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4020122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Valley%20Northwest%20High%20School | Blue Valley Northwest High School | Blue Valley Northwest High School (BVNW) is a high school in Overland Park, Kansas, United States. Blue Valley Northwest is one of five high schools operated by Blue Valley USD 229 school district.
Blue Valley Northwest is a member of the Kansas State High School Activities Association and offers a variety of sports programs. Athletic teams compete in the 6A division and are known as the "Huskies". Extracurricular activities are also offered in the form of performing arts, school publications, and clubs.
Academics
Thirteen courses, mainly for motivated freshmen and sophomores, are designated as "Honors" classes. In addition, 17 Advanced Placement courses for college credit are offered. Students taking Honors or Advanced Placement courses receive weighted GPAs.
In 2010, Blue Valley Northwest was selected as one of the six finalists for the first annual Race to the Top High School Commencement Challenge, sponsored by the Department of Education under the Obama administration.
In 2015, Blue Valley Northwest students who attempted the tests achieved an average ACT score of 25.3 out of 36 and an average SAT score of 1879 out of 2400. The class of 2015 also had seven National Merit Finalists and 20 National Advanced Placement Scholars.
Extracurricular activities
The Huskies compete in the Eastern Kansas League and are classified as a 6A-5A school according to the KSHSAA. Throughout its history, Blue Valley Northwest has won several state championships in various sports. Many graduates have gone on to participate in Division I, Division II, and Division III athletics.
State championships
Orchestra
BVNW's orchestra has received a 1 (the best) ranking every year the school has been open. Students in the orchestra also have auditioned and represented the BVNW in local, state, and national orchestras.
Yearbook and Newspaper
The school's yearbook is called Horizon, the newspaper is called "The Express", the school broadcast news program is called Husky Headlines and the school's literary magazine is called The Muse.
The Horizon and Husky Headlines have been nominated for several Pacemaker awards, and in 2004, the "Horizon" won the Pacemaker Award. The school newspaper, The Express is a member of the High School National Ad Network. At the April 2007 JEA conference in Denver, "The Express" was voted the number one newsmagazine. At the November 2007 JEA conference in Philadelphia, the newsmagazine was rated sixth. In 2015, The Express was nominated for a Pacemaker, but did not win. It did receive sixth place among the competition that year. On November 12, 2016 in Indianapolis, The Express won a Newspaper Pacemaker Award, the first for the publication.
Notable alumni
Jason Adam, professional baseball player for the Tampa Bay Rays
Christie Ambrosi, member of the 2000 USA Olympic softball team, who won the gold medal
Bol Bol, professional basketball player for the Orlando Magic
Christian Braun, current basketball player for the Denver Nuggets, former Mr. Kansas Basketball and Kansas Gatorade Player of the Year.
Arash Ferdowsi, co-founder of Dropbox file hosting service
Lisa Forbes, Miss Kansas USA 2004 and Miss USA Pageant contestant
Nathaniel Hackett, head coach of the Denver Broncos
Zach Hadel (Class of 2011), web animator and co-creator of Smiling Friends for Adult Swim.
Michael McMillian (Class of 1997), actor known for his roles as Henry Gibson on What I Like About You and Steve Newlin on True Blood
Dániel Sallói, professional soccer player for Sporting Kansas City
See also
List of high schools in Kansas
List of unified school districts in Kansas
Other high schools in Blue Valley USD 229 school district
Blue Valley High School in Stilwell
Blue Valley North High School in Overland Park
Blue Valley West High School in Overland Park
Blue Valley Southwest High School in Overland Park
Blue Valley Academy in Overland Park
High School Confidential
References
External links
School Website
Blue Valley USD 229 school district
Public high schools in Kansas
Educational institutions established in 1994
Education in Overland Park, Kansas
Schools in Johnson County, Kansas
1994 establishments in Kansas |
4020127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certosa%20di%20Pavia | Certosa di Pavia | The Certosa di Pavia is a monastery and complex in Lombardy, Northern Italy, situated near a small town of the same name in the Province of Pavia, north of Pavia. Built in 1396–1495, it was once located on the border of a large hunting park belonging to the Visconti family of Milan, of which today only scattered parts remain. It is one of the largest monasteries in Italy.
Certosa is the Italian name for a house of the cloistered monastic order of Carthusians founded by St. Bruno in 1044 at Grande Chartreuse. Though the Carthusians in their early centuries were known for their seclusion and asceticism and the plainness of their architecture, the Certosa is renowned for the exuberance of its architecture, in both the Gothic and Renaissance styles, and for its collection of artworks which are particularly representative of the region.
History
Gian Galeazzo Visconti, hereditary lord and first Duke of Milan, commissioned the building of the Certosa to the architect Marco Solari, inaugurating the works and laying the foundation stone on August 27, 1396, as recorded by a bas-relief on the facade. The location was strategically chosen midway between Milan and Pavia, the second city of the Duchy, where the Duke held his court, at the end of the Visconti Park, which connected the Certosa to the castle of Pavia.
The Certosa is also the result of linked political tensions created by the new aspirations and political ideals of Gian Galeazzo, now oriented in a monarchical sense. In 1385 Gian Galeazzo with a coup d'etat deposed his uncle Bernabò and reunited the Visconti domains under himself, however the new lord of Milan, like his father Galeazzo II, resided and maintained his court in Pavia, thus recalling the memory (of the which he intended to be heir) of the Lombard kings and of the kingdom of Italy who, in the Royal Palace of Pavia, had placed the center of their royalty. In 1386, wanting to underline its centrality questioned by the choices of the lord, the people of Milan decided to rebuild a new building: the Milan Cathedral. However, relations between Gian Galeazzo and the heads of the factory (chosen by the citizens of Milan) were often tense: the lord intended to transform the cathedral into the mausoleum of the dynasty, inserting the funeral monument of his father Galeazzo II in the central part of the cathedral and this found the fort opposition from both the factory and the Milanese, who wanted to emphasize their autonomy. A clash arose, which forced Gian Galeazzo to decide the foundation of a new construction site intended exclusively for the Visconti dynasty: the Certosa of Pavia, to which, unscrupulously, he assigned many employees of the Duomo factory on several occasions, including high-level ones, such as Giacomo da Campione or Giovannino de 'Grassi. In the intentions of the duke, the Duomo was the church of the nobles, patricians, people, artisan and merchant guilds of Milan, the Certosa was instead the expression of a new state form: the Duchy.
The church, the last edifice of the complex to be built, was to be the family mausoleum of the Visconti. It was designed as a grand structure with a nave and two aisles, a type unusual for the Carthusian Order. The nave, in the Gothic style, was completed in 1465.
However, since the foundation, the Renaissance had spread in Italy, and the rest of the edifice was built according to the new style, redesigned by Giovanni Solari, continued by his son Guiniforte Solari, and including some new cloisters. Solari was followed as director of the works by Giovanni Antonio Amadeo, (1481–1499). The church was consecrated on May 3, 1497. The lower part of the façade was not completed until 1507.
The construction contract obliged the monks to use part of the revenue of the lands held in benefice to the monastery to continue to improve the edifice. Consequently, the Certosa includes a huge collection of artworks of all centuries from the 15th to the 18th.
The Carthusian monks who lived there were initially twelve, in total cloistered life, and bound by a contract that provided for the use of part of their proceeds (fields, land, income, etc.) for the construction of the monastery itself. In the eighteenth century the monastery was the owner of large estates (in part already donated by Gian Galeazzo and his successors) scattered in the fertile countryside between Pavia and Milan, such as Badile, Battuda, Bernate, Binasco, Boffalora, Borgarello, Carpiano (it was the property of the monks also the castle of Carpiano and the church of San Martino), Carpignano, Milan, Giovenzano, Graffignana, Landriano, Magenta, Marcignago, Opera, Pairana, Pasturago, Quintosole, San Colombano (where they also controlled the castle of San Colombano) Torre del Mangano , Trezzano, Velezzo, Vidigulfo, Vigano Certosino, Vigentino, Villamaggiore, Villanterio, Villareggio and Zeccone, which added up to 2,325 hectares (5,745 acres)of irrigated land. In addition, the Certosa also owned a large palace, with a garden and oratory in Milan, in the parish of San Michele alla Chiusa, a palace and the church of Santa Maria d'Ognissanti in Pavia and, from the second half of the 17th century, of a large farm specialized in the production of wine, with a building (called Certosa Cantù), in Casteggio.
In 1560, the Prior General of the Carthusians, a certain Piero Sarde, authorized the installation of suitable equipment for the printing of missals and choirbooks, and on 28 August he invited all the Carthusian monasteries of Italy to supply themselves exclusively with the products of the new printing house (the first book Breviarium Carthusiensis was printed in 1561).
In 1782, the Carthusians were expelled by the Emperor Joseph II of Austria, and were succeeded at the Certosa by the Cistercians in 1784 and then by the Carmelites in 1789. In 1796, in retaliation for the revolt in Pavia, the lead covering of the church roof was removed by the French against Napoleon's army, as well as the liturgical silverware and the large canopy, covered with gold flakes and stones precious, used for the Corpus Domini procession. In 1810 the monastery was closed until the Carthusians reacquired it in 1843. In 1866 it was declared a National Monument and sequestrated by the Italian State, although some Benedictines resided there until 1880. The monks currently living in the monastery are Cistercians admitted to it in the 1960s.
In August 1946 the illegally exhumed body of Benito Mussolini was discovered in the complex. Two Franciscan friars were charged with assisting in the concealment of the body.
The church
Access to the monastic complex is through a Renaissance-era vestibule, frescoed both inside and out. In the faded entrance lunette, two angels hold the coat of arms of the client Gian Galeazzo, with the Visconti snake and the imperial eagle. The upper decoration, drawn by Bernardino de 'Rossi in 1508, is better preserved. Inside, a marble arch with plant motifs bears tondi with the effigies of Gian Galeazzo and Filippo Maria Visconti. On the sides, the saints Christopher and Sebastian by Bernardino Luini, a follower of Leonardo. The whole interior is covered with Renaissance motifs in bright colors and decorated with the GRA-CAR monogram (Gratiarum Chartusia, Charterhouse of Grace).
The church is built on a Latin cross plan, with a nave, two aisles and transept, typical of Gothic architecture. The chancel terminates with an apse. It is covered by crossed vaults on Gothic arches and is inspired, on a reduced scale, by the Duomo of Milan. The vaults are alternatively decorated with geometrical shapes and starry skies. The transept and the main chapel end with square-plan chapels with smaller, semi-circular apses on three sides.
The façade of the church is famous for its exuberant decorations, typical of Lombard architecture, every part being decorated with reliefs, inlaid marble and statues. Sculptors who worked on it include Cristoforo Mantegazza and Giovanni Antonio Amadeo himself and Benedetto Briosco. In addition to applied sculpture, the facade itself has a rich sculptural quality because of the contrast between richly textured surfaces, projecting buttresses, horizontal courses and arched openings, some of which are shadowed, while those in the small belfries are open to the sky. The façade, created by superimposing simple rectangles, is loaded with decorations, a typical procedure of Lombard Renaissance architecture and is made of Candoglia marble and stone of Varenna.
The sober form of the roughly finished brick front can be seen in a fresco by Ambrogio Bergognone in the apse of the right transept, painted in 1492–1495, when work was commencing on the new facade, portraying Gian Galeazzo Visconti offering the model of the Certosa to the Blessed Virgin. Its profile, with roofs on three levels, has been compared to the churches of Santa Maria del Carmine in Pavia and San Petronio in Bologna; among the architects in close correspondence at all three projects, Borlini ascribes the form of the original facade at the Certosa to Giacomo da Campione, who was working at Pavia while his uncle Matteo was completing San Giovanni in Monza.
The architect Giovanni Solari, in building the double row of arcades down the flanks of the church, modified its appearance. After his death he was succeeded in Pavia by his son Guiniforte Solari, but work came to a halt with the death of Guiniforte in 1478.
In 1492 Gian Giacomo Dolcebuono took up the construction, assisted on site, for he was concurrently occupied with the cathedrals at Pavia and at Milan and other churches, by his inseparable collaborator on both cathedrals, Giovanni Antonio Amadeo. In their hands the project was thoroughly redesigned. Scores of artists were involved. The classicist style portal is by Benedetto Briosco (1501). The porch has a large arch of classicist form resting on paired Corinthian columns which are each surmounted by a very strongly modelled cornice on which the arch rests, the construction being derived from the Classical, used by Brunelleschi, and employed here for a bold and striking effect. The decoration is of bas-reliefs illustrating the History of the Certosa. Above the central arch is a shallow balcony of three arches, above which rises the central window.
This campaign was interrupted in 1519 as work was going forward by the condition of French occupation in Lombardy after the War of the League of Cambrai. French troops were encamped round the Certosa. Notations of work on the facade did not resume until 1554, when a revised design under the direction of Cristoforo Lombardo was approved for the completion of the facade above the second arcade; there marble intarsia was substituted for the rich sculptural decorations of the lower area. Some final details were added by Galeazzo Alessi.
The Small and Grand Cloisters
An elegant portal, with sculptures by the Mantegazza brothers and Giovanni Antonio Amadeo, leads from the church to the Small Cloister (in Italian: Chiostro Piccolo.) This has a small garden in the center. The most striking feature is the terracotta decoration of the small pilasters, executed by Rinaldo de Stauris between 1463 and 1478. Some arcades are decorated by frescoes by Daniele Crespi, now partially ruined. Also noteworthy is the late-14th century lavabo in stone and terracotta, with scenes of the Jesus with the Woman of Samaria at the Well.
Similar decorations also characterize the Grand Cloister (Italian: Chiostro Grande), which measures c.125x100 meters. The elegant cells of the monks open to the central garden. The arcades have columns with precious decorations in terracotta, with tondoes portraying saints, prophets and angels, alternatively in white and pink Verona marble. There were once also paintings by Vincenzo Foppa, now disappeared.
Paintings
In the main apse of the church is a fresco by Bergognone celebrating the Incoronation of Mary between Francesco and Ludovico Sforza. Other frescoes with saints and prophets were executed by Lombard artists, including a young Bernardino Zenale.
The Certosa has painted masterpieces by Bergognone including the panels of St. Ambrose (1490), and San Siro (1491) and, most significantly, the Crucifixion (1490). Other works by Bergognone are now found in other museums of Europe.
Other paintings in the church include a Holy Father, panels by Giovanni Battista Crespi, Il Morazzone, Guercino, Francesco Cairo and Daniele Crespi, and a remnant of a polyptych by Perugino. Originally depicting the Madonna and Saints, it is now disassembled and scattered among museums: the only portion in the Certosa is God the Father with cherubim. An Annunciation has disappeared; three panels, the Virgin Adoring the Infant Christ, St. Michael and St. Raphael with Tobias are on display at the National Gallery of London, in the United Kingdom.
In the southern transept is the tomb of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, begun in 1494–1497 by Giovanni Cristoforo Romano and Benedetto Briosco, but completed only in 1562. The northern transept houses the tomb of Ludovico Sforza, 7th Duke of Milan, and his wife Beatrice d'Este. The sculptures on the tomb were carried here in 1564 from the Milanese church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, the statues generally being considered the masterwork of Cristoforo Solari.
In the Cappella di San Michele (St Michael's Chapel) are frescoes by Carlo Francesco Nuvolone.
The first chapel on the left is in Baroque style. The altarpiece with Mary Magdalene at Christ's feet is by Giuseppe Peroni from Parma (1757), while the fresco decoration is by Federico Bianchi, a pupil of Ercole Procaccini (1663). The altar is made of Egyptian granite, bronze, semi-precious stones and polychrome marble and is the work of Carlo Sacchi.
The third chapel, dedicated to St. John the Baptist, to whom the cycle of frescoes by the Genoese Giovan Battista Carlone is dedicated.
The fourth chapel, whose altar is equipped with alabaster columns, preserves a frontal with the Massacre of the Innocents, by Dionigi Bussola from 1677, while the altarpiece by the Cremonese painter Pietro Martire Neri (1640-41) depicts the Adoration of the Magi . The chapel preserves two frescoes: Madonna with Child and Saint Jerome by Ambrogio da Fossano.
In the fifth chapel, the Altarpiece by Francesco Cairo (inserted in a rich baroque altar in alabaster and polychrome marble), represents Saint Catherine of Siena together with her homonymous Saint Catherine of Alexandria. The chapel is illuminated by a large window, with a stained glass window made around 1485 by an anonymous Lombard master on a cartoon by Vincenzo Foppa depicting Saint Catherine of Alexandria.
The sixth chapel on the right houses the Madonna and Child with Saints Peter and Paul, a Baroque masterpiece by Guercino.
The seventh chapel on the left preserves an altarpiece depicting the Virgin of the Rosary, a masterpiece by the Milanese Baroque master Pier Francesco Mazzucchelli, painter in the service of Cardinal Federico Borromeo, who creates a work of refined elegance in delicate tones, in the elongated shapes and in the sweet expressions of the characters.
The second chapel on the right houses another Renaissance masterpiece commissioned by Ludovico Sforza: the polyptych with the Madonna and Saints Hugh of Langres and Hugh of Canterbury by Macrino d'Alba made in 1496.
Stained glass and other works
The Certosa possesses an important collection of stained glass windows, executed to cartoons by masters active in Lombardy in the 15th century, including Zanetto Bugatto, Vincenzo Foppa, Bergognone and Hans Witz.
In the presbytery there is the large Renaissance carved wooden choir, commissioned by Ludovico il Moro. It is remarkable both from the point of view of the inlay, and for the quality of the designs from which the inlays were taken, probably produced by the same artists who created the pictorial decorations such as Bergognone and Zenale. The 42 dossals depict saints or biblical characters, each of which shows architectural or natural scenarios with elaborate and imaginative Renaissance-style constructions. The execution was entrusted by the Duke in 1486 to Bartolomeo de Polli, a Modenese already active at the court of Mantua, and completed by the Cremonese inlayer Pantaleone de Marchi, in time for the consecration of the church, which took place in 1497.
The great high altar is surmounted by a colossal ciborium in the form of a temple with a central plan with a large dome, built in Carrara marble, with inserts in polychrome marble and precious stones such as lapis lazuli, carnelian, jasper and onyx, and bronze finishes. It was built in 1568 by the sculptor Ambrogio Volpi. The small temple of this altar is enriched by thirteen bronze statuettes by Angelo Marini. The altar cross, the candelabra and the large candlestick (2.03 meters high) are by Annibale Fontana.
The crypt sacristy contains, among other treasures, a triptych in ivory and hippopotamus' ivory by Baldassarre degli Embriachi, donated by Gian Galeazzo Visconti. The work, a late Gothic carving masterpiece, measures 2.45 meters at the base for a maximum height, referring to the lateral pinnacles, of 2.54 meters. It is composed of minute compositions and adorned with small tabernacles with statuettes of saints inside; in the central compartment there are 26 panels illustrating the legend of the Magi according to the apocryphal gospels; in the compartment on the right and on the left, 36 bas-reliefs (18 on each side) depict episodes from the life of Christ and the Virgin. In the median cusp, inside a tondo supported by angels, the figure of God dominates, while the base of the triptych presents a piety, flanked by 14 aedicules with as many decorated statuettes of Saints. There are also two external polygonal pillars made up of 40 small tabernacles adorned with statuettes.
Library
Since its foundation, the monks had a library, including liturgical texts necessary for daily celebrations, and others, of scientific and humanistic subjects. We know that a first library was set up between 1426 and 1427, but at the end of the sixteenth century its premises were used as a sacristy and constituted the new sacristy of the church and the library was moved to its current location, located on the shorter side of the cloister. small, where the monastery's infirmary used to be. The library was implemented by the prior Matteo Valerio in the first half of the seventeenth century, who also enriched it with secular texts and manuscripts. In 1782, with the suppression of the Certosa, its important one was partly divided between the Libraries of Milan and Pavia, even if some volumes were dispersed. There remained in the library of the monastery 13 illuminated choirbooks by Evangelista della Croce, Benedetto da Corteregia of Bergamo, Vallombrosian monk of the monastery of San Lanfranco, and Guarnerio Beretta dating back to the 16th century, with texts and music of the songs of the masses ordered according to the sequence of the year liturgical.
Other
The New Sacristy contains a vivid cycle of frescoes by the Sorri brothers, belonging to the late Sienese Mannerism. The walls have paintings by Francesco Cairo, Camillo Procaccini, il Passignano and Giulio Cesare Procaccini, while the altarpiece of 1524 was begun by Andrea Solario, later completed by Bernardino Campi.
Also notable is the refectory, initially used as church during the construction, which has maintained a fresco with the Last Supper by Ottavio Semino, 1567 and, in the vault, a Madonna with Child and Prophets by Bergognone.
The museum of the Certosa of Pavia
The museum of the Certosa of Pavia is located in the rooms of the Ducal Palace, the summer residence of the Visconti and Sforza dynasty then used as a guesthouse. The building, modified in 1625 by an intervention on the facade by the architect Francesco Maria Richini, has a linear succession of windows between semi-columns that give brightness to the entire structure. It houses works from the monastic complex or connected to it. The gallery on the ground floor, the recently refurbished plaster cast gallery, houses more than 200 large and small scale casts.
