal.
Unions
Sestak is an original cosponsor of the Employee Free Choice Act and supports the original version that includes card check. He created the Labor Advisory Committee to address the challenges facing working families in his district. Sestak holds a 97% lifetime rating from the AFL-CIO.
Medical marijuana
Sestak voted to allow states to regulate medical marijuana by voting for the Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act of 2008, which would have barred the Department of Justice from preventing the implementation of state laws regarding the distribution, possession, and cultivation of medical marijuana. The bill was defeated 165–262.
Military
As a candidate, Sestak campaigned to end the war in Iraq. Once in office, in 2007, he supported Congressional efforts to redeploy forces and submitted legislation for commencing the redeployment, allowing one year to safely withdraw the troops. He also voted for the war supplemental the House constructed after President Bush's veto, a bill many critics of the Bush administration called a "blank check" for the four month continuation of administration policies in the Middle East. In response, Sestak and other veterans argued that they should not punish soldiers for the President's actions, and supported the bill in order to give the armed forces adequate protection and equipment until withdrawn for the one year it would take to do it safely.
Sestak supported the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, which critics contended continued the Bush administration's policy of warrantless wiretapping and provided retroactive immunity to telecommunications companies who participated in the National Security Agency's "terrorist surveillance program".
Sestak supported the deployment of additional troops to Afghanistan in late 2009, and military actions such as drone strikes in northwest Pakistan. He supported a gradual draw-down of troops from Iraq.
Sestak was an opponent of the "don't ask, don't tell" policy that excluded LGBT people from serving openly in the United States military, stating that the policy means "[w]e're absolutely not adhering to the ideals of our nation". He was instrumental in bringing to light a two-year pattern of abuse, including anti-gay hazing, that took place in a Military Working Dog unit stationed in Bahrain, sparking an investigation that turned up nearly 100 instances of abuse.
Electoral history
Nonprofit work
In 2017, Sestak became the first president of FIRST Global, a nonprofit founded by Dean Kamen with the objective of promoting STEM education and careers in the developing world through Olympics-style robotics competitions.
In July 2017, the inaugural FIRST Global Challenge brought together high school student teams from 157 countries. Afghanistan's team made headlines when its visa requests were denied twice and it almost missed the competition, until President Donald Trump intervened to urge the State Department authorities to reconsider. The five girls were granted entry to the U.S. less than a week before the competition. Each country that applied to be in the competition, including those on the Trump Administration's travel ban list—from Iran to a Syrian Refugee team—obtained U.S. visas to attend the competition.
Women were responsible for leading, organizing, or funding 60% of all nations' teams. 84 of the teams had not had either STEM education or robotics. Sestak established "The Global STEM Corps" of approximately 800 U.S. and international college, high school, and other STEM volunteers to "adopt" a team for online assistance in the engineering and electronics "best assemblage" of their robot for the game competition.
Personal life
Sestak is married to the former Susan L. Clark, who works in international environmental issues from Kazakhstan to Mozambique; Russian relations, including the U.S. team searching for clues for Prisoners of War/Missing in Action within Soviet Union archives; and on suicide prevention for the Veterans Administration and Department of Defense. In childhood, their daughter Alexandra survived brain cancer twice, at four years old and again near adulthood, before dying of the disease in June 2020 at age 19.
References
External links
Joe Sestak for U.S. Senate official campaign website
Biography at the United States Navy
Campaign contributions at the Federal Election Commission (U.S. House)
Articles
"GOP's Financial Edge Shrinks" The Washington Post, August 20, 2006
"One on One with Congressman Joe Sestak" Pottstown Herald, September 9, 2009, 20-minute podcast
|-
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1951 births
21st-century American politicians
American people of Slovak descent
Candidates in the 2010 United States elections
Candidates in the 2016 United States Senate elections
Candidates in the 2020 United States presidential election
Carnegie Mellon University faculty
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
Harvard Kennedy School alumni
Living people
Members of Forward (United States)
Military personnel from Pennsylvania
People from Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States)
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
United States National Security Council staffers
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Navy vice admirals |
4021217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris%20Faulkner | Harris Faulkner | Harris Kimberley Faulkner (born October 13, 1965) is an American newscaster and television host who joined Fox News Channel in 2005. She anchors The Faulkner Focus, a daily daytime show, and hosts Outnumbered. Additionally, she hosts her own primetime political franchise called Town Hall America with Harris Faulkner. She has received six Emmy Awards, including the 2005 awards for Best Newscaster and Best News Special.
Early life
Faulkner was born on October 13, 1965 at Fort McPherson in Atlanta, Georgia. Her father, retired Lieutenant Colonel Bob Harris, a United States Army officer and Army Aviator, was stationed at the base and had served three tours in Vietnam. Faulkner lived in different places as a child, including Stuttgart in West Germany.
Faulkner attended the University of California, Santa Barbara, and graduated with a B.A. in mass communications.
Career
Faulkner's start was with LA Weekly, where she contributed as a freelance business writer for $50 per article. Faulkner started her television career with an internship at KCOP-TV in Los Angeles, doing small tasks, then moved to Greenville, North Carolina, to work as a reporter and anchor at WNCT-TV.
From 1992 to 2000, Faulkner worked for Kansas City's WDAF-TV as an evening anchor. While in Kansas City, Faulkner was the victim of harassment and stalking by a former acquaintance who followed her from North Carolina.
Faulkner's next stop was at KSTP-TV in Minneapolis–Saint Paul, where she served as part of an evening anchor team. She left the station in July 2004.
Faulkner joined Fox News in 2005. She was a correspondent for the 2005 revival of A Current Affair until its cancellation in October 2005.
Faulkner anchored her first solo network newscast Fox Report Weekend from 2011-2017. In addition to Midterm Election coverage 2018, Faulkner has substitute-anchored for Shepard Smith Shepard Smith Reporting and for Martha MacCallum The Story. She also made frequent guest appearances on the night satire show Red Eye with Greg Gutfeld, prior to the departure of Gutfeld from that show.
In April 2014, Faulkner began working as one of the co-hosts on the daytime Fox News show Outnumbered. In 2017, she became the anchor of Outnumbered Overtime, which has more of a hard news format rather than a discussion format. In early 2021, she started her new show called The Faulkner Focus.
Honors and awards
While at ABC's Minneapolis affiliate KSTP, Faulkner received four regional Emmy Awards, including Best Anchor three years in a row (2002, 2003, and 2004) and for anchoring a news special, "Eyewitness to War". In 1998, she was awarded the Amelia Earhart Pioneering Lifetime Achievement Award for her humanitarian efforts. In 2021, she was honored by Varietys 2021 New York Women's Impact Report for her 2020 interview with then-president Donald Trump after the murder of George Floyd.
Personal life
Faulkner married former WCCO-TV reporter Tony Berlin in 2003. The couple have two daughters.
In September 2015, Faulkner sued Hasbro for $5 million, claiming a plastic hamster in its Littlest Pet Shop line was an unauthorized use of her name and likeness. Hasbro settled with Faulkner in October 2016, agreeing to cease production of the toy.
Published works
See also
Broadcast journalism
New Yorkers in journalism
Black conservatism in the United States
References
External links
Fox News biography
Fox News Insider biography
Premiere Speakers Bureau biography
1965 births
Emmy Award winners
African-American television personalities
Living people
University of California, Santa Barbara alumni
American television reporters and correspondents
Black conservatism in the United States
People from Atlanta
People from Edgewater, New Jersey
Fox News people
Television anchors from Kansas City, Missouri
Television anchors from Minneapolis–Saint Paul, Minnesota
21st-century American journalists
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American people |
4021235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim%20Jae-shin | Kim Jae-shin | Kim Jae-shin (born August 30, 1973) is a former football player from South Korea.
He was a member of the South Korea national under-20 football team at the 1993 FIFA World Youth Championship and went on to play as a professional in the K League with the Suwon Samsung Bluewings.
Club career statistics
External links
1973 births
Living people
Association football defenders
South Korean footballers
Suwon Samsung Bluewings players
K League 1 players
South Korea under-20 international footballers
Konkuk University alumni |
4021238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription%20factor%20II%20D | Transcription factor II D | Transcription factor II D (TFIID) is one of several general transcription factors that make up the RNA polymerase II preinitiation complex. RNA polymerase II holoenzyme is a form of eukaryotic RNA polymerase II that is recruited to the promoters of protein-coding genes in living cells. It consists of RNA polymerase II, a subset of general transcription factors, and regulatory proteins known as SRB proteins. Before the start of transcription, the transcription Factor II D (TFIID) complex binds to the core promoter DNA of the gene through specific recognition of promoter sequence motifs, including the TATA box, Initiator, Downstream Promoter, Motif Ten, or Downstream Regulatory elements.
Functions
Coordinates the activities of more than 70 polypeptides required for initiation of transcription by RNA polymerase II
Binds to the core promoter to position the polymerase properly
Serves as the scaffold for assembly of the remainder of the transcription complex
Acts as a channel for regulatory signals
Structure
TFIID is itself composed of TBP and several subunits called TATA-binding protein Associated Factors (TBP-associated factors, or TAFs). In a test tube, only TBP is necessary for transcription at promoters that contain a TATA box. TAFs, however, add promoter selectivity, especially if there is no TATA box sequence for TBP to bind to. TAFs are included in two distinct complexes, TFIID and B-TFIID. The TFIID complex is composed of TBP and more than eight TAFs. But, the majority of TBP is present in the B-TFIID complex, which is composed of TBP and TAFII170 (BTAF1) in a 1:1 ratio. TFIID and B-TFIID are not equivalent, since transcription reactions utilizing TFIID are responsive to gene specific transcription factors such as SP1, while reactions reconstituted with B-TFIID are not.
Subunits in the TFIID complex include:
TBP (TATA binding protein), or:
TBP-related factors in animals (TBPL1; TBPL2)
TAF1 (TAFII250)
TAF2 (CIF150)
TAF3 (TAFII140)
TAF4 (TAFII130/135)
TAF4B (TAFII105)
TAF5 (TAFII100)
TAF6 (TAFII70/80)
TAF7 (TAFII55)
TAF8 (TAFII43)
TAF9 (TAFII31/32)
TAF9B (TAFII31L)
TAF10 (TAFII30)
TAF11 (TAFII28)
TAF12 (TAFII20/15)
TAF13 (TAFII18)
TAF15 (TAFII68)
See also
Eukaryotic transcription
General transcription factor
Preinitiation complex
Regulation of gene expression
RNA polymerase II holoenzyme
TATA binding protein
Transcription (genetics)
References
External links
3D electron microscopy structures of TFIID from the EM Data Bank(EMDB)
Gene expression
Molecular genetics
Proteins
Transcription factors |
4021263 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cho%20Hyun | Cho Hyun | Cho Hyun is a football player from South Korea.
He was a member of the South Korea U-20 team in early 1990s and went on to play as a professional in the K-League.
Club career statistics
External links
1974 births
Living people
Association football midfielders
South Korean footballers
Suwon Samsung Bluewings players
Ulsan Hyundai FC players
K League 1 players
Dongguk University alumni |
4021273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Islamic%20Arabia | Pre-Islamic Arabia | Pre-Islamic Arabia () refers to the Arabian Peninsula before the emergence of Islam in 610 CE.
Some of the settled communities developed into distinctive civilizations. Information about these communities is limited and has been pieced together from archaeological evidence, accounts written outside of Arabia, and Arab oral traditions which were later recorded by Islamic historians. Among the most prominent civilizations were the Thamud civilization, which arose around 3000 BCE and lasted to around 300 CE, and the earliest Semitic civilization in the eastern part was Dilmun, which arose around the end of the fourth millennium and lasted to around 600 CE. Additionally, from the second half of the second millennium BCE, Southern Arabia was the home to a number of kingdoms such as the Sabaeans, Minaeans, and Eastern Arabia was inhabited by Semitic speakers who presumably migrated from the southwest, such as the so-called Samad population. From 106 CE to 630 CE northwestern Arabia was under the control of the Roman Empire, which renamed it Arabia Petraea. A few nodal points were controlled by Iranian Parthian and Sassanian empires.
Pre-Islamic religions in Arabia included Arabian indigenous polytheistic beliefs, ancient Semitic religions (religions predating the Abrahamic religions which themselves likewise originated among the ancient Semitic-speaking peoples), various forms of Christianity, Judaism, Manichaeism, and Zoroastrianism.
Studies
Scientific studies of Pre-Islamic Arabs starts with the Arabists of the early 19th century when they managed to decipher epigraphic Old South Arabian (10th century BCE), Ancient North Arabian (6th century BCE) and other writings of pre-Islamic Arabia. Thus, studies are no longer limited to the written traditions, which are not local due to the lack of surviving Arab historians' accounts of that era; the paucity of material is compensated for by written sources from other cultures (such as Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, etc.), so it was not known in great detail. From the 3rd century CE, Arabian history becomes more tangible with the rise of the Ḥimyarite, and with the appearance of the Qaḥṭānites in the Levant and the gradual assimilation of the Nabataeans by the Qaḥṭānites in the early centuries CE, a pattern of expansion exceeded in the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. Sources of history include archaeological evidence, foreign accounts and oral traditions later recorded by Islamic scholars—especially in the pre-Islamic poems—and the Ḥadīth, plus a number of ancient Arab documents that survived into medieval times when portions of them were cited or recorded. Archaeological exploration in the Arabian Peninsula has been sparse but fruitful; and many ancient sites have been identified by modern excavations. The most recent detailed study of pre-Islamic Arabia is Arabs and Empires Before Islam, published by Oxford University Press in 2015. This book collects a diverse range of ancient texts and inscriptions for the history especially of the northern region during this time period.
Prehistoric to Iron Age
Ubaid period (5300 BCE) – could have originated in Eastern Arabia.
Umm Al Nar culture (2600–2000 BCE)
Sabr culture (2000 BCE)
Wadi Suq Culture (1900–1300 BCE)
Lizq/Rumaylah = Early Iron Age (1300–300 BCE)
Samad Period Late Iron Age (c. 100 BCE–c.300 CE)
Recent Pre-Islamic Period (c. 150 BCE–c. 325 CE)
Magan, Midian, and ʿĀd
Magan is attested as the name of a trading partner of the Sumerians. It is often assumed to have been located in Oman.
The A'adids established themselves in South Arabia (modern-day Yemen), settling to the east of the Qahtan tribe. They established the Kingdom of ʿĀd around the 10th century BCE to the 3rd century CE.
The ʿĀd nation were known to the Greeks and Egyptians. Claudius Ptolemy's Geographos (2nd century CE) refers to the area as the "land of the Iobaritae" a region which legend later referred to as Ubar.
The origin of the Midianites has not been established. Because of the Mycenaean motifs on what is referred to as Midianite pottery, some scholars including George Mendenhall, Peter Parr, and Beno Rothenberg have suggested that the Midianites were originally Sea Peoples who migrated from the Aegean region and imposed themselves on a pre-existing Semitic stratum. The question of the origin of the Midianites still remains open.
Overview of major kingdoms
The history of Pre-Islamic Arabia before the rise of Islam in the 610s is not known in great detail. Archaeological exploration in the Arabian peninsula has been sparse; indigenous written sources are limited to the many inscriptions and coins from southern Arabia. Existing material consists primarily of written sources from other traditions (such as Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, etc.) and oral traditions later recorded by Islamic scholars. Many small kingdoms prospered from Red sea and Indian Ocean trade. Major kingdoms included the Sabaeans, Awsan, Himyar and the Nabateans.
The first known inscriptions of the Kingdom of Hadhramaut are known from the 8th century BC. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an Old Sabaic inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BC, in which the King of Hadramaut, Yada`'il, is mentioned as being one of his allies.
Dilmun appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of 4th millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The adjective Dilmun refers to a type of axe and one specific official; in addition, there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.
The Sabaeans were an ancient people speaking an Old South Arabian language who lived in what is today Yemen, in south west Arabian Peninsula; from 2000 BC to the 8th century BC. Some Sabaeans also lived in D'mt, located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, due to their hegemony over the Red Sea. They lasted from the early 2nd millennium to the 1st century BC. In the 1st century BC it was conquered by the Himyarites, but after the disintegration of the first Himyarite empire of the Kings of Saba' and dhu-Raydan the Middle Sabaean Kingdom reappeared in the early 2nd century. It was finally conquered by the Himyarites in the late 3rd century.
The ancient Kingdom of Awsan with a capital at Hagar Yahirr in the wadi Markha, to the south of the wadi Bayhan, is now marked by a tell or artificial mound, which is locally named Hagar Asfal. Once it was one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia. The city seems to have been destroyed in the 7th century BC by the king and mukarrib of Saba Karib'il Watar, according to a Sabaean text that reports the victory in terms that attest to its significance for the Sabaeans.
The Himyar was a state in ancient South Arabia dating from 110 BC. It conquSeehandelsweg nach Indien in c. 25 BC, Qataban in c. 200 AD and Hadramaut c. 300 AD. Its political fortunes relative to Saba changed frequently until it finally conquered the Sabaean Kingdom around 280 AD. It was the dominant state in Arabia until 525 AD. The economy was based on agriculture.
Foreign trade was based on the export of frankincense and myrrh. For many years it was also the major intermediary linking East Africa and the Mediterranean world. This trade largely consisted of exporting ivory from Africa to be sold in the Roman Empire. Ships from Himyar regularly traveled the East African coast, and the state also exerted a considerable amount of political control of the trading cities of East Africa.
The Nabataean origins remain obscure. On the similarity of sounds, Jerome suggested a connection with the tribe Nebaioth mentioned in Genesis, but modern historians are cautious about an early Nabatean history. The Babylonian captivity that began in 586 BC opened a power vacuum in Judah, and as Edomites moved into Judaean grazing lands, Nabataean inscriptions began to be left in Edomite territory (earlier than 312 BC, when they were attacked at Petra without success by Antigonus I). The first definite appearance was in 312 BC, when Hieronymus of Cardia, a Seleucid officer, mentioned the Nabateans in a battle report. In 50 BC, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus cited Hieronymus in his report, and added the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade."
Petra or Sela was the ancient capital of Edom; the Nabataeans must have occupied the old Edomite country, and succeeded to its commerce, after the Edomites took advantage of the Babylonian captivity to press forward into southern Judaea. This migration, the date of which cannot be determined, also made them masters of the shores of the Gulf of Aqaba and the important harbor of Elath. Here, according to Agatharchides, they were for a time very troublesome, as wreckers and pirates, to the reopened commerce between Egypt and the East, until they were chastised by the Ptolemaic rulers of Alexandria.
The Lakhmid Kingdom was founded by the Lakhum tribe that immigrated out of Yemen in the 2nd century and ruled by the Banu Lakhm, hence the name given it. It was formed of a group of Arab Christians who lived in Southern Iraq, and made al-Hirah their capital in (266). The founder of the dynasty was 'Amr and the son Imru' al-Qais converted to Christianity. Gradually the whole city converted to that faith. Imru' al-Qais dreamt of a unified and independent Arab kingdom and, following that dream, he seized many cities in Arabia.
The Ghassanids were a group of South Arabian Christian tribes that emigrated in the early 3rd century from Yemen to the Hauran in southern Syria, Jordan and the Holy Land where they intermarried with Hellenized Roman settlers and Greek-speaking Early Christian communities. The Ghassanid emigration has been passed down in the rich oral tradition of southern Syria. It is said that the Ghassanids came from the city of Ma'rib in Yemen. There was a dam in this city, however one year there was so much rain that the dam was carried away by the ensuing flood. Thus the people there had to leave. The inhabitants emigrated seeking to live in less arid lands and became scattered far and wide. The proverb "They were scattered like the people of Saba" refers to that exodus in history. The emigrants were from the southern Arab tribe of Azd of the Kahlan branch of Qahtani tribes.
Eastern Arabia
The sedentary people of pre-Islamic Eastern Arabia were mainly Aramaic, Arabic and to some degree Persian speakers while Syriac functioned as a liturgical language. In pre-Islamic times, the population of Eastern Arabia consisted of Christianized Arabs (including Abd al-Qays), Aramean Christians, Persian-speaking Zoroastrians and Jewish agriculturalists. According to Robert Bertram Serjeant, the Baharna may be the Arabized "descendants of converts from the original population of Christians (Aramaeans), Jews and ancient Persians (Majus) inhabiting the island and cultivated coastal provinces of Eastern Arabia at the time of the Arab conquest". Other archaeological assemblages cannot be brought clearly into larger context, such as the Samad Late Iron Age.
Zoroastrianism was also present in Eastern Arabia. The Zoroastrians of Eastern Arabia were known as "Majoos" in pre-Islamic times. The sedentary dialects of Eastern Arabia, including Bahrani Arabic, were influenced by Akkadian, Aramaic and Syriac languages.
Dilmun
The Dilmun civilization was an important trading centre which at the height of its power controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. The Sumerians regarded Dilmun as holy land. Dilmun is regarded as one of the oldest ancient civilizations in the Middle East. The Sumerians described Dilmun as a paradise garden in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The Sumerian tale of the garden paradise of Dilmun may have been an inspiration for the Garden of Eden story. Dilmun appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of fourth millennium BCE, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The adjective "Dilmun" is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official; in addition there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.
Dilmun was an important trading center from the late fourth millennium to 1800 BCE. Dilmun was very prosperous during the first 300 years of the second millennium. Dilmun's commercial power began to decline between 2000 BCE and 1800 BCE because piracy flourished in the Persian Gulf. In 600 BCE, the Babylonians and later the Persians added Dilmun to their empires.
The Dilmun civilization was the centre of commercial activities linking traditional agriculture of the land with maritime trade between diverse regions as the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia in the early period and China and the Mediterranean in the later period (from the 3rd to the 16th century CE).
Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II (c. 1370 BCE) recovered from Nippur, during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. These letters were from a provincial official, Ilī-ippašra, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni in Mesopotamia. The names referred to are Akkadian. These letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon at that time. Following the collapse of the Kassite dynasty, Mesopotamian documents make no mention of Dilmun with the exception of Assyrian inscriptions dated to 1250 BCE which proclaimed the Assyrian king to be king of Dilmun and Meluhha. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun. There are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BCE indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun. Dilmun was also later on controlled by the Kassite dynasty in Mesopotamia.
Dilmun, sometimes described as "the place where the sun rises" and "the Land of the Living", is the scene of some versions of the Sumerian creation myth, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood, Utnapishtim (Ziusudra), was taken by the gods to live forever. Thorkild Jacobsen's translation of the Eridu Genesis calls it "Mount Dilmun" which he locates as a "faraway, half-mythical place".
Dilmun is also described in the epic story of Enki and Ninhursag as the site at which the Creation occurred. The promise of Enki to Ninhursag, the Earth Mother:
For Dilmun, the land of my lady's heart, I will create long waterways, rivers and canals, whereby water will flow to quench the thirst of all beings and bring abundance to all that lives.
Ninlil, the Sumerian goddess of air and south wind had her home in Dilmun. It is also featured in the Epic of Gilgamesh.
However, in the early epic "Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta", the main events, which center on Enmerkar's construction of the ziggurats in Uruk and Eridu, are described as taking place in a world "before Dilmun had yet been settled".
Gerrha
Gerrha (), was an ancient city of Eastern Arabia, on the west side of the Persian Gulf. More accurately, the ancient city of Gerrha has been determined to have existed near or under the present fort of Uqair. This fort is 50 miles northeast of al-Hasa in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. This site was first proposed by Robert Ernest Cheesman in 1924.
Gerrha and Uqair are archaeological sites on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Prior to Gerrha, the area belonged to the Dilmun civilization, which was conquered by the Assyrian Empire in 709 BCE. Gerrha was the center of an Arab kingdom from approximately 650 BCE to circa 300 CE. The kingdom was attacked by Antiochus III the Great in 205-204 BCE, though it seems to have survived. It is currently unknown exactly when Gerrha fell, but the area was under Sassanid Persian control after 300 CE.
Gerrha was described by Strabo as inhabited by Chaldean exiles from Babylon, who built their houses of salt and repaired them by the application of salt water. Pliny the Elder (lust. Nat. vi. 32) says it was 5 miles in circumference with towers built of square blocks of salt.
Gerrha was destroyed by the Qarmatians in the end of the 9th century where all inhabitants were massacred (300,000). It was 2 miles from the Persian Gulf near current day Hofuf. The researcher Abdulkhaliq Al Janbi argued in his book that Gerrha was most likely the ancient city of Hajar, located in modern-day Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia. Al Janbi's theory is the most widely accepted one by modern scholars, although there are some difficulties with this argument given that Al Ahsa is 60 km inland and thus less likely to be the starting point for a trader's route, making the location within the archipelago of islands comprising the modern Kingdom of Bahrain, particularly the main island of Bahrain itself, another possibility.
Various other identifications of the site have been attempted, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville choosing Qatif, Carsten Niebuhr preferring Kuwait and C Forster suggesting the ruins at the head of the bay behind the islands of Bahrain.
Tylos
Bahrain was referred to by the Greeks as Tylos, the centre of pearl trading, when Nearchus came to discover it serving under Alexander the Great. From the 6th to 3rd century BCE Bahrain was included in Persian Empire by Achaemenians, an Iranian dynasty. The Greek admiral Nearchus is believed to have been the first of Alexander's commanders to visit this islands, and he found a verdant land that was part of a wide trading network; he recorded: "That in the island of Tylos, situated in the Persian Gulf, are large plantations of cotton tree, from which are manufactured clothes called sindones, a very different degrees of value, some being costly, others less expensive. The use of these is not confined to India, but extends to Arabia." The Greek historian, Theophrastus, states that much of the islands were covered in these cotton trees and that Tylos was famous for exporting walking canes engraved with emblems that were customarily carried in Babylon. Ares was also worshipped by the ancient Baharna and the Greek empires.
It is not known whether Bahrain was part of the Seleucid Empire, although the archaeological site at Qalat Al Bahrain has been proposed as a Seleucid base in the Persian Gulf. Alexander had planned to settle the eastern shores of the Persian Gulf with Greek empires, and although it is not clear that this happened on the scale he envisaged, Tylos was very much part of the Hellenised world: the language of the upper classes was Greek (although Aramaic was in everyday use), while Zeus was worshipped in the form of the Arabian sun-god Shams. Tylos even became the site of Greek athletic contests.
The name Tylos is thought to be a Hellenisation of the Semitic, Tilmun (from Dilmun). The term Tylos was commonly used for the islands until Ptolemy's Geographia when the inhabitants are referred to as 'Thilouanoi'. Some place names in Bahrain go back to the Tylos era, for instance, the residential suburb of Arad in Muharraq, is believed to originate from "Arados", the ancient Greek name for Muharraq island.
Herodotus's account (written c. 440 BCE) refers to the Io and Europa myths. (History, I:1).
Phoenicians Homeland
The Greek historian Strabo believed the Phoenicians originated from Eastern Arabia. Herodotus also believed that the homeland of the Phoenicians was Eastern Arabia. This theory was accepted by the 19th-century German classicist Arnold Heeren who said that: "In the Greek geographers, for instance, we read of two islands, named Tyrus or Tylos, and Arad, Bahrain, which boasted that they were the mother country of the Phoenicians, and exhibited relics of Phoenician temples." The people of Tyre in particular have long maintained Persian Gulf origins, and the similarity in the words "Tylos" and "Tyre" has been commented upon. However, there is little evidence of occupation at all in Bahrain during the time when such migration had supposedly taken place.