The gipsoteca collects more than 200 large and small scale casts and some sculptures, including the lamented Christ by Antonio della Porta (early 16th century. In the years from 2002 to 2006, most of these casts were restored and placed, with a new layout by the Superintendence for Architectural and Landscape Heritage of Lombardy, in the ground floor gallery of the Ducal Palace. Upstairs, the historical setting of 1911 by Luca Beltrami has been maintained and, except for some adjustments, the extraordinary high-reliefs in marble by Bambaia, the sculptures, dating back to around 1480, by Giovanni Antonio Amadeo and Antonio Mantegazza are preserved. Here are also preserved polychrome stone sculptures by Lombard artists of the second half of the fifteenth century, wall paintings of the sixteenth century detached from their original locations, panel paintings, such as the Altarpiece by Bartolomeo Montagna, the Ecce homo by Bramantino, Saint Martin and Saint Ambrose by Bernardino Luini. There are also other paintings on canvas by Guglielmo Caccia, by Vincenzo Campi, by Giovanni Agostino da Lodi, by Giuseppe Procaccini, by Stefano Maria Legnani, by Giuseppe Vermiglio. Room C preserves the portraits of Gian Galeazzo, his second wife Caterina and numerous members of the dynasty. Then there is the study, frescoed in the second half of the 16th century with a trompe-l'oeil landscape, punctuated in squares by monumental monochrome figures with serpentine legs, called telamons, while the vault, decorated with spectacular grotesques painted with a brush tip. on a white background, it houses in the center, within an elliptical frame, the representation of the Dream of Constantine. Next to it is room D, originally intended as an oratory of the guesthouse, the vault of which is decorated with frescoes by Giovan Mauro della Rovere known as Fiammenghino. Then there is room F, with masterpieces by Bartolomeo Montagna, Ambrogio Bergognone and Bernardino Luini. There are also other rooms with sculptures, paintings and frescoes from the monastery and its construction site.
Burials
Ludovico Sforza Neither Ludovico nor his spouse Beatrice are actually buried here, this being a cenotaph, i.e. an empty funeral monument
Beatrice d'Este
Gian Galeazzo Visconti
Isabella, Countess of Vertus
See also
History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes
History of Italian Renaissance domes
History of early modern period domes
Notes
References
L. Beltrami, La Certosa di Pavia, Milan, (1895) rev. 1911. The first scholarly study from which subsequent work departs.
R. Bossaglia, M. G. Albertini Ottolenghi, F. R. Pesenti ed., La Certosa di Pavia, Milan, 1968
R. V. Schofield, J. Shell, G. Sironi, Giovanni Antonio Amadeo/ I documenti, New Press, Como, 1989
R. Battaglia "Le "memorie" della Certosa di Pavia", in Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Classe di Lettere e Filosofia, 3.Ser. 22.1 (1992) pp. 85–198
"La Certosa di Pavia tra devozione e prestigio dinastico: fondazione, patrimonio, produzione culturale", in Annali di Storia Pavese, 1997
Ambrogio da Fossano, detto il Bergognone, un pittore per la Certosa, M. G. Albertini Ottolenghi, Milano 1998
External links
Pages Certosa on the site of the City of Certosa di Pavia
Pages Certosa on the site of the Municipality of Pavia
Website of the Certosa di Pavia
Description of the Charterhouse of Pavia Louis Marquis Malaspina Sannazaro (Milan, 1818)
Pro Loco Certosa di Pavia’s Tourist page
Adrian Fletcher’s Paradoxplace Certosa di Pavia Photo Page
Images of the Certosa di Pavia c.1860
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1495
1396 establishments in Europe
14th-century establishments in Italy
Christian organizations established in the 14th century
Renaissance architecture in Lombardy
Carthusian monasteries in Italy
Monasteries in Lombardy
Roman Catholic churches in Pavia
15th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in Italy |
4020130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writers%20Guild | Writers Guild | Writers Guild may refer to:
Australian Writers' Guild
New Zealand Writers Guild
Writers Guild of America
Writers Guild of America, East
Writers Guild of America, West
Writers Guild of Canada
Writers' Guild of Great Britain |
4020131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ell%2C%20Netherlands | Ell, Netherlands | Ell is a village in the Dutch province of Limburg. It is a part of the municipality of Leudal and lies about 7 km southeast of Weert.
History
It was first mentioned in 1244 as Elle. The etymology is unknown. Ell developed in the Late Middle Ages along the Tungelroyse Beek. It was part of the Imperial Abbey of Thorn, a tiny independent country, until 1794.
The Catholic St Antonius Abt Church is a three aisled basilica-like church built in 1912 to replace a church from 1823. The tower was blown up in 1944, and the church was restored in 1946. In 1953, a new tower was added.
Ell was home to 297 people in 1840.
Gallery
References
Populated places in Limburg (Netherlands)
Leudal |
4020139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois%20Central%20201 | Illinois Central 201 | Illinois Central 201 is a steam locomotive, originally owned and operated by Illinois Central Railroad. The engine hauled thousands of passengers to the 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago, at which time, Casey Jones was one of its engineers. In 1949, the locomotive was operated at the Chicago Railroad Fair as part of the "Wheels A-Rolling" pageant. It is now on static display at Illinois Railway Museum in Union, Illinois.
Service
201 was one of several 2-4-4T locomotives built for commuter service between the edge of the Chicago Loop and the South suburbs (now part of the Metra Electric District).
Preservation
1401 was retired in 1926 when the IC electrified the route. The rest of the fleet retired in 1935 from yard service; some were sold to other railroads. in 1934, it was renumbered back into 201 where it took part at the Chicago Worlds Fair for many years until 1949. In 1975, the locomotive was sold to a private owner and displayed in front of the depot in Owatonna, Minnesota. It was donated to the Illinois Railway Museum in 2002.
References
2-4-4T locomotives
201
Rogers locomotives
Individual locomotives of the United States
Preserved steam locomotives of Illinois
Standard gauge locomotives of the United States
Railway locomotives introduced in 1880 |
4020159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECAC%20Northeast | ECAC Northeast | The ECAC Northeast was an intercollegiate athletic conference affiliated with the NCAA's Division III as a hockey-only conference. For many years it was one of the three men's hockey conferences that operated under the umbrella of the Eastern College Athletic Conference; the others were the ECAC East (now the New England Hockey Conference), and the ECAC West (soon to be the United Collegiate Hockey Conference). Member institutions were located in the New England region of the United States, in the states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island.
Unlike the ECAC East and ECAC West, there was no women's division of the ECAC Northeast. Most ECAC Northeast schools did not sponsor women's ice hockey; the two that did (Nichols & Salve Regina) played in the ECAC East.
The ECAC Northeast dissolved in 2016 when The Commonwealth Coast Conference, a Division III all-sports conference and the primary conference of most ECAC Northeast members, decided to sponsor men's ice hockey as a varsity sport. Becker, Johnson and Wales, and Suffolk joined the CCC as associate members for ice hockey, while CCC member University of New England moved their men's team from the ECAC East to play in the CCC league.
History
The foundation of the ECAC Northeast was laid in 1971 when ECAC 2, the college division of the ECAC created a third conference called ECAC 3. When the NCAA created Division III in 1973 ECAC 3 was placed at that level and remained there for the rest of its existence. In 1985, as a result of the NCAA beginning a Division III Tournament, ECAC 2 was reorganized into two separate conferences, ECAC East and ECAC West, with each becoming D-III leagues. To prevent confusion, ECAC 3 was renamed as ECAC North/South with all members split into North and South divisions (similar to how ECAC 2 had been divided into East and West divisions). This arrangement continued until 1992 when ECAC North/South was rearranged into three divisions (North, South and Central) and renamed ECAC North/South/Central. Over the course of the 1997–98 season the South Division lost 6 of its 8 teams, mostly to Division I, but rather than return to a two-division arrangement the league rebranded as ECAC Northeast. A year later the four member schools who were from Division II schools began playing in a separate tournament which allowed the other programs to play in an NCAA-sanctioned D-III conference tournament for the first time. As a result, ECAC Northeast got its first automatic bid to the tournament in 2000. In 2009 the nine schools whose primary conference was either MASCAC or Northeast-10 left when those two leagues began sponsoring ice hockey. The remaining teams stayed on for another seven years but in 2016 the Commonwealth Coast Conference, the primary conference for seven of the nine member teams, began sponsoring ice hockey. All nine teams joined CCC as either full or associate members and the ECAC Northeast was dissolved.
ECAC Northeast Tournament
Upon its founding, ECAC 3 instituted a tournament. Originally only a single game the championship slowly expanded along with the league.
Members
There were nine member schools as of the conference's final season in 2015–16.
† as of 2018
* Assumption, Franklin Pierce, Southern New Hampshire, and Stonehill are Division II schools; and were not allowed to participate in the ECAC Northeast playoffs after 1999, nor were they eligible for the Division III national tournament.
Membership timeline
References
NCAA Division III ice hockey conferences |
4020162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHRB%20%28AM%29 | CHRB (AM) | CHRB (1140 AM, AM 1140) is a radio station licensed to High River, Alberta. Owned by Golden West Broadcasting, it broadcasts a christian format.
It first began broadcasting in 1977 at 1280 kHz before moving to its current dial position in 1996. CHRB is a Class B station broadcasting on a clear-channel frequency with daytime power of 50,000 watts, and nighttime power of 46,000 watts; a directional antenna is used at all times. Its Class B status indicates that it is not a clear-channel station, but it does broadcast on the clear-channel frequency of 1140 AM, on which Class A status is shared by Mexico and the U.S.
References
External links
Hrb
Hrb
Hrb
Hrb
High River
Radio stations established in 1977
1977 establishments in Alberta |
4020179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain%20Butler | Captain Butler | Captain Butler is a British sitcom starring Craig Charles as Butler, the captain of a motley crew of pirates which included Roger Griffiths, Shaun Curry, Lewis Rae and Sanjeev Bhaskar. Created by John Smith and Rob Sprackling, the series ran for only six episodes on Channel 4 during 1997. Its theme tune was the Sex Pistols version of "Friggin' In The Riggin'" (with minor variations by the actors within the series).
Plot
The series is set during the 18th century, sometime between the period known as the 'Golden Age of Piracy' and the Napoleonic Wars, and follows the adventures of a misfit band of pirates led by Captain Butler (Craig Charles). However, the setting intentionally introduces historical anachronisms, as both Blackbeard and Admiral Horatio Nelson are portrayed in the series, and it is difficult to determine the specific time period.
Characters
Captain Butler (Craig Charles)
Cliff (Roger Griffiths)
Bosun (Shaun Curry)
Roger (Lewis Rae)
Adeel (Sanjeev Bhaskar)
Episodes
External links
Captain Butler at TV Timewarp
Channel 4 sitcoms
1990s British sitcoms
1997 British television series debuts
1997 British television series endings |
4020186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Life%20Equation | Anti-Life Equation | The Anti-Life Equation is a fictional concept appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. In Jack Kirby's Fourth World setting, the Anti-Life Equation is a formula for total control over the minds of sentient beings, that is sought by Darkseid, who, for this reason, sends his forces to Earth, as he believes part of the equation exists in the subconsciousness of humanity. Various comics have defined the equation in different ways, but a common interpretation is that the equation is a mathematical proof of the futility of living.
History
Jack Kirby's original comics established the Anti-Life Equation as giving the being who learns it power to dominate the will of all sentient and sapient races. It is called the Anti-Life Equation because "if someone possesses absolute control over you - you're not really alive". Most stories featuring the Equation use this concept. The Forever People's Mother Box found the Anti-Life Equation in Sonny Sumo, but Darkseid, unaware of this, stranded him in ancient Japan. A man known as Billion-Dollar Bates had control over the Equation's power even without the Mother Box's aid, but was accidentally killed by one of his own guards.
When Metron and Swamp Thing attempt to breach the Source, which drives Swamp Thing temporarily mad, Darkseid discovers that part of the formula is love. Upon being told by the Dominators of their planned invasion of Earth, Darkseid promises not to interfere on the condition that the planet is not destroyed so his quest for the equation is not thwarted.
It is later revealed in Martian Manhunter (vol. 2) #33 that Darkseid first became aware of the equation approximately 300 years ago when he made contact with the people of Mars. Upon learning of the Martian philosophy that free will and spiritual purpose could be defined by a Life Equation, Darkseid postulated that there must exist a negative equivalent.
In Walt Simonson's Orion (2001), Darkseid and Desaad have gained the Equation from clones of Billion Dollar Bates. In stopping them Orion learned the Equation, and tried to use it to make people happy and good, but decided that the suppression of free will is always a bad thing. Mister Miracle knows the formula, but is one of the few with the willpower not to use it. During the series Young Justice, it was stated that the mystical heroine Empress holds within her a piece of an Anti-Life Equation, which allows her to control the minds of others to limited extents. Countdown to Final Crisis #10 reveals that the Pied Piper also contained the equation within his mind and can manifest it through music. Desaad attempts to use Piper as his pawn to help him destroy Brother Eye and Darkseid so that he could rule Apokolips.
During the Final Crisis, Darkseid's plan comes to fruition even without Pied Piper's help. In fact, using the "spoken form" of the Anti-Life, Darkseid (reborn after his death as "Boss Dark Side" on Earth) is able to rebuild a strong power base on Earth by having Mokkari unleash the Anti-Life Equation through the internet by email, turning those exposed to it into his mindless slaves. Libra used the Anti-Life Equation to turn several members of his Secret Society of Super Villains into Justifiers while some of Earth's superheroines and supervillainesses were converted into new versions of the Female Furies.
It was revealed that the Equation can be countered by drawing the New Genesis word for "freedom" on one's face. Also, Doctor Sivana invented a device that allowed Lex Luthor to wrest control of the Equation-controlled Justifiers from Libra and Darkseid. In Terror Titans #4, because of the brain's status as an electromagnetic organ, Static is immune to the Equation's effects. In Final Crisis #7, Wonder Woman breaks the Equation's hold over the people of Earth by binding Darkseid's body with the Lasso of Truth.
After Darkseid's disappearance, the Calculator tasks himself with the role of tracking down the fragments of the Equation left in the internet, which had taken the appearance of floating diamonds in Alta Viva, an in-universe multi-player online game similar to Second Life. By having real diamonds cut in the shape of the virtual ones, the Calculator hopes to harness and restore its power for himself.
The Multiversity features a different version to the Anti-Life Equation known as the Anti-Death Equation: a dark, mysterious power used by the Gentry, capable of transforming and corroding anything from the laws of physics to even beings as powerful as Monitors, turning its victims into gruesome and evil creatures who are incapable of dying.
In DCU continuity the Equation itself retains its importance to a great many interested parties having come into the control of a host of users both in incomplete and whole formulations of itself. It is first possessed by the evil Old God Yuga Khan who uses it to resurrect many of his fallen brethren in a final battle against his sons Uxas and Izaya before falling in battle. Eventually many an individual would come to possess either finite understanding or complete utilization of the Anti-Life Equation for their own personal use over time. Some eons later Darkseid would use a fraction of its nightmarish will-sapping power in his invasion cycles of the Earth 2 parallel universe; soon it was revealed that others possessed the full Equation but lacked the incentive to use it. The formula itself however is revealed to be a sentient being able to express itself to its current hosts.
It was revealed that the Anti-Life Equation was the source of the Anti-Matter Universe's creation, and that the Anti-Monitor used to be a Qwardian scientist in the Anti-Matter Universe named Mobius who was the first to find and touch the Anti-Life Equation; it then fused with him and transformed him into the Anti-Monitor, the Anti-Life Equation's living embodiment. When Darkseid died in the battle against him and his daughter Grail, Mobius forfeited the equation in order to return to his original form. The power itself which possessed him is now in the hands of his original benefactor, establishing her as the Goddess of Anti-Life.
Interpretations of the Equation
Over the years, the Anti-Life Equation has changed as various writers have offered their own definitions of the concept.
In Jack Kirby's original version, the Equation manifests itself as the power to control any sentient minds through direct commands. A clear distinction was made between the Anti-Life Equation and other methods of control like manipulation or hypnosis. While Darkseid could already exert some control over humanity through the preachings of his minion Glorious Godfrey, possessing the Equation would allow unlimited and instantaneous control.
In Jim Starlin's mini-series Cosmic Odyssey, the Anti-Life Equation is revealed as a living shadow-based deity that corrupts and destroys everything it touches. This revelation shocks even Darkseid, who teams up with the New Gods and a group of superheroes from Earth to stop the Anti-Life Equation entity, ultimately sealing it off from their reality. The Anti-Life Equation Entity would be retconned as a creature who had been mislabeled as far as having anything to do with the Anti-Life Equation.
In Issue #4 of Neil Gaiman's Sandman series, the demon Choronzon mimics the form of 'Anti-Life' when challenging Dream to 'the Oldest Game' - a battle of wits in which the two must define increasingly powerful entities in turn. Attempting to end the game, Choronzon states "I am Anti-Life, the beast of judgement. I am the dark at the end of everything. The end of universes, gods, worlds...of everything", at which point he takes on the appearance of a large, blank face against a white background. Dream counters this by proclaiming "I am hope".
In Walt Simonson's Orion series, the Equation is portrayed much like in the original Kirby comics, ignoring the version shown in Cosmic Odyssey. Besides the power to control minds, it is also shown to give its wielder the power to revive corpses through verbal commands.
In the 2005 Seven Soldiers: Mister Miracle mini-series, written by Grant Morrison, Darkseid (or Boss Dark Side, as he was calling himself) gained control of the Anti-Life Equation, which is stylized in narration as:
loneliness + alienation + fear + despair + self-worth ÷ mockery ÷ condemnation ÷ misunderstanding × guilt × shame × failure × judgment n=y where y=hope and n=folly, love=lies, life=death, self=dark side
By speaking said equation, Darkseid can insert the full formula into people's minds, giving them the mathematical certainty that life, hope and freedom are all pointless. According to Oracle, who barely escaped the "full" effects of the Equation by shutting down the entire Internet just in time, the Anti-Life Equation further states that the only point in anything is to conform to Darkseid's will. Shilo Norman (the current Mister Miracle) is able to break free from this with the help of Metron, gaining immunity from the Equation in the process. He passes this immunity to his allies by drawing a specific pattern (the pattern is shown to be the New Genesis word for freedom) on their face.
When Jim Starlin returned to writing the New Gods in 2007's Death of the New Gods mini-series, the retcon was revised, with the Anti-Life Equation Entity being revealed to be one-half of a cosmic being that was split into two by the war of the old gods (the other half of the cosmic entity being the Source). In a text page published in Final Crisis Secret Files, Grant Morrison attempts to reconcile the Starlin version of the Anti-Life Equation with his own version, by suggesting that the Equation is indeed sentient (as Starlin suggests) and that even after "mastering" the Equation, Darkseid still does not understand the true horrific nature of what the Anti-Life Equation is and its relationship with the Source.
In the New 52 the Anti-Life has much of the same powers it had before, Yuga Khan having used it to bring back the dead Old Gods to aid him in battle against his sons, Dreamer Beautiful using it for the first time to resurrect a deceased Mark Moonrider, and Darkseid himself using a fraction of it to draw unsuspecting victims to their end by broadcasting it over his parademon hive factories.
Life Equation
The Anti-Life's opposite member takes more prominence within the New 52. The white Light of Life is said to be the spark that originally gave birth to the positive matter universe of Earth-Zero just as the Anti-Life gave rise to the antimatter universe. Unlike the Anti-Life Equation which saps a person of their free will, The Life Equation is an all consuming power which has the capability to restructure reality by changing its formula around rewriting the very multiverse itself, representing the attributes of life itself pertaining to change and variance. The make up of the equation formula seems to vary from iteration to iteration. One instance relates it to the Emotional Spectrum and its corresponding seven lights.
rage, greed, fear, will, hope, compassion and love
Initially believing all of these refractions of the source light to lead in becoming the Life Equation, it is then realized that the formula itself is a separate power all its own connected directly to The Source of all things. Its power once hidden behind the wall of its namesake had been removed and supplanted within the White Ring utilized by Kyle Rayner to escape it after the seven emotional entities gave themselves to both him and it in order to replenish the Emotional Reservoir. It is later revealed that Kyle managed to escape with the equation in hand after he reached out into the source itself and unknowingly claimed the equation.
Once claimed the Life Equation has the power to redefine reality on a universal to multiversal degree enabling the user to change the formula in order to remake all of existence. In another manifestation, the formula reads as a direct contradiction to that of the Anti-Life Equation presenting as follows:
companionship + understanding + assurance + joy + altruism ÷ respect ÷ commendation ÷ sympathy × innocence × dignity × success × acceptance y=n where y=despair and n=caution, love=truth, death=rebirth, and self=light side
For reality embodies life and the equation is the tangible abstract of how it is defined, also similarly to Anti-Life; the Life variant can subjugate life to follow the user in the creation of a new world order in favor of protection of life, rather than accepting it as meaninglessness. The Life Equation was split into seven parts and placed into Kyle's and six newly created White Power rings. These seven rings can be brought together to restore the Life Equation if needed but until that time the White Lantern Corps can protect the equation.
Alternate realities
In the Elseworlds graphic novel Superman: The Dark Side (1998) Darkseid raises Kal-El as his own (evil) son and later finds that Krypton had been in possession of the Anti-Life Equation before it was destroyed and Jor-El had sent it with his son so that he could use it to subjugate Earth and create a new Krypton. Naturally Darkseid finds it and builds a series of towers which broadcast "...the ANTI-LIFE EQUATION which obliterates free will and individual identity".
In the World's Funnest Elseworlds one-shot (2001), created by Evan Dorkin and a variety of artists, a conflict between Bat-Mite and Mister Mxyzptlk inadvertently destroys the DCU (including many pre-crisis worlds). When they destroy Apokolips the sole survivor is Darkseid who is left floating in space with a piece of paper with the equation drawn on it; the paper has a diagram to the effect of "Mister Mxyzptlk + Bat-Mite = Anti-life". This causes Darkseid to die laughing.
In the DCeased written by Tom Taylor, Darkseid has captured Cyborg, who possesses one half of the Anti-Life Equation. With the other half already in his possession, Darkseid attempts to mix the two halves together, but DeSaad warns him that if Cyborg dies, the Equation will cease to exist. Darkseid thus summons the Black Racer to control Cyborg's life and activates the Equation. However, Black Racer's connection tampers the Anti-Life Equation and makes it autonomous. This causes Darkseid to lose control to the now tainted Equation, and in his despair he destroys Apokolips. DeSaad manages to teleport Cyborg away beforehand, but as soon as Cyborg appears on Earth, the Equation breaches the Global Internet and infects the world via mobile devices connected to it.
In other media
DC Animated Universe
In Superman: The Animated Series episode "Apokolips... Now!, Part 1", Orion arrives to Earth and uses his Mother Box, to explain to Superman about Apokolips, and its ruler, Darkseid. During its explanation, Mother Box spoke of how Darkseid was after the Anti-Life Equation, which was said to give him great power.
In the Justice League episode "Twilight", Darkseid hacks into the systems of Brainiac, with potentially catastrophic results. As he explains to the captured Superman, this will give him the solution to the Anti-Life Equation, allowing him to destroy the universe and rebuild it - this time in his own image.
In Justice League Unlimited's final episode, "Destroyer", during an assault on Earth by Darkseid and the armies of Apokolips, Lex Luthor is taken into The Source by Metron. Just as Darkseid ensnares Superman in a powerful, agony-inducing net, Lex Luthor returns from The Source and reveals the Anti-Life Equation, shown as a glowing, swirling light in the palm of his hand, to Darkseid. Darkseid places a hand over the glow, Lex places a hand on Darkseid's hand, both agreeing the equation "is beautiful", and they both disappear. It is not known what happened to either Lex Luthor or Darkseid. Superman believes that they both died, but both Batman and Green Lantern doubt it, believing instead that they will both be back. According to Dwayne McDuffie, upon learning the Anti-Life Equation, both Lex Luthor and Darkseid became part of the Source Wall.
Smallville
The Anti-Life Equation is briefly featured in the Smallville season 8 episode "Legion". During the episode, Brainiac attempts to capture the knowledge of others through a computer virus; the voice echoing through the computer states "Hate plus fear plus loneliness...".
During season 9 episode "Roulette", the Anti-Life Equation was briefly referenced by Clark Kent.
The Anti-Life Equation's Omega symbol appears in the tenth and final season of Smallville. It serves as a sign when a being is influenced by Darkseid. Notable people are Orion, Slade Wilson in the episode "Patriot", and Oliver Queen in "Masquerade", and then reversed in "Finale, part 2".
Other
In Abraxas, Guardian of the Universe, a Canadian science-fiction film from 1991, the Anti-Life Equation has a prominent role.
In Teen Titans Go!, Darkseid mentions the Anti-Life Equation, but he is criticized as being a "math nerd" by Beast Boy.
In the DC Super Hero Girls episode "My So Called Anti-Life", Darkseid, posing as a human math teacher named Dr. Seid, tricks the Super Hero Girls into solving the Anti-Life Equation for him by putting it on a test. With the completed equation, Darkseid begins transforming Earth's population into duplicates of himself. Batgirl, Harley Quinn, Bumblebee, and Raven manage to reverse the effects by reminding the people of who they really are, which they refer to as "introducing new variables to the equation to change the answer".
In the video game Injustice 2, the Anti-Life Equation is mentioned in pre-battle dialogue between Darkseid and Wonder Woman. Darkseid asks what primitive weapon she is wielding and she claims to be the Anti-Life Equation. Darkseid states that she has revealed her true form, implying Wonder Woman has been corrupted by the Anti-Life Equation.
In Lego DC Super-Villains, Darkseid is after the Anti-Life Equation. He sends the Crime Syndicate to replace the Justice League in order to find the Equation on Earth. Towards the end of the game, the Rookie would then absorb the equation and use it to change Darkseid and his army.
During the Justice League Action episode "It'll Take a Miracle", Mr. Miracle is revealed to be in possession of a piece to Darkseid's Anti-Life Equation machine. Darkseid's plan was to erase all sentient thought in the universe with the device and enslave everyone, but Batman was able to destroy the machine when he replaced the missing component with one of Miracle's light show props.
In the third season of the DC animated series Young Justice, the phrase "Prepare The Anti Life Equation" can be spelt out from the first letter of each episode title. In the episode "Influence", an experimental Anti-Life equation is used by Granny Goodness against Superman, Wonder Woman, and Hawkwoman, as well as the Female Furies they are fighting. Superman later manages to stop Granny Goodness from using the equation on them. In "Unknown Factors", after an encounter with Halo (who contains the spirit of a Mother Box), Goodness theorizes that she can access the Anti-Life Equation, and contacts Darkseid after the encounter to let him know she has found it. In "Antisocial Pathologies", Halo is taken by Granny into the X-Pit, a space that is the access point to what is called the ghost dimension, allowing her to decipher the equation into being. Granny then tests it on Helga Jace, who retains her emotions but loses her free will, and thus follows Granny's orders. Thus, Granny confirms the revelation that the ghost dimension and Halo's powers are a form of the equation: ghost dimension + Halo = Anti-Life. Despite interference from the Light via Geo-Force and Terra, Granny is able to escape with Halo. In "Terminus", after a majority of the Justice League and the Team attempt to raid Granny's space station base, she succeeds in using the equation to enslave them all before spreading the equation's influence throughout the universe to place it under Apokolips rule, beginning the Age of Darkseid. In "Into the Breach", she would have succeeded, had Victor Stone not come to her base when he did and allowed the heroes to stop her by freeing Halo. By the season finale, Darkseid's quest to find the Anti-Life Equation supposedly continues elsewhere in the universe, while Vandal Savage and the Light keep an eye on Halo for their future plans.
In the Supergirl episode "The Bottle Episode", one of Brainiac 5's doppelgangers uses the Anti-Life Equation to murder another version of himself.
In Zack Snyder's Justice League, Darkseid discovers that the Anti-Life Equation is carved on the surface of Earth. After being fought back by the defenders of Earth, the location of the Equation is lost. Later Steppenwolf rediscovers the Equation and informs Darkseid, promising to complete the conquest of Earth so that Darkseid may claim the Equation. After Steppenwolf is defeated by the Justice League, Darkseid states that he will use "the old ways" to claim the Equation, and assembles his military forces for an invasion.
In The Sandman episode "A Hope in Hell", Lucifer Morningstar invokes Anti-Life in-response to Dream invoking of a universe in an attempt to win their duel, only to be defeated once Matthew the Raven unwittingly inspires Dream to invoke hope, defeating and publicly humiliating Lucifer in front of their kingdom.
See also
Hypertime
References
Equations
DC Comics deities |
4020191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949%20in%20Australia | 1949 in Australia | The following lists events that happened during 1949 in Australia.
Incumbents
Monarch – George VI
Governor-General – William McKell
Prime Minister – Ben Chifley (until 19 December), then Robert Menzies
Chief Justice – Sir John Latham
State Governors
Governor of New South Wales – Sir John Northcott
Governor of Queensland – Sir John Lavarack
Governor of South Australia – Sir Charles Norrie
Governor of Tasmania – Sir Hugh Binney
Governor of Victoria – Sir Winston Dugan (until 20 February), then Sir Dallas Brooks (from 18 October)
Governor of Western Australia – Sir James Mitchell
Events
26 January – The Nationality and Citizenship Act is passed. Rather than being identified as subjects of Britain, the Act established Australian citizenship for people who met eligibility requirements.
2 March - A cyclone crosses the Central Queensland coast impacting Gladstone and Rockhampton.
10 March – A Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar crashes near Coolangatta, Queensland, killing all 21 on board.
16 March – Australia's domestic counter-intelligence and security agency, the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) is established, by order of the Directive for the Establishment and Maintenance of a Security Service.
16 March – Indigenous Australians who are eligible to vote in state elections in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania are also given the right to vote in federal elections.
27 June – A seven-week coal strike begins, involving 23,000 miners and broken by the sending in of troops.
2 July - A MacRobertson Miller Aviation DC-3 aircraft crashes on take-off from Perth Airport, killing all 18 on board.
17 October – Construction of the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Scheme begins.
10 December – A federal election is held. The incumbent Australian Labor Party led by Ben Chifley is defeated by Robert Menzies' Liberal Party.
18 December – Prime Minister-elect Robert Menzies announces his cabinet, including Dame Enid Lyons as Australia's first female cabinet minister.
Science and technology
November – Australia's first digital computer, CSIRAC, runs its first test programs.
Arts and literature
21 January – William Dobell wins the Archibald Prize and the Wynne Prize.
Sport
Athletics
17 September - Robert Prentice wins his first men's national marathon title, clocking 2:43:46 in Perth
Cricket
New South Wales wins the Sheffield Shield
Football
Bledisloe Cup: won by the Wallabies
Brisbane Rugby League premiership: Souths defeated Easts 22-8
New South Wales Rugby League premiership: Western Suburbs defeated Balmain 8-5
South Australian National Football League premiership: won by North Adelaide
Victorian Football League premiership: Essendon defeated Carlton 125-52
Golf
Australian Open: won by Eric Cremin
Australian PGA Championship: won by Kel Nagle
Horse Racing
Persist wins the AJC Oaks
Lincoln wins the Caulfield Cup
Delta wins the Cox Plate
Foxzami wins the Melbourne Cup
Motor Racing
The Australian Grand Prix was held at Leyburn, and was won by John Crouch driving a Delahaye
Tennis
Australian Open men's singles: Frank Sedgman defeats John Bromwich 6-3 6-2 6-2
Australian Open women's singles: Doris Hart defeats Nancye Wynne Bolton 6-3 6-4
Davis Cup: Australia is defeated by the United States 1–4 in the 1949 Davis Cup final
US Open: John Bromwich and Bill Sidwell win the Men's Doubles
Yachting
Waltzing Matilda takes line honours and Trade Winds wins on handicap in the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race
Births
11 January – Daryl Braithwaite, singer
14 January – Paul Chubb (died 2002), actor
26 February – Simon Crean, trade union leader and politician
7 March – Rex Hunt, media personality
13 June – Red Symons, musician and TV personality
30 June – John Kobelke (died 2019), Western Australian politician
1 July – John Farnham, singer and entertainer
16 July – Robert Proctor, field hockey player
18 July – Dennis Lillee, cricketer
28 July – Peter Doyle, singer and guitarist (died 2001)
18 August – Byron Kennedy (died 1983), film producer
23 August – Rick Springfield, singer
22 September – Jim McGinty, politician
14 October - Fraser Anning, politician
6 November – Malcolm Poole, field hockey player
12 November – Deb Foskey (died 2020), Australian Capital Territory politician
24 November – Shane Bourne, comedian and actor
5 December – Wendy Craik, scientist, public policy adviser and company director
Deaths
8 January – Mary Miller, singer (b. 1926)
3 February – Kate Dwyer, educator, suffragist and labour activist (b. 1861)
7 April – Richard Crouch, Victorian politician (b. 1868)
26 April – Norman Brookman, South Australian politician (b. 1884)
14 August – Henry Ernest Boote, editor, journalist, and poet (born in the United Kingdom) (b. 1865)
15 August – Vida Goldstein, suffragette and social reformer (b. 1869)
16 August – John Lemmone, flautist, composer and manager (b. 1861)
27 August – Theodora Cowan, sculptor (b. 1868)
2 September – Jack Beasley, New South Wales politician (b. 1895)
9 September – Sir John Kirwan, Western Australian politician (born in the United Kingdom) (b. 1869)
16 November – Margaret Battye, barrister and jurist (b. 1909)
21 November – Philip Lytton, actor and theatre entrepreneur (b. unknown)
18 December – Florence Anderson, trade union secretary (b. 1871)
Unknown – Eric Muspratt, travel writer (b. 1899)
Unknown – Alfred Wheeler, minister and composer (b. 1865)
See also
List of Australian films of the 1940s
References
Australia
Years of the 20th century in Australia |
4020194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trompo | Trompo | A Trompo is a top which is spun by winding a length of string around the body, and launching it so that lands spinning on its point. If the string is attached to a stick the rotation can be maintained by whipping the side of the body. The string may also be wound around the point while the trompo is spinning in order to control its position or even lift the spinning top to another surface.
Etymology
These toys are popular in Latin America where the name trompo emerged, but there are many different local names. In Spain, these toys may be called trompo or peonza, perinola, and pirinola. In the Philippines, they are called trumpo or turumpo, while in Portugal they are called pião.
In India it is called Bugari (Kannada); children make these tops by nailing wood and spin them with twisted jute rope. In Japan, similar tops are known as koma, with most cities having a particular design.
In Germany a Peitschenkreisel may also be called Doppisch, Dildop, Pindopp, Dilledopp, Triesel or Tanzknopf (roughly dancing top)
In Morocco it is called Trombia, and it is often made out of wood and painted in a reddish brown color.
In Dutch it is called "priktol" (see https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priktol). A "tol" is a top. An other type of top is the "zweeptol". A "zweep" is a whip. (see https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinderspelen and find "zweep" on that page)
History
There is historical evidence suggesting the existence of trompos as early as 4000 BCE, and trompos have been found on the bank of the Euphrates river, likely belonging to an ancient civilization. There is also evidence that members of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations used trompos as well.
Description of motion
The gyroscopic effect allows the trompo to spin over its point until the force of gravity ends up at an angle with respect to the top's axis of rotation, causing a variation in the location of the center of gravity as the trompo undergoes precession (where the axis of rotation of the trompo moves in a circular path). The fall of the top is directly proportional to the angle between the direction of gravity on the trompo and the top's axis of rotation. The fall is also directly proportional to the magnitude of the force of gravity and is inversely proportional to the trompo's angular velocity.
As air resistance and friction with the ground begin to slow the trompo's spin, its center of gravity begins to destabilize and the top's bottom point begins to trace a circular path with the ground. Soon the trompo becomes fully unbalanced and it falls to the ground, rolling until it comes to rest.
This general motion is largely shared among many trompo variants, but differences in several design parameters (such as the mass distribution, friction between the bottom point and the ground, and the spinning method) can still lead to significant variation in the aforementioned variables.
Form
The trompo's form has varied enormously throughout history. Though trompos have traditionally been cone-shaped, there are also diverse variations in trompo form across regions. However, despite these regional differences in design, all trompos are constructed to be capable of employing the gyroscopic effect.
Trompos generally have an approximately pear-shaped body and are usually made of a hard wood such as hawthorn, oak or beech, although new resins and strong plastic materials have also been used. Clay trompos have also been found from ancient civilizations near the Euphrates river. Whipping tops often have a more cylindrical shape to provide a bigger surface to be struck by the whip.
A trompo has a button-shaped on top, usually bigger than the tip on which it spins, and it is generally made of the same material as the rest of the body.
The base of a trompo is a stud or spike which may have a groove or roller-bearing to facilitate lifting the spinning trompo with a whip or string without imposing much friction on the body.
The trompo surface may be painted or decorated, and some versions incorporate synthetic sound devices. The small size diameter and low mass of most trompos means that mechanical whistles would cause excessive drag (physics) and reduce their spinning time.
The Philippine trumpo differs in the tip, which is straight and pointed. It usually looks like a nail embedded in a wooden spheroid.
Play
Playing with a trompo consists of throwing the top and having it spin on the floor. Due to its shape, a trompo spins on its axis and swirls around its conic tip which is usually made of iron or steel. A trompo uses a string wrapped around it to get the necessary spin needed. The player must roll the cord around the trompo from the metallic tip up. The user must then tie the string in a knot on the button-shaped tip before releasing it. When rolling the cord around the trompo, the cord must be tightly attached to it. The technique for throwing a trompo varies. One end of the cord must be rolled around the player's fingers and with the same hand the trompo must be held with the metallic tip facing upwards.
Championships are held in different Latin American countries, especially in Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Cuba, Nicaragua, and Puerto Rico where it is very popular among children of the middle and lower classes.
In Mexico most trompos sold are made of plastic, with a metal tip, and sometimes they are made of wood. There is a popular game called picotazos, where the main goal is to destroy the opponents' trompo. Another game is where a circle is drawn on the ground and a coin is placed in the middle, and the goal here is to strike the coin.
In Puerto Rico, trompos are sometimes played similarly to certain marble games, with trompos being placed in a circle drawn on the ground. The goal of this variant is to knock the trompos out of the circle. Failure to spin or spinning in the circle causes your trompo to be placed in the circle, and another person has a turn to spin. Trompos in Puerto Rico and Chile are frequently modified to have a sharper point.
José Miguel Agrelot, a Puerto Rican comedian, hosted a long-standing television program, Encabulla y Vuelve y Tira, whose name described the action of throwing and spinning a trompo. One of his comedic characterizations, mischievous boy Torito Fuertes, was a one-time sponsor of a line of trompos.
The Filipino trumpo is basically played in the same manner, except that a knot is not tied into the tip before throwing it for the spin.
See also
Top
Gyroscope
Bauernroulette
Yo-yo
References
Traditional toys
Latin American culture
Wooden toys
Tops
Articles containing video clips |
4020209 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysis%20%28disambiguation%29 | Lysis (disambiguation) | Lysis is the breaking down of the membrane of a cell. Lysis may also refer to:
Lysis (dialogue), a dialogue of Plato about friendship (philia)
Lysis of Taras ( 5th century BCE), Greek philosopher
Lysis, one of the stages of the lytic cycle, one of the two cycles of viral reproduction
Alkaline lysis, a method used in molecular biology to isolate plasmid DNA from bacteria
See also
Lysias (disambiguation) |
4020220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heide%2C%20Venray | Heide, Venray | Heide is a village in the Dutch province of Limburg. It is a part of the municipality of Venray, and lies about 20 km east of Helmond.
The village was first mentioned between 1838 and 1857 as "de Heijde", and means cultivated heath. Heide is located on the edge of the Peel region. In 1946, a temporary church was built. The building was replaced by a real church in 1965.
References
Populated places in Limburg (Netherlands)
Venray |
4020222 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethan%20A.%20Hitchcock%20%28general%29 | Ethan A. Hitchcock (general) | Ethan Allen Hitchcock (May 18, 1798 – August 5, 1870) was a career United States Army officer and author who had War Department assignments in Washington, D.C., during the American Civil War, in which he served as a major general.
Early life
Hitchcock was born in Vergennes, Vermont. His father was Samuel Hitchcock (1755-1813), a lawyer who served as United States District Judge for Vermont, and his mother was Lucy Caroline Allen (1768-1842), the daughter of American Revolutionary War hero General Ethan Allen; though no likeness from life of the revolutionary is extant, Lucy said that he strongly resembled Ethan Allen Hitchcock. Hitchcock's siblings included Henry Hitchcock, a Chief Justice of the Alabama Supreme Court. Henry's son Ethan Hitchcock served as United States Secretary of the Interior under William McKinley. Another of Henry's sons, Henry Hitchcock, was a prominent attorney in St. Louis.
Ethan A. Hitchcock graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1817 (17th out of 19) and was commissioned a third lieutenant of Field Artillery.
Career
He was promoted to captain in 1824. From 1829 to 1833, he served as commandant of cadets at West Point and was promoted to major in 1838. By 1842 he achieved the rank of the lieutenant colonel in the 3rd Infantry Regiment, in command of Fort Stansbury.
He served in the Seminole War in Florida, in the Pacific Northwest, and in the Mexican–American War, where he served as Gen. Winfield Scott's inspector general in the march on Mexico City. He received a brevet promotion to colonel for Contreras and Churubusco and to brigadier general for Molino del Rey.
In 1851, became the colonel of the 2nd Infantry. From 1851 to 1854, he commanded the Pacific Division and then the Department of the Pacific.
In October 1855, he resigned from the Army following a refusal by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis to extend a four-month leave of absence that he had requested for reasons of health. He moved to St. Louis, Missouri, and began a presumed retirement, occupying himself with writing and studies of general literature and philosophy.
Hitchcock was a diarist, and his journal entries from this time have served as a crucial source of evidence for Howard Zinn's reinterpretation of United States history, Voices of A People's History of the United States.
Civil War
After the start of the Civil War, Hitchcock applied to return to the service, but was rejected. It was only after the intervention of Winfield Scott that he was commissioned a major general in February, 1862 and became special adviser to the Secretary of War. From March 17 to July 23, 1862, he served as the chairman of the War Board, the organization that assisted President Abraham Lincoln and Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton in the management of the War Department and the command of the Union armies during the period in which there was no general-in-chief. (Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan had been relieved of his responsibilities as general-in-chief and Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck had not yet replaced him.)
Hitchcock sat on the court-martial of Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter which convicted the general of disobedience and cowardice. From November 1862 through the end of the war, he served as Commissioner for Prisoner of War Exchange, and then Commissary-General of Prisoners.
Hitchcock was mustered out in 1867 and moved to Charleston, South Carolina, then to Sparta, Georgia.
Personal life
On April 20, 1868, he was married to Martha Rind Nicholls (1833–1918) in Washington, D.C. Martha was a daughter of Isaac Smith Nicholls and Joanna Maria (née Rind) Nicholls.