With the waning of Seleucid Greek power, Tylos was incorporated into Characene or Mesenian, the state founded in what today is Kuwait by Hyspaosines in 127 BCE. A building inscriptions found in Bahrain indicate that Hyspoasines occupied the islands, (and it also mention his wife, Thalassia).
Parthian and Sassanid
From the 3rd century BCE to arrival of Islam in the 7th century CE, Eastern Arabia was controlled by two other Iranian dynasties of the Parthians and Sassanids.
By about 250 BCE, the Seleucids lost their territories to Parthians, an Iranian tribe from Central Asia. The Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons in the southern coast of Persian Gulf.
In the 3rd century CE, the Sassanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later. Ardashir, the first ruler of the Iranian Sassanians dynasty marched down the Persian Gulf to Oman and Bahrain and defeated Sanatruq (or Satiran), probably the Parthian governor of Eastern Arabia. He appointed his son Shapur I as governor of Eastern Arabia. Shapur constructed a new city there and named it Batan Ardashir after his father. At this time, Eastern Arabia incorporated the southern Sassanid province covering the Persian Gulf's southern shore plus the archipelago of Bahrain. The southern province of the Sassanids was subdivided into three districts of Haggar (Hofuf, Saudi Arabia), Batan Ardashir (al-Qatif province, Saudi Arabia), and Mishmahig (Muharraq, Bahrain; also referred to as Samahij) (In Middle-Persian/Pahlavi means "ewe-fish".) which included the Bahrain archipelago that was earlier called Aval. The name, meaning 'ewe-fish' would appear to suggest that the name /Tulos/ is related to Hebrew /ṭāleh/ 'lamb' (Strong's 2924).
Beth Qatraye
The Christian name used for the region encompassing north-eastern Arabia was Beth Qatraye, or "the Isles". The name translates to 'region of the Qataris' in Syriac. It included Bahrain, Tarout Island, Al-Khatt, Al-Hasa, and Qatar.
By the 5th century, Beth Qatraye was a major centre for Nestorian Christianity, which had come to dominate the southern shores of the Persian Gulf. As a sect, the Nestorians were often persecuted as heretics by the Byzantine Empire, but eastern Arabia was outside the Empire's control offering some safety. Several notable Nestorian writers originated from Beth Qatraye, including Isaac of Nineveh, Dadisho Qatraya, Gabriel of Qatar and Ahob of Qatar. Christianity's significance was diminished by the arrival of Islam in Eastern Arabia by 628. In 676, the bishops of Beth Qatraye stopped attending synods; although the practice of Christianity persisted in the region until the late 9th century.
The dioceses of Beth Qatraye did not form an ecclesiastical province, except for a short period during the mid-to-late seventh century. They were instead subject to the Metropolitan of Fars.
Beth Mazunaye
Oman and the United Arab Emirates comprised the ecclesiastical province known as Beth Mazunaye. The name was derived from 'Mazun', the Persian name for Oman and the United Arab Emirates.
South Arabian Kingdoms
Kingdom of Ma'īn (10th century BCE – 150 BCE)
During Minaean rule, the capital was at Karna (now known as Sa'dah). Their other important city was Yathill (now known as Baraqish). The Minaean Kingdom was centered in northwestern Yemen, with most of its cities lying along Wādī Madhab. Minaean inscriptions have been found far afield of the Kingdom of Maīin, as far away as al-'Ula in northwestern Saudi Arabia and even on the island of Delos and Egypt. It was the first of the Yemeni kingdoms to end, and the Minaean language died around 100 CE .
Kingdom of Saba (12th century BCE – 7th century CE)
During Sabaean rule, trade and agriculture flourished, generating much wealth and prosperity. The Sabaean kingdom was located in Yemen, and its capital, Ma'rib, is located near what is now Yemen's modern capital, Sana'a. According to South Arabian tradition, the eldest son of Noah, Shem, founded the city of Ma'rib.
During Sabaean rule, Yemen was called "Arabia Felix" by the Romans, who were impressed by its wealth and prosperity. The Roman emperor Augustus sent a military expedition to conquer the "Arabia Felix", under the command of Aelius Gallus. After an unsuccessful siege of Ma'rib, the Roman general retreated to Egypt, while his fleet destroyed the port of Aden in order to guarantee the Roman merchant route to India.
The success of the kingdom was based on the cultivation and trade of spices and aromatics including frankincense and myrrh. These were exported to the Mediterranean, India, and Abyssinia, where they were greatly prized by many cultures, using camels on routes through Arabia, and to India by sea.
During the 8th and 7th century BCE, there was a close contact of cultures between the Kingdom of Dʿmt in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia and Saba. Though the civilization was indigenous and the royal inscriptions were written in a sort of proto-Ethiosemitic, there were also some Sabaean immigrants in the kingdom as evidenced by a few of the Dʿmt inscriptions.
Agriculture in Yemen thrived during this time due to an advanced irrigation system which consisted of large water tunnels in mountains, and dams. The most impressive of these earthworks, known as the Marib Dam, was built ca. 700 BCE and provided irrigation for about of land and stood for over a millennium, finally collapsing in 570 CE after centuries of neglect.
Kingdom of Hadhramaut (8th century BCE – 3rd century CE)
The first known inscriptions of Hadramaut are known from the 8th century BCE. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an Old Sabaic inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BCE, in which the King of Hadramaut, Yada`'il, is mentioned as being one of his allies. When the Minaeans took control of the caravan routes in the 4th century BCE, however, Hadramaut became one of its confederates, probably because of commercial interests. It later became independent and was invaded by the growing Yemeni kingdom of Himyar toward the end of the 1st century BCE, but it was able to repel the attack. Hadramaut annexed Qataban in the second half of the 2nd century CE, reaching its greatest size. The kingdom of Hadramaut was eventually conquered by the Himyarite king Shammar Yahri'sh around 300 CE, unifying all of the South Arabian kingdoms.
Kingdom of Awsān (8th century BCE – 6th century BCE)
The ancient Kingdom of Awsān in South Arabia (modern Yemen), with a capital at Ḥagar Yaḥirr in the wadi Markhah, to the south of the Wādī Bayḥān, is now marked by a tell or artificial mound, which is locally named Ḥajar Asfal.
Kingdom of Qataban (4th century BCE – 3rd century CE)
Qataban was one of the ancient Yemeni kingdoms which thrived in the Beihan valley. Like the other Southern Arabian kingdoms, it gained great wealth from the trade of frankincense and myrrh incense, which were burned at altars. The capital of Qataban was named Timna and was located on the trade route which passed through the other kingdoms of Hadramaut, Saba and Ma'in. The chief deity of the Qatabanians was Amm, or "Uncle" and the people called themselves the "children of Amm".
Kingdom of Himyar (late 2nd century BCE – 525 CE)
The Himyarites rebelled against Qataban and eventually united Southwestern Arabia (Hejaz and Yemen), controlling the Red Sea as well as the coasts of the Gulf of Aden. From their capital city, Ẓafār, the Himyarite kings launched successful military campaigns, and had stretched its domain at times as far east as eastern Yemen and as far north as Najran Together with their Kindite allies, it extended maximally as far north as Riyadh and as far east as Yabrīn.
During the 3rd century CE, the South Arabian kingdoms were in continuous conflict with one another. Gadarat (GDRT) of Aksum began to interfere in South Arabian affairs, signing an alliance with Saba, and a Himyarite text notes that Hadramaut and Qataban were also allied against the kingdom. As a result of this, the Aksumite Empire was able to capture the Himyarite capital of Thifar in the first quarter of the 3rd century. However, the alliances did not last, and Sha`ir Awtar of Saba unexpectedly turned on Hadramaut, allying again with Aksum and taking its capital in 225. Himyar then allied with Saba and invaded the newly taken Aksumite territories, retaking Thifar, which had been under the control of Gadarat's son Beygat, and pushing Aksum back into the Tihama. The standing relief image of a crowned man, is taken to be a representation possibly of the Jewish king Malkīkarib Yuhaʾmin or more likely the Christian Esimiphaios (Samu Yafa').
Aksumite occupation of Yemen (525 – 570 CE)
The Aksumite intervention is connected with Dhu Nuwas, a Himyarite king who changed the state religion to Judaism and began to persecute the Christians in Yemen. Outraged, Kaleb, the Christian King of Aksum with the encouragement of the Byzantine Emperor Justin I invaded and annexed Yemen. The Aksumites controlled Himyar and attempted to invade Mecca in the year 570 CE. Eastern Yemen remained allied to the Sassanids via tribal alliances with the Lakhmids, which later brought the Sassanid army into Yemen, ending the Aksumite period.
Sassanid period (570 – 630 CE)
The Persian king Khosrau I sent troops under the command of Vahriz (), who helped the semi-legendary Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan to drive the Aksumites out of Yemen. Southern Arabia became a Persian dominion under a Yemenite vassal and thus came within the sphere of influence of the Sassanid Empire. After the demise of the Lakhmids, another army was sent to Yemen, making it a province of the Sassanid Empire under a Persian satrap. Following the death of Khosrau II in 628, the Persian governor in Southern Arabia, Badhan, converted to Islam and Yemen followed the new religion.
Hejaz
Kingdom of Lihyan/Dedan (7th century BCE - 24 BC)
Lihyan, also called Dadān or Dedan, was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the Arabian Peninsula and used Dadanitic language. The Lihyanite kingdom went through three different stages, the early phase of Lihyan Kingdom was around the 7th century BC, started as a Sheikdom of Dedan then developed into the Kingdom of Lihyan tribe.
Some authors assert that the Lihyanites fell into the hands of the Nabataeans around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to Tayma, and finally to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. Werner Cascel consider the Nabataean annexation of Lihyan was around 24 BC under the reign of the Nabataeans king Aretas IV.
Thamud
The Thamud () was an ancient civilization in Hejaz, which flourished kingdom from 3000 BCE to 200 BCE. Recent archaeological work has revealed numerous Thamudic rock writings and pictures. They are mentioned in sources such as the Qur'an, old Arabian poetry, Assyrian annals (Tamudi), in a Greek temple inscription from the northwest Hejaz of 169 CE, in a 5th-century Byzantine source and in Old North Arabian graffiti within Tayma. They are also mentioned in the victory annals of the Neo-Assyrian King, Sargon II (8th century BCE), who defeated these people in a campaign in northern Arabia. The Greeks also refer to these people as "Tamudaei", i.e. "Thamud", in the writings of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Pliny. Before the rise of Islam, approximately between 400 and 600 CE, the Thamud completely disappeared.
North Arabian kingdoms
Kingdom of Qedar (8th century BCE – ?)
The most organized of the Northern Arabian tribes, at the height of their rule in the 6th century BCE, the Kingdom of Qedar spanned a large area between the Persian Gulf and the Sinai. An influential force between the 8th and 4th centuries BCE, Qedarite monarchs are first mentioned in inscriptions from the Assyrian Empire. Some early Qedarite rulers were vassals of that empire, with revolts against Assyria becoming more common in the 7th century BCE. It is thought that the Qedarites were eventually subsumed into the Nabataean state after their rise to prominence in the 2nd century CE.
The Achaemenids in Northern Arabia
Achaemenid Arabia corresponded to the lands between Nile Delta (Egypt) and Mesopotamia, later known to Romans as Arabia Petraea. According to Herodotus, Cambyses did not subdue the Arabs when he attacked Egypt in 525 BCE. His successor Darius the Great does not mention the Arabs in the Behistun inscription from the first years of his reign, but does mention them in later texts. This suggests that Darius might have conquered this part of Arabia or that it was originally part of another province, perhaps Achaemenid Babylonia, but later became its own province.
Arabs were not considered as subjects to the Achaemenids, as other peoples were, and were exempt from taxation. Instead, they simply provided 1,000 talents of frankincense a year.
They participated in the Second Persian invasion of Greece (479-480 BCE) while also helping the Achaemenids invade Egypt by providing water skins to the troops crossing the desert.
Nabateans
The Nabataeans are not to be found among the tribes that are listed in Arab genealogies because the Nabatean kingdom ended a long time before the coming of Islam. They settled east of the Syro-African rift between the Dead Sea and the Red Sea, that is, in the land that had once been Edom. And although the first sure reference to them dates from 312 BCE, it is possible that they were present much earlier.
Petra (from the Greek petra, meaning 'of rock') lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, east of Wadi `Araba in Jordan about south of the Dead Sea. It came into prominence in the late 1st century BCE through the success of the spice trade. The city was the principal city of ancient Nabataea and was famous above all for two things: its trade and its hydraulic engineering systems. It was locally autonomous until the reign of Trajan, but it flourished under Roman rule. The town grew up around its Colonnaded Street in the 1st century and by the middle of the 1st century had witnessed rapid urbanization. The quarries were probably opened in this period, and there followed virtually continuous building through the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.
Roman Arabia
There is evidence of Roman rule in northern Arabia dating to the reign of Caesar Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE). During the reign of Tiberius (14–37 CE), the already wealthy and elegant north Arabian city of Palmyra, located along the caravan routes linking Persia with the Mediterranean ports of Roman Syria and Phoenicia, was made part of the Roman province of Syria. The area steadily grew further in importance as a trade route linking Persia, India, China, and the Roman Empire. During the following period of great prosperity, the Arab citizens of Palmyra adopted customs and modes of dress from both the Iranian Parthian world to the east and the Graeco-Roman west. In 129, Hadrian visited the city and was so enthralled by it that he proclaimed it a free city and renamed it Palmyra Hadriana.
The Roman province of Arabia Petraea was created at the beginning of the 2nd century by emperor Trajan. It was centered on Petra, but included even areas of northern Arabia under Nabatean control.
Recently evidence has been discovered that Roman legions occupied Mada'in Saleh in the Hijaz mountains area of northwestern Arabia, increasing the extension of the "Arabia Petraea" province.
The desert frontier of Arabia Petraea was called by the Romans the Limes Arabicus. As a frontier province, it included a desert area of northeastern Arabia populated by the nomadic Saraceni.
Qahtanites
In Sassanid times, Arabia Petraea was a border province between the Roman and Persian empires, and from the early centuries CE was increasingly affected by South Arabian influence, notably with the Ghassanids migrating north from the 3rd century.
The Ghassanids revived the Semitic presence in the then Hellenized Syria. They mainly settled the Hauran region and spread to modern Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan. The Ghassanids held Syria until engulfed by the expansion of Islam.
Greeks and Romans referred to all the nomadic population of the desert in the Near East as Arabi. The Greeks called Yemen "Arabia Felix" (Happy Arabia). The Romans called the vassal nomadic states within the Roman Empire "Arabia Petraea" after the city of Petra, and called unconquered deserts bordering the empire to the south and east Arabia Magna (Larger Arabia) or Arabia Deserta (Deserted Arabia).
The Lakhmids settled the mid Tigris region around their capital Al-Hirah they ended up allying with the Sassanid against the Ghassanids and the Byzantine Empire. The Lakhmids contested control of the central Arabian tribes with the Kindites, eventually destroying Kindah in 540 after the fall of Kindah's main ally at the time, Himyar. The Sassanids dissolved the Lakhmid kingdom in 602.
The Kindites migrated from Yemen along with the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, but were turned back in Bahrain by the Abdul Qais Rabi'a tribe. They returned to Yemen and allied themselves with the Himyarites who installed them as a vassal kingdom that ruled Central Arabia from Qaryah dhat Kahl (the present-day Qaryat al-Fāw) in Central Arabia. They ruled much of the Northern/Central Arabian Peninsula until the fall of the Himyarites in 525 CE.
Central Arabia
Kingdom of Kindah
Kindah was an Arab kingdom by the Kindah tribe, the tribe's existence dates back to the second century BCE. The Kindites established a kingdom in Najd in central Arabia unlike the organized states of Yemen; its kings exercised an influence over a number of associated tribes more by personal prestige than by coercive settled authority. Their first capital was Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil, today known as Qaryat Al-Fāw.
The Kindites were polytheistic until the 6th century CE, with evidence of rituals dedicated to the idols Athtar and Kāhil found in their ancient capital in south-central Arabia (present day Saudi Arabia). It is not clear whether they converted to Judaism or remained pagan, but there is a strong archaeological evidence that they were among the tribes in Dhū Nuwās' forces during the Jewish king's attempt to suppress Christianity in Yemen. They converted to Islam in mid 7th century CE and played a crucial role during the Arab conquest of their surroundings, although some sub-tribes declared apostasy during the ridda after the death of Muḥammad.
Ancient South Arabian inscriptions mention a tribe settling in Najd called kdt, who had a king called rbˁt (Rabi'ah) from ḏw ṯwr-m (the people of Thawr), who had sworn allegiance to the king of Saba' and Dhū Raydān. Since later Arab genealogists trace Kindah back to a person called Thawr ibn 'Uqayr, modern historians have concluded that this rbˁt ḏw ṯwrm (Rabī'ah of the People of Thawr) must have been a king of Kindah (kdt); the Musnad inscriptions mention that he was king both of kdt (Kindah) and qhtn (Qaḥṭān). They played a major role in the Himyarite-Ḥaḑramite war. Following the Himyarite victory, a branch of Kindah established themselves in the Marib region, while the majority of Kindah remained in their lands in central Arabia.
The first Classical author to mention Kindah was the Byzantine ambassador Nonnosos, who was sent by the Emperor Justinian to the area. He refers to the people in Greek as Khindynoi (Greek Χινδηνοι, Arabic Kindah), and mentions that they and the tribe of Maadynoi (Greek: Μααδηνοι, Arabic: Ma'ad) were the two most important tribes in the area in terms of territory and number. He calls the king of Kindah Kaïsos (Greek: Καισος, Arabic: Qays), the nephew of Aretha (Greek: Άρεθα, Arabic: Ḥārith).
People
Sedentary Arabs
Sedentary Arabs who inhabited cities or rural areas (towns, villages or oases). In pre-Islamic Arabia, most sedentary Arabs were of Arabian origin.
Bedouin tribes
Consisted of many major ancient tribes and clans which were mainly pastoral nomads. The ancestral lineage followed through males, since the tribes and clans were named after the male ancestors.
Solluba
The Solluba were a Ḥutaymi tribal group in the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula who were clearly distinguishable from the Arabs. The Solubba maintained a distinctive lifestyle as isolated nomads. The origin of the Solluba is obscure. They have been identified with the Selappayu in Akkadian records, and a clue to their origin is their use of desert kites and game traps, first attested to in around 7,000 BCE, which makes them the pre-Semitic inhabitants of Arabia.
Cambridge linguist and anthropologist Roger Blench sees the Solubba as the last survivors of Palaeolithic hunters and salt-traders who once dominated Arabia. Those were assimilated in the next wave of humans consisted of cattle herders in the 6th millennium BCE who introduced cows, wild donkeys, sheep, dogs, camels and goats. Those peoples may have engaged in trade across the Red Sea with speakers of Cushitic or Nilo-Saharan. In the 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE, speakers of Semitic languages arrived from the Near East and marginalised and absorbed the rest.
Western travelers reported that the Bedouin did not consider the Solluba to be descendants of Qaḥṭān. One legend mentions that they originated from ancient Christian groups, possibly Crusaders who were taken into slavery by the Bedouin. Werner Caskel criticizes the Crusader origin theory and instead proposes that the term "Solluba" describes a host of groups hailing from different backgrounds: those of al-Ḥasā being of 12th- to 13th-century CE migrants from southern Persia, and the group to the west being composed of communities emerging after their defeat by the Wahhabis.
Another theory sees the Solubba as a former Bedouin group that lost their herds and fell in the eyes of other Bedouin.
Arab genealogical tradition
Arab traditions relating to the origins and classification of the Arabian tribes is based on biblical genealogy. The general consensus among 14th-century Arabic genealogists was that Arabs were three kinds:
"Perishing Arabs": These are the ancients of whose history little is known. They include ʿĀd, Thamud, Tasm, Jadis, Imlaq and others. Jadis and Tasm perished because of genocide. ʿĀd and Thamud perished because of their decadence. Some people in the past doubted their existence, but Imlaq is the singular form of 'Amaleeq and is probably synonymous to the biblical Amalek.
"Pure Arabs" (Qahtanite): These are traditionally considered to have originated from the progeny of Ya'rub bin Yashjub bin Qahtan so were also called Qahtanite Arabs.
"Arabized Arabs" (Adnanite): They are traditionally seen as having descended from Adnan.
Modern historians believe that these distinctions were created during the Umayyad period, to support the cause of different political factions.
The several different tribes throughout Arabian history are traditionally regarded as having emerged from two main branches: the Rabi`ah, from which amongst others the Banu Hanifa emerged, and the Mudhar, from which amongst others the Banu Kinanah (and later Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh) emerged.
Religion
Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia included pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism, ancient Semitic religions (religions predating the Abrahamic religions which themselves likewise originated among the ancient Semitic-speaking peoples), Abrahamic religions such as Christianity, Judaism, and Mandaeism, and Iranian religions such as Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism. Arabian polytheism was, according to Islamic tradition, the dominant form of religion in pre-Islamic Arabia, based on veneration of deities and spirits. Worship was directed to various gods and goddesses, including Hubal and the goddesses al-Lāt, Al-'Uzzá and Manāt, at local shrines and temples, maybe such as the Kaaba in Mecca. Deities were venerated and invoked through a variety of rituals, including pilgrimages and divination, as well as ritual sacrifice. Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in Meccan religion. Many of the physical descriptions of the pre-Islamic gods are traced to idols, especially near the Kaaba, which is said to have contained up to 360 of them in Islamic tradition.
Other religions were represented to varying, lesser degrees. The influence of the adjacent Roman and Aksumite resulted in Christian communities in the northwest, northeast and south of Arabia. Christianity made a lesser impact, but secured some conversions, in the remainder of the peninsula. With the exception of Nestorianism in the northeast and the Persian Gulf, the dominant form of Christianity was Miaphysitism. The peninsula had been a destination for Jewish migration since pre-Roman times, which had resulted in a diaspora community supplemented by local converts. Additionally, the influence of the Sasanian Empire resulted in Iranian religions being present in the peninsula. While Zoroastrianism existed in the eastern and southern Arabia, there was no existence of Manichaeism in Mecca.
Art
The art is similar to that of neighbouring cultures. Pre-Islamic Yemen produced stylized alabaster (the most common material for sculpture) heads of great aesthetic and historic charm.
Late Antiquity
The early 7th century in Arabia began with the longest and most destructive period of the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars. It left both the Byzantine and Sassanid empires exhausted and susceptible to third-party attacks, particularly from nomadic Arabs united under a newly formed religion. According to historian George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam".
The demographic situation also favoured Arab expansion: overpopulation and lack of resources encouraged Arabs to migrate out of Arabia.
Fall of the Empires
Before the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628, the Plague of Justinian had erupted (541-542), spreading through Persia and into Byzantine territory. The Byzantine historian Procopius, who witnessed the plague, documented that citizens died at a rate of 10,000 per day in Constantinople. The exact number; however, is often disputed by contemporary historians. Both empires were permanently weakened by the pandemic as their citizens struggled to deal with death as well as heavy taxation, which increased as each empire campaigned for more territory.
Despite almost succumbing to the plague, Byzantine emperor Justinian I (reigned 527–565) attempted to resurrect the might of the Roman Empire by expanding into Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula had a long coastline for merchant ships and an area of lush vegetation known as the Fertile Crescent which could help fund his expansion into Europe and North Africa. The drive into Persian territory would also put an end to tribute payments to the Sasanians, which resulted in an agreement to give of tribute to the Persians annually in exchange for a ceasefire.
However, Justinian could not afford further losses in Arabia. The Byzantines and the Sasanians sponsored powerful nomadic mercenaries from the desert with enough power to trump the possibility of aggression in Arabia. Justinian viewed his mercenaries as so valued for preventing conflict that he awarded their chief with the titles of patrician, phylarch, and king – the highest honours that he could bestow on anyone. By the late 6th century, an uneasy peace remained until disagreements erupted between the mercenaries and their patron empires.
The Byzantines' ally was a Christian Arabic tribe from the frontiers of the desert known as the Ghassanids. The Sasanians' ally; the Lakhmids, were also Christian Arabs, but from what is now Iraq. However, denominational disagreements about God forced a schism in the alliances. The Byzantines' official religion was Orthodox Christianity, which believed that Jesus Christ and God were two natures within one entity. The Ghassanids, as Monophysite Christians from Iraq, believed that God and Jesus Christ were only one nature. This disagreement proved irreconcilable and resulted in a permanent break in the alliance.
Meanwhile, the Sassanid Empire broke its alliance with the Lakhmids due to false accusations that the Lakhmids' leader had committed treason; the Sasanians annexed the Lakhmid kingdom in 602. The fertile lands and important trade routes of Iraq were now open ground for upheaval.
Rise of Islam
When the military stalemate was finally broken and it seemed that Byzantium had finally gained the upper hand in battle, nomadic Arabs invaded from the desert frontiers, bringing with them a new social order that emphasized religious devotion over tribal membership.
By the time the last Byzantine-Sassanid war came to an end in 628, Arabia had started to unite under Muhammad's politico-religious leadership. The Muslims were able to launch attacks against both empires, which resulted in destruction of the Sassanid Empire and the conquest of Byzantium's territories in the Levant, the Caucasus, Egypt, Syria and North Africa.
Over the following centuries, most of the Byzantine Empire and the entirety of the Sassanid Empire came under Muslim rule.
"Within the lifetime of some of the children who met Muhammad and sat on the Prophet's knees, Arab armies controlled the land mass that extended from the Pyrenees Mountains in Europe to the Indus River valley in South Asia. In less than a century, Arabs had come to rule over an area that spanned five thousand miles."
Recent discoveries
On 9 June 2020, the discovery of a 35-meter long triangular megalithic monument in Dumat al-Jandal dated back to VI millennium BC which presumably dedicated to ritual practices was published in the journal Antiquity. Archaeological researchers from France, Saudi Arabia and Italy, headed by Olivia Munoz believe that these findings illuminate a pastoralist nomadic lifestyle and a ritual used in prehistoric Arabia.
See also
Ancient Near East
Arab (etymology)
Arabian mythology
Dilmun
History of Saudi Arabia
History of Bahrain
History of the Arabic alphabet
History of the United Arab Emirates
Incense Route
Jahiliyyah
Pre-Islamic Arab trade
Pre-Islamic calendar
Rahmanism
Soviet Orientalist studies in Islam
Women in pre-Islamic Arabia
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
Arabia Antica: Portal of Pre-Islamic Arabian Studies, University of Pisa - Dipartimento Civiltà e Forme del Sapere
External links
Internet Medieval Sourcebook: Pre-Islamic Arabia: The Hanged Poems, before 622 CE
Ancient History Sourcebook: Ancient Accounts of Arabia, 430 BCE - 550 CE
History of Saudi Arabia |
4021281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s%20Grocery%20lynchings | People's Grocery lynchings | The People's Grocery lynchings occurred on March 9, 1892, in Memphis, Tennessee, when black grocery owner Thomas Moss and two of his workers, Will Stewart and Calvin McDowell, were lynched by a white mob while in police custody. The lynchings occurred in the aftermath of a fight between whites and blacks and two subsequent shooting altercations in which two white police officers were wounded.
The store was located just outside Memphis in a neighborhood called the "Curve". Opened in 1889, the People's Grocery was a cooperative venture run along corporate lines and owned by 11 prominent African Americans, including postman Thomas Moss, a friend of Ida B. Wells.
Timeline leading up to the lynching
March 2–4, 1892
By the 1890s, there were increasing racial tensions in the Curve neighborhood that spilled over between Thomas Moss, a successful black grocer, and William Barrett, a white grocer. Barrett’s grocery had a virtual monopoly prior to Moss's venture, despite Barret’s bad reputation as a "low-dive gambling den" and a location where liquor could be illegally purchased.