Hitchcock died on August 5, 1870 at Glen Mary Plantation in Sparta, two years after his marriage. He was buried in West Point National Cemetery, New York. His widow died on August 15, 1918.
Contributions to alchemy studies
By the time of his death, Hitchcock had amassed a large private library, including over 250 volumes on the subject of alchemy. This collection was widely regarded as one of the finest private holdings of rare alchemical works and is preserved by St. Louis Mercantile Library at the University of Missouri-St. Louis. Through Remarks upon Alchemy and the Alchemists and other writings, Hitchcock argued that the alchemists were actually religious philosophers writing in symbolism. In Problems of Mysticism and its Symbolism, the Viennese psychologist Herbert Silberer credited Hitchcock with helping to open the way for his explorations of the psychological content of alchemy.
Musical collection
Hitchcock also played the flute and amassed a sizable collection of flute music. In the 1960s, almost one hundred years after his death, part of Hitchcock's personal music collection was discovered in Sparta, Georgia. This collection, which consists of 73 bound volumes and approximately 200 loose manuscripts, currently resides in the Warren D. Allen Music Library at Florida State University. Included in this collection are works by some of the general's contemporaries, music manuscripts handwritten by Hitchcock himself, and items of personal correspondence. The library's acquisition of these materials was celebrated in 1989 by a recital given by F.S.U. flute students and attended by several of Hitchcock's descendants.
Selected works
Remarks upon Alchemy and Alchemists (published in 1857)
Swedenborg a Hermetic Philosopher (1858)
Christ the Spirit (1861)
The Story of the Red Book of Appin (1863)
Spenser's Poem (1865)
Notes on the Vita Nuova of Dante (1866)
Remarks on the Sonnets of Shakespeare (1867)
Fifty Years in Camp and Field (posthumous, 1909)
A Traveler in Indian Territory: The Journal of Ethan Allen Hitchcock, Late Major-General in the United States Army (posthumous, 1930)
See also
List of American Civil War generals (Union)
Notes
References
Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964. .
External links
Military biography of Hitchcock from the Cullum biographies
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Hitchcock, Ethan Allen
1798 births
1870 deaths
American people of English descent
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
American people of the Seminole Wars
Burials at West Point Cemetery
Commandants of the Corps of Cadets of the United States Military Academy
People from Vergennes, Vermont
People of Vermont in the American Civil War
Union Army generals
United States Military Academy alumni |
4020224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexius%20Pedemontanus | Alexius Pedemontanus | Alessio Piemontese, also known under his Latinized name of Alexius Pedemontanus, was the pseudonym of a 16th-century Italian physician, alchemist, and author of the immensely popular book, The Secrets of Alexis of Piedmont. His book was published in more than a hundred editions and was still being reprinted in the 1790s. The work was translated into Latin, German, English, Spanish, French, and Polish. The work unleashed a torrent of 'books of secrets' that continued to be published down through the eighteenth century.
Piemontese was the prototypical 'professor of secrets'. His description of his hunt for secrets in the preface to the Secreti helped to give rise to a legend of the wandering empiric who dedicated his life to the search for natural and technological secrets. The book contributed to the emergence of the concept of science as a hunt for the secrets of nature, which pervaded experimental science during the period of the Scientific Revolution.
It is generally assumed that Alessio Piemontese was a pseudonym of Girolamo Ruscelli (Viterbo 1500 — Venice 1566), humanist and cartographer. In a later work, Ruscelli reported that the Secreti contained the experimental results of an 'Academy of Secrets' that he and a group of humanists and noblemen founded in Naples in the 1540s. Ruscelli's academy is the first recorded example of an experimental scientific society. The academy was later imitated by Giambattista Della Porta, who founded an ‘Accademia dei Secreti’ in Naples in the 1560s.
Works
De' secreti del reuerendo donno Alessio Piemontese, Venice, 1555 (Italian)
--- 1562 edition
--- Les secrets de reverend Alexis Piémontois, Anvers, 1557 (French)
--- The Secretes of the Reverende Maister Alexis of Piermont, 1558 (English, translated from the French version)
--- Kunstbuch Des Wolerfarnen Herren Alexii Pedemontani/ von mancherleyen nutzlichen unnd bewerten Secreten oder Künsten, 1616 (German)
References
External links
Girolamo Ruscelli's map of the North Atlantic.
"Alessio Piemontese", The Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, p. 842, Longman, Brown, Green , and Longmans , 1842
Les secrets dv seignevr Alexis Piemontois... From the Katherine Golden Bitting Collection in the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of Congress
French Digital edition of The Secrets of Alexis of Piedmont (1557) by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
1566 deaths
16th-century Italian physicians
16th-century Italian cartographers
Year of birth unknown |
4020233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethan%20Hitchcock | Ethan Hitchcock | Ethan Hitchcock may refer to:
Ethan A. Hitchcock (general) (1798–1870), U.S. Army general
Ethan A. Hitchcock (Interior) (1835–1909), United States Secretary of the Interior; nephew of the former |
4020235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davetta%20Sherwood | Davetta Sherwood | Davetta Sherwood (born January 27, 1984) is an American actress and musician. Sherwood first worked as a child model before venturing into an acting career including appearing in music videos and guest appearances. Her first breakthrough acting role was on the Emmy award-winning soap opera The Young and the Restless, which earned her a nomination for the NAACP Image Award for "Outstanding Actress in a Daytime Drama Series". In 2008, she launched her production company, 5 Foot Nuthin Productions.
Early life
Sherwood was born in Mount Vernon, New York. She was raised a devout Roman Catholic. At a young age, her parents divorced. Sherwood later began acting at the age of seven and appeared in several school productions throughout middle and high school including A Raisin in the Sun, The Wizard of Oz and Annie.
At the age of 8, Sherwood and her mother left New York for Maryland. Sherwood began to show an interest in acting and her mother took notice. Her mother took on the role of 'momager' and along with Sherwood left Maryland for Inland Empire, California. She attended Pershing Middle School, Valley View High School as well as the prestigious boarding school Northfield Mount Hermon School during the summer.
In 2002, Sherwood enrolled in a program at University of California, Riverside so she could finish high school and start college simultaneously, although she did not finish college. She is represented by the Williams Talent Agency. She owns an entertainment and event company, Liaison Inc., which, with the help of a business partner in Atlanta, Georgia, is responsible for producing and coordinating entertainment-oriented events, like the after-party and fashion show for Miami's "Swim Week".
Acting career
Sherwood started her career in show business as a child print model for companies such as Sears and Atlantic City. At the age of 15, she wrote, cast, directed and produced Davetta Sherwood's First Annual Variety Art show. The charity event raised the most in a single night in her high school's history and funded new art and stage equipment.
Sherwood later began taking acting lessons and landed a guest role on the TV sitcom My Wife and Kids. In 2003, she was cast in the short lived series Platinum as the feisty Jade Rhames alongside Sticky Fingaz and Jason George. The show was written by Sophia Coppola and was about two brothers who ran a hip hop record label. it was canceled and only aired six episodes. During 2003, Sherwood guest starred on Boston Public, in which she played Dina Fallow. In 2005, she appeared in two films: as Tosha Cooper in Back in the Day, alongside Tatyana Ali, and as Patty in the horror film Venom, also starring Agnes Bruckner and Jonathan Jackson. Venom was harshly received by critics, with Entertainment Weekly dubbing it a "crappy horror movie". She guest starred on The Bernie Mac Show as Sherri in the episode Jack and Jacqueline.
In 2006, Sherwood was cast as Lily Winters on The Young and the Restless. In late September 2006, Soap Central reported that Sherwood had been dropped and that the role of Lily would again be played by Christel Khalil, who had left the role the previous year. Sherwood was nominated for a NAACP Image Award for "Outstanding Actress in a Daytime Drama Series" in 2007.
In 2007, Sherwood debuted on stage in the play The Divorce and later starred in the play Pleasant ville, both of which were written by her friend and production manager Chris Mykel Dabney. In April 2007, it was announced that Sherwood would be in the independent film H.N.I.C., which rapper Prodigy would produce. In early 2008, Davetta starred in the independent film A Talent for Trouble as Jessica. In 2008, Sherwood launched her own production company, 5 Foot Nuthin Productions, which, in conjunction with YAV Productions, produced a series of television shows and films intended to start airing in the fall of 2009. Sherwood is currently in the process of writing, producing, and directing her own stage play, Exactly Different. Other projects include The Yes We Will Project, Bounce, and Pleasantville.
In 2013, she starred in Boiling Pot, which is based on true events of racism that occurred on college campuses across the country during the 2008 Presidential election. The film, written and directed by the Ashmawey brothers under AshmaweyFilms, also stars Academy Award winner Louis Gossett Jr., Danielle Fishel, Keith David, M. Emmet Walsh, and John Heard. Sherwood plays the president of the Black Student Union, struggling to use the system in place to fight the racist events happening on her campus. Boiling Pot was set for release in 2014.
Music career
Sherwood has appeared in music videos such as Vitamin C's video "Graduation (Friends Forever)", according to a radio interview Sherwood did, she said that Vitamin C picked her for the video because she reminded her of Vitamin C's best friend. She was also in Bow Wow's video My Baby as his love interest Kim, and Lil J's video It's the Weekend.
Davetta Sherwood announced on her Myspace that she'll be recording her demo songs and should expect details from her when the songs are ready. The lyrics will be from her poetry book that she's been writing for almost three years and will have soul and alternative styles. She will also be writing songs for her stage play Exactly Different.
Personal life
Sherwood expressed a strong liking to indie rock, old school hip hop and neo soul. She also cites on her Myspace the Canadian rock band Hot Hot Heat as her favorite indie rock band. Sherwood is good friends with Monique Coleman, Erica Hubbard, Kimberly Kevon Williams, as well as former Y&R co-star Victoria Rowell.
As of 2013, she has been raising her two-year-old nephew, Bryce, for the last year and a half.<ref>"Hustle and Flow". Soap Opera Digest. August 12, 2013. p. 61.</ref>
Filmography
Films
Television
Guest Appearances
Awards and nominations
Discography
SoundtrackExactly Different soundtrack'' (upcoming soundtrack from the stage play)
Music videos
References
External links
Davetta Sherwood on Myspace (Private Profile)
1984 births
Living people
Actresses from New York (state)
20th-century African-American women singers
American soap opera actresses
American stage actresses
Singers from New York (state)
American film actresses
African-American actresses
American child actresses
21st-century American singers
21st-century American women singers
21st-century African-American women singers |
4020239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parament | Parament | Paraments or parements (from Late Latin paramentum, adornment, parare, to prepare, equip) are both the hangings or ornaments of a room of state, and the ecclesiastical vestments. Paraments include the liturgical hangings on and around the altar, such as altar cloths, as well as the cloths hanging from the pulpit and lectern, and in the ecclesiastical vestments category they include humeral veils and mitres.
In most Christian churches using paraments (including Roman Catholic and a wide variety of Protestant denominations), the liturgical paraments change in color depending on the season of the church year.
Advent - purple (or in some traditions, blue)
Christmas - white
Lent - purple
Easter - white
Pentecost, Good Friday and the feasts of martyrs - red
Ordinary time - green
All Souls' Day, Requiem Masses - black (optionally purple)
See also
Antependium
Antimension
Altar candle
Chancel flowers
Sources
Christian religious objects |
4020241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirindiwela | Kirindiwela | Kirindiwela (, ) is a town in the Western Province of Sri Lanka. It is the main administrative centre for the "Dompe" electorate in Gampaha district. The postal code of Kirindiwela is 11730. Kirindiwela is connected Colombo Avissawella road and Colombo Kandy road. It is also connected New Kandy road from Weliweriya towards Kaduwela.
Government Institutions
Assistant Government Agent's office Local administrative center of the central government (Dompe Divisional Secretariat) https://web.archive.org/web/20100716183722/http://www.ds.gov.lk/ds/dompe/
Village council statard in 1949Dompe Pradeshiya Sabhawa Local government officeKirindiwela Police StationTransportation
The Kirindiwela bus depot provides a local public transport centre and the garage run by the Sri Lanka Transport Board.
EducationKirindiwela Madya Maha Vidyalaya: Central CollegeKirindiwela Maha Vidyalaya: High SchoolKirindiwela Sangamittha Balika Vidyalaya:
Notable institutions
Notable institutions close to Kirindiwela town includes:
Meethirigala Nissarana Vanaya: Arguably the most renowned meditation centre in Sri Lanka. Monks live in Kutis (living quarters) in dense low-country jungle on a hill. There are English speaking meditation teachers with student monks from all over the world. (Alternative spelling 'Mithirigala')
Vedagama''': ('Village of Healing’) Only village in Sri Lanka completely populated by indigenous medical practitioners. Established as a part of former PresidentRanasinghe Premadasa’s “Gam Udawa ” (Village Awakening) program.
Notable people
Notable people related to Kirindiwela area:
Mahagama Sekara
K. Jayatillake
Shrimathi Senarathne
See also
List of towns in Sri Lanka
References
External links
Map of the western province
Information about Meditation Centres, Forest Monasteries, and other important places in Sri Lanka for Western bhikkhus and serious lay practitioners
Meditation centers
City of Yakkala
Dompe Divisional Secretariat
Government Institutions in Dompe Divisional Secretariat
Populated places in Gampaha District |
4020246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longford%20River | Longford River | The Longford River is an artificial waterway, a distributary designed to embellish a park, that diverts water from the River Colne at Longford near Colnbrook in England, to Bushy Park and Hampton Court Palace. Its main outlet is to the reach above Molesey Lock with lesser pond outlet channels to that above Teddington Lock (of the Thames). The waterway was built for King Charles I in 1638/39 as a water supply for Hampton Court. Water features in Bushy Park were added in 1710. North of the A30, its course has been diverted more than once as London Heathrow Airport has grown. Its cascades, grassed banks and fountains in Bushy Park were restored and reopened to the public in 2009 to close to their original state.
Route
In its northern course, it runs side by side with its older "twin", the Duke of Northumberland's River. Both have been re-dug near to their older lines to accommodate Heathrow Airport: most recently as part of the Twin Rivers Diversion Scheme for the taxiways and roads required by Terminal 5. The rivers emerge to flow along the Airport's southern perimeter, separating at 'Two Bridges' just east of Terminal 4; the original diversion dating to the 1940s.
The Longford River then flows south east, through Bedfont, Feltham and Hanworth, where it flows through two great culverts. One runs under a school, west of Hanworth Park. Another runs from the centre of the park to its eastern edge. The river then demarcates Hampton and Hampton Hill. It then crosses over the longest cutting of the Shepperton Branch Line on a short, brick-built, single-span aqueduct and runs in multiple channels through Bushy Park. One continues to water the lakes of Hampton Court. Three main outlets exist into the Thames:
east of Hampton Gate of Bushy Park
under the Water Gallery at Hampton Court Palace Gardens opposite the confluence of the River Mole
One east of that expanse – becoming a mixture of golf course and farm – opposite Raven's Ait.
Ownership, which comes with an upkeep cost is with the Royal Parks Agency. Bye-laws such as shown by the prominent early-20th sign next to Feltham's former grand chapel of ease, made all unlawful trespass aggravated.
History
Constructed in 1638–39 at the instigation of Charles I, the purpose of the Longford River was to bring water from the River Colne to augment the water supply to the Royal Parks at Bushy Park and Hampton Court. It was designed by Nicholas Lane, and took around nine months to build, at a cost of £4,000. It was not universally popular, as it was illegally stopped up in 1648 or -49, and petitions were presented to the authorities in 1653, arguing that it should not be reopened, alleging it caused flooding which damaged crops and livestock.
At Longford, Bath Road crosses the Duke of Northumberland's River, the Longford River and the Colne. Once London's main route to much of the south-southwest, but has since been bypassed by the A4 road, which crosses the Colne above its outlet to the Longford River. Longford Bridge carries Bath Road over the Duke's river. Moor Bridge carries it over the Colne. The first bridge there for crossing the Longford River was from time of construction. It was demolished in 1648, and is known to have been reinstated by 1675. It was known as Stone Bridge in the nineteenth century, and the responsibility for keeping it in good order belonged to the Crown. A name change had taken hold by 1960 to (the) King's Bridge.
Before the 20th century, the watercourse was known variously as the New River, the King's River, the Queen's River, the Cardinal's River, the Hampton Court Cut, and the Hampton Court Canal.
Before Heathrow Airport Terminal 5 was built, the Longford River and the Duke of Northumberland's River passed under the runways in culverts. As part of that project they were re-routed in open channels around the west edge of the airport. A new channel was constructed for each river, over 75 per cent of which were made from pre-cast panels manufactured off-site. Despite this construction method, biodiversity was encouraged by the use of hazel hurdles and coir rolls, pre-planted with native species, to provide habitat for small mammals. Habitat for fish was provided by creating meandering flow patterns using gravel and recycled trees, and the channels were populated with some 84,000 river plants. Water voles, plants, fish, freshwater mussels and silts from the original river bed were moved to the new channel to assist its regeneration, and landscaping involved planting 450 semi-mature trees, 2,000 shrubs and 100,000 groundcover shrubs. The scheme took 18 months to complete, and is now managed by the Twin Rivers Management Committee, with representatives from Heathrow Airport, the Environment Agency and the Royal Parks Agency. It was awarded a Civil Engineering Environmental Quality (CEEQUAL) Award, in recognition of the fact that it was completed on time, to budget, and maintained very high environmental standards throughout its construction.
Water features
At its eastern end, the river feeds water features in Bushy Park and Hampton Court. To celebrate his queen, Henrietta Maria, Charles I had a statue and fountain made, by courtiers called Diana, the fountain depicts Arethusa, a water nymph, rather than the Roman goddess of hunting moved from Somerset House to Hampton Court by Oliver Cromwell, and then to the centre of its circular pond in Bushy Park by Sir Christopher Wren when he redesigned the gardens in 1713. The water gardens in Bushy Park were developed by the 1st Earl of Halifax in 1710.
During the First World War, Bushy Park was used to station Canadian troops, and during the Second World War was used by the USA Air Force. General Eisenhower was based there when the Allied invasion of north-west Europe was planned, which began with the D-Day landings. Most of the associated huts had been removed by 1963, but the park remained in military occupation, as the Admiralty used it as a research establishment during the Cold War. By the time military use had ceased in the early 1990s, much of the site was overgrown and damaged, but a group called the Friends of Bushy and Home Parks was formed, and began to research what was there. Aided by the discovery of an eighteenth-century painting of the park and archaeological investigation, a restoration programme for the whole park was developed, for which funding of £7.2 million was provided by the Heritage Lottery Fund, the Royal Parks and others. Preliminary investigation work began in 2006, with the main part of the project starting in January 2008, which involved dredging large volumes of silt from the ponds, restoring them to their original shape, and overhauling the water engineering system, to reconnect them to the Longford River. The cascades and flank walls were restored using original stonework and bricks where they could be found. The Longford River had been diverted by the Admiralty in 1953 while they were using the park, which had resulted in of silt building up in the ponds. Its removal revealed two extra steps of the cascades. The river was returned to its earlier course, and water flowed down the cascades for the first time on 15 September 2008. A new bridge was constructed over the river to link the Brew House to the water gardens, and the Baroque water gardens were reopened to the public in 2009. The cost of restoring them was £780,000.
At Hampton Court, the dominating feature of the grounds is the landscaping scheme constructed for the new palace by Sir Christopher Wren. There is a water-bounded semicircular parterre, the length of the east front. Three avenues radiate in crow's foot pattern into Hampton Court Park. The central avenue contains the great canal, known as the Long Water, excavated during the reign of Charles II, in 1662. The design, radical at the time, is influenced by Versailles, and was laid out by pupils of André Le Nôtre, Louis XIV's landscape gardener. At the eastern end of the Long Water is the Golden Jubilee Fountain. This was opened in November 2002 by Queen Elizabeth II, and features five jets, the largest of which rises to a height of .
Water quality
The Environment Agency measure the water quality of the river systems in England. Each is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates, angiosperms and fish. Chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations, is rated good or fail.
The water quality of the Longford River was as follows in 2019.
Like many rivers in the UK, the chemical status changed from good to fail in 2019, due to the presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) and perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS), neither of which had previously been included in the assessment.
Points of interest
See also
Tributaries of the River Thames
List of rivers of England
Bibliography
References
External links
CLongford
Rivers of London |
4020248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishops%20in%20Methodism | Bishops in Methodism | A bishop is a senior role in many Methodist denominations. The bishop's role is typically called the "episcopacy", based on the Greek word episkopos (), which literally means overseer. Superintendent is another translation of episkopos but in Methodist churches this is a role distinct from bishop. The first Methodist bishops were appointed in America.
Origins of Methodist episcopacy
John Wesley consecrated Thomas Coke a "general superintendent" and directed that Francis Asbury also be consecrated for the United States in 1784, where the Methodist Episcopal Church first became a separate denomination apart from the Church of England. Coke soon returned to England, but Asbury was the primary builder of the new church. At first he did not call himself "bishop", but eventually submitted to the usage by the denomination.
Notable bishops in Methodist history include Coke, Asbury, Richard Whatcoat, Philip William Otterbein, Martin Boehm, Jacob Albright, John Seybert, Matthew Simpson, John S. Stamm, William Ragsdale Cannon, Marjorie Matthews (the first female Methodist bishop), Leontine T. Kelly, Vashti Murphy McKenzie, William B. Oden, William Willimon, R.S. Williams (the first Methodist (CME) bishop elected from Louisiana), Teresa Elaine Jefferson-Snorton, and Thomas Bickerton.
Duties
African Methodist Episcopal Church
In the African Methodist Episcopal Church bishops are the chief officers of the Connectional Organization. They are elected for life by a majority vote of the general conference which meets every four years.
Free Methodist Church
The Book of Discipline of the Free Methodist Church states that "Bishops are the overseers of the church. They lead the church to fulfill its mission which requires them to be holy examples with skill and experience to provide oversight. They must understand the nature and purpose of our church. They must also be able to communicate clearly the gospel, the church's mission and the vision of the Free Methodist Church; possess a well cultivated understanding of other cultures; and identify, develop, and lead godly, competent leaders."
Global Methodist Church
In the Global Methodist Church, bishops have a similar role to that in the United Methodist Church, although they are elected to limited terms, not appointed for life.
United Methodist Church
In the United Methodist Church, a resident bishop is appointed to a specific episcopal area (i.e., the bishop resident in the area; unless a bishop happens to be retired and simply residing in the area, not assigned to it). A resident bishop is the Presiding Bishop of any and all annual (i.e., regional) conferences of the church within the area. Such bishops are said to have residential as well as presidential duties within his/her area.
In the UMC, bishops serve as administrative and pastoral superintendents of the church. They are elected for life from among the ordained elders (presbyters) by vote of the delegates in regional (called jurisdictional) conferences, and are consecrated by the other bishops present at the conference through the laying on of hands. (Central conferences may choose to elect their bishop for a term shorter than life; in many cases the practice is election for a term of four years.) In The United Methodist Church bishops are not ordained in the traditional sense (i.e. belonging to the threefold ministry of bishop, presbyter, deacon) but remain members of the "Order of Elders" while being consecrated to the "Office of the Episcopacy." Within The United Methodist Church only bishops are empowered to consecrate bishops and ordain clergy. Among their most critical duties is the ordination and appointment of clergy to serve local churches as pastor, presiding at sessions of the annual, jurisdictional, and general conferences, providing pastoral ministry for the clergy under their charge, and safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the church. Furthermore, individual bishops, or the Council of Bishops as a whole, often serve a prophetic role, making statements on important social issues and setting forth a vision for the denomination, though they have no legislative authority of their own. In all of these areas, bishops of United Methodist Church function very much in the historic meaning of the term. According to the Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church, a bishop's responsibilities are
Annual conference
In each annual conference, United Methodist bishops serve for four year terms, and may serve up to three terms before either retirement or appointment to a new annual conference.
Council of Bishops
The collegial expression of episcopal leadership in the United Methodist Church is known is the Council of Bishops. The Council of Bishops speaks to the church and through the church into the world and gives leadership in the quest for Christian unity and interreligious relationships. The Conference of Methodist Bishops includes the United Methodist Council of Bishops plus bishops from affiliated autonomous Methodist or United churches.
References |
4020252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECAC%20West | ECAC West | ECAC West was a college athletic conference which operated in the northeastern United States until 2017. It participated in the NCAA's Division III as a hockey-only conference. The conference ceased to exist after the end of the 2016–17 season when most joined the newly-formed United Collegiate Hockey Conference or Northeast Women's Hockey League.
History
ECAC West was officially formed in 1984 when ECAC 2 was split in two and both new conferences dropped down to Division III. The conference consisted entirely of schools from upstate New York until 1988 when Mercyhurst joined. In 1992 all universities that were members SUNYAC and a few other schools left when Mercyhurst took part in the effort was made to restart the Division II Championship, leaving just seven teams in the ECAC West. After two more schools dropped their programs the conference was down to five teams in 1994 but it began to recover when Niagara joined in 1996. In 1998 the conference lost two programs when the MAAC began sponsoring a Division I ice hockey conference followed by a third just one year later. When the Division II Tournament ended in 1999 the conference returned to D-III and was left with only four schools but in 2001 it began to sponsor women's hockey as well and its ranks immediately swelled to nine universities. The conference roster continued to grow, reaching 15 in 2016–17 but after that season all but one league member left to join either the United Collegiate Hockey Conference or Northeast Women's Hockey League with the lone remaining school (Hobart) joining the New England Hockey Conference.
ECAC West Tournaments
Members
† as of 2018
Membership timeline
References
External links
Men's official web site
Women's official web site
NCAA Division III ice hockey conferences
Organizations disestablished in 2017 |
4020254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engelthal%20Abbey | Engelthal Abbey | Engelthal Abbey or St. Mary's Abbey, Engelthal, is a Benedictine nunnery in the Wetterau region, Hesse, Germany.
Engelthal Abbey was a Cistercian nunnery from its foundation in 1268, until the secularisation of 1803. It was ruled by Imperial Counts of Leiningen-Westerburg-Neuleiningen and later in 19th century sold to Counts of Solms-Wildenfels.
In 1962 it was re-settled by the Benedictine nuns of Herstelle Abbey. The house was raised to the status of abbey in 1965, and belongs to the Beuronese Congregation of the Benedictine Confederation.
Besides the normal Benedictine duty of hospitality, the nuns of Engelthal are also involved in the restoration of ecclesiastical works of art.
Sources and external links
Abbey Website
Cistercian nunneries in Germany
Monasteries in Hesse
1260s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1268 establishments in Europe
Religious organizations established in the 1260s
Benedictine nunneries in Germany |
4020257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CKUV-FM | CKUV-FM | CKUV-FM is a Canadian radio station being licensed to Okotoks, Alberta, serving the Foothills region broadcasting at 100.9 FM. The station currently broadcasts a hot adult contemporary format branded as The Eagle 100.9. The station first began broadcasting in 2003. The station is currently owned by Golden West Broadcasting.
The station held the call sign CFXL-FM until June 2008, when it adopted its current call sign. The former CIQX-FM in Calgary took over the CFXL-FM call sign a few days later.
The Eagle also operates a local news portal called Okotoks Online and provides local news and coverage for Okotoks and surrounding area.
References
External links
The Eagle 100.9
Kuv
Kuv
Radio stations established in 2003
Okotoks
2003 establishments in Alberta |
4020261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Kendrick%20%28American%20sea%20captain%29 | John Kendrick (American sea captain) | John Kendrick (1740–1794) was an American sea captain during the American Revolutionary War, and was involved in the exploration and maritime fur trading of the Pacific Northwest alongside his subordinate Robert Gray. He was the leader of the first US expedition to the Pacific Northwest. He is known for his role in the 1789 Nootka Crisis, having been present at Nootka Sound when the Spanish naval officer José Esteban Martínez seized several British ships belonging to a commercial enterprise owned by a partnership of companies under John Meares and Richard Cadman Etches. This incident nearly led to war between Britain and Spain and became the subject of lengthy investigations and diplomatic inquiries.
Kendrick was the first American to try to open trade with Japan. He began the Hawaiian sandalwood trade. He was killed during an exchange of cannon salutes with the ship Jackal when one of the cannons was loaded, purportedly by accident. John Kendrick was instrumental in pioneering trade in the Pacific Northwest, the Hawaiian Islands, and China, as well as helping the young United States establish itself as global trade power.
Early life
Kendrick was born in 1740 in what was then part of the Town of Harwich, Massachusetts (now Orleans, Massachusetts), on Cape Cod. He was the third of seven children of Solomon Kendrick (or Kenwick) and Elizabeth Atkins. His family name was originally spelled "Kenwrick", later "Kenwick" and "Kendrick".
John Kendrick came from a long family line of seamen. Solomon Kenrick, his father, was master of a whaling vessel. John began going to sea with his father by the time he was 14 years old. By his late teens he was sailing with crews out of Potonumecut (today part of Orleans). The Potonumecut area was home to remnant native tribes such as the Wampanoag. Kendrick's friendly relations with these natives later helped him forge friendships and alliances with native peoples in the Pacific Northwest, excepting the Haida chief Koyah.
At the age of 20 he joined a whaling crew, working on a schooner owned by Captain Bangs. In 1762, near the end of the French and Indian War, John Kendrick served under his cousin Jabez Snow, on a militia mission in the frontier of Western New York. Like most Cape Codders of the time, he served for only eight months and did not re-enlist.
During the 1760s John's father, Solomon, moved to Barrington, Nova Scotia. John stayed in Massachusetts, in Cape Cod and Boston, where an atmosphere of defiance and dissent was quickly growing during the early years of the American Revolution. There was widespread opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of the late 1760s. John may have been involved in the boycotts of British goods, riots over British impressment of American sailors, and other rebellious acts such as unrest around the Boston Custom House which led to the 1770 Boston Massacre.
In late 1767 John Kendrick married Huldah Pease, who came from a seafaring family of Edgartown on Martha's Vineyard.
American Revolution
Kendrick was one of the "Sons of Liberty" who, disguised as "Indians", participated in the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773. He was an ardent Patriot. During the American Revolutionary War he commanded the privateer Fanny (also known as the Boston), an eighteen-gun sloop of the Continental Navy with a crew of 104, which Kendrick converted into a brigantine. He was commissioned May 26, 1777.
The Fanny disrupted British shipping and captured a few vessels, which won Kendrick a degree of fame and wealth. In August, 1777, the Fanny and another privateer, General Mercer, captured two West Indiaman ships full of valuable cargo, the Hanover Planter and the Clarendon, after a battle with two 28-gun frigates. The captured ships were taken to Nantes in mid-August, 1777, causing an international stir. France had not yet joined the war and the prizes tested France's neutrality. The incident helped expedite France's decision to join the war against Britain.
Kendrick returned home in the fall of 1778 a hero. With the prize money he had received from Louis XVI of France Kendrick bought a house, wharf, and store in Wareham, Massachusetts, and built the first public school there. He lived there with his family through the winter.
In early 1779 he sailed to war again in command of the privateer Count d’Estang, which he owned in partnership with Isaac Sears. In April, southwest of the Azores, he was captured by the 28-gun British frigate Brutus and its 10-gun tender. The British captain impressed most of Kendrick's crew, eventually releasing Kendrick and the remaining 30 men in a boat. They travelled to the Azores and then Lisbon. In June, 1779, Kendrick and his remaining crew traveled to France, and then returned to America with the French fleet.
Shortly after returning to America Kendrick sailed for the Caribbean in command of the Marianne, where he captured at least one more rich prize. He returned home once again shortly before the British surrender at Yorktown in October of 1781. By this time he had fathered six children during his sporadic visits home.
When the war ended in 1783, Kendrick returned to whaling and coastal shipping until he became commander of the first American ships of discovery.
The Columbia Expedition
Not much is known about what happened to John Kendrick between the Revolution's end and his voyage to the Pacific Northwest. William Lytle Schurz asserts that John Kendrick served the Spanish on the Manila galleon which sailed between the Philippines and Acapulco (New Spain) by way of California. A syndicate led by Boston merchant Joseph Barrell financed the Columbia Expedition in 1787. The vessels included were the ship and the sloop .
The command of the larger Columbia was given to Captain Kendrick, then 47 years old, and 32-year-old one-eyed Robert Gray was given Washington. Overall command of expedition was given to Kendrick. The combined crews of the two ships numbered about 40 men, most hailing from Cape Cod, Boston, Rhode Island, and the North Shore of Massachusetts. Many were veterans of the Revolutionary War.
The first officer of the Columbia was Simeon Woodruff, the oldest man on the voyage. Woodruff had sailed with James Cook aboard on his famous third voyage around the world. As such, Woodruff had already been to the Pacific Northwest, Hawaii, and China.
The second officer of Columbia was 25-year-old Joseph Ingraham, a veteran of the Massachusetts State Navy and POW during the Revolution. Later, Ingraham became captain of the , which sailed in 1790 to compete in the fur trade. Unlike Gray and Haswell, Ingraham was an admirer and supporter of Kendrick. Ingraham kept a journal of the voyage, but it has been lost. He wrote a separate journal describing Nootka Sound in 1789, which has survived.
The third officer of the Columbia was 19-year-old Robert Haswell, who kept an account of the voyage that came to serve as the main chronicle of the first two years. He also kept a journal during Gray's second voyage without Kendrick.
The first officer of the Lady Washington was Robert Davis Collidge. Kendrick also brought two of his sons: Eighteen year old John Kendrick Jr, as fifth officer of the Columbia, and sixteen year old Solomon Kendrick, as a common seaman.
Outward voyage 1787–1788
The Columbia Expedition set sail from Boston Harbor on the morning of October 1, 1787, after a brief party with family and friends. The vessels reached the Cape Verde Islands on November 9, where Simeon Woodruff, after a dispute with Kendrick, left Columbia and went onto the islands with all his baggage. Kendrick was unhappy with the way Columbia handled, and felt that the hold had not been well packed, which Woodruff had been responsible for. When Kendrick ordered the hold broken up and repacked, Woodruff refused to help and after continued bickering Kendrick removed Woodruff from his position as first officer, after which Woodruff opted to leave the expedition entirely. A Spanish captain passing by the islands offered to take Woodruff to Madeira. He eventually returned to America and lived in Connecticut most of the remainder of his life.
This incident deepened Haswell's dislike of Kendrick, as Haswell had been friendly with Woodruff and held him in high esteem. In his journal Haswell complained bitterly, describing Woodruff as "an officer under the Great Captain James Cook on his last Voyage". Haswell was mistaken: Woodruff was a gunner's mate under Cook, not an officer.
While at Cape Verde Kendrick unpacked and reorganized the hold of the Columbia, hoping to improve its handling under sail. The hold of Columbia contained most of the expedition's provisions for the next two years, as well as a large assortment of trade goods hoped to be useful for acquiring sea otter pelts on the Pacific Northwest coast. These trade goods included such things as tin mirrors, beads, calico, mouth harps, hunting knives, files, and bar metal that could be worked into chisels or other tools. Despite the reorganization of the hold, Columbia continued to handle poorly.
Kendrick continued the journey on December 21, 1787, and reached Brett Harbour on Saunders Island in the western Falkland Islands on February 16, 1788. Here they collected water and made final preparations for the voyage around Cape Horn.
While sailing to the Falklands tensions between Kendrick and Haswell increased. One day Haswell struck a sailor named Otis Liscomb, who had failed to respond to Haswell's order to come on deck. When Kendrick saw Liscomb's bloody face he became angry and slapped Haswell and had him removed from his cabin to the common quarters. Haswell requested that Kendrick let him leave the expedition and Kendrick agreed, saying he could take the next vessel they encountered. But no other ship appeared. At the Falkland Islands Haswell was transferred from Columbia to Washington to serve under Gray. Haswell's dislike for Kendrick and Gray's ambition to be free from Kendrick's overall command reinforced one another.
Kendrick considered wintering in the Atlantic, but decided to leave the Falklands on February 28, 1788. They sailed south toward Cape Horn. Five days later they passed Isla de los Estados (Staten Island), the eastern extremity of Tierra del Fuego. A storm was approaching from the west. Kendrick continued south, trying to skirt the edge of the storm. Other ships had escaped storms near Cape Horn by sailing farther south, a plan that Kendrick used. He evaded the worst of the storm by sailing to nearly 62° south latitude, about south of Cape Horn. Through March the ships struggled through cold and heavy weather, dealing with frost, sleet, twenty foot swells, high winds, and icebergs. About a month later William Bligh tried rounding Cape Horn in but was forced back.
On March 22 the ships were about south-southwest of Cape Horn. They had passed west of the cape and so changed course toward the northwest. But during the night of April 1 the winds shifted, indicating dangerous weather. Kendrick had the Columbia adjust course in an attempt to race ahead. A signal gun was fired and the Washington followed. But in the morning light, with the storm still approaching, the two ships had lost sight of each other. Over three more days of heavy seas and blizzard-like conditions, they were entirely lost to one another. The Columbia, badly damaged, was driven back eastward, while the crew made what repairs they could.
For ten days Washington continued on through a series of violent squalls, culminating in a gale that Haswell described as "greatly sirpassing [sic] any thing before I had aney [sic] Idea of." Once the storm cleared Gray was pleased to be separated and saw a chance to free himself from Kendrick's command. Kendrick had written orders for Gray in the event they were separated. They would rendezvous at Alejandro Selkirk Island (then known as Más Afuera), the westernmost island of the Juan Fernández Islands, west of the coast of Chile. Gray made his way there, arriving on April 22, 1788. He brought the Washington to within a few miles of the island, then waited over night. In the morning Gray scanned the horizon and saw no sign of the Columbia, unsurprisingly since Washington was a faster vessel. Nevertheless, Gray figured he had fulfilled Kendrick's order and was now free to continue on alone.
Gray was in need of water and wood, but there was no place to land at Alejandro Selkirk Island, so he headed north to Ambrose Island (Isla San Ambrosio), part of the Desventuradas Islands. Arriving on May 3, Gray sent men ashore. Spending the day on the island they did not find water but returned to the ship with a catch of fish, seals, and sea lions. Then Gray continued on, passing far west of the Galápagos Islands by May 24.
Kendrick reached the rendezvous at Más Afuera about a month after Gray had left it. Kendrick had been instructed by Joseph Barrell "not to touch at any part of the Spanish dominions...unless driven there by some unavoidable accident". With Columbia badly in need of repairs and running out of water and wood, and Kendrick's eagerness for any news of Washington, he decided to risk visiting Más a Tierra, today known as Robinson Crusoe Island, where there was a small Spanish settlement.
Kendrick had the Columbia approach the harbor, stopping about a mile offshore, unsure what sort of treatment he might receive. The Spanish governor of the island, Don Blas Gonzales, recognized a ship in distress. He sent out a fishing boat with a few armed men. The Spanish officer Nicholas Juanes came on board Columbia. He noted the ten cannons but thought the crew friendly and unthreatening. Kendrick said he needed a safe anchorage for making repairs and to take on water and wood. Juanes took first mate Joseph Ingraham back to shore to request permission to enter the harbor. Don Blas Gonzales was intrigued by this American ship, the first he had ever seen, and granted permission.
The Columbia moored near the fort. Kendrick came ashore and met Gonzales, who found him affable and respectful. Inspecting the ship, Gonzales agreed with Juanes that the voyagers meant no harm. Although under Spanish law he was to seize foreign ships, mercy was permitted for ships in distress. Gonzales granted Kendrick six days for repairs and provisioning. The crew set to work repairing the damaged mast, sternpost, rudder, and many leaks. They filled water casks from a creek by the fort.
After four days the Spanish packet boat Delores arrived with supplies and mail for the settlement. Kendrick wrote a letter to Joseph Barrell, informing him of their situation and separation from the Washington. He entrusted the letter to the captain of the packet boat.
After the six days were up Kendrick prepared to leave, but heavy winds from the north forced Columbia to remain at anchor until June 3. Meanwhile the packet boat had reached Valparaíso, where news of Columbia resulted in orders to seize the ship. On June 12 a merchant brig, the San Pablo, was armed and sent to capture the Columbia. Shortly after the warship Santa Maria followed. By then Columbia was sailing north far off the coast and the Spanish ships did not find her. After a few days the San Pablo put into Lima with the news, prompting the Viceroy of Peru, Teodoro de Croix, to send another ship in pursuit of Columbia. After the pursuit ships returned without having found the Columbia Don Blas Gonzales was stripped of his office. Gonzales defended his actions in a court case that continued for years. Later, Kendrick enlisted Thomas Jefferson to try to help Gonzales.
The Viceroy also sent warnings to the Viceroy of New Spain in Mexico City, which was forwarded to the Spanish naval bases at San Blas and Acapulco, and to the Spanish missions in California. The messages described the Columbia and Washington and details of their expedition, with orders that if either appeared they were to be seized and the crews arrested as pirates.
The crews of both Columbia and Washington began to suffer from scurvy as they continued north.
On August 2, 1788, the crew of Washington sighted land near the present border of California and Oregon, near the mouth of the Klamath River. After a friendly but brief encounter with a group of natives in a large redwood canoe, they continued north, looking for a safe harbor. They sailed past many native villages and encampments before finding a harbor deemed safe, in the vicinity of Tillamook Bay. They attracted the attention of many natives who began visiting the sloop for trade, offering, among other things, sea otter skins and fresh food, including baskets of berries, which helped relieve the symptoms of scurvy. Haswell noted that these natives had smallpox scars and carried steel knives, indicating previous encounters with trading vessels. On August 13, Gray anchored Washington in a protected inlet near a native village.
The sloop remained in this harbor for five days. Many natives came to trade and parties were sent ashore to collect water and wood. After a couple days Gray decided to leave but Washington grounded on a rocky reef. While waiting for high tide one last party was sent ashore where an altercation occurred. In the ensuing chaos crewmember Marcus Lopius was killed. Officers Coolidge and Haswell, and another crewmember were wounded as they fled into the surf to their longboat. Native war canoes tried to capture the longboat and, failing that, positioned themselves between Washington and the open sea. During the night Washington was freed from the reef and tried to escape but grounded again, on a shoal. At high tide the next day, August 18, Washington was freed again. The sloop's swivel guns were used to hold off the war canoes and Washington escaped into the open ocean. Gray set a course for Nootka Sound, still far to the north.
Shortly after this the Spanish war frigate Princesa, under José Esteban Martínez, and the packet San Carlos, under Gonzalo López de Haro, both sailing south from Alaska, passed but failed to spot Washington. Two weeks later they passed Columbia, again without visual contact. The next year Martínez and Haro would establish Santa Cruz de Nuca at Nootka Sound and, with Kendrick and Gray present, trigger events leading to the Nootka Crisis.