On Wednesday, March 2, 1892, trouble began when a young black boy, Armour Harris, and a young white boy, Cornelius Hurst, got into a fight over a game of marbles outside People's Grocery. When the white boy's father stepped in and began beating the black boy, two black workers from the grocery (Will Stewart and Calvin McDowell) came to his defense. More blacks and whites joined the fray, and at one point William Barrett was clubbed. He identified Will Stewart as his assailant.
On Thursday, March 3, Barrett returned to the People's Grocery with a police officer and the two were met by Calvin McDowell. McDowell told them no one matching Stewart's description was within the store. The frustrated Barrett hit McDowell with his revolver and knocked him down, dropping the gun in the process. McDowell picked it up and shot at Barrett, but missed. McDowell was subsequently arrested but released on bond on March 4. Warrants were also issued for Will Stewart and Armour Harris.
The warrants enraged the black residents of the neighborhood who called a meeting during which they vowed to clean out the neighborhood's "damned white trash", which Barrett brought to the authorities' attention as evidence of a black conspiracy against whites.
March 5–8, 1892
On Saturday, March 5, Judge Julius DuBose, a former Confederate soldier, was quoted in the Appeal-Avalanche newspaper as vowing to form a posse to get rid of the "high-handed rowdies" in the Curve. That same day John Mosby, a black painter, was fatally shot after an altercation with a clerk in another white grocery in the Curve; as reported in the Appeal-Avalanche, Mosby cursed at the clerk after being denied credit for a purchase and the clerk responded by punching him. Mosby returned that evening and hit the clerk with a stick, whereupon the clerk shot him.
The People's Grocery men were increasingly concerned about an attack upon them, based on Dubose's threat and the Mosby shooting. They consulted a lawyer but were told since they were outside the city limits they could not depend on police protection and should prepare to defend themselves.
On the evening of March 5, six armed white men—including a county sheriff and recently deputized plainclothes civilians—headed toward the People's Grocery. White papers claimed their purpose was to inquire after Will Stewart and arrest him if he was there. In an account written by five black ministers in the St. Paul Appeal, the men were said to arrive with a rout in mind, for they had first gone to William Barrett's place then divided up and surreptitiously posted themselves at the front and back entrance to the People's Grocery. The men inside, already anticipating a mob attack, were being surrounded by armed whites and did not know they were officers of the law.
When the whites entered the store they were shot at and several were hit; McDowell was captured at the scene and identified as an assailant. The black postman Nat Trigg was seized by deputy Charley Cole but Trigg shot Cole in the face and managed to escape. The injured whites retreated to Barrett's store and more deputized whites were dispatched to the grocery where they eventually arrested thirteen blacks and seized a cache of weapons and ammunition.
Reports in white papers described the shooting as a cold-blooded, calculated ambush by the blacks and, though none of the deputies had died, they predicted the wounds of Cole and Bob Harold, who was shot in the face and neck, would prove fatal. The five ministers writing in theSt. Paul Appeal said as soon as the black men realized the intruders were law officers they dropped their weapons and submitted to arrest, confident they would be able to explain their case in court.
March 5–8, 1892
On Sunday, March 6, hundreds of white civilians were deputized and fanned out from the grocery to conduct a house-to-house search for blacks involved in "the conspiracy". They eventually arrested forty black people, including Armour Harris and his mother, Nat Trigg, and Tommie Moss. The story in the black paper contended that Moss was tending his books at the back of the store on the night of the shooting and couldn't have seen what happened when the whites arrived. When he heard gunshots he left the premises. In the eyes of many whites, however, Moss' position as a postman and the president of the co-op made him a ringleader of the conspiracy. He was also indicted in the white press for an insolent attitude when he was arrested.
Upon news of the arrest armed whites congregated around the fortress-like Shelby County Jail. Members of the black Tennessee Rifles militia also posted themselves outside the jail to keep watch and guard against a lynching. On Monday, March 7, Tommie's pregnant wife Betty Moss came to jail with food for her husband, but was turned away by Judge DuBose who told her to come back again in three days. On Tuesday, March 8, lawyers for several of the black men filed writs of habeas corpus but DuBose quashed them.
After news filtered out that the injured deputies were not going to die the tensions outside the jail seemed to abate and the Tennessee Rifles thought it was no longer necessary to guard the jail grounds, especially as the Shelby County Jail itself was thought to be impregnable. But, as Ida B. Wells would write in retrospect, the news that the deputies would survive was actually a catalyst for violence for the black men could not now be legally executed.
The lynching, March 9, 1892
On Wednesday, March 9, at about 2:30 a.m. 75 men in black masks surrounded the Shelby County Jail and nine entered. They dragged Tommie Moss, Will Stewart, and Calvin McDowell from their cells and brought them to a Chesapeake & Ohio railroad yard a mile outside of Memphis. What followed was described in such harrowing detail by white papers that it was clear reporters had been called in advance to witness the lynching.
At the railroad yard McDowell "struggled mightily" and at one point managed to grab a shotgun from one of his abductors. After the mob wrested it from him they shot at his hands and fingers "inch by inch" until they were shot to pieces. Replicating the wounds the white deputies had suffered they shot four holes into McDowell's face, each large enough for a fist to enter. His left eye was shot out and the "ball hung over his cheek in shreds." His jaw was torn out by buckshot. Where "his right eye had been there was a big hole which his brains oozed out." The account by the five ministers in the Appeal-Avalanche added that his injuries were in accord with his "vicious and unyielding nature."
Will Stewart was described as the most stoic of the three, "obdurate and unyielding to the last." He was also shot on the right side of the neck with a shotgun, and was shot with a pistol in the neck and left eye. Moss was also shot in the neck; his dying words, reported in the papers, were: "Tell my people to go West, there is no justice for them here."
Aftermath
The murders led to increasing grief and unrest among the black population, along with rumors that blacks planned to meet at the People's Grocery and take revenge against whites. Judge DuBose ordered the sheriff to take possession of the swords and guns belonging to the Tennessee Rifles and to dispatch a hundred men to the People's Grocery where they should "shoot down on sight any Negro who appears to be making trouble." Gangs of armed white men rushed to the Curve and began shooting wildly into any groups of blacks they encountered, then looted the grocery. Subsequently, the grocery was sold for one-eighth its cost to William Barrett.
The lynching became a front-page story in the New York Times on March 10, which countered the image of the "New South" that Memphis was trying to promote. The lynching sparked national outrage, and Ida B. Wells' editorial embraced Moss' dying words, which encouraged blacks to strike out for the West and "leave a town which will neither protect our lives and property, nor give us a fair trial in the courts, but takes us out and murders us in cold blood when accused by white persons." This sparked an emigration movement that eventually saw 6,000 blacks leave Memphis for the Western Territories. At a meeting of one thousand people at Bethel A. M. E. Church in Chicago in response to this lynching as well as two earlier lynchings (Ed Coy in Texarkana, Arkansas, and a woman in Rayville, Louisiana), a call by the presiding minister for the crowd to sing the then de facto national anthem, "America (My Country, 'Tis of Thee)" was refused in protest, and the song, "John Brown's Body" was substituted. The widespread violence and particularly the murder of her friends drove Wells to research and document lynchings and their causes. She began investigative journalism by looking at the charges given for the murders, which officially started her anti-lynching campaign.
See also
List of unsolved murders
Bibliography
Notes
References linked to notes
Books, journals, magazines, and academic papers
Alternate link via ISSUU (a version of this story was published in the June 1983 issue of Memphis).
News media
African-American history in Memphis, Tennessee
Companies based in Memphis, Tennessee
Lynching deaths in Tennessee
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
Supermarkets of the United States
Unsolved murders in the United States
1892 in Tennessee
1892 murders in the United States |
4021282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Joseph%20Vance | Louis Joseph Vance | Louis Joseph Vance (September 19, 1879 – December 16, 1933) was an American novelist, screenwriter and film producer. He created the popular character Michael Lanyard, a criminal-turned-detective known as The Lone Wolf.
Biography
Louis Joseph Vance was born September 19, 1879, in Washington, D. C., the only child of Wilson J. Vance, a Medal of Honor recipient, and Lillian Beall Vance. He was educated at the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute. Vance was married to Anne Elizabeth Hodges on February 19, 1898. Their son, Wilson Beall Vance, was born in 1900.
He wrote short stories and verse after 1901, then composed many popular novels. His character Michael Lanyard, known as The Lone Wolf, was featured in eight books and 24 films between 1914 and 1949 and also appeared in radio and television series.
Vance moved to Los Angeles to work with Universal Pictures on films based on his work, including The Trey o' Hearts (1914) and a serial and film series (1914–1916) based on his Terence O'Rourke stories. In 1915, he founded Fiction Pictures, Inc., a motion picture production company whose films were distributed by Paramount Pictures. Its first release was The Spanish Jade (1915), with a screenplay by Vance based on his stage adaptation of a novel by Maurice Hewlett. Vance was president and general manager of the company; other principals were Wilfred Lucas (director-general), Gilbert Warrenton (cinematographer) and Bess Meredyth (scenario editor). Fiction Pictures operated in Glendale until a new studio in Hollywood was completed in April 1915. The studio was sold to Famous Players in June, when Fiction Pictures went out of business.
Vance died alone in his New York City apartment on December 16, 1933, in a fire that resulted from his falling asleep with a lighted cigarette. His death was ruled accidental. A simple funeral took place December 20, 1933, at St. George's Protestant Episcopal Church in Brooklyn, with honorary pallbearers including Marc Connelly, Will Irwin and Samuel Merwin. Vance's widow received an estate of less than $10,000.
Bibliography
Terence O'Rourke, Gentleman Adventurer (1905)at Internet Archive
The Private War (1906)
The Brass Bowl (1907)at Gutenbergat Wikisource
The Black Bag (1908)at Gutenberg
The Bronze Bell (1909)at Gutenberg
The Pool of Flame (1909)at Internet Archive
Fortune Hunter (1910)at Gutenberg
No Man's Land (1910)at Internet Archive
Cynthia of the Minute (1911)
The Bandbox (1912)at Gutenberg
The Destroying Angel (1912)at Gutenberg
The Day of Days (1913)at Gutenberg
Joan Thursday (1913)at Gutenberg
The Trey O' Hearts (1914)at Internet Archive
The Lone Wolf (LW1) (1914)at Gutenbergat Wikisource
Nobody (1915)at Gutenberg
Sheep's Clothing (1915)
The Last of The Fighting Channings (1916)
The False Faces (LW2) (1918)at Gutenbergat Wikisource
The Dark Mirror (1920)
Alias the Lone Wolf (LW3) (1921)at Gutenberg
Red Masquerade (LW4) (1921)at Gutenberg
Linda Lee Incorporated (1922)at Gutenberg
Baroque: A Mystery (1923)
The Lone Wolf Returns (LW5) (1923)
Mrs. Paramor (1923; basis of the 1924 film Married Flirts)
Road to En Dor (1925)
The Dead Ride Hard (1926)
White Fire (1926)
They Call It Love (1927)
Lip-Service (1927)
Speaking of Women (1930)
Woman in the Shadow (1930)
The Lone Wolf's Son (LW6) (1931)
The Trembling Flame (1931)
Detective (1932)
Encore the Lone Wolf (LW7) (1933)
The Lone Wolf's Last Prowl (LW8) (1934)
The Street of Strange Faces (1934)
Filmography
Film adaptations
The Day of Days (1914)
(short, 1914)
The Trey o' Hearts (serial, 1914)
(short, 1914)
Terence O'Rourke, Gentleman Adventurer (serial, 1914)
(serial, 1914)
The Further Adventures of Terence O'Rourke (serial, 1915)
The Spanish Jade (1915), Vance's film adaptation of his 1908 play; the first film produced by his company Fiction Pictures, Inc.
(1915),(see also The Destroying Angel (1923) below)
(1916), from Joan Thursday, (see also Greater Than Marriage (1924) below)
The Pool of Flame (last film in the Terence O'Rourke series, 1916)
Patria (serial based on The Last of the Fighting Channings, 1917)
The Lone Wolf (1917), (see also The Lone Wolf (1924) above)
The Mainspring (1917), from Vance's short story, "The Mainspring" originally published in Popular Magazine (Apr 1905), (see Lost at Sea (1926) below)
The Outsider (1917), from Nobody
No Man's Land (1918)
The False Faces (1919)
The Bandbox (1919)
The Dark Mirror (1920)
Cynthia-of-the-Minute (1920)
The Bronze Bell (1921)
The Black Bag (1922)
The Spanish Jade (1922), based on Vance's 1908 play The Spanish Jade, co-written with Maurice Henry Hewlett
The Brass Bowl (1924) (see Masquerade (1927) below)
The Destroying Angel (1923) (see also The Destroying Angel (1916) above)
Greater Than Marriage (1924), from Joan Thursday, (see also The Footlights of Fate (1916) above)
The Lone Wolf (1924), (see also The Lone Wolf (1917) above)
Married Flirts (1924), based on the novel Mrs. Paramor
The Lone Wolf Returns (1926), (see The Lone Wolf Returns (1935) below)
Lost at Sea (1926), from Vance's short story, "The Mainspring" originally published in Popular Magazine (Apr 1905), (see The Mainspring (1917) above)
Alias the Lone Wolf (1927)
Masquerade (1929), based on The Brass Bowl (see The Brass Bowl (1924) above)
The Last of the Lone Wolf (1930), based on Vance's short story "The Last of the Lone Wolf"
Cheaters at Play (1932), based on Vance's short story "The Lone Wolf's Son" published in Red Book Magazine (1931)
The Lone Wolf Returns (1935), (see The Lone Wolf Returns (1926) above)
The Lone Wolf In Paris (1938), based on The Lone Wolf Returns, (see The Lone Wolf Returns (1926) and The Lone Wolf Returns (1935) above)
In addition to adaptations of his novels, the following films, while not straight adaptations, were based on the characters from Vance's Lone Wolf series:
The Lone Wolf's Daughter (1929)
The Lone Wolf Spy Hunt (1939)
The Lone Wolf Keeps a Date (1940)
The Lone Wolf Meets a Lady (1940)
The Lone Wolf Strikes (1940)
The Lone Wolf Takes a Chance (1941)
Secrets of the Lone Wolf (1941)
Counter-Espionage (1942)
One Dangerous Night (1943)
Passport to Suez (1943)
The Notorious Lone Wolf (1946)
The Lone Wolf in London (1947)
The Lone Wolf in Mexico (1947)
The Lone Wolf and His Lady (1949)
Screenwriter
(1916)
The Inn of the Blue Moon (1918)
Wild Honey (1918)
Twilight (1919)
The Lone Wolf's Daughter (1919)
Love (1920)
Beau Revel (1921)
The King of the Turf (1926)
See also
Lone Wolf (fictional detective)
References
External links
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
1879 births
1933 deaths
Accidental deaths in New York (state)
Deaths from fire in the United States
20th-century American male writers |
4021286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calico%20M950 | Calico M950 | The Calico M950 is a pistol manufactured by Calico Light Weapons Systems in the United States. Its main feature, along with all the other guns of the Calico system, is to feed from a proprietary helical magazine mounted on top, available in 50 or 100-rounds capacity.
The factory sights enable reasonable accuracy to about 60 meters (197 feet), but 100 meters is a reasonable range.
The .22 LR weapons use a separate design than the 9mm offerings, and share no parts with their larger siblings.
See also
Calico M960A
References
External links
Calico Light Weapon Systems - MODELS
9mm Parabellum semi-automatic pistols
Roller-delayed blowback firearms
Trial and research firearms of the United States
.22 LR pistols
Semi-automatic pistols of the United States |
4021297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archinus | Archinus | Archinus () was an Athenian democratic politician who wielded substantial influence between the restoration of democracy in 403 BC and the beginning of the Corinthian War in 395 BC.
In the early days of the restored democracy, he acted to weaken the oligarchic exiles at Eleusis by ending the period during which citizens could register to emigrate to Eleusis before its announced ending date. He seems to have advocated a moderate democratic policy, opposing motions to expand the franchise and restore the levels of pay for civil service that had typified the golden days of Periclean democracy in Athens in the mid-5th century BC.
Archinus is also said to have encouraged the official adoption by Athens of the 24-letter Ionic alphabet in 403–2 (Suda, ), alongside the archon Eucleides.
References
Buck, Robert J. Thrasybulus and the Athenian Democracy: The Life of an Athenian Statesman. Franz Steiner Verlag, 1998.
Fine, John V. A. The Ancient Greeks: A critical history. Harvard University Press, 1983.
D’ Angour, A.J. "Archinus, Eucleides and the reform of the Athenian alphabet". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 43 (1999) 109-130
5th-century BC Athenians
4th-century BC Athenians |
4021302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario%20Bachand | Mario Bachand | François Mario Bachand (March 24, 1944 in Montreal - March 29, 1971 in St. Ouen) was a member of the first (1963) wave of the FLQ (Front de libération du Québec).
Political history
Mario Bachand was a member of the Front de Liberation du Quebec, imprisoned for his role in planting bombs in Montreal. On 17 May 1963 a bomb crippled Walter Leja, a Canadian army explosives technician. After his release, Bachand remained politically active in Montreal, founding several activist, leftist movements. He was an effective organizer, and was largely responsible for organizing the McGill-français demonstration of March 1969. He was close friends with Jacques Lanctôt, who in 1970 would lead the Liberation Cell in the kidnapping of British diplomat James Cross, the event that initiated the October Crisis. Bachand had earlier fled Canada to avoid another criminal prosecution.
Bachand and Lanctôt were close friends with a young man born in France, Richard Bros. On 22 November 1970, during the October Crisis, days before the Liberation Cell released their hostage, Bros would die in a London police cell, reportedly a suicide. In April 1969 Bachand fled to Havana, where he met up with other FLQ who had sought refuge in Cuba, including Pierre Charette, Alain Allard and Raymond Villeneuve. Bachand was very much a socialist, and did not view Quebec nationalism, particularly its Parti Québécois manifestation, very positively. This brought him in conflict with certain other FLQ who were more sovereigntist, such as Raymond Villeneuve and Denis Lamoureux.
Death
In June 1970 he left Cuba for Paris. He was found shot to death in the apartment of Pierre Barral and his wife, Françoise, in the Paris suburb of St. Ouen on March 29, 1971, following a cous cous lunch with them and Norman Roy and Denyse Leduc of the DEFLQ (Delegation extérierure du FLQ). He was assassinated by 3 shots from a .22 calibre pistol with a silencer. It is asserted that he was killed by Normand Roy and Denyse Leduc, assisted by the Security and Intelligence branch of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police or RCMP Security Service
References
McLoughlin, Michael "Last Stop, Paris: the assassination of Mario Bachand and the death of the FLQ" (Viking: Toronto, 1998)
Radio-Canada program Enjeu, 27 March 1997.
1944 births
1971 deaths
People from Montreal
Front de libération du Québec members
Quebec sovereigntists
Canadian socialists |
4021312 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac%20Wyman | Isaac Wyman | Isaac Wyman (1724–1792) was born January 18, 1724 in Woburn, Massachusetts to Joshua Wyman and his wife Mary Pollard. In 1747 he married Sarah Wells of Franklin, Massachusetts. They had nine children altogether.
As a young man, Wyman moved to Keene, New Hampshire and served in the New Hampshire Provincial Regiment during the French and Indian War at the Battle of Fort William Henry and the Battle of Carillon in 1757 and 1758 respectively. In 1762 he opened a tavern on Main Street in Keene, this building is now a museum. Wyman was chosen to represent Keene at the New Hampshire General Assembly in January and February 1775.
At the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in April 1775 Wyman, as a captain of the local militia, led a company from Keene to the Siege of Boston and joined John Stark's 1st New Hampshire Regiment in the Battle of Bunker Hill. In 1776 he was appointed as colonel of a New Hampshire militia regiment sent to reinforce the Continental Army in its retreat from Canada. His regiment mustered at Keene July 16, 1776 and marched to Fort at Number 4 and then on to Fort Ticonderoga where it stayed until December of that year, when the regiment returned to New Hampshire for winter quarters. This was Col. Wyman's last military campaign; after this time his advancing years kept him from any more military service. He would go on to become a justice of the peace in his home town of Keene, New Hampshire until his death on March 31, 1792.
References
A List of The Revolutionary Soldiers of Dublin, N.H. by Samuel Carroll Derby Press of Spahr & Glenn, Columbus, Ohio 1901
State Builders: An Illustrated Historical and Biographical Record of the State of New Hampshire. State Builders Publishing Manchester, NH 1903
External links
Isaac Wyman's Tavern
1724 births
1792 deaths
Continental Army officers from New Hampshire
People of New Hampshire in the French and Indian War
New Hampshire militiamen in the American Revolution
People of colonial New Hampshire |
4021323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Adventure | The Adventure | "The Adventure" is a song recorded by American rock band Angels & Airwaves. It was released on May 18, 2006, through Geffen Records, as the lead single from their debut studio album, We Don't Need to Whisper (2006). The song received increased attention when it aired on a Smallville trailer. After the season finale of Smallville aired, "The Adventure" climbed to #30 on Amazon. The track was also played in the crowd warm-up session before Barack Obama's presidential election rallies in 2008.
During concerts, DeLonge has often used both "Down" and "I Miss You" by Blink-182 as part of an extended intro to the song.
"The Adventure" is also featured as downloadable content in the karaoke game Lips and in the music game Rock Band. It is also a playable song in the music games, Band Hero and Rocksmith 2014 (DLC). The song was also featured on a Ford and X-Play commercial. It was also used in the WWE Network documentary special "WWE 24: Goldberg". DeLonge has often stated that The Adventure is his favorite song by the band.
Track listing
"The Adventure" (Album version) – 5:12
"The Adventure" (Radio edit) – 4:40
Acoustic version
An acoustic version of "The Adventure" appears as a B-side on the "Everything's Magic" single. Another version can be found on the band's 2017 We Don't Need To Whisper acoustic EP, featuring four acoustic versions of songs off their debut album.
This song was included on MuchMusic's Big Shiny Tunes 11.
Short film
The song was officially released on February 20, 2006, as an internet-only short film. Although DeLonge had stated differently, the same version of the song that had been leaked previously after someone hacked into DeLonge's email account. It is shot on 8mm black and white, with the film having a science fiction feel to it. DeLonge stated that "...it kind of looks like George Lucas' THX 1138, where it's all beautiful naked women and fast cars and concrete and glass architecture." The subsequent short-film, "It Hurts", was released on April 18 and continues the story where "The Adventure" left off.
Music video
The music video for the song was directed by The Malloys. It was shot in March 2006 was released on April 5. The video was leaked onto the Internet soon after its release. "The Adventure" begins with the band boarding a spacecraft to pick up their instruments and begin playing, and then moves to DeLonge walking in a field. It ends with clips of World War II and DeLonge walking off into the distance in a meadow with the sky lit with planets. The video was nominated for Best Effects by the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards, including Best New Artist and Best Editing. It was also number one on MuchTopTens: "Top Ten Out of This World Videos" on December 14, 2006.
Charts
References
External links
2005 songs
2006 debut singles
Angels & Airwaves songs
Songs written by Tom DeLonge
Music videos directed by The Malloys
Geffen Records singles |
4021328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del%20Webb | Del Webb | Delbert Eugene Webb (May 17, 1899 – July 4, 1974) was an American real estate developer, and a co-owner of the New York Yankees baseball club. He is known for founding and developing the retirement community of Sun City, Arizona, and for many works of his firm, Del E. Webb Construction Company.
Early years
Webb was born in Fresno, California, to Ernest G. Webb, a fruit farmer, and Henrietta S. Webb. He dropped out of high school to become a carpenter's apprentice, and in 1919, he married Hazel Lenora Church, a graduate nurse. In 1920, Webb was a ship fitter, and they were living with his parents and two younger brothers in Placer County, California. At the age of 28, he suffered typhoid fever, and as a result moved to Phoenix, Arizona, to recover.
Career
In 1928, Webb began Del E. Webb Construction Company. He received many military contracts during World War II, including the construction of the Poston War Relocation Center near Parker. Poston interned over 17,000 Japanese-Americans and at the time was the third largest "city" in Arizona. Webb was associated with Howard Hughes and played golf with Hughes, Bing Crosby, Bob Hope and Barry Goldwater.
A former semi-professional baseball player and a lifelong fan, Webb and partners Dan Topping and Larry MacPhail purchased the New York Yankees in 1945 for $2.8 million from the estate of Col. Jake Ruppert Jr. After buying out MacPhail in October 1947, Webb and Topping remained owners of the Yankees until selling the club to CBS in 1964 for $11.2 million. During those 20 seasons the Yankees were in 15 World Series, winning 10.
In 1946 and 1947, mob boss Benjamin "Bugsy" Siegel hired Webb as the general contractor for the Flamingo Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas. After boasting about his claim that he had personally killed 16 men, Siegel said to Webb, "Del, don't worry, we only kill each other", after seeing the panicked look on Webb’s face.
In 1948, Webb was contracted to build 600 houses and a shopping center called Pueblo Gardens in Tucson, Arizona. San Manuel, Arizona, a mining company town and currently a resort town, followed. Established in 1953, the town was built by Webb (along with M.O.W. Homes Inc.) for The Magma Copper Company. It required the building of streets, shopping centers, schools, a hospital and parks. This was a prelude to Sun City, Arizona, which was launched January 1, 1960, with five home models, a shopping center, recreation center and golf course. The opening weekend drew 100,000 people, ten times more than expected, and resulted in a Time magazine cover story. In between these two projects, in 1951, Webb was given the huge contract to build the Hughes Missile Plant (now Raytheon) in Tucson, Arizona.
Personal life
In 1919, Webb married his childhood sweetheart, Hazel Lenora Church. They divorced in 1952. In 1961, Webb married Toni Ince, then aged 41, a buyer for Bullocks Wilshire department store in Los Angeles. Ince Webb lived in Beverly Hills, California, until her death in 2008.
Death
Webb died at age 75 in Rochester, Minnesota in 1974, at the Mayo Clinic, following surgery for lung cancer, less than two months after Topping's death.
Legacy
Webb was portrayed by Andy Romano in the 1991 film Bugsy, as listed in film credits.
Webb was elected to the Gaming Hall of Fame in 2000. The Del Webb Middle School, named in his honor, opened in Henderson, Nevada, in 2005. A charitable foundation named for him funds medical research in Nevada, Arizona, and California. A main thoroughfare in Sun City is named Del Webb Boulevard.
See also
Sun City Center, Florida
Sun City, Menifee, California
Sun City Summerlin, Nevada
Sun City Texas Georgetown, Texas
References
External links
Del Webb company website history of company and man
Del E. Webb Center for the Performing Arts
1899 births
1974 deaths
American casino industry businesspeople
American construction businesspeople
American real estate businesspeople
Major League Baseball owners
New York Yankees owners
People from Fresno, California
Businesspeople from Phoenix, Arizona
Del E. Webb buildings
20th-century American businesspeople
Arizona culture |
4021333 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cho%20Hyun-doo | Cho Hyun-doo | Cho Hyun-Doo is a football player from South Korea. He is currently coaching Suwon Samsung Bluewings youth system.
He was a member of the South Korean Youth (U-20) team in early 1990s and went on to play as a professional in the K-League.
He also made three appearances for the South Korea national team, including a match versus New Zealand in 1997.