Nootka Sound 1788–1789
Washington arrived at Friendly Cove in Nootka Sound on September 16, 1788, finding another ship already there: Felice Adventurer, under John Meares, a British vessel but flying a Portuguese false flag to avoid paying for an East India Company licence, required of British merchants in China. Two more vessels arrived, Iphigenia Nubiana under William Douglas, who would later partner with Kendrick, and North West America under Robert Funter. The North West America was built at Nootka Sound and launched on September 20. All three vessels were part of a fur trading venture under Meares. After a few days Meares left, and shortly after, on September 22, Kendrick's Columbia arrived. Kendrick re-assumed command of both ships and the expedition as a whole. On October 26, 1788, the remaining two British ships left for Hawaii and China. Once they were gone Kendrick announced that the expedition would spend the winter in Nootka Sound. They would befriend the native Nuu-chah-nulth people and gain an advantage in the fur trade over the competing British ships. During the winter Kendrick met and established friendly relations with the Nuu-chah-nulth chiefs Maquinna and Wickaninnish. Kendrick knew Meares's ships would return after the winter. By staying at Nootka Sound he hoped to preempt the British by getting an early start.
After the winter, Kendrick sent Washington under Gray out on a short trading voyage to the south. Departing on March 16, 1789, Gray visited Wickaninnish in Clayoquot Sound and cruised south looking for the Strait of Juan de Fuca. He collected many sea otter pelts in Clayoquot Sound and found the entrance of the Strait of Juan de Fuca before returning to Nootka Sound on April 22. Gray found the Iphigenia under William Douglas anchored at Friendly Cove, having arrived on April 19 after wintering in Hawaii. A few days later Funter's North West America arrived, also from Hawaii. Kendrick had moved Columbia to a cove known as Mawina or Mowina, today called Marvinas Bay, about deeper into Nootka Sound. He had fortified a small island and built an outpost on it, with a house, gun battery, blacksmith forge, and outbuildings. Kendrick called it Fort Washington. It was the first US outpost on the Pacific coast. Kendrick intended it to be the foundation of an American presence on the Pacific Northwest coast, and as a headquarters for controlling the fur trade. Over the summer Kendrick used the outpost and his friendship with the Nuu-chah-nulth to collect hundreds of furs from the region.
Kendrick had decided that Columbia was too unwieldy for close sailing on the Pacific Northwest coast. The smaller, more maneuverable Washington was better suited for trading. Therefore, almost immediately after arriving Washington was readied for another trading voyage. The British captains Douglas and Funter had discovered that Kendrick had control of the fur trade around Nootka Sound and that Gray had been trading in the south. Therefore the North West America set off northward to seek furs and Iphigenia prepared to do likewise. On May 2, days after North West America had left, Gray took Washington north as well.
While sailing away from Nootka Sound Gray encountered Princesa, under Spanish naval officer Esteban José Martínez, who had come to take possession of Nootka Sound for Spain. Martínez informed the officers of the Washington that they were trespassing in Spanish waters and demanded to know their business. Gray and his officers showed him a passport and made weak excuses for being on the Northwest Coast. Martínez knew they were dissembling but let them go, knowing that the command ship Columbia was trapped in Nootka Sound.
Martínez anchored in Friendly Cove, Nootka Sound, on May 5, 1789. Within the day Douglas and Francisco José Viana, the nominal captain of the Iphigenia, were meeting with Martínez on Princesa. Kendrick soon arrived and joined them. When questioned about his presence at Nootka Sound Kendrick dissembled, saying Columbia had been badly damaged and the crew suffering from scurvy. They had put into Nootka for repairs and recovery. Kendrick told Martínez that, expecting to have to winter at Nootka, he had built a house for the crew, a blacksmith forge, and a gun emplacement for protection. He said he had sent Washington north to look for material for barrel hoops. Kendrick readily acknowledged Spanish authority in the region and said he would leave as soon as Columbia was repaired. Douglas gave similar excuses for Iphigenia and gave over the ship's papers which, being in Portuguese, Martínez held for translation.
Kendrick saw the arrival of Martínez as potentially beneficial for his own goals, and he treated Martínez with deference and courtesy. He offered Martínez the use of his blacksmith, provided sail canvas, deck fixtures, and introduced him to the local Nuu-chah-nulth, seeking to promote friendship. Douglas later claimed that Kendrick and Martínez made an alliance against him and the British in general. Later still, John Meares accused Kendrick of convincing Martínez to seize British ships, though Kendrick denied it. It is not clear whether Kendrick agreed with Martínez's plan for seize Iphigenia, but Martínez did tell Kendrick he planned to arrest Meares when his command ship arrived, and gained Kendrick's complicity in that regard. Whatever the case, Kendrick had a motive for encouraging Spanish–British conflict, whether tacitly or directly, since it would reduce British competition in the fur trade and give him more time to establish an American outpost.
On May 12, 1789, the Spanish vessel San Carlos arrived. With this reinforcement in place, Martínez seized Iphigenia and arrested the crew. This alarmed Chief Maquinna, who moved his Nuu-chah-nulth people from Friendly Cove to a village deeper into Nootka Sound. After a couple weeks Martínez, in a tricky diplomatic situation, decided to let Iphigenia go after Douglas agreed to certain conditions. Kendrick and Ingraham acted at witnesses to the agreements. Among the conditions Martínez required Douglas to promise to leave the Pacific Northwest and never return—a promise he broke immediately upon leaving Nootka Sound as he sailed north to cruise the coast for furs. Douglas sailed from Nootka Sound around the start of June. On June 8, 1789, the North West America returned. Martínez confiscated the vessel as security for payments Douglas owed for repairs and supplies given to Iphigenia.
On June 15, 1789, Meares's small sloop , under Thomas Hudson, arrived at Friendly Cove. Needing repairs and in no condition to resist, Hudson readily accepted Martínez's authority. Robert Gray returned to Nootka Sound on June 17, finding the Spanish in control, Fort San Miguel built, North West America captured and Princess Royal detained. Gray sailed Lady Washington directly to Kendrick's outpost at Marvinas Bay. While Gray had been away Kendrick's friendship with the natives had resulted in his collecting of hundreds of furs. Thinking they would soon depart, Kendrick took Columbia and Washington to Friendly Cove, anchoring there on June 28. On July 2, Martínez let the Princess Royal depart. Within hours Meares's command ship Argonaut under James Colnett arrived.
Martínez and Colnett clashed right away, each claiming Nootka Sound by authority of their respective kings. Despite his misgivings, Colnett allowed Argonaut to be brought into Friendly Cove and tied to Princesa and Columbia. As tensions rose while Martínez and Colnett continued to argue, Kendrick, knowing that Martínez was planning to seize Argonaut, prepared for the possibility of violence. The next day the arguments between Martínez and Colnett nearly turned violent, and Martínez had Colnett arrested. Martínez had Princesa's cannon loaded and ready, and asked Kendrick to do the same with Columbia, which he did. Seeing Argonaut trapped between the two ships as well as the cannon of Fort San Miguel, Colnett realized that resistance was futile.
The events set in motion during the summer of 1789, especially the seizure of Argonaut, lead to the Nootka Crisis. It took time for the news to reach Europe, but when it did it nearly resulted in war between Britain and Spain.
Northwest coast 1789
On July 13, 1789, the day after Martínez seized Princess Royal, the Nuu-chah-nulth leader, Callicum, the son of Maquinna, went to Friendly Cove. He called angrily to Martínez, who shot him dead with a musket. Sources differ over the details of the event, but whatever the case it deepened the rift between the Spanish and Nuu-chah-nulth. Maquinna fled to Clayoquot Sound. The next day Kendrick decided it was time to leave Nootka Sound.
Kendrick asked Martínez if he would be allowed to return to Nootka Sound the next year. Martínez agreed, with certain conditions and requests, to which Kendrick agreed. Martínez asked Kendrick to take the prisoners from North West America to Macau, offering 96 sea otter skins to cover expenses. He also asked Kendrick to sell 137 prime sea otter skins in Macau for him. Martínez also offered to deliver letters from the Americans. Kendrick wrote to Joseph Barrell, but knowing the letter would probably be read by the Spanish, kept his message short. He said he would cruise north then proceed to China, where he expected to receive instructions from Barrell. He also wrote a letter to his wife Huldah.
Kendrick's son, John Kendrick Jr, announced that he had decided to stay at Nootka Sound and join the Spanish Navy. An account by a Spanish officer described the elder Kendrick standing in tears as he gave advice and said goodbye to his son.
On July 15 Columbia and Washington, under Kendrick and Gray, left Nootka Sound. Instead of cruising north they sailed south to Clayoquot Sound, where they stayed for two weeks. The ships anchored near Opitsaht, the largest native village in the area and home to Chief Wickaninnish. Kendrick and his men knew many of the natives at Opitsaht, some of whom had recently come from Nootka Sound. Trading began immediately and continued during their time there.
While at Clayoquot Sound, Kendrick and Gray switched vessels. Kendrick ordered Gray to take Columbia to China, and Kendrick would take Washington north, trading for furs. Kendrick recognized that with the British driven off out of the trade due to the Nootka Crisis the Americans had a window of opportunity on the Northwest Coast. All the furs in Washington were transferred to Columbia and the crews were divided so Kendrick would have a full complement of experienced sailors on Washington. On July 30 Gray sailed Columbia out of Clayoquot Sound, making for Hawaii and China.
The reason for this exchange of ships remains unknown, but one reason could be that Kendrick thought Washington was easier to handle because she was smaller. Whatever the reason, Gray returned to Boston via Canton, later taking a second expedition in Columbia that would enter the Columbia River on the modern Washington-Oregon border, and result in its naming for the ship.
Kendrick's movements after leaving Clayoquot Sound are unknown. The next confirmed report dates to September, about a month after leaving Clayoquot. Kendrick encountered Thomas Metcalfe's Fair American near Dundas Island and Dixon Entrance. Metcalfe continued to Nootka Sound and told Martínez about meeting Kendrick. Martínez wrote that Kendrick was in "one of the mouths of the Strait of Fonte". How Kendrick got from Clayoquot to Dixon Entrance is not known. There is some evidence that he might have entered the Salish Sea, passing east of Vancouver Island.
After his meeting with Metcalfe, Kendrick sailed across Hecate Strait to Haida Gwaii. His activities there are not known in detail but he likely stopped at several Haida villages such as Skidegate and Skedans. At Anthony Island, or SG̱ang Gwaay, he traded with the Haida village of Ninstints, under Chief Koyah, or Coyah.
Ninstints had been visited by George Dixon in 1787, and by Robert Gray in June, 1789, when Kendrick sent him north to trade. Robert Haswell's account of Ninstints during Gray's visit is the earliest written description. Kendrick arrived at Ninstints about three months after Gray's visit.
While Kendrick trading at Ninstints minor thefts from the ship caused some tension. One day Kendrick's clothes, which had been hung out to dry, were stolen. Kendrick had Chief Koyah and Chief Skulkinanse held as hostages until the stolen goods were returned. The clothes and most other missing items were returned. Knowing that trading would be over once the chiefs were released Kendrick demanded all the remaining furs be brought for trade. Some accounts say Kendrick paid for these furs at the same rate he had been paying, others say he forced the Haida to accept a lower rate. After this the chiefs were released and Kendrick left. The incident caused Koyah to lose his chieftainship, although later traders still had to work with him and he seemed to retain an important role in Ninstints.
Robert Gray returned to Ninstints in 1792 and Robert Haswell wrote what he claimed was the Haida account of the incident. He said that Kendrick had tied a rope around Koyah's neck, whipped him, cut off his hair and painted his face, among other things.
Two years later, when Kendrick returned, the Haida had not forgotten this treatment and a battle ensued. The natives captured the arms chest of Washington. Kendrick and his crew had to retreat below decks. He and his officers fought off the attack. Kendrick, seeking revenge, killed a native woman who had encouraged the attack in the water after her arm had been severed by a cutlass and killed many other natives with cannon and small arms fire as they retreated.
Hawaii 1789
Kendrick went to the Hawaiian Islands, arriving in November, 1789. Lady Washington was the 15th Western ship known to have visited Hawaii after James Cook. Kendrick sailed around the Island of Hawaii and anchored in Kealakekua Bay, not far from where Cook had been killed in 1779. Native Hawaiians came aboard to trade. Kendrick asked for Chief Kaʻiana, who had been on the Iphigenia at Nootka Sound and was friendly to Kendrick and other traders. Kaʻiana brought Kendrick a letter from Richard Howe, the clerk of Columbia, which had been in Hawaii in August. The letter warned of native duplicity and told of an attack on Iphigenia that summer. Kendrick also learned of the complicated and changing political situation in Hawaii. Chief Kamehameha I and his sub-chiefs, such as Kaʻiana were expanding their power and eager to acquire firearms, which they had been obtaining from other traders. Kendrick was reluctant to trade firearms, fearing his own safety, but probably provided a few in trade for provisions.
During his stay at Kealakekua Bay Kendrick recognized sandalwood. Knowing that sandalwood was prized in China he asked Kamehameha for permission to leave a man to harvest sandalwood for later pickup. Kamehameha wanted assistance training his men in the use of firearms. The details of the deal are not known, but whatever the exact terms Kamehameha agreed and Kendrick left his carpenter Isaac Ridler and two others, James Mackay and Samuel Thomas.
After leaving Kealakekua Bay Kendrick sailed through the island chain. He stopped at Kauai and Niihau to top off his provisions with water, yams, and hogs. Then he made for Macau, China.
Shortly after Kendrick's visit to Hawaii, another trader, Simon Metcalfe killed about a hundred Hawaiians in an event called the Olowalu Massacre. About the same time the small ship Fair American, captained by Simon Metcalfe's son Thomas Metcalfe, was attacked and captured. The Fair American and the one survivor, Isaac Davis, came under the control of Kamehameha. Kendrick's three men, along with Isaac Davis and a man left by Simon Metcalfe, John Young, all found their lives at risk and survived by serving under Kamehameha, teaching Hawaiians not only how to use muskets but also how to sail the Fair American and use its cannons. These things helped Kamehameha invade Maui and begin his conquest of all the Hawaiian Islands.
Macau 1790–1791
Kendrick anchored about a mile offshore of Macau on January 26, 1790. Gray had arrived in November and by January had made it to Whampoa, a trading center near Guangzhou (Canton), about up the Pearl River. Both captains found trading difficult under the Canton System. Kendrick sent a letter to Gray, telling of his arrival and asking for advice on how to proceed. Gray sent a letter back along with letters from Joseph Barrell, the owner of their venture. Gray described his difficulties with the Canton System and suggested Kendrick go to a smuggling area called Dirty Butter Bay on the west side of Montanha Island (today part of Hengqin). Gray also provided the names of buyers who would assist in smuggling. The letters from Barrell were friendly and reaffirmed Kendrick's command of the venture and broad authority to continue as he judged best.
Kendrick took Lady Washington to Dirty Butter Bay on January 30, 1790. He found it rife with smuggling and illegal activity. There were two East India Company hulks acting as floating warehouses full of opium. Kendrick received another letter from Gray, who suggested Kendrick sell his cargo to Gray's agent in Whampoa, and that Gray would take the money himself. Kendrick refused, saying he might bring Washington up to Whampoa. To this Gray replied, warning of the difficulties involved and suggesting Kendrick remain where he was.
Kendrick wrote back with various questions. He asserted his command of the joint venture by asking for a full account of the cargo sold and remaining on Columbia, the amount and quality of Chinese goods acquired, and other details. Gray refused to provide Kendrick with this information. Gray wrote to Barrell that he had brought 700 skins to China although it was later determined that he had sold 1,215 skins and tampered with the inventory records from Clayoquot Sound. Whatever the case, Gray's cargo was sold for $21,400, a fairly low price per skin. About half of this money was spent on the costs of his long stay at Whampoa, leaving $11,241. With that he bought 221 chests of cheap tea. About half of the tea was spoiled by the time Gray returned to Boston and Barrell took a financial loss for Gray's first voyage.
Before Gray left China Kendrick sent him a number of artifacts he had collected on the Pacific Northwest Coast, to be brought back to New England for a new museum (today the Peabody Essex Museum). Kendrick, having not received an accounting of Gray's business in Whampoa, sent a copy of his letter asking for such, but again Gray ignored it. On February 9, 1790, Gray left Whampoa. While waiting for a storm to pass Gray anchored Columbia less than from Lady Washington, but avoided all contact and communication. On February 12, he left for Boston.
Kendrick fell ill with a long fever, and fell into debt. But by spring his prospects improved. The fever abated. He sold Martínez's furs for $8,000 and his own for $18,000, a far better price per fur than Gray had managed. Now flush with cash he paid his debts and rented a house in Macau while making various preparations for a return voyage to the Pacific Northwest. He had Lady Washington refitting as a brigantine similar to the privateer Fanny he had captained during the Revolutionary War. A second mast was added to Washington, along with new sails and rigging.
As spring progressed Kendrick found himself stuck in Macau. The Chinese refused to give him permission to leave port and the Portuguese Governor of Macau, Lazaro da Silva Ferreira, would not intervene. The reason for this is unclear. Stuck in Macau, Kendrick asked William Douglas for assistance. Douglas had been captain of Iphigenia but had left Meares's company and taken command of the American schooner Grace, sailing under a US flag. Kendrick's first mate, Davis Coolidge, became Douglas's first mate. Kendrick and Douglas formed a loose partnership. Douglas was about to sail to the Pacific Northwest. He agreed to stop in Hawaii on the way back and pick up Kendrick's sandalwood.
Around this time John Meares arrived in London, where he began to fan the flames of the Nootka Crisis, which was rapidly heading toward war between Britain and Spain. Part of Meares's claims, made to Parliament and Prime Minister William Pitt, was that Kendrick was the true architect behind the Spanish seizure of British ships at Nootka Sound. News of impending war between Britain and Spain reached Macau in the summer of 1790. Kendrick was arrested by soldiers in Macau and ordered to leave. He retreated to Washington in Dirty Butter Bay.
On August 9, 1790, Gray returned to Boston with Columbia. There were large celebrations of this first US circumnavigation and Gray became a national hero. However, the venture was a failure financially. Gray and Haswell blamed Kendrick for the failure. Some were skeptical of Gray's claims about Kendrick, such as the clerk John Hoskins and Joseph Barrell himself. In addition, questions were raised about the total number of furs Gray sold in China. Gray said they sold 700 skins, with Haswell's records as evidence. Barrell's agent at Canton said there were at least 1,215 furs, and perhaps more than 1,500. The discrepancy was never resolved.
Gray proposed another venture in which he would have command of Columbia, with Haswell as first mate, and without Kendrick's overall command. While Columbia was being made ready controversy grew over Kendrick's role in the first venture. Newspapers published articles condemning Kendrick and calling him a rogue and a cheat. He was also held responsible for the Nootka Crisis and the looming war. John Quincy Adams wrote about Kendrick's "egregious knavery and unpardonable stupidity".
Solomon Kendrick, who had returned with Gray, quickly joined another venture and left Boston for the Pacific Northwest on Jefferson, under captain Josiah Roberts. Joseph Ingraham did likewise, obtaining command of the sloop and leaving Boston on September 17, 1790. The Columbia left Boston on October 2, 1790, with Gray as captain and Haswell as first mate. Joseph Barrell placed John Hoskins on board as supercargo. Barrell gave Hoskins broad authority in the management of cargo and instructed Gray to consult with him on all matters of trade.
On October 28, 1790, the First Nootka Convention was signed, averting a British–Spanish war. Under the agreement Spain was to pay damages for John Meares's seized ships and to return the land in Nootka Sound that Meares claimed to have purchased. George Vancouver was to sail to Nootka Sound to implement the agreement. His voyage, known as the Vancouver Expedition, along with the Butterworth Squadron would later play a major role in John Kendrick's life as well as his death.
During all this time Kendrick remained at Dirty Butter Bay, unable to leave due to the restrictions that had been placed upon him. In late 1790 a new governor of Macau, Vasco Luis Caneiro de Sousa de Faro, was appointed, and Kendrick's restrictions were lifted. By this time Douglas had returned with a cargo of furs, Kendrick's Hawaiian sandalwood, and Kendrick's men James Mackay and Samuel Thomas. After selling the furs and sandalwood the two captains decided to sail together to Japan in an attempt to open trade there. They left China on March 31, 1791.
Japan
Kendrick left Macau in March, 1791, along with William Douglas, formerly captain of the Iphigenia but now of an American ship called Grace. They decided to attempt to open trade with Japan, which was closed to almost all foreign trade under the sakoku policy. Kendrick and Douglas approached the Kii Peninsula of Japan on May 6. Seeking shelter from an approaching typhoon Kendrick and Douglas sailed into the channel between the mainland and the island of Kii Ōshima, near the fishing villages of Kushimoto and Koza. Both villages immediately sent messages to the daimyō at Wakayama Castle. After the storm passed a few Japanese fishermen visited the ships. Kendrick offered food and drink, and a few of the fishermen went on board. None of the ships' crewmembers spoke Japanese, but the Chinese crewmen were able to communicate via writing. Kendrick and Douglas learned that there was no market for sea otter furs in Japan, contrary to the rumors they had heard in Macau. The fishermen also persuaded Kendrick and Douglas not to go to Osaka, where they would have faced certain arrest.
While they waited for favorable weather, five men were sent ashore on Oshima Island to collect water and wood. They fired a warning musket shot at a local farmer who tried to stop them. In the meantime, the messages from the villages reached Wakayama Castle and the daimyō sent a force of samurai. On May 17, Kendrick and Douglas departed, perhaps having heard that troops were coming. The samurai arrived two days later.
The result of this first visit of Americans to Japan was largely symbolic for the United States. For Japan, it resulted in a new system of alarms and coastal patrols, increasing Japan's isolation under sakoku.
A few days after leaving the Kii Peninsula, Kendrick and Douglas came across some islands that weren't on any charts they had. Possibly part of the Nanpō Islands, they named them the "Water Islands". Here, they decided to separate. Douglas sailed to Alaska, perhaps by way of Hawaii, while Kendrick made for the Pacific Northwest coast.
Northwest Coast 1791
In early June, 1791, Kendrick arrived at Bucareli Bay. He spent about a week trading in Tsimshian and Haida territory. He visited several villages in Haida Gwaii before arriving at the southern end of the islands.
On June 13 he visited the Haida village X̱yuu Daw Llnagaay, also spelled Ce-uda’o Inagai. The village is located on a point north-east of Saawdaan G̱awG̱a, or Keeweenah Bay, near Ninstints in the territory of Koyah, with whom Kendrick had had trouble in 1789. Sources differ over exactly how events unfolded. Whatever the details, trading proceeded in a friendly manner for a couple of days and many Haida from the region came. A festive mood developed and Kendrick relaxed his security. Kendrick was told that Koyah was no longer a chief, and when Koyah came he appeared to hold no ill feelings.
Kendrick allowed about 50 Haida, men and women, aboard his ship. Koyah joined the Haida trading on board, having brought his own furs to trade. By some accounts Kendrick traded a blue nankeen coat to Koyah.
During the trading on board one of the Haida chiefs, perhaps Koyah according to some versions of the story, went to the quarterdeck and gained control of one of the weapon chests. At this point Haida warriors, in what seems to have been an unplanned attack, drew knives and menaced the crew, who retreated to the middle deck and then below deck. The Haida gained control of the ship's deck. Haida canoes had crowded alongside Washington and more warriors boarded. According to some accounts Koyah began taunting Kendrick, now alone on the quarterdeck. There was little Kendrick could do. He tried to bargain with Koyah, offering to pay the Haida to leave the ship, to no avail. While the men below were arming themselves with weapon stores in the hold, and preparing to blow up the ship if necessary, Kendrick and Koyah fought near the companionway. Koyah wounded Kendrick with his knife twice in the abdomen. Crewmembers began to fire at the Haida warriors. Kendrick retrieved a pistol from his cabin and led the crew back on deck. A hand-to-hand battle ensued. About 15 Haida, men and women, were killed in the struggle. One Haida woman had climbed up the chains supporting the mainmast and had been shouting encouragement to the Haida, urging them to fight. Although badly wounded she remained aloft until all the other Haida had fled the ship, at which point she jumped into the sea and attempted to swim despite having lost an arm in the battle. She was shot as she struggled in the water. The crew fired upon the retreating Haida with muskets and cannon, and pursued them in boats. Many Haida died in the battle. Koyah was shot but survived. His wife and child were killed according to some accounts.
The battle became a famous and oft-told story, and accounts portrayed Kendrick in differing ways. One second-hand account claimed that Kendrick had been drinking. Others blamed for letting the Haida gain control of the ship as well as allowing the brutal retaliation following the regaining of control. Still others found the slaughter hard to believe and supported Kendrick's actions.
Having been treated as 'ahliko', or a lower class person, Koyah had lost face according to Haida law. His family and allies went on to capture two vessels to restore the honour of his matrilineage according to Haida law.
Kendrick left immediately and went to Bucareli Bay where he and his crew spent a few weeks recuperating before sailing to Nootka Sound. He did not know what the current situation would be at Nootka Sound. He had not yet that the Nootka Convention had been signed in late 1790, preventing war. For all he knew a global war might have begun. Therefore Kendrick entered Nootka Sound in a dramatic fashion, with cannons loaded and matches lit, and the crew all armed and ready to fire. The Spanish officer Francisco de Eliza had re-established the fort at Friendly Cove but was away exploring the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Strait of Georgia. The acting commandant, Ramón Saavedra, sent an armed boat, telling Kendrick that Nootka Sound belonged to Spain and no one could enter or trade without permission. Kendrick defiantly said they had come to trade and would do so. Saavedra decided to take no action and await the return of Eliza. Kendrick arrived at his old base in Marvinas Bay, Nootka Sound, on July 12.
At Marvinas Bay Kendrick was welcomed by the native Nuu-chah-nulth. The friendship he had forged with them had lasted and was even strengthened by their continued frustration with the Spanish. Kendrick began to negotiate alliances with chiefs Maquinna, Claquakinnah, Wickaninish, and others. From Saavedra he learned of the Nootka Convention and that British traders would be allowed back to Nootka Sound and permitted to trade along the coast. Kendrick hoped that a strong alliance with the natives could help him out-compete the British traders who would soon be returning.
Many chiefs gathered at Marvinas Bay. Kendrick entertained them with Chinese fireworks, after which he launched into a speech claiming that the Europeans were coming to the region with the intention of establishing settlements. He told them that if he held the deeds to their land it could prevent the Europeans from gaining a permanent foothold in the region. Kendrick promised that they would retain all their traditional rights and that he was essentially asking for the right to use the region as one of the Nuu-chah-nulth. Additionally, he promised to defend the lands against incursions from European traders and other tribes outside their confederation. But the most important thing he offered, from the Nuu-chah-nulth perspective, was firearms. If they were well-armed they could defend themselves against traders who previously had felt free to raid villages at will. The memory of Maquinna's brother Callicum being shot to death by the Spanish was still fresh.
The chiefs agreed to Kendrick's proposal. In July 1791 Kendrick purchased Marvinas Bay from Maquinna and other chiefs, with "all the land, rivers, creeks, harbours, islands, etc., with all the produce of sea and land appertaining thereto." Kendrick then went to Tahsis, deeper into Nootka Sound, and made a similar agreement. Then he maneuvered Washington through the narrows north of Nootka Island into Esperanza Inlet, thereby avoiding the Spanish fort at Friendly Cove. In Esperanza Inlet and Nuchatlitz Inlet he made two more land purchases of the same sort.
In early August 1791, Kendrick sailed south to Clayoquot Sound. Chief Wickaninnish, having heard of Kendrick's activities, was waiting for him, prepared to make a similar deal of land for firearms. On August 11, 1791, Wickaninnish and other chiefs granted Kendrick essentially all the land around Clayoquot Sound. The deed mentions only four muskets traded in exchange, although by 1792 Wickaninnish was said to have acquired about 200 muskets from Kendrick. Kendrick's land purchases collectively gave him title to over of Vancouver Island, including nearly all of Nootka Island and the lands around Nootka Sound and Clayoquot Sound. Following these purchases, Kendrick built a new Fort Washington on an island in Clayoquot Sound.
On August 29, 1791, the Columbia arrived at Clayoquot Sound, having returned to the Pacific Northwest on a second voyage. Robert Gray was captain and no longer under Kendrick's command. Robert Haswell was first mate. The supercargo was John Hoskins, sent by Joseph Barrell to oversee the business and finances of the venture.
From Hoskins Kendrick learned of other traders on the coast—at least three American and five British ships. These vessels were mostly trading in the north, having found few furs on Vancouver Island: Kendrick had already acquired most of them and had negotiated advance payments for future furs. Joseph Ingraham later wrote that the natives around Nootka Sound always asked about Kendrick, saying they had many furs for him and would not sell to anyone else.
The day after arriving some of the officers of Columbia visited Kendrick's Fort Washington, which Hoskins described as a rough log outpost with living quarters and a warehouse, with an American flag flying. Lady Washington had been hauled on shore and was being graved in preparation for sailing to Hawaii and China. Kendrick was given a letter from Joseph Barrell, from which he learned that Columbia was no longer under his command. In a reply letter Kendrick pointed out how unfortunate this was, since he could have added over 1,000 sea otter skins to the 500–600 Gray had gathered. Seeking some way to make this work, Kendrick offered Hoskins 1,000 furs in exchange for payment for his men and his Macau debts, which were about $4,000. Hoskins said he did not have the authority. Thus, lacking further instructions from Barrell, Kendrick found himself on his own with Washington. He decided to continue on as he had been. Matters with Barrell could be resolved later.
Borrowing Kendrick's strategy from the first voyage, Gray planned to winter in Clayoquot Sound so as to get an early start the next year. Kendrick helped tow Columbia to a cove for the winter. After Kendrick left Gray had his men build an outpost he named Fort Defiance. On September 29, 1791, Kendrick sailed for Hawaii. Over the winter Gray proved unable to maintain the friendship with Wickaninnish's people that Kendrick had built. In an incident over a coat Gray took Wickaninnish's brother hostage, threatening to kill him. Later, Gray's Hawaiian servant deserted and went into hiding among the natives. In retaliation Gray took another hostage.
Toward the end of the winter Gray discovered what he thought was a conspiracy to attack his outpost and ship. In response Gray decided to destroy Opitsaht, the main native town of Clayoquot Sound and seat of Wickaninnish. As Columbia left Clayoquot Sound in March 1792, Gray ordered a bombardment upon Opitsaht, which was utterly destroyed. Although the town was empty at the time it contained over 200 ornately carved buildings. John Boit wrote of his sadness to see the town destroyed, noting that every door had been elegantly carved, often in the form of a totemic animal whose mouth functioned as the entry. Wickaninnish's people remained loyal to Kendrick, but their good feelings toward American traders, which Kendrick had obtained, was largely ruined by Gray's actions.
Hawaii and Macau 1791–1793
Kendrick arrived at Kealakekua Bay on the Island of Hawaii in late October, 1791. From Kaʻiana Kendrick learned that Kamehameha was now king of the entire island and that there was turmoil, danger, and ongoing war among most of the Hawaiian Islands. Kendrick left Kealakekua Bay after a few days and sailed to the island of Kauai, which was relatively safe at the western end of the main islands. By October 27, 1791, he was at Kauai. With the approval of Chief Inamoʻo, who was serving as regent while Chief Kaumualii was away, Kendrick left three men on the nearby island of Niʻihau. John Williams, John Rowbottom, and James Coleman were to work on Niihau and Kauai, trading for pearls and preparing cargoes of sandalwood.
Kendrick arrived at Macau on December 7, 1791, and was soon again anchored at the smugglers haven Dirty Butter Bay. Several other American traders were there, including Joseph Ingraham of the Hope, Crowell of the Hancock, and Coolidge of the Grace. The Fairy arrived soon after Kendrick. From these traders Kendrick learned of his diminished reputation in Boston. On March 28, 1792, he wrote to Joseph Barrell, defending himself against the charges made against him and describing how Gray had cheated Barrell by under-reporting furs sold in Macau and selling the difference for his personal profit. He also described the land purchases he had made and promised to send copies of the deeds. Lacking specific instructions he proposed that he would continue in Barrell's employ "as usual", including, he suggested, command of Columbia. Alternatively, if Barrell was not interested in continuing the relationship, he proposed buying Lady Washington for $14,000, plus interest, and operating on his own. He entrusted the letter to Ebenezer Dorr, who had come to Macau with Ingraham on the Hope and was returning to Boston on the Fairy.
Kendrick could not expect a reply from Barrell for at least a year. In the meantime he decided to strengthen his position in Hawaii and on the Northwest Coast. Not longer after Dorr and most of the other traders left Kendrick fell ill. When Ingraham left on April 1, 1792, he described Kendrick as near death.
In time Kendrick recovered and, over the summer of 1792, built a tender for Washington. Named Avenger or Adventure, it was probably a sloop about long, with a crew of about ten. It was finished in the late summer and command was given to John Stoddard, who had served as clerk on Washington for two years.
Kendrick and Stoddard sailed from Macau in September, 1792, planning to winter in Clayoquot Sound. Only a few days out they were caught in a violent typhoon, during which Washington was badly damaged and Avenger was lost, never to be seen again. Kendrick returned to Macau and took loans to pay for the major repairs Washington needed.
About two months after this, the Columbia arrived at Macau. Kendrick sent a letter telling of the death of Stoddard and the crew of Avenger, news that the crew of Columbia would want to know. Otherwise Kendrick and Gray did not meet or communicate with each other. Gray found the price of furs very low and the second voyage of Columbia made little profit. On February 8, 1793, Columbia left for Boston.
Through others Kendrick learned that Gray had fought with Wickaninnish's people in Clayoquot Sound, and had killed Wickaninnish's brother. He also learned of Gray's discovery of the Columbia River. In addition Kendrick learned about the British Vancouver Expedition under George Vancouver and the Butterworth Squadron under William Brown.
Kendrick learned much of this information from John Howell, who joined the crew of Washington as clerk in Macau. Howell, who was fluent in Spanish, had served as interpreter for Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra at Nootka Sound during the diplomatic negotiations with George Vancouver in 1792. Howell arrived in Macau on the Margaret, under James Magee. Magee had hired Howell as a "historian". The two had collected native artifacts from the Pacific Northwest Coast and the Hawaiian Islands. Howell would take command of Washington after Kendrick's death.
In late February, 1793, Kendrick sailed the repaired Washington about east to Hong Kong Island. There, knowing that both Britain and Spain were seeking to lay claim to the Pacific Northwest and wanting to secure his own claims for the United States, Kendrick wrote to Thomas Jefferson. He described the land purchases he had made and included copies of the deeds. He wrote of his hope and belief that the United States would sanction and secure them, and protect them from Britain and Spain if necessary. He described the commercial advantages that could come from American possession of lands on the Northwest Coast, and suggested that a settlement there might be "worth the attention of some associated company, under the protection of the Government." The letter was received by the State Department on October 24, 1793. Jefferson was already trying to organize an overland expedition, under André Michaux, to the Pacific coast. The Michaux expedition never came to be, but the plan eventually resulted in the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Jefferson's reaction to Kendrick's letter is unknown, but the timing was not good. France had declared war on Britain and Spain just as Kendrick was writing the letter. Joseph Barrell had told Kendrick that any lands purchased could be authorized by Congress after the fact. Although this was true, in early 1793 Congress was unwilling to provoke Britain and Spain by annexing land on the Pacific coast.
Kendrick, unaware of these events and knowing that at best there would be a long delay in any response, prepared to sail to the Pacific Northwest. He loaded Washington with trade goods, including cases of muskets, barrels of gunpowder, and ammunition. He left China and sailed to Nootka Sound, arriving in May, 1793.
Northwest Coast 1793
Kendrick sailed across the Pacific from Macau, reaching Nootka Sound in late May, 1793, just days after George Vancouver had left. Salvador Fidalgo was the new commandant of the Spanish outpost, taking over after Bodeya y Quadra returned to San Blas, Mexico.
Unlike Quadra, Fidalgo deeply mistrusted the Nuu-chah-nulth and other Northwest natives, and his attitude and behavior toward them had quickly led to unrest, undoing the friendly relations that had been built by Quadra and Alejandro Malaspina. Some of the Nuu-chah-nulth chiefs wanted to attack and destroy the Spanish post. Fidalgo knew that Kendrick was allied with the natives and had probably brought more firearms for them. After anchoring in Friendly Cove Kendrick went ashore with John Howell as translator. Fidalgo told Kendrick that he was under orders to deny Washington entry at Nootka Sound. Kendrick responding by threatening to "raise the Indians and drive [the Spanish] from their settlement" if Fidalgo gave him any trouble.
Shortly after this meeting Kendrick took Washington to his old outpost at Marvinas Bay a few miles to the north. There he found the 90 ton American schooner Resolution and was surprised and delighted to find his son, Solomon Kendrick, now 22 years old, was second mate. He was also pleased with the very warm welcome he received from Chief Maquinna and the local natives.
Solomon Kendrick had sailed with his father when they first came to the Pacific Northwest but was with the Columbia when Gray first sailed to China in 1789. Solomon brought news from home and how things were going for John's wife Huldah, his other children, and various friends. John and Solomon shared their stories about their many adventures at sea. One of Solomon's tales involved a stop at the Valparaíso, Chile, where he met Don Blas Gonzales, who had been stripped of rank for having helped Kendrick in 1788. Gonzales had spent four years trying to regain his post and his reputation, to no avail. He gave Solomon a letter begging John Kendrick to intercede on his behalf. Kendrick immediately wrote to Thomas Jefferson, describing what had happened and requesting whatever assistance Jefferson could provide for Gonzales. Jefferson asked the American ambassador in Spain to advocate for Gonzales, but ultimately no restoration was granted.
In late June, 1793, Solomon Kendrick sailed with Resolution to trade in Haida Gwaii. John Kendrick traded locally in Nootka Sound, then went to Clayoquot Sound briefly, where a dispute between his allies Maquinna and Wickaninnish was threatening to turn violent. Kendrick returned to Marvinas Bay on July 13, 1793. He made at least one more visit to Clayoquot Sound before departing for Hawaii in early October, 1793.
Hawaii 1793–1794
Kendrick arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in late 1793. During the early winter he met with King Kamehameha on the Island of Hawaii. By January, 1794, he had given his carpenter John Boyd into the service of Kamehameha at Waiakea on Hilo Bay. Boyd began to work on building a ship for Kamehameha, planned to be a 40-ton, long armed sloop.
As the work proceeded Kendrick toured the islands, trading and meeting the various men he had left. Kendrick had already learned from Kamehameha that Vancouver and Brown were negotiating with him to cede the islands to the Crown. Brown had already made a deal with Chief Kahekili that Brown believed gave the Crown control over the islands of Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu. Kendrick returned to Kealakekua Bay on Hawaii and began making plans to obstruct the plans of Vancouver and Brown.
On January 9, 1794, Vancouver's ships Discovery, Chatham, and Daedalus passed Kealakekua Bay as they sailed to Waiakea to meet with Kamehameha. When Vancouver met with Kamehameha he learned about Kendrick's shipwright John Boyd and the ship being built. This caused Vancouver dismay, in part because he had refused when Kamehameha had asked him for a ship. Vancouver also learned that Kendrick was at Kealakua Bay, attended by Kamehameha's aide and advisor John Young. Vancouver, eager to obstruct Kendrick, asked Kamehameha to come with him to Kealakekua Bay. The king declined, citing the makahiki season and its taboos, as well as his need to host various ceremonial events.
Vancouver felt he needed Kamehameha with him to effectively proscribe Kendrick. After much persuading and inveigling Kamehameha agreed and went with Vancouver. On the way Vancouver convinced Kamehameha to let him take over the ship construction that Boyd had begun. He dismissed Boyd's abilities and offered to move the frame to Kealakekua and have his own carpenters build the rest of the ship with Vancouver's own supplies. Vancouver declared that the ship, to be named Britannia, would be a "man-of-war". Nonetheless, Kamehameha was very pleased with the proposal.
Vancouver's ships neared Kealakekua Bay on June 12, 1794. As they the crew worked to enter the bay John Young came with a letter of welcome from Kendrick's agent John Howell, who was living ashore under the protection of Keeaumoku Pāpaiahiahi, chief of the Kona district and one of Kamehameha's highest ministers. While Vancouver's ships lay becalmed outside the bay Young brought Kamehameha ashore. As the ships—Discovery, Chatham, and Daedalus—made their way into the bay late in the day, Kendrick raised the US flag. As dusk turned to night Vancouver's ships anchored close to Washington. The 90 ton, long Washington was dwarfed by the 340 ton, long, Discovery, 135 ton, Chatham, and the massive store ship Daedalus. In addition, Vancouver's men, numbering over 180, far outnumbered Kendrick's crew of less than 30.
The next day Kendrick, John Howell, and Keeaumoku Pāpaiahiahi went aboard Discovery. Vancouver and Kendrick met face-to-face for the first time. Vancouver and Howell had met at Nootka Sound when Howell was serving as translator for Bodega y Quadra. Kendrick told Vancouver he was wintering in Hawaii and planning to return to the Pacific Northwest coast in the spring. Howell would stay in Hawaii to manage Kendrick's business. Vancouver knew that Kendrick had already sailed among the islands, inspecting his operations in Kauai and Oahu, and was continuing to strengthen his ties and trade with the Hawaiians. Among the items he had acquired was the largest feathered war cloak, about long and wide. Reportedly, he had traded his two stern chaser cannons for the cloak. He had also obtained chunks of ambergris worth thousands of dollars. His men on Kauai were collecting sandalwood and pearls and were starting to produce molasses, a valuable trade good on the Northwest Coast.
The next day Kendrick and Howell again dined on Discovery. Kendrick wanted to talk about William Brown and his Butterworth Squadron. He knew that Vancouver, as a Royal Navy officer, was under certain constraints, while Brown, a private merchant, was free to do as he pleased.
On February 1, 1794, Vancouver's carpenters, having taken Boyd's ship frame, began working on the promised warship for Kamehameha. With Kamehameha increasingly pleased with him, Vancouver relaunched discussions about ceding Hawaii to the Crown. Many chiefs met at a grand council on Discovery on February 19 and again on February 25. At the second council Kamehameha agreed to the cession of the island, according to Vancouver's journal. But when Vancouver requested the removal of all of Kendrick's men, Kamehameha and the other chiefs refusedw.
Despite Vancouver's efforts, Kendrick was able to proceed as if nothing had happened. He ignored both Vancouver's claim over the Island of Hawaii and Brown's claim over the islands from Maui to Oahu.