Club career
1996-2002 Suwon Samsung Bluewings
2003 Chunnam Dragons
2003-2005 Bucheon SK
2006-2007 Gangneung City
2009–2010 Yongin Citizen
External links
1973 births
Living people
Association football forwards
South Korean footballers
South Korea international footballers
Suwon Samsung Bluewings players
Jeonnam Dragons players
Jeju United FC players
Gangneung City FC players
K League 1 players
Korea National League players
K3 League players
Hanyang University alumni |
4021353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heitor%20Pereira | Heitor Pereira | Heitor Teixeira Pereira () (born November 29, 1960), or Heitor TP, is a Brazilian composer, songwriter, musician, arranger, and record producer. In his career, Pereira has recorded with the band Simply Red and several famous musicians, such as Elton John, Rod Stewart, k.d. lang, Milton Nascimento, and Jack Johnson; and currently works as a film score composer, as well as a musician at Hans Zimmer's studio, he is best known for being the composer of the Despicable Me franchise. Although primarily a guitarist, he also provided backing vocals live for the Simply Red song "Thrill Me".
In 1994, he released a solo album in the UK called Heitor TP, which featured guest appearance from Mick Hucknall on the track "Manchester". Heitor left Simply Red to concentrate on his solo career. He played guitar and composed additional music for soundtracks like Gladiator, Mission: Impossible 2, The Road to El Dorado, Pearl Harbor, I Am Sam, Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron, Rango, Madagascar and Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa.
In 2003, Pereira contributed the song "Remember Me" for the soundtrack for Something's Gotta Give.
In 2006, Heitor Pereira won a Grammy Award for 'Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying a Vocalist' on a version of the song "What Are You Doing the Rest of Your Life?" by Chris Botti and Sting.
In 2011, he played guitar on the soundtrack of the film, Cowboys & Aliens.
Albums
Heitor TP (1987)
Heitor (1994)
Untold Stories (2001)
Film scores
2000s
2010s
2020s
References
External links
1957 births
Animated film score composers
Berklee College of Music alumni
Brazilian composers
Brazilian film score composers
Brazilian guitarists
Brazilian male composers
Brazilian male guitarists
Brazilian rock musicians
Grammy Award winners
Illumination (company) people
Living people
Male film score composers
People from Rio Grande (Rio Grande do Sul)
Simply Red members
Sony Pictures Animation people |
4021373 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic%20Research | Acoustic Research | Acoustic Research was a Cambridge, Massachusetts-based company that manufactured high-end audio equipment. The brand is now owned by VOXX. Acoustic Research was known for the AR-3 series of speaker systems, which used the acoustic suspension woofer of the AR-1 with newly designed dome mid-range speaker and high-frequency drivers. AR's line of acoustic suspension speakers were the first loudspeakers with relatively flat response, extended bass, wide dispersion, small size, and reasonable cost.
Company history
Acoustic Research, Inc. (“AR”) was founded in 1954 by audio pioneer, writer, inventor, researcher and audio-electronics teacher Edgar Villchur and his student, Henry Kloss. AR was established to produce the $185 () model AR-1, a loudspeaker design incorporating the acoustic suspension principle based on , granted to Edgar Villchur and assigned to Acoustic Research in 1956.
Edgar Villchur's technical innovation was based on objective testing and research, most of which was made publicly available as documents, specifications, and measurements—all of which were then new in the loudspeaker industry. Acoustic Research as an employer claimed equal opportunity and offered liberal employee benefits, insurance, and profit sharing to its employees.
Acoustic suspension loudspeaker
The acoustic suspension woofer provided an elegant solution to the age-old problem of bass distortion in loudspeakers caused by non-linear, mechanical suspensions in conventional loudspeakers. The existing state-of-the-art at the time of AR's invention was the bass reflex speaker, which boosted bass response for a given amount of cone travel by directing sound energy from the rear of the speaker cone through a port in the cabinet "tuned" for reinforcement of the direct signal from the front of the cone by the signal from the rear of the cone.
Among the drawbacks of bass reflex design are the stringent design parameters required for accurate bass reinforcement, requiring high precision and at the time, large cabinets. Some loss of accuracy ("smearing" or "vooming" of low frequencies) was inevitable and the results were not entirely predictable. Extensive prototyping drove up the development costs of new designs, pushing them out of popular price ranges. High fidelity woofers were vulnerable to damage from extreme low frequency signals. Those issues were addressed with the invention of the acoustic suspension woofer.
The acoustic suspension woofer (sometimes known as “air suspension”) used the elasticity of air within a small, sealed enclosure of about to provide the restoring force for the woofer cone. The entrapped air of the sealed-loudspeaker enclosure, unlike the mechanical springs of conventional speakers, provided an almost linear spring for the woofer's diaphragm, enabling it to move back and forth large distances (“excursion”) in a linear fashion, a requirement for the reproduction of deep bass tones.
The disadvantage of this arrangement is low efficiency. Since the restoring force is large with a large woofer in a small cabinet, the cone must be massive to keep the resonant frequency in the required low bass region. The AR-1s were about 10 per cent as efficient as other (physically much larger) existing speakers with equivalent bass response, but since higher power amplifiers were becoming available about the same time, this was a reasonable trade-off to get good bass response from a relatively small speaker.
The AR-1 set new standards for low-frequency performance and low distortion that were unsurpassed for many years. Some of the best loudspeakers available fifty years later continue to use the acoustic suspension principle for high quality, low distortion bass reproduction.
The small size of the high performance AR-1 permitted by the acoustic suspension design, helped usher in the age of stereophonic sound reproduction.
Two bookshelf-sized loudspeakers were far more acceptable in a living room than the two refrigerator-sized boxes previously necessary to reproduce low frequency bass notes.
By March 1957, AR began shipping a smaller, less expensive, acoustic suspension system, the US$87 () Model AR-2. The AR-2 was selected by Consumer Reports as a 'best buy' and the company's sales went from $383,000 in 1956 to nearly $1,000,000 by the end of 1957. Also that year, co-founder and Vice President Henry Kloss left AR to form a new loudspeaker company, KLH.
AR-3 loudspeaker
In 1958, AR once again pioneered loudspeaker technology with the introduction of the landmark model AR-3, which used the AR-1's acoustic-suspension woofer in conjunction with the first commercially available hemispherical (“dome”) mid-frequency midrange unit (squawker) and high-frequency tweeter.
For nearly ten years after its introduction, the AR-3 was widely regarded as the most accurate loudspeaker available at any cost, and was used in many professional installations, recording studios, and concert halls. Many professional musicians used AR-3 loudspeakers as monitors because of their excellent sound reproduction. In the early 1960s, AR conducted a series of over 75 live vs. recorded demonstrations throughout the United States in which the sound of a live string quartet was alternated with echo-free recorded music played through a pair of AR-3s. In this “ultimate” subjective test of audio quality, the listeners were largely unable to detect the switch from live to recorded, a strong testament to Acoustic Research's audio quality.
The company also established music demonstration rooms on the mezzanine of Grand Central Terminal in New York City and on a street corner of Harvard Square in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where the public could stop by and listen to its products, but no sales were made there. This low-key marketing innovation boosted the company's business.
AR continued to introduce new designs, and by 1966 the company had grown to hold 32.2% of the U.S. domestic loudspeaker market, based on the IHFM and High Fidelity surveys statistics for that year. This was the largest market share ever held by a loudspeaker manufacturer since statistics have been kept.
The AR-3 was replaced by the AR-3a in 1969, having a new dome midrange and tweeter reduced in dimensions, for even better mid and high frequency dispersion. On September 13, 1993, an AR-3 was placed on permanent display in the Information Age Exhibit of National Museum of American History at The Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC.
The AR-3a was subsequently replaced by the AR-11 and AR-10pi in 1977, which shared the same improved tweeter and midrange domes. The 10pi had woofer/bass response adjustment switches to allow for a variety of room placements. The new tweeter used in the AR-11/10pi had a brighter high-frequency response partly to compensate for less dispersion than the tweeter of the AR3a.
Turntables
AR produced a low-cost ($78, ) belt-drive turntable, a type of phonograph, using a cast aluminum turntable platter suspended with a T-bar sub-chassis that greatly reduced acoustic feedback. A 24-pole hysteresis-synchronous, permanent magnet Hurst AC motor propelled the platter via a precision ground rubber belt to produce very low wow and flutter, exceeding the NAB (National Association of Broadcasters) standards for turntable measurements.
Many AR turntable models remain in high demand. In particular, the mid-1980s models are highly modifiable to become first-rate vinyl record playback units.
Teledyne buyout
In 1967, Acoustic Research was bought by Teledyne, Inc., and for the next 22 years it continued development and operations in Cambridge as Teledyne Acoustic Research. Technological breakthroughs during this period included the high-current amplifier. When purchased by Teledyne, AR was the world's second largest supplier of branded loudspeakers. Although Acoustic Research continued product development, by 1989 AR had dropped to fifth place worldwide, and Teledyne sold the company to their major competitor, Jensen Electronics. In 1996, Jensen, including AR, was sold to Recoton Audio Corporation.
Under both Jensen and Recoton, the AR brand continued development in the speaker industry, including the environmental controls that allowed a speaker to be placed in different room areas, the Acoustic Blanket that minimized diffraction and interference in speaker baffles, and a speaker line designed to complement home theater and the digital technologies of the 1990s.
In 2003, Audiovox (now Voxx International) acquired the U.S. audio operations of Recoton, and continues with AR-brand speaker development and sales. An associated firm, AB Tech Services, provided maintenance of AR speakers until mid 2014. Web-based audiophile communities lamented the closure of the company and apparent liquidation of stock. As of July 2014 CM Tech Support assumed responsibility for Acoustic Research parts and service.
References
External links
Acoustic Research Audiovox branded site
Acoustic Research Manuals Repair and owners manuals.
The Classic Speaker Pages Resources and discussion forums
Edgar Villchur and the Acoustic Suspension Loudspeaker website of the Audio Engineering Society Historical Committee
CM Tech Support AR parts and service
Loudspeaker manufacturers
Companies based in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Audio equipment manufacturers of the United States |
4021382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meg%20Beresford | Meg Beresford | Meg Beresford (born 5 September 1937) was a British campaigner against nuclear weapons and general secretary of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament from 1985 to 1990.
An activist involved with the European Nuclear Disarmament (END) movement, she came to prominence as END's organising secretary.
In 1985 Beresford was appointed General Secretary for Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Europe's largest single-issue peace campaign. Her term concluded in 1990, and she subsequently worked as a gardener for the Iona Community on the island of Iona.
Works
"CND and the Soviet Union", Sanity, January 1985
See also
List of peace activists
References
External links
Holidays in Hell: In Which Our Intrepid Reporter Travels to the World's Worst Places and Asks, "What's Funny About This", P. J. O'Rourke, Grove Press, 2000,
1937 births
Living people
British anti-war activists
Iona
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament activists
British anti–nuclear weapons activists |
4021383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular%20economy | Regular economy | A regular economy is an economy characterized by an excess demand function which has the property that its slope at any equilibrium price vector is non-zero. In other words, if we graph the excess demand function against prices, then the excess demand function "cuts" the x-axis assuring that each equilibrium is locally unique. Local uniqueness in turn permits the use of comparative statics - an analysis of how the economy responds to external shocks - as long as these shocks are not too large.
An important result due to Debreu (1970) states that almost any economy, defined by an initial distribution of consumers' endowments, is regular. In technical terms, the set of nonregular economies is of Lebesgue measure zero.
Combined with the index theorem this result implies that almost any economy will have a finite (and odd) number of equilibria.
References
Debreu, G. (1970). Economies with a finite set of equilibria. Econometrica, 38 (3), 387–392.
Dierker, E. (1972). Two Remarks on the Number of Equilibria of an Economy. Econometrica, 40 (5), 951–953.
Mas-Colell, A., Whinston, M. and Green, J. (1995). Microeconomic Theory. Oxford University Press.
General equilibrium theory |
4021386 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cities%20in%20India%20by%20population | List of cities in India by population | The following tables are the list of cities in India by population. Often cities are bifurcated into multiple regions (municipalities) which results in creation of cities within cities which may figure in the list. The entire work of this article is based on Census of India, 2011, conducted by the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, under Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
Map
List
The list includes the cities and not urban agglomerations.
Definitions:
The list is based on population within the boundaries of the respective Municipal Corporations and not the actual urban area.
Towns/Cities with populations of (100,000) are categorized as Class-I towns or Cities
The 46 cities with populations of and above are known as Million Plus UAs or Cities
The 3 UAs with populations of and above are known as Mega Cities (The census defines the three as Greater Mumbai UA (18.4 million), Delhi UA (16.3 million) and Kolkata UA (14.1 million))
The cities listed in bold are the capitals of the respective state / union territory.
See also
List of million-plus urban agglomerations in India
List of metropolitan areas in India
List of states and union territories of India by population
List of towns in India by population
References
External links
Indian Census Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India (archived)
Cities by population
Lists of cities in Asia |
4021411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee%20Ho-sung%20%28footballer%29 | Lee Ho-sung (footballer) | Lee Ho-sung (, born September 12, 1974) is a football player from South Korea.
He was a member of the South Korea U-20 team and South Korea U-23 team in early 1990s and went on to play as a professional in the K-League before moving to Singapore, to the S. League, where he played for Balestier Khalsa FC.
Club career
1997–2001 Daejeon Citizen
2002–2003 Goyang Kookmin Bank
2004 Balestier Khalsa
External links
N-League Player Record - 이호성
1974 births
Living people
Association football forwards
South Korean footballers
South Korean expatriate footballers
Daejeon Hana Citizen FC players
Balestier Khalsa FC players
K League 1 players
Korea National League players
Singapore Premier League players
Expatriate footballers in Singapore
South Korean expatriate sportspeople in Singapore |
4021424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yele%20language | Yele language | The Yele language, or Yélî Dnye, is the language of Rossel Island, the easternmost island in the Louisiade Archipelago off the eastern tip of Papua New Guinea. There were some 4,000 speakers in 1998, comprising the entire ethnic population. The language remains unclassified by linguists.
Classification
For now, the language is best considered unclassified. It has been classified as a tentative language isolate that may turn out to be related to the Anêm and Ata language isolates of New Britain (in a tentative Yele – West New Britain family). Typologically it is more similar to the Oceanic languages of southern New Guinea than to the isolates of New Britain. Word order tends to be SOV (verb-final).
Stebbins et al. (2018) classifies Yélî Dnye as an isolate. They explain similarities with Austronesian as being due to contact and diffusion.
Phonology
Yele has a uniquely rich set of doubly articulated consonants. In nearly all the languages of the world which have them, these are labial–velar consonants—that is, they are pronounced simultaneously with the lips and the back of the tongue, such as a simultaneous p and k. Only Yele is known to contrast other doubly articulated positions: besides labial–velar, it has two distinct labial–alveolar positions (laminal/dental and apical/postalveolar), as illustrated below.
The two coronal articulations are (1) laminal/dental and slightly pre-alveolar, sometimes transcribed tʸ, nʸ, etc. (see denti-alveolar consonant), and (2) apical and slightly post-alveolar, sometimes transcribed ṭ, ṇ etc., ʈ, ɳ, etc., or simply t, n, etc.
There are two other doubly articulated consonants, as in lvámê (a type of cane) and . The Yele w is labial–dental . These doubly articulated consonants contrast with labialization (SIL 1992/2004). Many articulations may also be palatalized. Stops may be either pre- or (except perhaps for ) post-nasalized. The consonant inventory includes the following:
It is not clear how many of the labial–velar and labial–alveolar consonants such as may also be labialized or palatalized. Nor is it clear how many of these articulations occur prenasalized or with nasal release, but besides those noted above, the following are noted in SIL 1992/2004: .
The oral stops (that is, apart from dental ) are voiced between vowels and when prenasalized. The (post-)alveolar is further reduced to an (apparently dental) flap between vowels. Some of the palatalized alveolar stops are pronounced as fricatives or affricates, such as (or perhaps ) and (or perhaps ), but SIL (1992/2004) contradicts itself as to which these are.
Yele also has many vowels, a noteworthy number of which are nasalized:
(The distinction between open-mid and close-mid nasal vowels is rather unusual, and SIL (1992/2004) provides no examples of the close-mid vowels. They also fail to provide an example of .)
Vowels may occur long or short. SIL (1992/2004) interprets other vowel sequences as being separated by rather than as diphthongs.
Given that vowels may be long or short, Yele syllables may only be of the form V or CV, and in the former case, apparently only or .
Orthography
The multigraphs for complex consonants are not always transparent. The labial-velar and labial-alveolar consonants are written with the labial second: kp, dp, tp, ngm, nm, ńm, lv. Prenasalized is written mb, but and are written nt and nk to distinguish them from nd and ng . Prenasalized stops are written with an m when labial, including doubly articulated stops, as with md or mg , and with n otherwise. Nasal release is likewise written n or m, as in dny , kn , dm , km . Labialization is written w, and palatalization y, apart from ch for and nj for (it is not clear if ch and nj are dental or (post-)alveolar).
Of the vowels, only a and u occur initially. Long vowels are written doubled, and nasal vowels with a preceding colon (:a for ), except for short vowels after a nasal consonant (or a nasal release?), where vowel nasality is not contrastive.
Grammar
Yele has been studied extensively by cognitive linguists. It has an extensive set of spatial postpositions. Yele has eleven postpositions equivalent to English on; using different ones depending factors such as whether the object is on a table (horizontal), a wall (vertical), or atop a peak; whether or not it is attached to the surface; and whether it is solid or granular (distributed).
Pronouns
Yele has a set of free pronouns and a set of bound possessive pronouns.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |Singular
! colspan="2" |Dual
! colspan="2" |Plural
|-
!English
!Yele
!English
!Yele
!English
!Yele
|-
! rowspan="2" |1st person
!free
| rowspan="2" | I || || rowspan="2" | we two || || rowspan="2" | we ||
|-
!bound
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |2nd person
!free
| rowspan="2" | thou || || rowspan="2" | you two || || rowspan="2" | you ||
|-
!bound
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |3rd person
!free
| rowspan="2" | he/she || – || rowspan="2" |they two
| rowspan="2" |–|| rowspan="2" | they ||
|-
!bound
|
|
|}
Vocabulary
Selected basic vocabulary items in Yélî Dnye:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Yélî Dnye
|-
| bird || ńmê; ńmo
|-
| blood || wêê
|-
| bone || dînê
|-
| breast || ngmo
|-
| ear || ngweńe
|-
| eat || ma
|-
| egg || w:uu
|-
| eye || ngwolo
|-
| fire || ndê; ndyuw:e
|-
| give || yeede
|-
| go || lê; lili; nî
|-
| ground || mbwóó; têpê
|-
| hair || gh:aa
|-
| head || ny:oo
|-
| leg || yi
|-
| louse || y:emê wee
|-
| man || pi
|-
| moon || d:ââ
|-
| name || pi
|-
| one || ngmidi
|-
| road, path || maa
|-
| see || m:uu
|-
| sky || mbóó; vyââ
|-
| stone || chêêpî
|-
| sun || kââdî
|-
| tongue || dêê
|-
| tooth || nyóó
|-
| tree || yi
|-
| two || miyó
|-
| water || mbwaa; tolo
|-
| woman || kumbwada; pyââ
|}
Sample text
Kiye w:ââ u pi Peetuuki, ka kwo, Doongê. Nê kuu. Daa a w:ââ. Nkal u w:ââ. Nkal ngê yinê kaa ngê. W:ââ dono. Pi yilî u te. U nuu u pi da tóó. Pi u lama daa tóó. M:iituwo Yidika, Mépé tp:oo mî kiye ngê. Daanté. Mépé dono ngê pyodo. Apê, W:ââ mbwámê nînê châpwo. Nkal ngê kwo, "Up:o" . W:ââ mî mbêpê wo, chii mênê. Mépé ngê w:ââ mbwámê mêdîpê châpwo. Awêde ka kwo, Doongê. Pi maa daa t:a. A danêmbum u dî.
"The savage dog is called "Peetuuki", and he lives at Doongê. It's nothing to do with me. It's not my dog. It's Nkal's dog. He raised it. It's a bad dog. It bites everyone. It doesn't like anyone. Recently it bit Mépé's son, Yidika. It really bit him hard. Mépé became very angry, and said, 'I'm going to kill that dog'. The dog ran away into the bush, so Mépé could not kill it. So now it's still there at Doongê, so there's not a safe road through there. That's the end of my story." (SIL 1992/2004)
References
Bibliography
James E. Henderson, 1995. Phonology and grammar of Yele, Papua New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics B-112. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
Peter Ladefoged & Ian Maddieson, 1996. The sounds of the world’s languages. Oxford: Blackwells.
Stephen C. Levinson, 2003. Space in Language and Cognition: Explorations in Cognitive Diversity. Cambridge University Press.
Phonology sketch from SIL, 1992/2004
External links
Paradisec has multiple collections with Yele materials, including two collections of Arthur Cappell's materials (AC1, AC2).
The World Atlas of Language Structures lists 44 typological features of "Yelî Dnye" based on from James Henderson's 1975 and 1995 grammars of the language. https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_yel
Yele–West New Britain languages
Language isolates of New Guinea
Languages of Milne Bay Province
Nuclear Papuan Tip languages |
4021429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live%20%28Alison%20Krauss%20album%29 | Live (Alison Krauss album) | Live is the eleventh album and the first live album by Alison Krauss and Union Station. All of the songs except "Down to the River to Pray" (performed at Austin City Limits) were recorded at The Louisville Palace on April 29–30, 2002. The album was released on November 5, 2002.
At the 46th Grammy Awards, Live won the Grammy Award for Best Bluegrass Album and the traditional song "Cluck Old Hen" won the Grammy Award for Best Country Instrumental Performance.
Track listing
Personnel
Alison Krauss - Vocals, fiddle
Jerry Douglas - Resonator guitar, vocals
Dan Tyminski - Guitar, mandolin, vocals
Ron Block - Guitar, banjo, vocals
Barry Bales - Bass, vocals
Larry Atamanuik - Drums
Chart performance
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
References
Alison Krauss & Union Station albums
2002 live albums
Rounder Records live albums
Austin City Limits
Grammy Award for Best Bluegrass Album
Albums recorded at the Louisville Palace |
4021437 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes%20and%20His%20Brothers | Agnes and His Brothers | Agnes and His Brothers () is a 2004 film directed by Oskar Roehler.
Plot
Three very different siblings: Hans-Jörg, a librarian who is a sex addict; Werner, a politician in a troubled marriage with a son who enjoys discrediting his father; Martin, who is now Agnes after having a gender-reassignment operation. Agnes works as a dancer and is suffering from unrequited love.
Cast
Martin Weiß as Agnes Tschirner
Moritz Bleibtreu as Hans-Jörg Tschirner
Herbert Knaup as Werner Tschirner
Katja Riemann as Signe
Tom Schilling as Ralf
Suzan Anbeh as Desiree
Vadim Glowna as Günther
Margit Carstensen as Roxy
Lee Daniels as Henry
Marie Zielcke as Nadine
Oliver Korittke as Rudi
Martin Semmelrogge as Manni Moneto
Martin Feifel as Hannes
Sven Martinek as Jürgen
Til Schweiger as Freund in Bibliothek
Reception
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 40% based on 20 reviews
References
External links
Official website
Agnes and His Brothers at filmportal.de/en
2004 films
2004 drama films
2004 LGBT-related films
2000s German-language films
German LGBT-related films
Films directed by Oskar Roehler
Films scored by Martin Todsharow
German drama films
Films shot in Cologne
LGBT-related drama films
Films about trans women
2000s German films |
4021442 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pawe%C5%82%20Nastula | Paweł Nastula | Paweł Marcin Nastula (born 26 June 1970) is a Polish judoka and mixed martial artist. He was the 1995 and 1997 Judo World Champion, and 1996 gold medallist at the Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, winning those titles in the U95kg weight category.
Early career
Nastula was born in Warsaw, and started training Judo at the age of 10 at AZS AWF.
Judo
In addition to the 1996 Summer Olympics, Nastula won many European and World competitions, and was considered one of the top judo players in the world. Between February 1994 and March 1998 Nastula was unbeaten in Judo, having 312 consecutive wins over a period of those 1,220 days and winning every competition, a monumental feat. His winning streak snapped when the weight category was changed (from -95 kg to -100 kg).
He retired from the sport in 2004.
Mixed martial arts career
Nastula became interested in mixed martial arts after watching the first Hidehiko Yoshida and Royce Gracie bout in 2002. Shortly after, he signed up with Japanese promotion Pride Fighting Championship and was assigned to the Takada Dojo team, where he trained under Kazushi Sakuraba and other fighters in order to make the jump to the sport. Due to his record in judo, he was compared to Brazilian jiu-jitsu's Rickson Gracie.
Pride
Nastula received a very tough welcome to the PRIDE organization, as he was immediately pitted to face one of PRIDE's top heavyweight contenders and seasoned professionals in Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira. Due to his health and lack of experience, Nastula tried to negotiate a shorter fight with PRIDE Bushido rules and with both contenders wearing a gi, but Nogueira refused, so Pawel went for regular rules nonetheless. Nastula did well during the match, holding his own in the grappling exchanges for the first half of the round, but his inexperience was evident when Nogueira capitalized on his striking superiority, getting the upper hand in the mat with several knees to the head. After receiving a hard right hand, Nastula managed to get a takedown, but he was too tired to remain in the offensive role, and Nogueira found little resistance to unload ground and pound until the referee stop.
His second opponent would be perhaps an even tougher matchup, Alexander Emelianenko, sambo practitioner and brother of the legendary Fedor Emelianenko. The judoka performed better and controlled the earlier action both standing and on the ground, attempting armbars and taking Emelianenko's back, but his stamina played again against him. With his opponent tired, Alexander reversed him, took the mount and locked a rear naked choke for the submission.
In his third match in July 2006, he easily defeated the previously unbeaten MMA professional Edson Drago. Pawel threatened him with an inverted armbar from the bottom and later mounted him, throwing punches over the Brazilian and opening a cut in his eye. At the end, Nastula locked another armbar from the bottom and made Drago tap out.
Pawel's last fight in PRIDE would be against catch wrestler Josh Barnett in PRIDE 32: The Real Deal. The judoka again showed an excellent performance, taking down Barnett several times and landing effective left hooks, but Josh reversed him later in the match and executed a toehold to submit Nastula. It was later announced that he failed his NSAC-administered drug test.
Nastula tested positive for the banned substance nandrolone as well as banned stimulants phenylpropanolamine, pseudoephedrine, and ephedrine. Nastula has denied the veracity of the test results, however, claiming that the stimulants were absorbed into his system from over-the-counter supplements and that nandrolone, a mass-building substance, would not have been useful to him as he has not gained any muscle mass since coming to PRIDE. According to an interview by the website www.budo.pl, Nastula has hired lawyers to solve the situation.
World Victory Road
Following the fall of PRIDE, Nastula signed with World Victory Road and competed at Sengoku 4, losing via a controversial TKO to Yang Dong Yi. After Dong narrowly escaped an armbar attempt from the judoka, Nastula was unable to answer the referee's call to stand up, having received numerous strikes to the groin earlier in the fight. At that moment, Nastula indicated problems with his protective cup, but instead of ordering it to be checked up, the referee inexplicably halted the bout and declared Yang the winner by TKO.
Return to MMA
In 2008 Nastula was signed by a new promotion from Poland, MCC (Martial Combat Club) and was expected to face Koji Kanechika in their event in May. Unfortunately, the promotion folded and the event was cancelled.
Since then, Paweł was reported to be in talks with various promotions from Poland. KSW stated to be in talks with Nastula several times, changing its mind about the event he should participate in. For example, Paweł was reported to face Mariusz Pudzianowski at KSW XIII, which was later changed to KSW XIV. However, after losing to Tim Sylvia, Pudzianowski pulled out of that fight.
Despite many failed returns to the ring, and no bouts since the Sengoku loss from August 2008, Paweł remained active, running his club (Nastula Club) in Warsaw and training with fighters like Robert Jocz, Jan Błachowicz and Krzysztof Kułak.
However, after Pudzianowski's withdrawal from KSW XIV, Nastula stated in recent interviews, that he will retire if he won't get to fight in 2010.
In July 2010, Nastula signed with another new Polish promotion, Fighters Arena. Paweł made his anticipated comeback (and first ring appearance in Poland) at the inauginational show of the promotion in the Atlas Arena in Łódź, Poland, facing Yusuke Masuda (training partner of Hidehiko Yoshida) in the main event.
Nastula proved to be in shape, as he quickly knocked down his opponent and followed with a flurry of punches on the ground, forcing the referee to stop the bout early at 0:26 of the first round.
At KSW 24, Nastula competed to crown the first KSW Heavyweight champion against Karol Bedorf. He lost the fight due to exhaustion in the second round.
Personal life
Paweł is married and has two daughters.
For his sport achievements, he received the Knight's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta (5th Class) in 1996.
Nastula is the author of the book My Judo (2000), where he describes his favourite techniques and their combinations.
He took part in the 2009 Polish version of Dancing with the Stars, eventually finishing sixth overall.
Mixed martial arts record
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 5–6
| Mariusz Pudzianowski
| Decision (unanimous)
| KSW 29
|
| align=center| 3
| align=center| 3:00
| Kraków, Poland
| Fight of the Night
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 5–5
| Karol Bedorf
| TKO (exhaustion)
| KSW 24
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 2:25
| Łódź, Poland
| For KSW Heavyweight Championship.
|-
| Win
| align=center| 5–4
| Kevin Asplund
| Submission (americana)
| KSW 22
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 2:33
| Warszawa, Poland
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 4–4
| Jimmy Ambriz
| Submission (hand injury)
| STC: Bydgoszcz vs. Torun
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:50
| Bydgoszcz, Poland
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 3–4
| Andrzej Wronski
| TKO (punches)
| Wieczór Mistrzów
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 1:09
| Koszalin, Poland
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 2–4
| Yusuke Masuda
| TKO (punches)
| FAL: Fighters Arena Lódz
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 0:26
| Łódź, Poland
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 1–4
| Yang Dongi
| TKO (exhaustion)
| World Victory Road Presents: Sengoku 4
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 2:15
| Saitama, Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 1–3
| Josh Barnett
| Submission (toe hold)
| Pride 32 - The Real Deal
|
| align=center| 2
| align=center| 3:04
| Las Vegas, Nevada, United States
|
|-
| Win
| align=center| 1–2
| Edson Claas Vieira
| Submission (armbar)
| Pride FC - Critical Countdown Absolute
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 4:33
| Saitama, Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 0–2
| Alexander Emelianenko
| Submission (rear-naked choke)
| Pride Shockwave 2005
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 8:45
| Saitama, Saitama, Japan
|
|-
| Loss
| align=center| 0–1
| Antônio Rodrigo Nogueira
| TKO (punches)
| Pride Critical Countdown 2005
|
| align=center| 1
| align=center| 8:38
| Saitama, Saitama, Japan
|
Awards and titles
Judo
Olympic Games
1996 Atlanta 1st Prize (Gold Medal)
World Championships
1991 Barcelona 2nd Prize
1995 Tokyo 1st Prize
1997 Paris 1st Prize
European Championships
1994-1996 1st Prize
1999 Bratislava 2nd Prize
Mixed martial arts
Konfrontacja Sztuk Walki
Fight of the Night (1 Time)
Streetfighters Team Cup
Streetfighters Team Cup Heavyweight Championship (1 Time)
References
External links
Interview - PrideFC.com
1970 births
Living people
Polish male judoka
Olympic judoka of Poland
Judoka at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Judoka at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Judoka at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Polish male mixed martial artists
Heavyweight mixed martial artists
Mixed martial artists utilizing judo
Sportspeople from Warsaw
Olympic gold medalists for Poland
Polish sportspeople in doping cases
Doping cases in mixed martial arts
Olympic medalists in judo
World judo champions
Judoka trainers
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics |
4021459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20knife | Air knife | An air knife is a tool used to blow off liquid or debris from products as they travel on conveyors. Air knives are normally used in manufacturing or as the first step in a recursive recycling process to separate lighter or smaller particles from other components for use in later or subsequent steps, post manufacturing parts drying and conveyor cleaning, part of component cleaning. The knife consists of a high-intensity, uniform sheet of laminar airflow sometimes known as streamline flow.
An industrial air knife is a pressurized air plenum containing a series of holes or continuous slots through which pressurized air exits in a laminar flow pattern. The exit air velocity then creates an impact air velocity onto the surface of whatever object the air is directed. This impact air velocity can range from a gentle breeze to greater than Mach 0.6 (40,000 ft/min) to alter the surface of a product without mechanical contact.
Air knives remove liquids, control the thickness of liquids, dry the liquid coatings, remove foreign particles, cool product surfaces or create a hold down force to assist in the mechanical bonding of materials to the surface. Electrical currents from anti-static bars can also be injected into the exit air knife stream to neutralize the static electricity charge on some surfaces.
In the majority of manufacturing applications for air knives, the air knives are stationary while the product passes through the air velocity air stream. In other circumstances, the product is stationary and the air knives move (reciprocate or rotate) over the surface of the stationary product. Although there are very few applications where an air knife can actually cut a product (break mechanical bonds between two points), air knives are often the most efficient method of removing or controlling unwanted or foreign substances on any surface.
In reference to the galvanizing industry, air knives are used to precisely control the amount of zinc coating by wiping away the coating while it is still in a liquid state on the steel surface. In most hot dip applications both top and bottom coated surfaces can be independently controlled by computer via feedback loop as accurately as plus or minus 5 grams/meter squared. Most air knife systems for this application use heated nitrogen gas as the wiping agent, not atmospheric air. Nitrogen is used to reduce oxidation of the base metal.
History
In the 1950s and 60s, the term "air doctor" was first used to refer to the non-contact method of debris blow-off using compressed air. The printing and textile industries were some of the largest users of air doctors at that time, named by analogy with "doctor rolls" and "doctor blades". They often needed wide paths of air from a compressed air system to control the thickness of liquids on a surface, or to blow debris off the surface of materials prior to the next process. Other terms used were air bar, air squeegee, air curtain, air jet, air blast, air blow off, air nozzle, air comb, air blade and air doctor blade. Today the most commonly used term is simply "air knife".
Although air knives powered by compressed plant air are used in a wide variety of industrial applications, industrial blower-powered air knives have proven to reduce the energy usage versus compressed air knives by 50–75% for most applications. Blower-powered air knife systems came of age with the advent of the 1987 Montreal Protocol, which started the clock on the worldwide phase-out of atmospheric ozone depleting CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons) then used as cleaning agents in many industries.
Most of these solvent-based cleaning agents simply evaporated which required no blow-off or other drying methods. Although the printed circuit board industry was still in its infancy, it was among the first to initiate the conversion to aqueous and semi-aqueous-based parts cleaning systems.
With nearly every existing and all future circuit board factories using the new environmentally friendly cleaning technology, they also needed a new method of drying the p.c. boards following their water-based cleaning to remove solder fluxes and other contaminants. The trend away from other types of solvent-based parts cleaning to water-based cleaning for other industries began soon thereafter. Additionally, the conversion to water-based inks, paints, coatings, adhesives and other solutions used in various manufacturing sectors has resulted in the need for air knife dryers where none had previously existed. As a result of the Montreal Protocol and worldwide industry compliance with environmental stewardship mandates, the former niche business of air knives became an industry.
Description of operation
Air knives on a production line commonly range from in length with a discharge air slot or holes ranging from . A stationary air knife configuration can require from one to a dozen air knives depending on the application criteria. Air is blasted through the air knife slots via an air generator, either an industrial blower or air compressor, to deliver the predetermined exit air volume and velocity needed.
There are many application, environmental, efficiency and duty cycle aspects to consider when choosing between compressors and blowers. Compressed air, which is least efficient when used for air knives discharging into free air, allows for use of primary plant air. The piping sizes supplying the air knives can be as little as diameter, so they are ideal for confined spaces. Blower-powered air knives must be larger in size along with larger diameter supply piping, but the efficiency improvement over compressed air is easily justified with the electrical power cost savings.
Air knife designs today have evolved to where some manufacturers produce a very efficient “teardrop” shape with a .95 coefficient of discharge. These blower-powered air knife designs typically have a profile of approximately wide x tall x any length, but the teardrop profile can range from tall depending on the criteria of the product for which the impact air velocity must be engineered. With construction ranging from thick aluminum extrusion to 11 gauge fabricated stainless steel, air knives can weigh 1 lb/ft to 25 lbs/ft. Depending on the width and speed of the product, the air knife can provide effective blow-off performance from or more away from the surface of the product. Round air nozzles of diameter can be effective against surfaces which are up to several feet (1 to 2 meters) from the product surface when engineered for such applications.
Types and applications
The most common use of air knives is to contain or remove free-standing materials (liquids or solids) from the surface of material. The applications include drying bottles and cans after filling and rinsing, printed circuit boards following the conveyorized wash to remove solder paste and flux, metals castings after automatic machining and many more. They can also deliver heated or cooled air to a surface, or create an invisible air barrier to separate heated or cooled environments from one another in industrial applications such as continuous metal heat treating ovens, cold process or storage areas in food processing or dust containment for the entrance to clean rooms.
There is a variety of uses for air knives in many different industries, applications and environments. The invisible-high velocity air streams can be discharged by air knife designs of numerous shapes and sizes. These range from “garage built” devices with a low level of precision to the most exotic metals of construction used in air knives for class 100 clean rooms.
In instances where noise reduction and moisture containment around a conveyorized air knife installation becomes important, some manufacturing facilities have installed air knives within an enclosure. These enclosures keep water contained, reduce the amount of air knife noise and even eliminate any liquid that could create safety concerns.
Basic design features
Compressed air-powered air knives
There has always been a wide assortment of blow-off appliances. Air knives and nozzles for compressed air blow-off range from home made round pipes with holes to engineered high pressure air knives. In order to achieve the highest efficiency using compressed air, many manufacturers of compressed air knives utilize the Coandă effect to improve compressed air knife design over other types of knives and nozzles. Although the efficiency of compressed air for low-pressure blow-off air is much lower than blowers, the Coanda-inspired air knives entrain ambient air into the high-velocity stream to enhance the blow off effect.
Blower-powered air knives
The teardrop-shaped air knife has a bulbous plenum which tapers down to a precise air discharge slot as the standard of the blower driven air knife industry. Whereas a round pipe with holes drilled has an average coefficient of discharge of 0.6 (60% efficient), the teardrop-shaped air knife is commonly 0.95 (95% efficient), which provides much higher-impact air velocity to the surface at which the air is directed with the lowest blower motor power demand. These teardrop designs are available in extruded aluminum shapes as well as fabricated carbon and stainless steels.
OSHA compliance
Information is needed regarding the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and their standards and directives on Compressed Air, especially when used for cleaning.
References
Pneumatic tools
Industrial processes
Cleaning tools
Drying |
4021481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arawa%20%28canoe%29 | Arawa (canoe) | Arawa was one of the great ocean-going, voyaging canoes in Māori traditions that was used in the migrations that settled New Zealand.
The Te Arawa confederation of Māori iwi and hapū based in the Rotorua and Bay of Plenty areas trace their ancestry from the people of this canoe.
Background
Te Arawa's ancestors on board the Arawa were of the Ngāti Ohomairangi of Ra'iātea Island. Following a battle that broke out between them and Uenuku, in which their own Whakatūria fell in battle, Tama-te-kapua promised to captain the voyage to the islands of New Zealand, which had been discovered by Ngāhue of the Tāwhirirangi canoe.
Construction of the canoe
A large tree was cut down by four men called Rata, Wahieroa, Ngāhue and Parata, to make the waka which came to be known as Arawa. "Hauhau-te-rangi" and "Tuutauru" (made from New Zealand greenstone brought back by Ngāhue) were the adzes used for the time-consuming and intensive work. Upon completion, the waka was given the name Ngā rākau kotahi puu a Atua Matua (also known as Ngā rākau maatahi puu a Atua Matua, or more simply Ngā rākau rua a Atuamatua - the two trunks of Atuamatua) in memory of Tama-te-kapua's grandfather Atua-matua.
The waka was completed and berthed in Whenuakura Bay while Tama-te-kapua, chief of the canoe, attempted to find a priest for the journey. Ngātoro-i-rangi and his wife Kearoa were tricked by Tama-te-kapua into boarding the canoe to perform the necessary appeasement incantations to the gods before the canoe departed. However, while they were on board, Tama-te-kapua signalled to his men to quickly set sail, and before Ngātoro-i-rangi and his wife could react they were far out to sea.
Voyage to Aotearoa
During the voyage to New Zealand, Tama-te-kapua became desirous of Kearoa. Ngātoro-i-rangi noticed this and took guarded his wife during the night while he was on deck navigating, by tying one end of a cord to her hair and holding the other end in his hand. However, Tama-te-kapua untied the cord from Kearoa's hair and attached it to the bed in order to have sex with her, repeating this over a number of nights. One night he was nearly caught in the act by Ngātoro-i-rangi, but managed to escape, though forgetting the cord in his haste. Ngātoro-i-rangi found the cord and deduced that Tama-te-kapua had been with Kearoa. In revenge, he raised a huge whirlpool in the sea named Te korokoro-o-te-Parata ('The throat of Te Parata'). The waka was about to be lost with all on board, before Ngātoro-i-rangi took mercy and calmed the seas.
During these events, all the kūmara on board the canoe were lost overboard, except a few in a small kete being held by Whakaotirangi. After the calming of the seas, a shark (known as an arawa) was seen in the water. Ngātoro-i-rangi renamed the waka Te Arawa, after this shark, which then accompanied the waka to Aotearoa, acting as a kai-tiaki (guardian).
The Arawa canoe then continued to New Zealand without incident, finally sighting land at Whangaparaoa, where feather headdresses were cast away due to greed and the beauty of the pohutukawa bloom. On landfall, an argument took place with members of the Tainui canoe over the ownership of a beached whale. Tama-te-kapua again used deceit to take possession of the whale despite the rightful claim of the Tainui. The canoe then travelled north up the coast to the Coromandel Peninsula, where Tama-te-kapua first sighted the mountain Moehau, where he later made his home. Heading south again, the canoe finally came to rest at Maketu, where it was beached and stood until being burnt by Raumati of Taranaki some years later.
Items brought to New Zealand on the Arawa, other than the kūmara saved by Whakaotirangi, included a tapu kōhatu (stone) left by Ngātoro-i-rangi on the island Te Poito o te Kupenga a Taramainuku just off the coast of Cape Colville. This stone held the mauri to protect the Arawa peoples and their descendants from evil. In addition, the canoe brought over two gods, one called Itupaoa, which was represented by a roll of tapa, and another stone carving now possibly buried at Mokoia Island on Lake Rotorua.
See also
List of Māori waka
References
Bibliography
Best, E. (1982). Maori Religion and Mythology Part 2. Museum of Australia Te Papa Tongarewa.
Craig, R.D. Dictionary of Polynesian Mythology (Greenwood Press: New York, 1989), 24.
Grey, G. Polynesian Mythology, Illustrated edition, reprinted 1976. (Whitcombe and Tombs: Christchurch), 1956.
Jones, P.T.H. (1995). Nga Iwi o Tainui. Auckland University Press. Auckland.
Stafford, D.M. (1967). Te Arawa: A History of the Arawa People. A.H. & A.W. Reed. Rotorua, New Zealand.
Steedman, J.A.W. He Toto: Te Ahu Matua a Nga Tupuna. (Date of publication and publisher unknown)
Taiapa, J. (2002). 150.114 He Tirohanga o Mua: Maori Culture - Study Guide. School of Maori Studies, Massey University, Albany.
Wilson, J. (Ed). (1990). He Korero Purakau mo Nga Taunahanahatanga a Nga Tupuna: Place Names of the Ancestors: A Maori Oral History Atlas. N.Z. Geographic Board, Wellington.
Māori waka
Māori mythology |
4021483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Leavy | Edward Leavy | Edward Leavy (born August 14, 1929) is a Senior United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit and a former judge for the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review. Prior to these positions, Leavy was a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the District of Oregon.
Education and career
Leavy was born in Butteville, Oregon, along the Willamette River south of Portland in 1929. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Portland in 1950, and earned his Bachelor of Laws from the Notre Dame Law School in 1953. Leavy entered private legal practice in Eugene in Lane County, Oregon, in 1953, where he remained until becoming a deputy district attorney for Lane County the following year. He served in that position until 1957.
Judicial career
In 1957, Leavy became a district court judge for the county, and in 1961 became an Oregon circuit court (trial level court in Oregon) judge when the district courts in Oregon were abolished. He continued as a judge in Lane County until 1976, and in 1974 spent time as a justice pro tempore on the Oregon Supreme Court. From 1976 until 1984 he was a United States Magistrate of the United States District Court for the District of Oregon headquartered in Portland.
Leavy was nominated by President Ronald Reagan on March 26, 1984, to a seat on the United States District Court for the District of Oregon vacated by Judge Robert C. Belloni. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on April 24, 1984, and received commission on May 3, 1984. His service terminated on April 8, 1987, due to elevation to the Ninth Circuit.
Leavy was nominated by President Reagan on February 2, 1987, to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit vacated by Judge Otto Richard Skopil Jr. He was confirmed by the Senate on March 20, 1987, and received commission on March 23, 1987. He assumed senior status on May 19, 1997.In 2019 he was on panels regarding Donald Trump's asylum ban and Trump's rule against abortion counseling at federally funded facilities.
See also
List of Jewish American jurists
References
Sources
FJC Bio
1929 births
Living people
20th-century American judges
Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
Judges of the United States District Court for the District of Oregon
Oregon state court judges
Justices of the Oregon Supreme Court
Notre Dame Law School alumni
Lawyers from Eugene, Oregon
People from Marion County, Oregon
United States court of appeals judges appointed by Ronald Reagan
United States district court judges appointed by Ronald Reagan
United States magistrate judges
University of Portland alumni
Judges of the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review |
4021499 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicente%20Liem%20de%20la%20Paz | Vicente Liem de la Paz | Vicente Liêm of Peace (Spanish: Vicente Liêm de la Paz) (Vietnamese: Vinh Sơn Hòa Bình) (1732 – November 7, 1773) was a Tonkinese (present day northern Vietnam) Dominican friar venerated as a saint and martyr by the Catholic Church.
He was born Phạm Hiếu Liêm at Trà Lũ village, in the phủ of Thiên Trường, Nam Định Province, Tonkin in 1732 to Christian parents, Antôn and Maria Doãn, members of the Tonkinese nobility. When he fell gravely ill several days after his birth, he was baptized by Fr. Chien de Santo Tomas, taking the name of Vincent. He was later brought by his parents to a missionary center where he learned catechism. In 1738, King Philip V of Spain opened the Colegio de San Juan de Letran and the University of Santo Tomas (UST) in the Philippines to Chinese and Tonkinese students through a scholarship program. The Vicariate Apostolic of Eastern Tonkin, ran by Dominican friars at the time, decided to let Liêm and four other Tonkinese (Jose de Santo Tomas, Juan de Santo Domingo, Pedro Martir and Pedro de San Jacinto) study in the Philippines under this scholarship.
Vicente took the trivium and the quadrivium in Colegio de San Juan de Letran, now the equivalent of elementary and secondary education. He finished a degree of lector of humanities at Letran. He continued his collegiate education at the University of Santo Tomas while residing at Letran. In September 1753, after completing his studies at Letran, he entered the Dominican order, along with his three Tonkinese companions. A year later, they made their solemn professions. On January 28, 1755, he received the tonsure and minor orders at the Church of Sta. Ana. In 1758 Liêm was ordained priest under the Dominican order. On September of that year, he passed the examinations to hear confessions. On October 3, he started his journey back to his homeland and arrived on January 20, 1759.
Upon arriving in his homeland, he was appointed professor in Trung Linh seminary. On October 2, 1773, he and his two assistants were arrested at "Co Dou". He and his assistants were beaten up, after which they traveled on foot to the village of recorded as "Dou Hoi." There he met another Dominican priest, the Spaniard Jacinto Castañeda. They were presented to the Vice Governor and to the Royal Minister. They were thrown to a cage for a night. The arrival of a High Minister prompted their transfer to Kien Nam, where the King held his court. While under detention, they still managed to preach Catholicism to the people. Later they were taken to Tan Cau, then to the house of Canh Thuy. Finally they were brought to the King where they were tried. Their trial led for the King to be angry and they were thrown to jail. After several days, the King brought down the guilty verdict with the penalty of beheading. The execution occurred on November 7, 1773. After the execution, the Christians who were present at the site carried away the bodies of de la Paz and Castañeda, where they were laid to rest at the town of Trung Linh in Xuan Truong, Nam Định. Several more Christian missionaries were put to death by the Tonkinese authorities.
The process of beatification of de la Paz and Casteñeda, as well as other Dominican martyrs, was initiated through Vicar Apostolic Bishop Ignacio Delgado. They were beatified by Pope Pius X with his feast day on November 6. Pope John Paul II canonization the Dominican martyrs along with a total of 117 martyrs in total on June 19, 1988, with the feast day of the group on November 24.
See also
Vietnamese Martyrs
Saint Vicente Liem de la Paz, patron saint archive
References
Attwater, Donald and Catherine Rachel John. The Penguin Dictionary of Saints. 3rd edition. New York: Penguin Books, 1993. .
External links
St. Vicente Liem de la Paz at Catholic Online
Biography of St. Vincente Liem de la Paz
1732 births
1773 deaths
Colegio de San Juan de Letran alumni
University of Santo Tomas alumni
Members of the Dominican Order
Martyred Roman Catholic priests
18th-century Roman Catholic martyrs
Vietnamese Roman Catholic saints
People from Nam Định province |
4021505 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapacura%20language | Chapacura language | Chapacura, or Guapore, was a Chapacuran language.
References
Chapacuran languages |
4021512 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted%20Wells | Ted Wells | Theodore V. "Ted" Wells, Jr. (born April 28, 1950) is an American lawyer who works in the field of criminal law. A litigation partner at the New York law firm of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison LLP, Wells has been selected by the National Law Journal as one of America's best white-collar defense attorneys on numerous occasions. Wells received his B.A. from College of the Holy Cross, his M.B.A. from Harvard Business School, and his J.D. from Harvard Law School. He and his wife, former Secretary of State of New Jersey Nina Mitchell Wells, reside in Livingston, New Jersey.
Wells attended Holy Cross at the same time as Clarence Thomas, now a Supreme Court justice. Both participated in a walkout based on their beliefs of unfair racially motivated practices on the part of the college. The two were part of the same organization for African-American students at Holy Cross.
In 2019 Wells represented ExxonMobil in People of the State of New York v. Exxon Mobil Corp., a suit alleging that the company misled the company's investors about management of risks posed by climate change.
Wells represented Lewis "Scooter" Libby, Jr., who was convicted on March 6, 2007, in the CIA leak grand jury investigation for perjury, obstruction of justice, and lying to the FBI. Wells filed an appeal of Libby's convictions, but dropped the appeal in December 2007 after President Bush commuted Libby's 30-month prison sentence.
Some of Wells' more notable clients include Michael Espy, Senator Robert Torricelli, and Congressman Floyd Flake. He represented former New York Governor Eliot Spitzer against allegations stemming from his alleged involvement in a prostitution ring.
In 2008 Wells won a $364.2 million verdict for Citigroup in a trial against Parmalat. Parmalat had been asking for $2 billion in damages. The jury found that Citi was not liable, and gave Citi the highest verdict award permissible.
Wells also has represented several major corporations during class action lawsuits including Merck, Philip Morris, and Johnson and Johnson.
In November 2013, the National Football League hired Wells to prepare a report on a bullying incident with the Miami Dolphins involving Richie Incognito. The report, released on February 14, 2014, made headlines for its finding of "a pattern of harassment".
Wells also served as the national Treasurer to Democrat Bill Bradley's presidential campaign.
In 2015, Ted Wells was again hired by the NFL, this time to investigate the New England Patriots' alleged "Deflategate" infractions. His report concluded that it was "more probable than not" that Tom Brady was "generally aware" of tampering with NFL game footballs during the 2015 AFC Championship Game. Ted Wells's independence and impartiality has been called into question in the wake of the report because of his extensive prior business relations with the NFL, his use of a scientific consultancy with a reputation for questionable client-serving results, and because of his track-record of success exculpating high-profile clients and corporations during public scandals. Eventually, Judge Richard Berman overturned Tom Brady's suspension in the Deflategate saga that had been based on Wells's report; however the Second Circuit Court of Appeals reinstated it in 2016.
Notes
References
"Profiles in Power: The 100 Most Influential Lawyers in America", National Law Journal, June 19, 2006.
Linton Weeks, "Ted Wells, Center Of the Defense: Scooter Libby's Attorney Makes His Case for the Powerful", The Washington Post, February 21, 2007.
Eric Lichtblau, "A Libby Lawyer Long Used to the Legal Spotlight", The New York Times, November 5, 2005.
Alan Feuer and Benjamin Weiser, "For Spitzer, Lawyers Both Formidable and Familiar Prepare to Do Battle", The New York Times, March 14, 2008.
Michael Reardon, "THE PROFILE: Theodore V. Wells Jr. ’72", Holy Cross Magazine, Fall 2005; accessed April 9, 2008.
Kevin Bohn and Paul Courson, "Democrats to Bush: Don't pardon Libby", CNN.com, March 7, 2007; accessed April 9, 2008.
Ken Bensinger and Ralph Vartabedian, "Toyota Calls in Exponent Inc. as Hired Gun, "The Los Angeles Times", February 18, 2010; accessed May 14, 2015.
Lloyd Grove, "The Scandal Guru", The Daily Beast, March 11, 2010; accessed May 14, 2015.
External links
Paul, Weiss | Lawyers | Theodore V. Wells, Jr.
Paul, Weiss Homepage
1950 births
New Jersey lawyers
Harvard Law School alumni
Harvard Business School alumni
People from Livingston, New Jersey
Living people
Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison people
College of the Holy Cross alumni
New Jersey Democrats |
4021522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sharp%20Things | The Sharp Things | The Sharp Things is an American, New York City-based chamber pop collective, led by singer/songwriter Perry Serpa (born 1965). Current members include Jim Santo, Aisha Cohen, Michelle Caputo, James Pertusi, and Andrea Dovalle.
Career
The band originated in the late 1990s as a recording project of Serpa and drummer Steve Gonzalez. The band's name was taken from the title of an unreleased demo tape, Here Come The Sharp Things, which in turn was taken from a lyric to a never-recorded song, the title of which is now forgotten. Guitarist Santo (formerly of Jenifer Convertible), joined in 1997 and the trio adopted The Sharp Things as its name for performances at small clubs on the Lower East Side of New York City.
The Sharp Things steadily added members over the next few years and began to broaden its musical palette with strings, horns, woodwinds, keyboards and other instruments. The group's first album, Here Comes The Sharp Things (an entirely different set of songs from the similarly entitled demo tape) was released in the United States in 2002 on Dive Records.
Comprising songs recorded by two different ensembles in 2000 and 2001, and largely produced by Serpa and Santo in the former's basement studio in Queens, New York, Here Comes The Sharp Things won critical acclaim for its lush, melancholy blend of British folk revival, classical music, jazz and 1970s radio pop influences. Favorable comparisons were drawn to a diverse list of artists, including Burt Bacharach, Brian Wilson, Nick Cave, Talk Talk, The Left Banke and Randy Newman. A cassette-only release appeared in 2003 on the Italian label Best Kept Secret, followed by a release in the United Kingdom on Setanta Records in the spring of 2004. In August of that year, the song "Demon Of Love" was released by Nettwerk on Public Display of Affection: The Sound of Independent Radio, a compilation of songs chosen by program directors from four of the most influential public radio stations in the United States; The Sharp Things were picked by Rita Houston of Fordham University station WFUV.
Foxes & Hounds was released in 2005 on Bar/None Records. In contrast to the lo-fi, homemade approach of the debut, the second album was entirely recorded and mixed in professional recording studios in New York City. Foxes & Hounds also marked the emergence of The Sharp Things as a relatively stable line-up, and coincided with a stepped-up schedule of performances. R&B, blues, disco and rock influences manifested themselves in the songs on the album.
The Sharp Things began recording their third album on October 14, 2006. Entitled A Moveable Feast, the album features performances by The New York Symphonic Arts Ensemble. The 40-piece orchestra, conducted by Sybille Werner, was recorded on November 9, 2006, at the Julia Richman Education Complex in Manhattan. Other performers include Tony Award-winning actor and musician Michael Cerveris; Franz Nicolay, keyboardist for The Hold Steady; and tenor saxophonist Stuart D. Bogie of Antibalas.
Returning to the homemade approach of Here Comes A Sharp Things, A Moveable Feast was recorded in various kitchens, living rooms and basements around New York City by producer Billy "Prince Polo" Szeflinski. The album was mixed March 8–12, 2007, by Alex Lipsen at Headgear Recording in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. At the urging of Bar/None owner Glenn Morrow, an additional song, "Cruel Thing," was recorded April 26–27, 2007, at Truth & Soul, also in Williamsburg. Clay Wells Holley was recording engineer, and mixed the song with Szeflinski.
A Moveable Feast was released June 26, 2007 on Bar/None Records.
On September 28, 2009, The Sharp Things began recording what was to become a four-album series titled Dogs Of Bushwick. Again produced by Szeflinski, the recordings were primarily done at The Kennel Recording Studio in Bushwick, Brooklyn, a facility owned by Santo that closed in April 2014. Between July 23, 2010 and September 15, 2010, the band sponsored a Kickstarter fundraising drive that received more than $3,600 in pledges to fund the album's recording. A second campaign, on Indiegogo between February 1, 2014 and April 2, 2014, again raised more than $3,600. Further recording and mixing was done at Danbro Studios in Brooklyn and at Dubway Studios in Manhattan.
A free digital single, "It's Alright," originally recorded by Black Sabbath and written and sung by drummer Bill Ward, was released in November 2012 to promote the album series. The first album in the Dogs Of Bushwick series, Green Is Good, was released on February 26, 2013, on Dive Records. The second album in the series, The Truth Is Like The Sun, was released on November 26, 2013, also on Dive.
On September 26, 2013, The Sharp Things returned to the concert stage for the first time in three years, performing at Galapagos Art Space, located in the DUMBO section of Brooklyn. The performance was recorded by Jon D'Uva and released on March 20, 2014 as Live At Galapagos Art Space.
On July 17, 2014, Serpa announced on the band's Facebook page that the next album in the Dogs Of Bushwick series would be titled Adventurer's Inn. According to Serpa, the album was "named after a long dismantled amusement park where I spent many great days when I was child." The album was released December 2, 2014. A single from the album, "Love Me Indigo," received airplay on several Triple A radio stations in the United States, including WTMD, in Towson, Maryland, which hosted a live concert broadcast of The Sharp Things in February 2015.
Drummer and founding member Steve Gonzalez died September 11, 2014. He was 49. The band, which had been booked to perform that evening at Mercury Lounge in New York City, learned of his death shortly before taking the stage. The performance was recorded and distributed digitally by the New York City-based concert blogger NYC Taper.
Selected Songs 2002-2014, compiled from the band's discography to date, was released by Dive Records on December 25, 2014.
In 2015 the band began performing in smaller ensembles, often without a drummer. The group supported The Church on nine U.S. dates in March of that year, as a duo and quartet. In September, Serpa and Pertusi played two shows in England, opening for Caravan Of Thieves and The Polyphonic Spree; this resulted in The Sharp Things being invited to open for the Spree on five dates of their U.S. tour in November 2015.
EverybodyEverybody, the fourth and final album in the Dogs Of Bushwick series, was released February 19, 2016 on Ropeadope Records.
Discography
Here Comes The Sharp Things November 2002 (Dive)
Here Comes The Sharp Things June 2003 (Best Kept Secret)
Here Comes The Sharp Things May 2004 (Setanta)
Public Display of Affection: The Sound of Independent Radio August 2004 (Nettwerk)
Foxes & Hounds May 2005 (Bar/None)
A Moveable Feast June 2007 (Bar/None)
"It's Alright" (digital single) November 2012 (Dive)
Green Is Good February 2013 (Dive)
The Truth Is Like The Sun November 2013 (Dive)
Live at Galapagos Art Space March 2014 (Dive)
International Pop Overthrow, Vol. 17 October 2014 (Pop Geek Heaven)
Adventurer's Inn December 2014 (Dive)
Selected Songs 2002-2014 December 2014 (Dive)
EverybodyEverybody February 2016 (Ropeadope)
References
External links
Official web site
American pop music groups
Musical groups from Brooklyn |
4021526 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shizuka%20Kudo | Shizuka Kudo | , known by her maiden name , is a Japanese singer, actress and former idol, born in Hamura, Tokyo, Japan. She was a member of Onyanko Club between May 1986 and September 1987 and went on to have a successful solo career with 11 number-one hits.
Biography
Kudo began her singing career at the age of 14 as a member of three-piece pop unit Seventeen Club consisted of runners-up from the 1984 Miss Seventeen Contest organized by Japanese teen magazine Seventeen, which Shuesha publishes. They had two singles released by CBS/Sony Records in 1985. Their first single "Su Ki Futari Tomo!" was released on 21 January 1985, and was used in television advertisements for snack food products "Suzuki Kun" and "Sato Kun" manufactured and sold by S&B Foods. The second single "Baajin Kuraishisu (Virgin Crisis)" was released on 25 August 1985. Its lyrics were written by Sunplaza Nakano-kun, who was a lead singer of Japanese rock band Bakufu Slump. Kudo later said that she hated the second single and that she joined the group "just to have fun". With the two singles having failed to chart on the Oricon's Japanese single chart (the national single chart), the group couldn't gain much popularity and disbanded thereafter.
Onyanko Club made its television debut on 1 April 1985, on Fuji TV's daily live television variety show Yūyake Nyan Nyan. Initially the group consisted of nine high school girls and two high school graduates, namely Sayuri Kokusho (number 8) and Satomi Fukunaga (number 11). They were selected from participants in Fuji TV's show aired in February and March that year. Kudo auditioned for the group in May 1986 during her first year in high school and became a member with number 38 assigned on 23 May. The group gave a new approach to the idol formula with 52 members and three associate members as well as subgroups, such as Ushiroyubi Sasaregumi, Nyangilas and Ushirogami Hikaretai.
After having appeared on the one-hour daily TV show from Monday to Friday regularly and having participated in Onyanko Club's fifth single "Osaki ni Shitsurei" as well as its nationwide concert tour in the summer and fall of 1986, Kudo was selected as one of two backing vocals for Onyanko Club number 36 member Marina Watanabe's first single "Shinkokyu-shite", along with Akiko Ikuina (number 40). The single was released under the name of "Watanabe Marina with Onyanko Club" by Epic/Sony Records on 8 October 1986, and debuted at number one on the single chart. Kudo continued to participate in Onyanko Club's recordings, such as its fourth album Side Line, which was the first one of its albums Kudo participated in and contains few songs in which Kudo had solo vocal parts, such as "Dare no Sei Kana" and "Shin-Shin Kaiin Bangou no Uta".
In the spring of 1987, Kudo was selected as one of the three members of Ushirogami Hikaretai along with Akiko Ikuina and Makiko Saito (number 42). The group's first single "Toki no Kawa wo Koete" was released by Canyon Records on 7 May 1987, and debuted at number one on the single chart. The song and its B-side "Ushirogami Hikaretai" were used as an opening theme and ending theme, respectively, of Fuji TV's anime High School! Kimengumi. Also, Kudo was featured as one of the four main vocals for Onyanko Club's eighth single "Katatsumuri Samba" released by Canyon Records on 21 May 1987. It debuted at number one on the single chart. Ushirogami Hikaretai subsequently released four more singles, two studio albums and two videos from July 1987 to June 1988 with a live album released as its final material in July 1988 (Hora ne, Haru ga Kita – First Concert).
Kudo has said of her time in Onyanko Club that "it was a great experience, with good, bad and really dirty things", and that she tried not to draw too much attention to herself over senior Onyanko Club members who were more popular than her at that time.
Less than three weeks before Onyanko Club disbanded on 20 September 1987 with its two-day final concerts at Yoyogi National Gymnasium in Tokyo, Kudo launched her solo career with her first single "Kindan no Telepathy" released by Canyon Records on 31 August. It debuted at number one on the single chart and also became a favorite throughout Asia during the early 1990s. The second and third singles, "Again" and "Daite-kuretara-iinoni", had moderate success, both reaching number three on the single chart. Released on 1 June 1988, the fourth single "Fu-ji-tsu" reached number one on the chart. The song drew attention as its lyrics were written by famed and critically acclaimed Japanese singer-songwriter Miyuki Nakajima. The number of its sales exceeded that of each of the three previous singles. The fifth single "Mugon... Iroppoi", whose lyrics were written by Nakajima again, was used in television advertisements for cosmetics products of Japanese company Kanebo Cosmetics, and reached number one on the chart. It was sold more than double the previous single. She eventually enjoyed a run of eight consecutive number-one singles in Japan between 1988 and 1990, eleven in total, and four number-one albums between 1988 and 1991.
She continued to release new music every year until 2000 with sporadic releases since then. Her most recent release came in 2008 when she teamed up with Miyuki Nakajima, who wrote lyrics of five of Kudo's number-one singles in the late 80s and early 90s, for a double A-side, "Night Wing"/"Yuki Gasa". Kudo said of their long-term working relationship that "We are not that close. We have a nice distance. Sometimes when I hear her music, it scares me but I especially like her passionate lyrics."
Kudo also appears on television in jidaigeki roles and also creates her own jewelry sold in Japan.
Personal life
Kudo married Takuya Kimura of popular boy-band SMAP in 2000. They have two children named Kokomi and Mitsuki.
Discography
Mysterious (21 January 1988)
Shizuka (21 July 1988)
Gradation (30 November 1988)
Joy (15 March 1989)
Karelia (4 October 1989)
HARVEST (6 December 1989)
Rosette (4 April 1990)
Mind Universe (6 March 1991)
Trinity (18 March 1992)
Rise Me (1 April 1993)
Expose (7 September 1994)
Purple (2 August 1995)
Doing (17 May 1996)
Dress (19 March 1997)
I'm Not (29 April 1998)
Full of Love (2 June 1999)
EURO Kudo Shizuka (20 September 2000)
Jewelry Box (3 July 2002)
Showa no Kaidan Vol.1 (30 October 2002)
Tsukikage (1 June 2005)
MY PRECIOUS (20 August 2008)
Rin (30 August 2017)
Deep Breath (12 June 2019)
References
Sources
Onyanko Club
1970 births
Japanese actresses
Living people
People from Hamura, Tokyo
Pony Canyon artists
Singers from Tokyo
21st-century Japanese women singers
Japanese idols
Japanese women pop singers
20th-century Japanese women singers |
4021532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gitxsan%20language | Gitxsan language | The Gitxsan language , or Gitxsanimaax (also rendered Gitksan, Giatikshan, Gityskyan, Giklsan), is an endangered Tsimshianic language of northwestern British Columbia, closely related to the neighboring Nisga’a language. The two groups are, however, politically separate and prefer to refer to Gitxsan and Nisga'a as distinct languages. According to the 2016 census there were 1,020 native speakers.
Gitxsan means "People of the Skeena River" ( being the name of the Skeena in Gitxsan).
Dialects
Gitxsan language is primarily separated into Eastern and Western Gitxsan, although each village has its own dialect. The Eastern villages include Kispiox (Ansbayaxw), Glen Vowell (Sigit'ox), and Hazelton (Git-an'maaxs). The Western villages include Kitwanga (Gjtwjngax), Gitanyow (Git-antaaw) and Kitseguecla (Gijigyukwhla). The main differences between dialects include a lexical shift in vowels and stop lenition use present only in the Eastern dialects. The largest differences in language and culture exist between Eastern and Western Gitxsan, rather than between each village.
History and usage
The University of Northern British Columbia and Siiwiixo'osxwim Wilnataahl Gitksan Society (Gitksan Language Society) set up a Developmental Standard Term Certificate program offered through Northwest Community College, with all courses offered in Hazelton, BC. The program is designed to help revitalize Gitxsan language by allowing those who complete it to teach language and culture courses at the elementary and secondary school level in the community.
In the spring of 2018, an online dictionary app was released in collaboration with members of Gitksan Nation and researchers at the University of British Columbia. The app includes various dialects of Gitxsan, and includes audio from different villages. Flashcards, stories, and histories are also included in addition to functioning as a dictionary. This app is based on a print dictionary produced in 1973 by Lonnie Hindle and Bruce Rigsby. With its launch, the app briefly held a top spot in Google Play's education category and accumulated around 500 downloads in its first week.
Phonology
The Gitxsan inventory is as follows:
The mid and high vowels are nearly in complementary distribution, suggesting that Gitxsan once had a three-vowel system. Short mid vowels are emerging. Schwa only occurs in unstressed syllables. /e:/ and /o:/ have short allophones [e] and [o] in certain positions.
The pre-velar obstruents become velar before and .
References
Further reading
Halpin, Marjorie, and Margaret Seguin (1990) "Tsimshian Peoples: Southern Tsimshian, Coast Tsimshian, Nishga, and Gitksan." In Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 7: Northwest Coast, ed. by Wayne Suttles, pp. 267–284. Washington: Smithsonian Institution).
Hindle, Lonnie and Bruce Rigsby (1973) A Short Practical Dictionary of the Gitksan language, Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 1:1-60.
External links
Official website of the Gitxsan People
First Voices Gitsenimx̱ community language portal
First Nations Languages of British Columbia Gitksan page, with link to bibliography
A Selection of Prayers Translated from the Book of Common Prayer in the Giatikshan Language for Use at the Public Services 1881 translation by Anglican missionary William Ridley
OLAC resources in and about the Gitxsan language
ELAR archive of Gitskan
L01
Tsimshianic languages
Endangered Tsimshianic languages
Indigenous languages of the Pacific Northwest Coast
First Nations languages in Canada |
4021535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robertson%20Boulevard%20%28Los%20Angeles%29 | Robertson Boulevard (Los Angeles) | Robertson Boulevard is a street in Los Angeles, in the U.S. state of California, that also passes through the incorporated cities of West Hollywood, Beverly Hills, and Culver City.
Location
Robertson Boulevard is a major north–south thoroughfare on the Westside of Los Angeles running through one of its neighborhoods, Pico-Robertson and between two of its neighborhoods, Beverlywood and Crestview. Its northern end is slightly to the north of Santa Monica Boulevard at Keith Avenue in West Hollywood and its southern end is at Washington Boulevard in Culver City. Robertson Boulevard is accessible via exit #6 on the Santa Monica Freeway (Interstate 10).
Overview
The northern part of the street in West Hollywood and Beverly Hills is a trendy tree-lined shopping district. In West Hollywood, the neighborhood surrounding Robertson Boulevard consists mostly of high-density apartment buildings and condominiums. The residential area surrounding the Robertson Boulevard shopping district in Beverly Hills is more family-oriented and is made up mostly of single-family residences.
Robertson Boulevard has recently become a haven for celebrities and paparazzi. This is partially due to a large influx of unique boutiques and designer clothing & jewelry stores such as Agnes B, Curve, Lisa Kline, Kitson Boutique, Williams Sonoma, Armani Exchange, Michael Kors, Ralph Lauren, Ted Baker, M·A·C, Chanel, Gypsy05, Intermix, Tory Burch, Max Azria, Beach Bunny Swimwear, and Erica Courtney (right next door to The Ivy) which is a mecca for many celebrity shoppers. In addition, several popular celebrity-infused eateries are located on Robertson Boulevard, such as The Ivy. The Kabbalah Centre is also located on the street.
South of West Hollywood and Beverly Hills and north of Culver City, Pico-Robertson, Beverlywood and Crestview are upper-middle-class neighborhoods in West Los Angeles with a historical and substantial Jewish population. Alexander Hamilton High School, a highly diverse high school in the Beverlywood neighborhood in West Los Angeles is on Robertson Boulevard.
The southern terminus of Robertson Boulevard is Washington Boulevard in Culver City, where it then continues as Higuera Street (which itself later becomes Obama Boulevard).
The Robertson Branch of Los Angeles Public Library is located at 1719 S. Robertson near the intersection of Airdrome.
Public transportation
Metro Local line 617 runs along Robertson Boulevard. The Metro E Line operates a rail station at Venice Boulevard.
References
Streets in Los Angeles
Streets in Los Angeles County, California
Boulevards in the United States
Culver City, California
Streets in West Hollywood, California
Westside (Los Angeles County)
Economy of Los Angeles
West Los Angeles |
4021550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Jelen | Ben Jelen | Benjamin Ivan Jelen (born 8 July 1979) is a Scottish-born American former singer-songwriter who plays the piano, violin, and guitar. He has lived in Scotland, England, Texas, New Jersey and New York. His career has been characterized by near-stardom, with his debut album, Give It All Away peaking at No. 113 on the Billboard 200 list. As of 2011, he is on indefinite hiatus from his solo career and is working with a new band, along with former Deuce Project member Josh McMillan known as Under The Elephant.
Early life
Jelen attended high school in San Antonio, Texas briefly, as a freshman at Northside Health Careers High School. He completed high school at Princeton High School in Princeton, New Jersey and graduated from Rutgers University with a degree in biology. After that, he moved to New York City to work as a producer and sound engineer at a local recording studio.
Music career
2004: Give It All Away
Jelen was discovered by Joseph Janus of Fearless Management, who originally wanted to sign him as a model. Instead, Jelen handed him a demo, and shortly thereafter, he was signed to a label and released his debut album Give It All Away in May 2004, promoted by appearances on TRL, AOL Breakers and Rock the Vote. The album also debuted at No. 13 on the Top Internet Albums chart, No. 120 on the Billboard Comprehensive Albums chart and No. 113 on the Billboard 200 albums chart in the United States, making it eligible for the Top Heatseekers chart, a chart of artists who have never entered the top 100 of the Billboard 200. The album debuted at No. 1 on the Top Heatseekers chart.
Debut single "Come On" was a hit, reaching the MTV top 20. It also debuted at No. 58 on the Hot Singles Sales chart. Apart from "Give It All Away" being included as a B-side to the "Come On" single, no other track from the album was released as a single.
2005–2006: Independent period
Following his debut album, Jelen left Maverick Records and independently released the EP Rejected through Fearless Management Records in 2005. He wrote and recorded a song for a compilation album for Tori Amos' RAINN organization and joined the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) and Wildlife Works. Jelen also appeared on the compilation album Breaking for the Holidays in 2006 with his self-produced cover of Joni Mitchell's "River" through Breaking Records.
2007: Custard Records deal and Ex-Sensitive
Jelen performed at the 2007 South by Southwest (SXSW) conference and music festival in Austin, Texas, in a lineup that also included Taylor Hicks, Amy Winehouse, Tom Morello, Mika, Martina Topley Bird, The Fratellis, Bloc Party, Paolo Nutini, Rodrigo y Gabriela, Mogwai and Spoon.
Jelen's second full-length album, Ex-Sensitive, was released on 17 July 2007. The album, formerly titled East and Pulse, was produced by Linda Perry and mixed by Bill Bottrell.
2009 – Under The Elephant
Jelen has placed his solo career on hold to focus on a new group Under The Elephant. The band consists of Jelen, Josh McMillan, Lisa McMillan, Tina Mathieu and James Darwin "Jimmy" Stull. The group is, as of 1 March 2010, unsigned.
Personal life
Jelen met model Fern Palmer in a New York City night club on 6 January 2004. The couple married on 28 June 2009 in a private garden wedding in Palmer's hometown of Cleveland, Georgia. Jelen and Palmer have one child together, a daughter named Tallulah Rose Jelen born in 2013. As of April 23, 2019, the couple is separated.
In November 2018, Jelen completed a Ph.D program in Environmental Science at Rutgers University, successfully defending his dissertation titled, "The Evolution of Microbial Electron Transfer on Earth."
Television and film
Jelen's music has been featured on the TV shows One Tree Hill, Smallville and Las Vegas, and was used to promote the Academy Award-nominated Finding Neverland starring Johnny Depp and Kate Winslet. "Come On" also features in the film Love Wrecked with Amanda Bynes and in 2007, the instrumental version of "Come On" was featured trailers for The Bucket List. His song, "Where Do We Go" also appeared in the film Fired Up. In 2013, Jelen's single "Come On" was used in promotions for the film Monsters University.
Jelen, a graduate of Princeton High School, also guest starred on the Princeton-set television show House as a doctor applying for a fellowship in the episode "Kids".
Discography
Albums
Give It All Away (2004) No. 113 US
Rejected (2005)
Ex-Sensitive (2007)
Wreckage (EP) (2008)
Digital-only albums
Sessions@AOL (2004)
Singles
"Come On/Give It All Away" (2004) (#58 U.S. Hot Singles Sales)
"Where Do We Go" (2007)
"Wreckage" (2008)
Other contributions
"Come On" on the compilation "CG Vibes: Music That Gives Back", available for five months in 2004 and supplied free with The Corrs' Borrowed Heaven, Toby Lightman's Little Things, Brandy's Afrodisiac and his own Give It All Away
"Truth" on the compilation "For the Next X: A Benefit CD for RAINN" (2004)
"Talking About A Revolution" (cover of Tracy Chapman's song of the same name) on the Russell Simmons/Babyface compilation Wake Up Everybody (2004)
"Forever in Our Hearts" (playing keyboards and violin), a single for tsunami relief (2005)
"River" (cover of the Joni Mitchell song of the same name) on the compilation Breaking for the Holidays (2006)
"Woman" (cover of John Lennon's song of the same name) on Instant Karma: The Amnesty International Campaign to Save Darfur (2007)
References
External links
Ben Jelen official site
Ben Jelen Foundation
Ben Jelen interview on FR*A
1979 births
Custard Records artists
Maverick Records artists
Living people
Scottish male television actors
21st-century Scottish male singers
Scottish pop singers
Scottish songwriters
Rutgers University alumni
Musicians from New Jersey
Princeton High School (New Jersey) alumni
British male songwriters |
4021566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Danish%20government%20ministries | List of Danish government ministries | List of Danish government ministries, past and present. In Denmark, ministries change often, both when new governments are installed and during specific governments rule. Names are changed, the organizational structure is changed, some ministries are fused, some are discontinued, some are revived, some are newly created. There are currently 18 ministries in the Cabinet of Denmark. The Minister for Nordic Cooperation serves as a minister without portfolio, and thus no "Ministry of Nordic Cooperation" exists.
Current Danish ministries
Ministry of the State ()
Ministry of Business and Growth ()
Ministry of Culture ()
Ministry of Defence ()
Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs () is with the Ministry of Education
Ministry for Children, Education and Gender Equality ()
Ministry of Employment ()
Ministry of Energy, Utilities and Climate ()
Ministry of Environment and Food ()
Ministry of Finance ()
Ministry of Foreign Affairs ()
Ministry of Health ()
Ministry of Higher Education and Science ()
Ministry of Immigration, Integration and Housing Affairs ()
Ministry of Justice ()
Ministry of Social affairs and the Interior ()
Ministry of Taxation ()
Ministry of Transport and Building ()
Discontinued or former, formal or informal names of ministries
Sources
Rigsarkivets Samlinger Danish National Archives ("Rigsarkivet")
Statsministerier - Ministries |
4021586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Association%20of%20Colleges%20of%20Osteopathic%20Medicine | American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine | The American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine (AACOM) is a non-profit organization that supports the 38 accredited colleges of osteopathic medicine (COMs) in the United States. These colleges are accredited to deliver instruction at 61 teaching locations in 35 states. In the current academic year, these colleges are educating more than 36,500 future physicians—25 percent of all U.S. medical students. Seven of the colleges are public and 31 are private institutions.
AACOM serves as a unifying voice for osteopathic medical education (OME), fostering collaboration among its member institutions, and is active in advocacy at the federal government level. The Association is governed by its Board of Deans and led by President Robert A. Cain, DO
AACOM often works in collaboration with other allied organizations and promotes public awareness for osteopathic medicine and OME. The association provides centralized services to its members, including data collection and analysis, and operation of its online application service, AACOMAS, for prospective students applying to U.S. osteopathic medical schools.
Mission
AACOM provides leadership for the osteopathic medical education community by promoting excellence in medical education, research and service, and by fostering innovation and quality across the continuum of osteopathic medical education to improve the health of the American public.
History
Osteopathic medicine was founded in the late 1800s in Kirksville, Missouri, by Andrew Taylor Still, MD, DO, a medical doctor who recognized that the medical practices of the day often caused more harm than good. He focused on developing a system of medical care that would promote the body's innate ability to heal itself and called this system of medicine osteopathy, now known as osteopathic medicine.
In 2012, AACOM worked with the Association of American Medical Colleges to improve medical education on post-traumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injuries.
Osteopathic physicians, also known as DOs, work in partnership with their patients. They consider the impact that lifestyle and community have on the health of each individual, and they work to break down barriers to good health. DOs are licensed to practice the full scope of medicine in all 50 states. They practice in all types of environments, including the military, and in all types of specialties, from family medicine to obstetrics, surgery, and aerospace medicine.
Publications
AACOM publishes the Student Guide to Osteopathic Medical Colleges annually and Inside OME, a biweekly e-newsletter covering news related to osteopathic medicine and OME, legislation, updates on the transition to a single graduate medical education (GME) system, and more. AACOM also publishes a number of reports throughout the year which focus on original research and data in OME.
AACOM Councils
Created by the AACOM Board of Deans, AACOM councils support the work of the Association on behalf of all member colleges. Councils typically meet twice a year and collaborate regularly through the AACOMmunities online forum. AACOM also hosts online discussions for a wide variety of ad hoc committees and other interest groups in AACOMmunities.
Programs and initiatives
AACOM also sponsors or co-sponsors a variety of programs and initiatives for audiences at every level of osteopathic medical education, from students to senior administrators. AACOM also offers opportunities for both medical students and health care professionals, including scholarships, internships, fellowships, and grants.
See also
Association of Osteopathic Directors and Medical Educators
List of medical specialty colleges in the United States
References
External links
AACOM's official website
School accreditors
Medical education in the United States
Osteopathic medical associations in the United States
Medical and health organizations based in Maryland |
4021588 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Callahan | Harry Callahan | Harry Callahan may refer to:
Harry Callahan (photographer) (1912–1999), American photographer
Harry Callahan (character) or Dirty Harry, as fictional police detective portrayed by Clint Eastwood
See also
Henry Callahan (1957–1982), American sportsman |
4021589 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Philosophy%20of%20Freedom | The Philosophy of Freedom | The Philosophy of Freedom is the fundamental philosophical work of philosopher, Goethe scholar and esotericist Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925). It addresses the question of whether and in what sense human beings are free. Originally published in 1894 in German as Die Philosophie der Freiheit, with a second edition published in 1918, the work has appeared under a number of English titles, including The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity (the title Steiner proposed for the English-language translation), The Philosophy of Freedom, and Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path.
Part One of The Philosophy of Freedom examines the basis of freedom in human thinking, gives an account of the relationship between knowledge and perception, and explores the role and reliability of thinking in the formation of knowledge. In Part Two Steiner analyzes the conditions necessary for human beings to be free, and develops a moral philosophy that he labels as "ethical individualism". The book's subtitle, Some results of introspective observation following the methods of natural science, indicates the philosophical approach Steiner intends to take.
Historical context
Steiner had wanted to write a philosophy of freedom since at least 1880. The appearance of The Philosophy of Freedom in 1894 was preceded by his publications on Goethe, focusing on epistemology and the philosophy of science, particularly Goethe the Scientist (1883) and The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World Conception (1886). In 1891, Steiner presented his doctoral dissertation, an epistemological study that includes discussion of Kant's and Fichte's theories of knowledge. A revised version of the thesis was published a year later in book form as Truth and Knowledge: Introduction to a Philosophy of Freedom, dedicated to Eduard von Hartmann. In the Preface to The Philosophy of Freedom itself, Steiner described the aim of the book: knowledge should become "organically alive". "All real philosophers have been artists in the realm of concepts. For them, human ideas were their artists' materials and scientific method their artistic technique."
While a student in Vienna, Steiner attended some of the lectures of Franz Brentano, an important precursor of the phenomenological movement in philosophy (see School of Brentano). Like the later phenomenologists, Steiner was seeking a way to solve the subject–object problem. Steiner's approach to freedom was also in part inspired by Schiller's On the Aesthetic Education of Man and a response to the scientific works of Goethe, whom Steiner believed had not focused sufficiently on the role of thinking in developing inner freedom.
Steiner was also deeply affected as a young man by Kant's argument in the Critique of Pure Reason that we cannot know things as they are in themselves, and he devotes a long chapter of The Philosophy of Freedom, "Are there Limits to Knowledge?", to a refutation of this view, arguing that there are in principle no limits to knowledge. This claim is important to freedom, because for Steiner freedom involves knowing the real basis of our actions. If this basis cannot be known, then freedom is not possible. Steiner's argument in favour of freedom also responds to determinists such as Spinoza, for whom human action is just as much determined as anything else in the necessity that governs nature as a whole.
Other philosophers discussed or mentioned in The Philosophy of Freedom include George Berkeley, Pierre Jean George Cabanis, Descartes, Ernst Haeckel, Robert Hamerling, von Hartmann, Hegel, David Hume, Johannes Kreyenbuehl, Otto Liebmann, Friedrich Paulsen, Paul Rée, Johannes Rehmke, Schelling, Schopenhauer, Herbert Spencer, and David Strauss.
Arrangement and outline of the book
The Philosophy of Freedom is divided into three parts. The first part - "Knowledge of Freedom" - is epistemological and in a broad sense metaphysical (the nature of reality). The second part -"The Reality of Freedom" - is about freewill and ethics. The title of the third part - "Ultimate Questions" or, in German, 'die letzten Fragen', deals with the nature and consequences of the completely monistic though not materialist view of the world presented in the book.
In his epistemology Steiner seeks to show that we can achieve a true picture of reality only by uniting perception, which reflects only the outer appearance of the world, and conception, which together give us access to the world's inner nature.
In his account of freedom this idea is applied to the question what freedom is. From another epistemological angle, Steiner's account of thinking in Part One becomes his concept of thinking in Part Two. We act freely when we act through the thinking activity of our being. Ethics finds its place as the actions of the free being. The very short Part Three places this activity and the cognitive activity of man in the context of the world considered as an epistemological whole.
Knowledge of Freedom
Steiner begins exploring the nature of human freedom by accepting "that an action, of which the agent does not know why he performs it, cannot be free," but asking what happens when a person becomes conscious of his or her motives for acting. He proposes (1) that through introspective observation we can become conscious of the motivations of our actions, and (2) that the sole possibility of human freedom, if it exists at all, must be sought in an awareness of the motives of our actions.
In Chapter 2, "The Fundamental Desire for Knowledge," Steiner discusses how an awareness of the division between mind, or subject, and world, or object, gives rise to a desire to reestablish a unity between these poles. After criticizing solutions to this problem provided by dualism in the philosophy of mind and several forms of monism as one-sided, Steiner suggests that only by locating nature's manifestations within our subjective nature can we overcome this division.
In Chapter 3, "Thinking in the Service of Knowledge," Steiner observes that when confronted with percepts, we feel obliged to think about and add concepts to these: to observation we add thinking. Steiner seeks to demonstrate that what he considers the primary antithesis between observation and thinking underlies all other related antitheses and philosophical distinctions, such as subject vs. object, appearance vs. reality, and so on. For most objects of observation, he points out, we cannot observe both the percept and our thinking about this percept simultaneously, for a tree and thinking about a tree are fundamentally different; we can only attend to one at a time. In contrast, we can simultaneously observe thinking and observe our thoughts about thinking, for here the percept (thinking) and our thinking about the percept consist of the same element (thought): Thinking and thinking about thinking are the same process; observing the latter, we are simultaneously observing the former.
Normally, however, for just that reason we do not pay attention to the process of thinking, only its results, the thoughts themselves: "The first observation which we make about thinking is therefore this: that it is the unobserved element in our ordinary mental and spiritual life". Steiner connects this "first observation" to the fact that thinking is entirely due to our own activity. It does not appear before us unless we ourselves produce it. Nevertheless, when I apprehend the content of thinking, a concept, this is self-justifying, in the sense that it can be asked why I feel this or that way about something, but not why it produces in me this or that concept. Such a question would be "simply meaningless". Their contents justify the relations of concepts to one another.
Furthermore, when observing my thinking, it is always a past instance of thinking that I observe, not a present one. That the thinker and the observer of the thinker are one and the same explains why I can know thinking "more intimately and immediately than any other process in the world" This is what Steiner calls the transparency of our thinking process. To appreciate this point, we must be able to adapt to our own thinking the "exceptional" procedure mentioned above: we must apply it to itself. If we are unable to do this, and we think of thinking as a brain-process, it is because we do not see thinking, because we are unable to take up the exceptional position needed to do so.
Steiner takes Descartes' dictum, "I think, therefore I am," to signify that "I am certain . . . that [thinking] exists in the sense that I myself bring it forth," However, Steiner advances the objection (common to many others, beginning in Descartes' own time), that the further claim that I am is more problematic.
Steiner's full view is found in the following passage.
...thinking must never be regarded as merely a subjective activity. Thinking lies beyond subject and object. It produces these two concepts just as it produces all others. When, therefore, I, as thinking subject, refer a concept to an object, we must not regard this reference as something purely subjective. It is not the subject that makes the reference, but thinking. The subject does not think because it is a subject; rather it appears to itself as a subject because it can think. The activity exercised by thinking beings is thus not merely subjective. Rather is it something neither subjective nor objective, that transcends both these concepts. I ought never to say that my individual subject thinks, but much more that my individual subject lives by the grace of thinking.
The Chapter on thinking is followed by a shorter one on perception, Chapter 4. It contains two main and very important points. Steiner points out the inconsistency of treating all our perceptions as mere subjective mental images inside the brain. If that were true, the perception of the brain itself would have to be a mere subjective mental image inside the brain! In that case the basis for our knowledge of the brain would be completely undermined. The scientific claim is made, on the basis of physiology and psychology, that our percepts are produced by a causal process within the organism and hence are subjective. This is called "critical idealism" But physiology and psychology are based on these percepts. So our knowledge of physiology and psychology is subjective. But then it cannot validate the claim that percepts are subjective. Furthermore, critical idealism leaves unaccounted for the passage from the brain process to the sensation.
What are the consequences of such a view of perception for the concept of knowledge? In Chapter 5 Steiner presents his concept of knowledge. Human beings are two-sided, as they both think and also perceive. The two activities together give a complete view of the world. Knowledge is the union of what is produced in thinking, the concept, and what is produced in perceiving, the percept. Steiner argues that there can be no relationship among the objects of perception other than what is revealed in the ideal element produced by thinking, the concept. Accordingly, the relation between some perceived object and ourselves is also an ideal one.
An important passage analyzes the view that we cannot experience the world itself but only subjective images somewhere inside the brain, or in the soul inside the brain. This view is based on treating the perceptual relationship between self and world as other than ideal, as naively real, just as we perceive it, as a process derived in its content from perception itself.
At the end of Chapter 5 Steiner completes the view of perception begun in Chapter 4. What is the percept that perceiving produces? Steiner rejects this question. 'The question asked in this way is absurd.' For a percept is the determinate content of the perception, and its "what?" - what it is - can only refer to this content.
We can become conscious of our thought processes in a way that we cannot be of our feelings, will or sense perceptions. We know that what we experience in thinking is exactly what it seems, so that appearance and reality become one. By contrast, our feelings' meaning is not directly apparent, while we only perceive the meaning of a percept after some form of conceptual framework has been brought to bear (for example, we give the right spatial meaning to the visually converging lines of railroad tracks through our understanding of perspective). Mathematics is an example of thinking in which thought itself forms the perceptions; no sense-perceptions are needed to form a basis for mathematical principles. In this sense mathematics could be said to be one discipline that studies the inner aspect of reality.
Steiner proposes that the apparent dualism of experience can be overcome by discovering the inner and initially hidden unity of perception and thinking. By observing a thinking process sufficiently intensively, perceiving and thinking can begin to unify. This is knowledge. By the same token, a clear-eyed study of what is revealed in observation can lead to appropriate concepts - thinking.
Steiner argues that thinking is more pervasive in our ordinary perceiving than we often recognize. If, for example, we had not as infants learned, unconsciously, to think with our eyes and limbs, then our eyes, even if functioning perfectly in a physical sense, would see only something like what the philosopher William James referred to as a "blooming buzzing confusion,” or what Steiner referred to as a highly chaotic stage of the “given.” We would not perceive spatial or temporal structure or recognize distinct qualities. If that conclusion seems surprising, that is because the thinking-in-perceiving learned in childhood becomes habitual and automatic long before we attain fully consciousness, so we rarely become aware of the key role cognition plays in even the simplest perceptions. Similarly, we are unconscious of the ways we perceive our thinking.
'Our next task must be to define the concept of "mental picture" more closely', Steiner writes at the end of the Chapter 6. With this concept we arrive at the relation of knowledge to the individual, and to life, and feeling. After an interesting refutation of the subjectivity of percepts, Steiner describes a mental picture as an intuition or thought related to an individual percept. And so the mental picture is defined as an individualized concept.
Experience is the "sum total" of mental pictures of the individual. But there is more to the human being's cognitive inventory than percept, concept and mental picture. There is the relation of these things to the Ego; and this is feeling. Feeling gives our personal relation to the world, and we oscillate between it and the "universal world process" given in thinking. The mental pictures we form gives our mental life an individual stamp, and relates it to our own life.
Chapter 7 takes up the consequences of the view that knowledge consists of the restoration of the unity of the content of the percept and the concept. Steiner calls those who make the epistemological distinction into a permanent metaphysical one dualists. For the monist ‘The world is given to us as a duality, and knowledge transforms it into a unity.' Working with an irresolvable distinction, the dualist is bound to assert that there are limits to knowledge: ‘the “in itself” of a thing.’ For the monist there is no in-principle limit to knowledge.
For monism in Steiner’s sense there are only concepts and percepts, which, united, form the object; for the dualist there is the subject, the object, the percept, and the concept. We must not conceive of the process of perception as though it is naïvely real, as we do when we take perception to be a causal effect of the things as they are in themselves on us. Metaphysical realism is the view that there is an object in the world that is imperceptible as it is in itself, but is also to be conceived naïve realistically. It 'is a contradictory mixture of naïve realism and idealism. Its hypothetical [elements] are imperceptible entities endowed with the qualities of percepts’. For the monist, the process of perception is an ideal relation. The metaphysical realist, however, is left with the unanswerable question how the metaphysically real objects are converted into subjective percepts. Here Steiner can be read as giving his account of the structure and basis of what is today called the mind-body problem.
Steiner's summary of Part I of The Philosophy of Freedom, at the start of Chapter 8 in Part II, contains the following passage:
The world comes to meet me as a multiplicity, a sum of separate details. As a human being, I am myself one of these details, an entity among other entities. We call this form of the world simply the given and—insofar as we do not develop it through conscious activity but find it ready-made—we call it percept. Within the world of percepts, we perceive ourselves. But if something did not emerge out of this self-percept that proved capable of linking both percepts in general and also the sum of all other percepts with the percept of our self, our self-percept would remain simply one among many. This emerging something, however, is no longer a mere percept; nor is it, like percepts, simply present. It is produced through activity and initially appears linked to what we perceive as our self, but its inner meaning reaches beyond the self. It adds conceptual determinates to individual percepts, but these conceptual determinates relate to one another and are grounded in a whole. It determines conceptually what is achieved through self-perception conceptually, just as it determines all other percepts. It places this as the subject or “I” over against objects. This “something” is thinking, and the conceptual determinates are concepts and ideas.
The Reality of Freedom
Steiner begins the second part of the book by emphasizing the role of self-awareness in objective thinking. Here he modifies the usual description of inner and outer experience by pointing out that our feelings, for example, are given to us as naively as outer perceptions. Both of these, feelings and perceptions, tell about objects we are interested in: the one about ourselves, the other about the world. Both require the help of thinking to penetrate the reasons that they arise, to comprehend their inner message. The same is true of our will. Whereas our feelings tell how the world affects us, our will tells how we would affect the world. Neither attains to true objectivity, for both mix the world's existence and our inner life in an unclear way. Steiner emphasizes that we experience our feelings and will - and our perceptions as well – as being more essentially part of us than our thinking; the former are more basic, more natural. He celebrates this gift of natural, direct experience, but points out that this experience is still dualistic in the sense that it only encompasses one side of the world.
With regard to freedom of the will, Steiner observes that a key question is how the will to action arises in the first place. Steiner describes to begin with two sources for human action: on the one hand, the driving forces springing from our natural being, from our instincts, feelings, and thoughts insofar as these are determined by our character - and on the other hand, various kinds of external motives we may adopt, including the dictates of abstract ethical or moral codes. In this way, both nature and culture bring forces to bear on our will and soul life. Overcoming these two elements, neither of which is individualized, we can achieve genuinely individualized intuitions that speak to the particular situation at hand. By overcoming a slavish or automatic response to the dictates of both our 'lower' drives and conventional morality, and by orchestrating a meeting place of objective and subjective elements of experience, we find the freedom to choose how to think and act (Wilson Ch. 9).
Freedom for Steiner does not consist in acting out everything subjective within us, but in acting out of love, thoughtfully and creatively. In this way we can love our own actions, which are unique and individual to us, rather than stemming from obedience to external moral codes or compulsive physical drives. Both of the latter constitute limitations on freedom:
Whether his unfreedom is forced on him by physical means or by moral laws, whether man is unfree because he follows his unlimited sexual desire or because he is bound by the fetters of conventional morality, is quite immaterial from a certain point of view...let us not assert that such a man can rightly call his actions his own, seeing that he is driven to them by a force other than himself.
Freedom arises most clearly at the moment when a human being becomes active in pure, individualized thinking; this is, for Steiner, spiritual activity. Achieving freedom is then accomplished by learning to let an ever larger portion of one's actions be determined by such individualized thought, rather than by habit, addiction, reflex, or involuntary or unconscious motives. Steiner differentiates pure thinking into "moral intuition" (formulation of individual purposes), "moral imagination" (creative strategies for realizing these larger purposes in the concrete situation), and "moral technique" (the practical capacity to accomplish what was intended). He suggests that we only achieve free deeds when we find an ethically impelled but particularized response to the immediacy of a given situation. Such a response will always be radically individual; it cannot be predicted or prescribed.
Four Concepts of Freedom
Already in Ch. 1 of The Philosophy of Freedom Steiner had made the claim, 'That an action, of which the agent does not know why he performs it, cannot be free, goes without saying' (ist selbstverständlich).This is a preliminary statement; it does not amount to a definition or statement of what freedom is. The statement that no action is free unless the agent knows why he performs it is equivalent to the statement that if an action is free, then the agent does know why he performs it. The second statement is not a definition, which has the form of a full equivalence, but merely one implication, though a highly suggestive and methodologically important one.
For the full account of freedom, which includes four different characterizations of freedom, we must wait until Chapter 9, "The Idea of Freedom". Here we encounter the following definitions.
(1) Love
'I carry it [the action] out because I love it.'In the long paragraph containing this statement, Steiner sets the love of the action within the context that a free action is not influenced by any "moral maxim". This is clearly an attack on Kant. The action is carried out the moment '. . . I have grasped the idea of it', on the basis of love, and I am not a "superior automaton" obeying the maxim.
(2) The Ideal Part of my Being: Thinking
'An action is felt to be free in so far as the reasons for it spring from the ideal part of my individual being; every other part of an action [?] . . . is felt to be unfree'''; . . . every other part of an action . . . is felt to be unfree' (Wilson's translation gives an unnecessarily subjective reading here, as the German original makes no mention of what "is felt to be free": 'Einen Handlung, deren Grund in dem ideellen Teil meines individuellen Wesens liegt, ist (emphasis added) frei . . . jede andere . . .ist (emphasis added) unfrei.' Steiner's entirely objective formulation does not allow the so-called open question argument: though 'Though the action is felt to be free, is it free?'and thereby sidesteps the vexed and dubious libertarian argument for freewill based merely on the subjective feeling of freedom.)(3) Obedience to Oneself
'Man is free in so far as he is able to obey himself in every moment of his life' Here the topic has changed. In (2) we were offered a definition of the free act. Now in (3) the question seems to be what a free man or human being is. 'Man is free . . .' ('Frei ist der Mensch'). The requirement is remarkably demanding: 'in so far as he is able to obey himself in every moment of his life . . .', so that it only takes one failure of the ability in one "Augenblick" to make him unfree. Besides, Definition (3) suffers from a formal defect, to the extent that it must include the modal formulation ("is able to obey himself") which seems to presuppose freedom ("is able to . . .", "in der Lage ist"). Definition (3) is also surprisingly Spinozist, in the sense that the freedom of a being is for Spinoza, in the Letter to Schuller of 1674, quoted by Steiner in Wilson, 1965, p. 5, "the ability to act from the necessity of its nature". It is a consequence of (3) that freedom is the antithesis of duty ,because "duty does not acknowledge the individual element" in our actions.(4) "Non-Objective Self-Determination"In the case of man the free spirit, unlike in every other case, the concept and percept of our being do not coincide, in reality, or belong together originally, until man himself brings it about, in his own consciousness, that they should. 'Concept and percept coincide in this case only if man makes them coincide. This he can only do if he has found the concept of the free spirit, that is, if he has found the concept of his own self.''Only he himself can make of himself a free man('Ein freies Wesen kann er nur selbst aus sich machen.)'
Freedom is (1) love; (2) thinking, which Steiner also calls "love in its spiritual form"; (3) Obedience to Oneself; (4) "Non-Objective Self-Determination".
It seems, however, that Steiner intends his different characterizations or definitions to apply to different aspects of the concept of freedom, rather than to be different concepts of freedom, and that he regarded them as bringing out different points about a consistent whole. It would be worth trying to express what this consistent whole is, or how Steiner intended to characterize it, if he did. It seems reasonable to suppose that he saw this unity in the concept of spirit or a spiritual being, and where on his view, as on traditional religious views, as well as New Age views, not all spiritual beings are human beings, though (a further difficulty) not all spiritual beings are free. On the other hand, Steiner had a strong sense of the proper order of epistemological exposition,and a difficulty might be that he cannot assume the concept of a spiritual being prior to the epistemology and metaphysics of The Philosophy of Freedom. The alternative is to forego the ideal of an inquiry which is vorausetzungslos or without presupposition, or to rest with a "disjunctive" concept of freedom: an act is free if it is done out of love, or from the ideal part of one’s nature, or out of obedience to oneself, or which has the characteristic of "non-objective self-determination". The latter course hardly seems to have been one that Steiner would have taken, since he regarded the definitions as complementary if not equivalent.
Steiner's Ethics
Steiner's ethical philosophy is neither utilitarian nor deontological. For Steiner, the highest morality exists when a person acts in the world through deeds of love realized by means of individually developed and contextually-sensitive moral imaginations, The ethical act is the one performed in or out of freedom, in the sense developed in the first part of Steiner's book. This of course raises a difficulty concerning the one who loves evil, and acts on the basis of this love. Are his actions of "the highest morality"? It cannot be so, since the act is evil. On the other hand, it must be so, since the act is performed out of love. Steiner's answer . . .
This all is by way of introduction and recapitulation. Steiner then introduces the principle that we can act out of the compulsions of our natural being (reflexes, drives, desires) or out of the compulsion of ethical principles, and that neither of these leaves us free. Between them, however, is an individual insight, a situational ethic, that arises neither from abstract principles nor from our bodily impulses. A deed that arises in this way can be said to be truly free; it is also both unpredictable and wholly individual. Here Steiner articulates his fundamental maxim of social life:
Live through deeds of love, and let others live with understanding for each person's unique intentions. Reference?
Here he describes a polarity of influences on human nature, stating that morality transcends both the determining factors of bodily influences and those of convention:
A moral misunderstanding, a clash, is out of the question between people who are morally free. Only one who is morally unfree, who obeys bodily instincts or conventional demands of duty, turns away from a fellow human being if the latter does not obey the same instincts and demands as himself. Reference?
For Steiner, true morality, the highest good, is the universal mediated by the profoundly individual and situational; it depends upon our achieving freedom from both our inner drives and outer pressures. To achieve such free deeds, we must cultivate our moral imagination, our ability to imaginatively create ethically sound and practical solutions to new situations, in fact, to forge our own ethical principles and to transform these flexibly as needed - not in the service of our own egotistical purposes, but in the face of new demands and unique situations. This is only possible through moral intuitions, immediate experiences of spiritual realities that underlie moral judgments. Moral imagination and intuition allow us to realize our subjective impulses in objective reality, thus creating bridges between the spiritual influence of our subjectivity and the natural influence of the objective world in deeds whereby "that which is natural is spiritual, that which is spiritual is natural".
Toward the end of the second part of the book, Steiner writes that "The unique character of the idea, by means of which I distinguish myself as 'I', makes me an individual." And then, "An act the grounds for which lie in the ideal part of my nature is free." Steiner there is using the term ideal to refer to pure ideation or pure thinking in Steiner's sense. "The action is therefore neither stereotyped, carried out according to set rules, nor is it performed automatically in response to an external impetus; the action is determined solely through its ideal content." What is individual in us is to be distinguished from what is generic by its ideal character. If an act proceeds out of genuine thinking, or practical reason, then it is free.
Steiner concludes by pointing out that to achieve this level of freedom, we must lift ourselves out of our group-existence: out of the prejudices we receive from our family, nation, ethnic group and religion, and all that we inherit from the past that limits our creative and imaginative capacity to meet the world directly. Only when we realize our potential to be a unique individual are we free. Thus, it lies in our freedom to achieve freedom; only when we actively strive towards freedom do we have some chance of attaining it.
Die letzten Fragen (Ultimate Questions)
The third part of Steiner's book is the shortest, consisting of one Chapter, "The Consequences of Monism", nine pages in the original German of the 1894 edition, and ten pages in Michael Wilson's 1964 translation.
Relation to earlier and later works
Before 1900, Steiner was laying the epistemological basis of his thought. Steiner wrote that The Philosophy of Freedom was intended to give the philosophical foundations for what had been outlined in his earlier work Truth and Science (1892).
In works written after 1900, Steiner began to explain how thinking can evolve to become an organ of perception of higher worlds of living, creative, spiritual beings. Steiner frequently referred to The Philosophy of Freedom in his later lectures and in written works. Near the end of his life, he suggested that The Philosophy of Freedom would outlive all his other works.
Steiner's principal works on philosophy include:
1886 The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World-Conception. Steiner considered this to be "the epistemological foundation and justification for every thing I said and published later. It speaks of the essential being of knowing activity that opens the way from the sense perceptible world into the spiritual one."
1892 Truth and Science (or Truth and Knowledge), dedicated to Eduard von Hartmann.
1894 The Philosophy of Freedom. This presented the philosophical foundations for what had been outlined in Truth and Science, and its line of thought led to the same goal as Steiner's later book Theosophy: An Introduction to the Supersensible Knowledge of the World and the Destination of Man (1904). It contained, he claimed, the entire content, in a philosophical form, of what he later developed explicitly as anthroposophy.
1914 A Brief Outline of an Approach to Anthroposophy, chapter 8 in the book The Riddles of Philosophy Presented in an Outline of Its History.
Editorial History
The first edition of Die Philosophie der Freiheit was published in 1894. A second revised edition appeared in 1918. Further German editions reprinted the 1918 text until 1973, when a revised edition was produced based on Steiner's corrections of the galley proofs of the 1918 edition. Minor changes, including corrections to some of Steiner's citations, were made in the 1987 German edition.
The first edition included the following passage Steiner removed from later editions: “We no longer believe that there is a norm to which we must all strive to conform. Nothing is accepted as valid, unless it springs from the roots of individuality. The saying Each one of us must choose his hero in whose footsteps he toils up to Olympus no longer holds for us. If only we probe deep enough into the very heart of our being, there dwells something noble, something worthy of development.”
In the appendix added to the 1918 edition, Steiner stated emphatically that the monism "of thought" proposed in his book was quite different from what Eduard von Hartmann and others called "epistemological" monism.
English Translations
English translations include:
1916: The Philosophy of Freedom: A Modern Philosophy of Life Developed by Scientific Methods. trans. Hoernlé and Hoernlé, ed. Harry Collison, published by G. P. Putnam's Sons, London and New York. The only English translation of the first German edition. This edition's chapter numbering differs from that of all later editions.
1922: The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity. Based on 2nd German edition, trans. Hoernlé and Hoernlé.
1939: The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity, trans. Hermann Poppelbaum, based on Hoernlé and Hoernlé translation
1963: The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity: Fundamentals of a Modern View of the World, trans. Rita Stebbing. A USA edition; includes a Bibliographical Note
1964: The Philosophy of Freedom: The Basis for a Modern World Conception, trans. Michael Wilson. 7th English edition,
1986: The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity: Basic Features of a Modern World View, trans. William Lindeman
1992: The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity: A Philosophy of Freedom trans. Rita Stebbing,
1995: Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path: A Philosophy of Freedom, trans. Michael Lipson, based on Wilson translation
There is a comparison tool to compare most of the above translations.
The Source of the Alternative Titles
Though The Philosophy of Freedom is a literal translation of the original German title (Die Philosophie der Freiheit), Steiner suggested at the time of the first English edition in 1916 that the title The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity should be used in the English translation, as it would represent the book's theme of freedom as a dynamic process of development more accurately, as opposed to the fixed state perhaps suggested by the etymology of "freedom" (dom=a state or condition). English readers, Steiner believed, might easily believe that freedom is something already in their possession, and needed to be shaken out of their complacence The Philosophy of Freedom / Spiritual Activity
See also
Paul Tillich
Natural Science
Scientific method
Introspection
References
Bibliography
Rudolf Steiner on His Book the Philosophy of Freedom, Compiled by Otto Palmer (1964), SteinerBooks (1975), Reprinted.
G. A. Bondarev, Rudolf Steiner's "Philosophie der Freiheit" as the Foundation of the Logic of Beholding. Religion of the Thinking Will. Organon of the New Cultural Epoch. An introduction to Anthroposophical Methodology, translated from the German edition, 2004. .
Welburn, Andrew, Rudolf Steiner's Philosophy and the Crisis of Contemporary Thought (2004), (for Steiner and Edmund Husserl, see p. 98 ff.).
Sergei O. Prokofieff, Anthroposophy and The Philosophy of Freedom. Anthroposophy and its Method of Cognition. The Christological and Cosmic-Human Dimension of The Philosophy of Freedom, Temple Lodge Publishing, London 2009, from the German edition, 2006. .
Iddo Oberski, Key to Life: An Introductory Sketch to Rudolf Steiner's Philosophy of Freedom, Eloquent Books 2010. .
Sergei O. Prokofieff, The Guardian of the Threshold and the Philosophy of Freedom: On the Relationship of The Philosophy of Freedom to the Fifth Gospel'', Temple Lodge Publishing, Forest Row 2011.
Notes
External links
The Philosophy of Freedom/Spiritual Activity complete text in English (various versions), and other languages including the original German.
THE PERSONALITY OF RUDOLF STEINER AND HIS DEVELOPMENT By Edouard Schuré
The Philosophy of Freedom, PDF Downloads of complete text in English and German, various versions
Die Philosophie der Freiheit, original German text
Intuitive Thinking As A Spiritual Path, Audiobook, read by Dale Brunsvold
Philosophy books
Rudolf Steiner
Anthroposophy |
4021591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal%20surgery | Fetal surgery | Fetal surgery also known as antenatal surgery, prenatal surgery, is a growing branch of maternal-fetal medicine that covers any of a broad range of surgical techniques that are used to treat congenital abnormalities in fetuses who are still in the pregnant uterus. There are three main types: open fetal surgery, which involves completely opening the uterus to operate on the fetus; minimally invasive fetoscopic surgery, which uses small incisions and is guided by fetoscopy and sonography; and percutaneous fetal therapy, which involves placing a catheter under continuous ultrasound guidance.
Fetal intervention is relatively new. Advancing technologies allow earlier and more accurate diagnosis of diseases and congenital problems in a fetus.
Fetal surgery draws principally from the fields of surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, and pediatrics- especially the subspecialties of neonatology (care of newborns, especially high-risk ones), maternal-fetal medicine (care of high-risk pregnancies), and pediatric surgery. It often involves training in obstetrics, pediatrics, and mastery of both invasive and non-invasive surgery, which require several years of residency and at least one fellowship (usually lasting more than one year each), to become proficient. It is possible in the U.S. to become trained in this approach whether one started in obstetrics, pediatrics, or surgery. Because of the very high risk and high complexity of these cases, they are usually performed at Level I trauma centers in large cities, at academic medical centers which provide the full spectrum of maternal and newborn care. This includes a high level neonatal intensive care unit, suitable operating theaters and equipment, and access to many surgeons and physicians, nurse specialists, therapists, and a social work and counseling team. The cases can be referred from multiple levels of hospitals from many miles, sometimes across state and provincial lines. In continents other than North America and Europe, these centers are not as numerous, though the techniques are spreading.
Most congenital conditions either do not require, or are not treatable through, fetal intervention. Those which are involve anatomical problems, for which in utero treatment is both feasible and can significantly improve the fetus’s continuing development and survival. Addressing anticipated concerns prior to birth increases the probability of a healthy baby, with few long-term health problems related to the treated condition.
Fetal intervention involves risk to fetus and pregnant patient alike. In addition to the general risks associated with any surgery, there is also a risk that scarring of the uterus will lead to difficulties with future pregnancies. This risk is higher than for a typical Cesarean section, for several reasons:
the incision is usually a classical vertical one, with a greater risk of complications in subsequent pregnancies;
the longer duration of the surgery, while the fetal intervention is performed;
a second surgery is required days or weeks later – a Caesarean section to deliver the baby, which brings its own set of risks.
Types
Open fetal surgery
Technique
Tocolytics are generally given to prevent labor; however, these should not be given if the risk is higher for the fetus inside the womb than if delivered, such as may be the case in intrauterine infection, unexplained vaginal bleeding and fetal distress. An H2 antagonist is usually given for anaesthesia the evening before and the morning of the operation, and an antacid is usually given before induction to reduce the risk of acid aspiration. Rapid sequence induction is often used for sedation and intubation.
Open fetal surgery is similar in many respects to a normal cesarean section performed under general anesthesia, except that the fetus remains dependent on the placenta and is returned to the uterus. A hysterotomy is performed on the pregnant woman, and once the uterus is open and the fetus is exposed, the fetal surgery begins. Typically, this surgery consists of an interim procedure intended to allow the fetus to remain in utero until it has matured enough to survive delivery and neonatal surgical procedures.
Upon completion of the fetal surgery, the fetus is put back inside the uterus and the uterus and abdominal wall are closed up. Before the last stitch is made in the uterine wall, the amniotic fluid is replaced. The mother remains in the hospital for 3–7 days for monitoring. Often babies who have been operated on in this manner are born pre-term.
Safety and complications
The main priority is maternal safety, and, secondary, avoiding preterm labor and achieving the aims of the surgery. In 2008, open fetal surgery was considered a possibility after approximately 18 weeks of gestation due to fetal size and fragility before that, and up to approximately 30 weeks of gestation due to increased risk of premature labor and, practically, the preference for delivering the child and performing the surgery in ex utero/pediatric surgery, instead. The risk of premature labor is increased by concomitant risk factors such as multiple gestation, a history of maternal smoking, and very young or old maternal age.
Open fetal surgery has proven to be reasonably safe for the mother. For the fetus, safety and effectiveness are variable, and depend on the specific procedure, the reasons for the procedure, and the gestational age and condition of the fetus. The overall perinatal mortality after open surgery has been estimated to be approximately 6%, according to a study in the United States 2003.
All future pregnancies for the mother require cesarean delivery because of the hysterotomy. However, there is no presented data suggesting decreased fertility for the mother.
Indications
Neural tube defects (NTD), which begin to become observable at the 28th day of pregnancy, occur when the embryonic neural tube fails to close properly, the developing brain and spinal cord are openly exposed to amniotic fluid and with this, causes the nervous system tissue to break down. Prenatal repair of the most easily treated NTD, myelomeningocele (spina bifida cystica) is as of 2011, a growing option in the United States. Although the procedure is technically challenging, children treated with open fetal repair have significantly improved outcomes compared to children whose defects are repaired shortly after birth. Specifically, fetal repair reduces the rate of ventriculoperitoneal shunt dependence and Chiari malformation, while improving motor skills at 30 months of age compared to post-natal repair. Children having fetal repair are twice as likely to walk independently at 30 months of age than children undergoing post-natal repair. As a result, open fetal repair of spina bifida is now considered standard of care at fetal specialty centers.
Other conditions that potentially are treated by open fetal surgery include:
Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (if indicated at all, it is now more likely to be treated by endoscopic fetal surgery)
Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation
Congenital heart disease
Pulmonary sequestration
Sacrococcygeal teratoma
Minimally invasive fetal surgery
Minimally-invasive fetoscopic surgery has proven to be useful for some fetal conditions.
Twin-twin transfusion syndrome – Laser Ablation of Vessels
Spina bifida – Fetoscopic closure of the malformation. Prenatal repair of the spina bifida lesion through this approach has been purported to result in less complications to the mother, whilst affording benefit to the baby.
History
Fetal surgical techniques were first developed at the University of California, San Francisco in 1980 using animal models.
On April 26, 1981, the first successful human open fetal surgery in the world was performed at University of California, San Francisco under the direction of Dr. Michael Harrison. The fetus in question had a congenital hydronephrosis, a blockage in the urinary tract that caused the kidney to dangerously extend. To correct this a vesicostomy was performed by placing a catheter in the fetus to allow the urine to be released normally. The blockage itself was removed surgically after birth.
Further advances have been made in the years since this first operation. New techniques have allowed additional defects to be treated and for less invasive forms of fetal surgical intervention.
The first two percutaneous ultrasound-guided fetal balloon valvuloplasties, a type of fetal surgery for severe aortic valve obstruction in the heart, were reported in 1991. Among the first dozen reported attempts at this repair in the 1990s, only two children survived long-term.
Dr. Oluyinka Olutoye, alongside Darrell Cass, from the Texas Children's Fetal Centre, removed a 23-week-old fetus from her mother's womb in order to perform surgery upon a spinal tumor she had. The girl was placed back in the womb after a five-hour surgery and was born without complications.
See also
ECMO
Fetoscopy
EXIT procedure
Maternal-fetal medicine, a discipline of high-risk obstetrics and gynecology; most fetal surgeons were previously trained in OB-GYN and maternal-fetal medicine before their fetal surgical training
Neonatology and neonatal surgery, related to high risk OB-GYN and maternal-fetal medicine and fetal surgery, are branches of pediatrics and pediatric surgery that focus on the treatment of newborn infants (less than one month of age)
Pediatric surgery, a related but distinct discipline of surgery and pediatrics, involving surgery on infants, toddlers, and children and adolescents
MOMS Trial
Spina bifida
NAFTNet
Samuel Armas
References
Further reading
Surgery |
4021625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KFM | KFM | KFM or Kfm may refer to:
Radio stations
Kfm 94.5, South Africa
Kfm (Ireland), Ireland
KFM Radio, Greater Manchester, England
KMFM West Kent, Kent, England
Organisations and companies
Knights of Father Matthew, a catholic temperance society that originated in Ireland
Komet Flight Motor, an Italian aircraft engine manufacturer
Kommunistiska Förbundet Marxist-Leninisterna, former Swedish communist party
Kronofogdemyndigheten, Swedish government agency handling debt collection, distraint and evictions
Other uses
Kearny fallout meter, an expedient radiation meter, which can be made from household items
Kelvin probe force microscope
The KDE file manager, now replaced by Konqueror
Keysi Fighting Method, a martial art with roots in Jeet Kun Do, Wing Chun, and street fighting
The Kentucky Fried Movie, an American comedy film, released in 1977 and directed by John Landis |
4021646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bora%20language | Bora language | Bora is an indigenous language of South America spoken in the western region of Amazon rainforest. Bora is a tonal language which, other than the Ticuna language, is a unique trait in the region.
The majority of its speakers reside in Peru and Colombia. Around 2,328 Bora speakers live in the areas of the northeast Yaguasyacu, Putumayo and Ampiyacu rivers of Peru. There are about 500 speakers of Bora also in Colombia in the Putumayo Department. Peruvian speakers have a 10 to 30% literacy rate and a 25 to 50% literacy rate in their second language of Spanish.
Early linguistic investigators thought that Bora was related to the Huitoto (Witoto) language, but there is very little similarity between the two. The confusion was most likely due to the frequent intermarriage between the tribes and the Ocaina dialect of Witotoan which has many Bora words.
Dialects
Miraña, a dialect of Bora, is spoken along the Caquetá-Japurá river which flows from Colombia to Brazil, and a few villages are there.
Bora proper has 94% mutual comprehensibility with the Miraña dialect.
Another dialect of Bora, Murnane, which has about a 50% comprehensibility with Bora and Miraña, is spoken along tributaries of the Caquetá River in central Colombia.
Loukotka (1968) lists these dialects of Bora:
Bora (Boro) - on the Cahuinari River and in a colony in the village of Méria on the Igara Paraná River
Imihitä (Emejeite) - spoken on the Jacaré River
Fa:ai - spoken in the Sierra Futahy in the same region (poorly attested, only a few words)
Grammar
Bora contains 350 classifiers, the most discovered of any languages thus far.
Orthography
The written form of Bora was developed by Wycliffe Bible Translators Wesley and Eva Thiesen with the help of the natives of the village of Brillo Nuevo on the Yaguasyacu river. Wesley and Eva Thiesen's daughter Ruth is also the first recorded non-native to learn the language. First, Bora to Spanish school books was developed. Then the New Testament Bible was translated. Finally, a comprehensive dictionary and grammar book was developed to document and preserve the language's grammar rules. This has since facilitated more textbooks so that speakers can be taught to read and write in their language, rescuing it from extinction due to the prevalence of Spanish and Portuguese in the regions where it is spoken.
Phonology
All vowels have long forms. Bora demonstrates contrastive vowel length.
/ɛː/ before /iː/ is heard as .
/i/ is heard in shortened form as .
/h/ can have an allophone of [x].
/j/ is also heard as [ɾʲ].
References
External links
Native Languages: Bora Aces. Feb. 2015
A Grammar of Bora
Diccionario Bora-Castellano
Datos Etno-Lingüísticos 1
Textos folklóricos de los bora
Vocabulario ocaina
Boran languages
Languages of Peru
Languages of Colombia |
4021658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doe%20or%20Die | Doe or Die | Doe or Die is the debut studio album by rapper AZ, released October 10, 1995 on EMI Records. The album features guest appearances by artists such as Nas and Miss Jones, and production from N.O. Joe, Pete Rock, L.E.S., and Buckwild, among others. The album spawned the single "Sugar Hill" - which was certified gold by the RIAA in 1995.
Upon release, Doe or Die received notable critical and commercial success. The album peaked at #15 on the Billboard 200, and #1 on the U.S. Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums chart. Doe or Die produced several singles, including, "Mo Money, Mo Murder," "Gimme Yours (remix)," "Doe or Die" and "Sugar Hill" - which was certified Gold by the RIAA in 1995. The album went on to sell over a million copies A sequel, Doe or Die II, was released on September 10, 2021.
Content
The album incorporates fictitious tales chronicling the underworld lifestyle of organized crime. These cinematic narratives often depict a mobster's ascent to fame and wealth. Further emphasizing these themes, the cover of Doe or Die portrays AZ as an honoree of an elaborate mob funeral. Within the cover, a stylish portrait of AZ is surrounded by flowers, while the body of the rapper is buried in a casket that contains large amounts of dollars. In addition, the liner notes and the back of the album features images of AZ counting money, drinking expensive wine, and smoking cigars.
Reception
Upon its release, Doe or Die received generally favorable reviews from most music critics. Stanton Swihart from Allmusic gave the album 4½ out of 5 stars and compared certain aspects of it to rapper Nas' debut album Illmatic, stating "The two albums are very much the twin sides of the same double-headed coin. They are so closely connected, in fact, that it's difficult to pinpoint where Doe or Dies points of departure are located." He further stated "Certainly it was one of the strongest, most promising debut efforts of 1995, and probably one of the year's strongest rap albums period." Christian Hoard from Rolling Stone gave the album 3 out of 5 stars, and called it a "Literate, sensitive look at street life that sits comfortably, as a companion, next to Nas' masterpiece (Illmatic)." Selwyn Seyfu Hinds from Spin rated the album 7 out of 10, and stated
Although praising the album's lyricism, and rating it 3 out of 4 stars, Los Angeles Times writer Cheo H. Coker criticized some of the album's production, describing some of it as "lackluster beats." A critic for RapReviews.com gave the album an 8.5 out of 10 rating and labeled it as "AZ's best album to date", with the "most replay value". In regards to the Mafioso content, he stated "This album does deserve to be mentioned right alongside Only Built 4 Cuban Linx..., It Was Written, and Reasonable Doubt for popularizing the Mafioso style. In fact, it dropped before two of those three albums did." He however gave criticism to some of the album's production, and lack of consistency, explaining "Despite the shortcomings, the good tracks on this album are not just good, they are great! There are four that I would refer to as certified classics. The main problem with the album is that it could have been an all time classic itself if executive production had been better and the beat selection had been a little more on point in several cases. All in all, this album is slept on and should be viewed as a gem that must be in every true head's collection.".
Track listing
Personnel
AZ - performer
Nas - performer
Amar Pep - producer, performer
Buck Wild - producer
Void Caprio - engineer
D/R Period - producer
John Gamble - engineer
Jack Hersca - engineer
John Kogan - engineer
L.E.S. - producer
Lunatic Mind - producer
Henry Marquez - art direction
N.O. Joe - arranger, producer
Joe Pirrera - engineer
Pete Rock - producer
Erica Scott - vocals
Ski - remixing
Jamey Staub - engineer
Jason Vogel - engineer
Lindsey Williams - executive producer
Miss Jones - vocals
Barsham - performer
Spunk Biggs - producer
Lunatic mind - producer
Loose - producer
Album singles"Sugar Hill"Released: June 27, 1995
B-side: "Rather Unique""Gimme Yours (Remix)" [Non-album single]
Released: December 5, 1995
B-side: "Uncut Raw""Doe or Die"Released: April 2, 1996
B-side: "Mo Money, Mo Murder (Homicide)"
ChartsSingles'''
Doe or Die: 15th Anniversary
A 15th anniversary edition of Doe or Die was released on November 30, 2010 by AZ's own Quiet Money Records. Doe or Die: 15th Anniversary features production from Frank Dukes, Dave Moss, Statik Selektah, Baby Paul, Lil' Fame from M.O.P., and Roctimus Prime. The album also features vocals from R&B singer June Summers. All the songs from the original Doe or Die are remixed with a new beat.
See also
List of number-one R&B albums of 1995 (U.S.)
References
External links
Doe or Die'' at Discogs
1995 debut albums
Albums produced by Buckwild
Albums produced by L.E.S. (record producer)
Albums produced by Pete Rock
Albums produced by Ski Beatz
EMI Records albums
AZ (rapper) albums
Mafioso rap albums |
4021660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beevor%27s%20sign | Beevor's sign | Beevor's sign is medical sign in which the navel moves towards the head upon flexing the neck, indicating selective weakness of the lower abdominal muscles. Causes include spinal cord injury, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD).
Etymology
The sign is named after Charles Edward Beevor, an English neurologist (1854–1908) who first described it.
Pathophysiology
Beevor's sign occurs when the upper part of the rectus abdominis muscle is intact but the lower part is weak. When the patient is asked to raise his head as he lies supine on bed, the upper part of the muscle contracts disproportionately more than the lower portion, pulling the umbilicus toward the head.
Clinical significance
Beevor’s sign is characteristic of spinal cord injury between T9 and T10 levels. The sign has also been observed in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a disease causing progressive weakening of the muscles of multiple areas of the body, and in facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD), a disease named after areas of the body it preferentially weakens (face, shoulder, and upper arm). FSHD tends to affect the lower rectus abdominis more than the upper.
It has also been described in inclusion body myositis.
References
Symptoms and signs: Nervous system |
4021666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar%20Girl%20%281993%20film%29 | Calendar Girl (1993 film) | Calendar Girl is a 1993 American comedy-drama film starring Jason Priestley, Gabriel Olds, and Jerry O'Connell.
The film was directed by John Whitesell and written by Paul W. Shapiro. Set in 1962, it tells the story of three young men who go on a trip to Hollywood to fulfil their dream of meeting Marilyn Monroe. It has similarities to the real-life story of Gene Scanlon, who in 1953 crossed America with a friend and had a date with Marilyn Monroe for which she paid the bill.
Plot
While Marilyn Monroe is enjoying her rise to stardom and iconic pop culture status, three childhood friends are happy enough to sneakily obtain racy pictures of her for their pubescent enjoyment. Once they mature (at least by age), Roy has his eyes set on joining the Military despite his strained relationship with his father. His buddy, Scott, has a prosthetic leg and is to be married soon to his darling significant other Becky, and his other pal, Ned, known affectionately as "Bleuer", works at a small town store and is not initially as anxious to partake on this crazed notion as his friends.
Thanks to Roy's Uncle, the three desirous and hapless friends shack up at his place out in California where they yearn to meet—if only for a brief second—the fabulous and stunning Miss Marilyn Monroe. Their quest leads to shenanigans and silliness ensues as they arrange the most brainless ideas to win over their idol. One includes corralling a "sad" cow to moo outside of Miss Monroe's luxurious residence, another has the guys speeding after Marilyn towards a nude beach and an entirely separate subplot has them dodging some bad guys that are after Roy.
Eventually, however, it is up to Marilyn to pity the trio's collectively desperate agony. The boys devise a clever scheme to avoid Miss Monroe's hawkish maid and Roy slips in the question, to which Marilyn refuses a date. This leads to further despair amongst the trio. They begin to regret coming out for the trip and they decide to go out on the town one last time.
Surprisingly, in a sudden twist, Monroe finally does agree to a date upon the sandy splendor of the Californian beach. Initially, while animosity has grown between the three friends, Roy is designated to be the lucky one that gets to hopefully "canoe" Miss Monroe, but nonchalantly, he passes off the opportunity to his buddy "Bleuer" who surprisedly agrees and treats the lovely Miss Monroe to a wonderful platonic night.
While Roy (in his macho way) is disappointed by Bleuer's effort, the boys return home to the sad news that Marilyn has abruptly died of a drug overdose. Back home, Scott continues his plans to marry his love, Becky, and Roy tussles with his father in the gym which leads to one last touching moment between the two before Roy is shipped out to boot camp. The last image seen is of Bleuer as he embraces his wild side and partakes in a wild telephone booth gathering that woos a local college girl in his favor.
Cast
Jason Priestley as Roy Darpinian
Gabriel Olds as Ned Bleuer
Jerry O'Connell as Scott Foreman
Joe Pantoliano as Harvey Darpinian
Steve Railsback as Mr. Darpinian
Kurt Fuller as Arturo Gallo
Lisa Stahl Sullivan as Delphine
Stephen Tobolowsky as Antonio Gallo
Emily Warfield as Becky O'Brien
Leslie Wing as Mrs. Bleuer
Christine Taylor as Melissa Smock
Liz Vassey as Sylvia
Maxwell Caulfield as Man in Bathrobe
Chubby Checker as himself
Stephanie Anderson as Marilyn Monroe
Cortney Page as voice of Marilyn Monroe
Tuesday Knight as Nude Woman
Curt Truman as Bobby Kennedy Jr
Joe Dietl as Usher
Reception
The movie received poor reviews and has since gone out of print. One of the factors that had an impact on the film once it reached theaters was the controversy surrounding the casting of one of the characters: one of the Gallo brothers in the movie was deaf. The producers cast (the hearing) Kurt Fuller for that role in spite of there having been a number of deaf actors that would have been equally suitable for the role. That fact ignited outrage in the deaf community and which ultimately organized a series of protests across the country to coincide with the nationwide release of the film. The movie has since received an approval rating of 11% based on 19 critics.
References
External links
1993 films
Columbia Pictures films
1990s English-language films
Films about Marilyn Monroe
Films directed by John Whitesell
Films scored by Hans Zimmer
Teen sex comedy films
1993 directorial debut films
Films set in 1962 |
4021680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huan%20Chong | Huan Chong | Huan Chong (桓沖; courtesy name: 幼子, Youzi; 328–384), formally Duke Xuanmu of Fengcheng (), was a Jin Dynasty (266–420) governor and general and the youngest brother of Huan Wen. Contrary to the ambitious Huan Wen, who at times considered seizing the throne, Huan Chong was known to be dedicated to the preservation of the imperial government. After Huan Wen's son Huan Xuan temporarily seized the throne as the emperor of Chu in 403, he posthumously honored Huan Chong as the Prince of Xuancheng.
Early career under Huan Wen
Huan Chong, one of Huan Wen's younger brothers (the other ones were Huan Yun (), Huan Huo, and Huan Mi (), was considered the most knowledgeable, and Huan Wen entrusted him with great responsibilities. By the time that he accompanied Huan Wen in his campaign against Yao Xiang () in 356, he was a governor of two commanderies and the military commander of seven. While on a campaign, he defeated and captured the rebel general Zhou Cheng (), and was made the Duke of Fengcheng and the governor of Jiang Province (江州, modern Jiangxi and Fujian).
The crisis of Huan Wen's succession
By the time Huan Wen grew gravely ill in 373, Huan Wen was effectively in direct control of the western two thirds of the empire. As Huan Wen hesitated at seizing the throne and ultimately chose not to do so, he entrusted his command to Huan Chong, rather than his heir apparent Huan Xi (), because he considered Huan Xi lacking in the talent for military command. However, Huan Xi's younger brother Huan Ji (), along with Huan Mi, conspired to kill Huan Chong and take over. After Huan Wen died, Huan Chong acted first and arrested Huan Xi and Huan Ji. He then exiled Huan Mi and put Huan Xi and Huan Ji under house arrest. He instead reported to the imperial government that Huan Xuan, Huan Wen's youngest son, was designed by Huan Wen as heir, and the imperial government agreed to let the four-year-old Huan Xuan assume Huan Wen's title of Duke of Nan Commandery.
There had been anticipation that there might be a confrontation between Huan Chong and the prime minister Xie An following Huan Wen's death. Xie avoided a direct confrontation by dividing Huan Wen's domain into three parts and putting them under the commands of Huan Chong, Huan Huo, and Huan Huo's son Huan Shixiu (), respectively. Huan Chong was allocated Yang (揚州, modern Zhejiang, southern Jiangsu, and southern Anhui) and Yu (豫州, modern central Anhui) Provinces. Some of his advisors suggested that he kill some of the imperial officials and take over the imperial government, but he refused, and indeed returned the power to authorize executions (which Huan Wen had exercised) back to the imperial government.
Later life, positions and death
In 375, in further sign that he was showing submission to the imperial government, Huan Chong turned down the governorship of Yang Province (which included the capital Jiankang), instead becoming the governor of Xu Province (徐州, modern central and northern Jiangsu). Later, after Huan Huo's death in 377, Xie trusted Huan Chong sufficiently to give him the governorship of the important Jing Province (荊州, modern Hunan and central and southern Hubei), as well as the military command over the western half of the empire—nearly the domain that Huan Wen had controlled earlier.
In 378, after a major attack by Former Qin led to the losses of the important cities of Xiangyang (襄陽, in modern Xiangfan, Hubei) and Weixing (魏興, in modern Ankang, Shaanxi), both of which were in his command zone and which he had failed to relieve, Huan Chong offered to resign, but his resignation was not accepted.
In 383, when Former Qin launched another major attack, this time seeking to capture Jiankang and destroy Jin, Huan Chong was concerned about the capital's defenses and therefore sent several thousand elite soldiers to Xie to shore up Jiankang's defenses, which Xie declined, stating that the capital was already well-guarded (which, however, it actually was not). Upon receiving the soldiers back, Huan Chong lamented that while Xie was an able prime minister, he lacked military talent, making the exclamation, "I am finally going to have to wear barbarian clothes" (meaning that Jin would soon fall to Former Qin, which Huan considered a barbaric regime). After Former Qin forces were repelled at the Battle of Fei River, however, Huan Chong became embarrassed—and so much so that he grew ill. He died in early 384. Contrary to the customs for high level officials at the time, Huan Chong did not submit a petition to the emperor in his illness, asking for his family members to be given posts, but only wrote to Xie, lamenting that Huan Wen's youngest sons were still young and that he had thus failed in raising them properly, as Huan Wen asked him to. He was greatly praised at the time for this self-deprecation.
Jin dynasty (266–420) generals
328 births
384 deaths
Huan Chu
Jin dynasty (266–420) politicians
Political office-holders in Jiangsu
Political office-holders in Hubei
Political office-holders in Jiangxi |
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