Vancouver left Kealakekua Bay on February 26, 1794, and briefly cruised among the Hawaiian Islands. He was finishing his survey of the islands and evaluation of harbors, as well as looking to increase British influence and drive Kendrick away. Kendrick, however, sailed ahead, arriving at key harbors and meeting with chiefs before Vancouver. He spent five days at Waikiki (part of Honolulu today) with Kahekili and his chiefs. When Vancouver arrived the chiefs would not even meet with him.
When Vancouver reached Kauai he found Kendrick at Waimea, having arrived two days before. Vancouver met with Kendrick and tried to pressure him into withdrawing his men. Kendrick dissembled and Vancouver thought he had succeeded. But when Vancouver finally left for the Pacific Northwest coast, on March 14, 1794, Kendrick and his men remained in the Hawaiian Islands.
On February 24, 1794, Brown had set sail from China, making for the Pacific Northwest coast. Vancouver and Brown encountered each other on July 3, 1794, near Cross Sound, southeast Alaska. Brown had just arrived with the Jackall. Vancouver told him of his recent experiences in Hawaii, and his failure to drive off the Americans, as Brown had been hoping.
Not long after Vancouver left Hawaii, Kendrick also sailed to the Pacific Northwest coast. He found the situation at Nootka Sound bleak. Chief Maquinna's people had suffered a hard winter and famine. The conflict with Wickaninnish was ongoing. Maquinna wanted to move his people closer to the Spanish fort at Friendly Cove, but the new commandant, Ramón Saavedra Guiráldez y Ordónez, refused. Kendrick soon sailed north, seeking sea otter skins, which had become scarce at Nootka and Clayoquot. He cruised the Alexander Archipelago, acquiring furs. At the Tlingit settlement that would later become Sitka he disposed all his remaining trade goods, including some molasses his men had made in Kauai. Then he headed back to Nootka Sound.
In early September, 1794, Kendrick was anchored in Friendly Cove, Nootka Sound, along with three Spanish ships and two British trading ships, including Prince Lee Boo, one of Brown's ships. Vancouver and his three ships soon arrived as well. He found his eldest son, John, now called Juan Kendrick, was there, having arrived as master of the Spanish frigate Aranzazu. He also learned that the Resolution had disappeared and his son Solomon was probably dead. Neither John nor his son Juan knew that Resolution had been attacked and captured by Chief Cumshewa and possibly Kendrick's old enemy Koyah. All but one of the crew were killed, including Solomon Kendrick. Juan Kendrick learned about this later and in 1799, with others who had lost friends or family members on Resolution, exacted revenge.
At Friendly Cove Kendrick continued to prepared Washington for another voyage to China. It would be his fifth voyage across the Pacific Ocean. His situation seemed good. He had two seasons of furs in the hold, along with more than of ambergris from Oahu. The ambergris alone was worth about $16,000 in Macau. Awaiting him in Macau was a letter from Joseph Barrell offering Kendrick ownership of Washington, discharge from service to Barrell, and complete independence, if Kendrick could send 400 chests of tea, valued at about $14,000. But Kendrick would be killed before reaching Macau.
In September, 1794, Juan Kendrick was given command of Aranzazu and sailed for San Blas. On the way he stopped at Monterey, California, thus becoming the first American known to have set foot in California. Being part of the Spanish Navy's San Blas Department, it was probably not his first time in California.
On October 5, 1794, William Brown arrived on Jackall. He learned that he could no longer count on help from Vancouver, who with failing health was soon to return to England.
On October 16, 1794, Vancouver left for Monterey. The next day the Spanish also left, abandoning their outpost at Nootka Sound, Santa Cruz de Nuca, as required by the Third Nootka Convention. Brown's Jackall and Prince Lee Boo soon left for Oahu, leaving only Lady Washington and the Spanish packet ship San Carlos. Around the end of October, 1794, Kendrick finally sailed for Hawaii.
Hawaii and death
The story of Kendrick's return to Hawaii and his subsequent death has been told in many ways and has been the subject of much speculation and debate. The earliest account comes from the log of Captain John Boit as told to him by John Young, just 10 months after the incident. Boit reported:
"On the 3rd of December Capt John Kendrick in the snow Lady Washington of Boston arrived at Fairhaven and was met with a very friendly reception by Captain Brown. And on the 6th of the same month in consequence of a long quarrel between the Chiefs of Oahu and Kauai a battle was fought and victory was gained by the King of Oahu by the assistance of Kendrick who immediately informed Captain Brown that on the morrow he should cause the flag of the United States to be hoisted and fire a federal salute, which he begged might be answered by the two Englishmen, and it was accordingly agreed to, and Captain Brown ordered three guns to be unshotted for that purpose. And about ten the next morning the ship Jackal began to salute, but on coming to the third gun it was discovered not to be primed, so the apron of the 4th gun was taken off and fired, and being shotted with round and grapeshot it pierced the side of the Lady Washington and killed Captain Kendrick as he sat at his table, and killed and wounded many on deck."
James Rowan, the mate of Lady Washington at the time, would later say that "he had sworn since Captain Kendrick's death he would salute no vessel in a hurry, except at a safe distance."
Most narratives of Kendrick's death also refer to the account published by Sheldon Dibble, a missionary who worked in Hawaii from 1836 to 1845, because his sources included local oral traditions of the battle. According to Dibble:
"Captain Brown interested himself in the war, but Captain Kendrick took no part in it. The first engagement was at Punahawale, where victory leaned to the side of Kaeo and several foreigners who aided Kalanikupule. The next engagement was at Kalauao in which it is said that Captain Brown with his men rendered efficient aid to Kalanikupule. In this engagement Kalanikupule was victorious and Kaeo was slain. On the return of the party to Honolulu, Captain Brown fired a salute in honor of Kalanikupule's victory. The American sloop was at anchor only a few yards distant, and Captain Kendrick was at dinner in the cabin. A wad, as is supposed, from one of the guns passed into the cabin and struck him in the head and killed him instantly. There was an investigation in the case held by foreigners on board one of the vessels and the decision was that the occurrence was a casualty."
It is believed that Kendrick's body was buried in the same location as those of Captain Derby in 1802 and Isaac Davis in 1810, in what would become the cemetery for foreigners near the corner of King St. and Pi'ikoi St. in Honolulu. Grave stones for Derby and Davis stood at this site until 1900, and it has been speculated that if the chiefs had designated a burial location for Kendrick and the other Lady Washington casualties it would have been used to bury other foreigners in the years to come. John Howell, the clerk onboard Lady Washington whom George Vancouver described as having "once been a clergyman of the Church of England" is presumed to have presided over Kendrick's burial service.
Nineteen days after Kendrick's death, a group of Kalanikūpule's warriors attacked from canoes, killing Brown and many of his men. The survivors managed to escape to Kealakekua Bay with the ships.
Whatever journals, logs, and other papers Kendrick had kept over the years were lost.
Legacy
With the loss of Kendrick's own journals and logs his story was pieced together from other sources, especially Haswell's journal and the miscellaneous papers of the financiers of the expedition.
Soon after his death Americans came to dominate the maritime fur trade that Kendrick had helped pioneer. Many of those who followed in his footsteps praised him, such as Amasa Delano and William F. Sturgis. Kendrick's harbor at Marvinas Bay, also known as Kendrick's Cove and Safe Harbor Retreat, became a common anchorage for American ships trading on the Northwest Coast.
Kendrick Bay and Kendrick Islands, in southern Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, are named for John Kendrick. Several places in British Columbia are named for John Kendrick, including Kendrick Inlet in Nootka Sound, and Kendrick Point in Haida Gwaii.
The Kendrick House, also known as the Sparrow House, is a full Cape Cod style house located on Route 28 in South Orleans, built circa 1800. The John Kendrick Maritime Museum in Wareham, Massachusetts displays several personal artifacts of Kendrick, as well as others from various local families of the era.
The Kendrick Woods Conservation Area and John Kendrick Road also exist in the town of Orleans, Massachusetts.
References
Further reading
Boit, J., & Meany, E. (1921). New Log of the Columbia. The Washington Historical Quarterly, 12(1), 3-50. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/40473782
External links
Hit and Run History: The Columbia Expedition
The Commander: Captain John Kendrick
1740 births
1794 deaths
18th-century explorers
Continental Navy officers
American explorers
Explorers of North America
Explorers of Oregon
Explorers of British Columbia
American explorers of the Pacific
Foreign relations of the Tokugawa shogunate
Accidental deaths in Hawaii
People from Orleans, Massachusetts
Year of birth uncertain
Burials in Hawaii
People of Massachusetts in the American Revolution
People of Massachusetts in the French and Indian War
Sea captains
American fur traders |
4020262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game%20Over%20%28Nuclear%20Assault%20album%29 | Game Over (Nuclear Assault album) | Game Over is the debut album by thrash metal band Nuclear Assault, released in 1986.
The cassette version of Game Over featured a track entitled "Lesbians", which did not appear on the CD version. However, this track was later performed on their 1992 live album Live at the Hammersmith Odeon.
Critical reception
In 2005, Game Over was ranked number 287 in Rock Hard magazine's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time.
Track listing
Personnel
Nuclear Assault
John Connelly – vocals, guitar
Anthony Bramante – guitar
Danny Lilker – bass
Glenn Evans – drums
Additional musicians
Chad McGloughlin – guest performance on "Brain Death"
Production
Alex Perialas – producer with Nuclear Assault, engineer
Tom Coyne – mastering at Frankford/Wayne, New York
Ed Repka – album design and cover art
Steve Sinclair - executive producer
References
External links
BNR Metal band discography page
Nuclear Assault albums
1986 debut albums
Albums produced by Alex Perialas
Albums with cover art by Ed Repka
Combat Records albums |
4020268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State%20Committee%20on%20the%20State%20of%20Emergency | State Committee on the State of Emergency | The State Committee on the State of Emergency (), abbreviated as SCSE (), was a group of eight high-level Soviet officials within the Soviet government, the Communist Party, and the KGB, who attempted a coup d'état against Mikhail Gorbachev on 19 August 1991. American publicist Georges Obolensky also called it the Gang of Eight.
The coup ultimately failed, with the provisional government collapsing by 22 August 1991 and several of the conspirators being prosecuted by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation.
Members
The eight members were:
Gennady Yanayev (1937–2010), Vice President
Valentin Pavlov (1937–2003), Premier
Boris Pugo (1937–1991), Interior Minister
Dmitry Yazov (1924–2020), Defense Minister and Marshal of the Soviet Union
Vladimir Kryuchkov (1924–2007), Chairman of the KGB
Oleg Baklanov (1932–2021), First Deputy Chairman of the Defense Council of the USSR
Vasily Starodubtsev (1931–2011), Chairman of the Peasants' Union of the USSR
(1926–2019), President of the Association of State Enterprises
Pugo committed suicide via gunshot to avoid arrest, while the other seven members were arrested. However, there is some speculation that he may have been murdered instead.
Coup d'état
The 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, occurring between 19 and 21 August 1991, was an attempt by the SCSE to take control of the country from then President of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev. The SCSE were hard-line members of the Communist Party (CPSU) who were opposed to Gorbachev's reform program and the new union treaty he had negotiated, which dispersed much of the central government's power to the republics. The coup collapsed after only two days, and although Gorbachev was restored as president, his authority was irreparably damaged and he became less influential outside of Moscow. The event destabilized the Soviet Union and many speculate that it played a role in both the demise of the CPSU and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. After the coup failed, the seven living members of the SCSE were arrested.
Court trials
On December 14, 1992, a year after the attempted coup, the Prosecutor General of Russia Valentin Stepankov approved the indictment in the GKChP case. It was sent to the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation. Anatoliy Ukolov, a deputy chairman of the Collegiate, was charged with reviewing the case, and the hearing was scheduled for 26 January 1993. The defendants included the aforementioned seven living members of the group plus Oleg Shenin (1937–2009), Politburo and secretariat member; Anatoly Lukyanov (1930–2019), Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union; and Valentin Varennikov (1923–2009), General of the Army, Deputy Minister of Defense, and Commander of Land Forces.
The trials lasted more than ten months, from 14 April 1993 until 1 March 1994. They were open to the public and press; however, foreign press did not participate due to lack of space in the courtroom. A prosecution commission was assigned to the case by the Collegiate, consisting of nine people and headed by Denisov, a Deputy Prosecutor General. The defense attorneys, Genri Reznik (Shenin), Genrikh Padva, Yuriy Ivanov (Kryuchkov), and Dmitriy Shteinberg (Varennikov) were hired, but in total, there were seventeen defense attorneys. After various delay tactics staged by the defense, the trial began on 30 November 1993. The main defendants were Yazov, Kryuchkov, Shenin, and Varennikov.
On 23 February 1994, the State Duma issued an amnesty to the defense, and on 1 March 1994, the case was closed with all ten defendants accepting amnesty. Varennikov requested amnesty on the condition that Mikhail Gorbachev would be the next to be prosecuted, as he accused Gorbachev of creating the recent political disorder. The court rejected his petition, and upon Varennikov sending his request to the Prosecutor General's office, it was rejected again.
Ten days after the close, the Presidium of the Supreme Court revived the prosecution, ruling that procedural infringements regarding the amnesty had occurred. The Presidium arranged a new hearing and assigned a new judge, Viktor Aleksandrovich Yaskin. He conducted the case review using revised court procedures. Yaskin offered the defendants amnesty, and all but Varennikov accepted it. Varennikov was acquitted on the argument that he was following the orders of Minister of Defense.
Kryuchkov, Yazov, Shenin, and Pavlov were named as the main conspirators.
Further fate of GKChP members
Yazov spent 18 months in Matrosskaya Tishina, a prison in northern Moscow. According to the magazine Vlast No. 41(85) of 14 October 1991, he contacted the President from jail with a recorded video message, in which he repented and called himself "an old fool". Yazov denies ever doing that, and he also accepted the amnesty offered by the Russians stating that he was not guilty. He was dismissed from military service by the Presidential Order, and at his discharge, was awarded a ceremonial weapon. He was also awarded an order of honor by the President of Russian Federation. Yazov later worked as a military adviser at the General Staff Academy. He died in 2020 in Moscow, after a prolonged illness.
Baklanov spent 18 months in Matrosskaya Tishina, and then accepted amnesty in 1994, stating that he was not guilty. He later worked as a director of Rosobshchemash.
Yanayev spent 18 months in Matrosskaya Tishina. He later became a chairman of the department of national history at the Russian International Academy of Tourism.
Pavlov had been taken to a hospital during the coup with the diagnosis of hypertension, but on 29 August 1991, he was transferred to Matrosskaya Tishina. He accepted amnesty stating that he was not guilty, and later became the head of the Chasprombank. Pavlov resigned from the bank on 31 August 1995, and six months later the bank was left without license. Afterwards he was an adviser at Promstroibank, today known as Bank VTB. Pavlov died in 2003 after a series of heart attacks and was buried in Moscow.
Evaluations of Anatoliy Ukolov's interviews
According to Vzglyad, Anatoliy Ukolov, the original person charged with the prosecution of the SCSE, blamed the occurrence of the 1991 coup attempt on Gorbachev, implying that the leader should not have taken a vacation at the time. However, in an interview with Komsomol Pravda, Ukolov also mentioned how the members of GKChP chose not to follow the letter of law, but rather to take the situation into their own hands.
References
External links
Обращение ГКЧП к советскому народу
Постановления № 1 и № 2 Государственного комитета по чрезвычайному положению в СССР
Тринадцать лет спустя, или Три дня ГКЧП
Как судили гекачепистов? (How were the GKChPsits trailed? Aug. 22, 2006)
Суд над ГКЧП (GKChP court trials)
Михаил Полторанин: «ГКЧП — величайшая провокация Горбачева!»
ГКЧП 25 лет спустя. Разрушение советского Левиафана
Conflicts in 1991
State Committees of the Soviet Union
1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt
State of Emergency, State Committee for
1991 disestablishments in the Soviet Union
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
Anti-revisionist organizations
Perestroika
Factions in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union |
4020270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greens%20Farms%20Academy | Greens Farms Academy | Greens Farms Academy (GFA) is a PreK-12 independent preparatory co-educational day school in the Greens Farms section of Westport, Connecticut, drawing 715 students from numerous towns across Fairfield County. Greens Farms Academy is located on a 42-acre campus overlooking the Long Island Sound, a salt marsh and an Audubon woodland.
Greens Farms Academy was an all woman's preparatory school when it was first established as The Bolton School in 1925. The school converted to a co-educational system in 1969, but still keeps many of its traditions.
Greens Farms Academy is located less than five minutes walking distance away from the Metro North train station.
References
Buildings and structures in Westport, Connecticut
Schools in Fairfield County, Connecticut
Private high schools in Connecticut
Educational institutions established in 1925
Private middle schools in Connecticut
Private elementary schools in Connecticut
1925 establishments in Connecticut |
4020281 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe%20Boisse | Philippe Boisse | Philippe Boisse (born 18 March 1955) is a French fencer. He won a gold medal in the team épée event at the 1980 Summer Olympics and the individual épée at the 1984 Summer Olympics. He also won a silver in the team épée in 1984.
He is currently a vice-president of the French Fencing Federation, and a practicing physician (radiology).
He is the father of Érik Boisse, a 2004 Olympics gold medal winner in men's team épée.
References
1955 births
Living people
French male épée fencers
Olympic fencers of France
Fencers at the 1976 Summer Olympics
Fencers at the 1980 Summer Olympics
Fencers at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for France
Olympic silver medalists for France
Olympic medalists in fencing
Medalists at the 1980 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1984 Summer Olympics |
4020287 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronenberg%2C%20Netherlands | Kronenberg, Netherlands | Kronenberg is a village in the southeastern Netherlands. It is located in the municipality of Horst aan de Maas, Limburg, about 13 km northwest of Venlo.
There is a snackbar/take-away restaurant, De Kleine Chef, Americaanseweg 20 Kronenberg.
In 1932, a parish was established in Kronenberg.
References
Populated places in Limburg (Netherlands)
Horst aan de Maas |
4020303 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechelen%2C%20Netherlands | Mechelen, Netherlands | Mechelen (; ) is a town in the Dutch province of Limburg. It is a part of the municipality of Gulpen-Wittem, and lies about 13 km south of Heerlen.
History
The village was first mentioned in 1133 as "de Mechluns", and means "mighty place". It was sometimes called Klein-Mechelen (little Mechelen) to distinguish from Mechelen. Mechelen developed around a large farm which was donated to the Sovereign Military Order of Malta by Henry III, Duke of Limburg. Until 1795, it was a heerlijkheid except for the commandery and a small part of the village which formed an independent enclave.
The Heerenhof is the remainder of the commandery and farm. In 1797, it became private property. In 1986, it became the town hall. The complex has experienced several fires, and the oldest building dates from 1754.
The St John the Baptist Church is a single-aisled church. It burnt down in 1568, and was enlarged between 1810 and 1811 and 1863 to 1867. In 1935, it was redesigned with a larger tower by Joseph Cuypers.
Mechelen was home to 740 people in 1840. Mechelen used to be the capital of the municipality of Wittem. In 1998, it became part of the municipality of Gulpen-Wittem.
Gallery
References
External links
Populated places in Limburg (Netherlands)
Gulpen-Wittem |
4020308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survive%20%28disambiguation%29 | Survive (disambiguation) | Survive is the verb form of survival.
Survive may also refer to:
Music
Survive (band), electronica group
Albums
Survive (B'z album), or the title song
Survive (Much the Same album)
Survive (Nuclear Assault album), or the title song
Songs
"Survive" (David Bowie song)
"Survive", by Baker Boy featuring Uncle Jack Charles from the 2021 album Gela
"Survive", by Miyavi, 2010
"Survive", by Rise Against from the 2006 album The Sufferer & the Witness
"Survive", by Lacuna Coil from the 2009 album Shallow Life
Other uses
Survive (TV series), an American web television series
Escape from Atlantis, a board game originally titled Survive!
See also
Survival (disambiguation)
Survivor (disambiguation) |
4020313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony%20HDR-HC1 | Sony HDR-HC1 | The Sony HDR-HC1, introduced in mid-2005 (MSRP US$1999), is the first consumer HDV camcorder to support 1080i.
The CMOS sensor has resolution of 1920x1440 for digital still pictures and captures video at 1440x1080 interlaced, which is the resolution defined for HDV 1080i. The camera may also use the extra pixels for digital image stabilization.
The camcorder can also convert the captured HDV data to DV data for editing the video using non-linear editing systems which do not support HDV or for creating edits which are viewable on non-HDTV television sets.
The HVR-A1 is the prosumer version of the HDR-HC1. It has more manual controls and XLR ports.
Unique features
Expanded focus
Expanded focus lets the user magnify the image temporarily to obtain better manual focus. Expanded focus works in pause mode only; it is not possible to magnify the frame during recording.
A similar feature, named Focus Assist, appeared on the Canon HV20, which was released two years after the HDR-HC1. Focus Assist on Canon camcorders also works only when recording is paused.
Spot meter and spot focus
Spot meter and Spot focus are possible thanks to a touch-sensitive LCD screen, employed on most modern Sony consumer camcorders.
The user can touch the screen to specify a specific region of the image; the camcorder automatically adjusts focus or exposure according to distance to the object and to illumination of the selected spot.
Depending on a scene, changing focus with Spot Focus can cause focus "breathing" or "hunting", when the subject goes in and out of focus several times before the image stabilizes.
Shot transition
Shot transition allows for a smooth automatic scene transition. In particular, it makes rack focus easy.
Two sets of focus and zoom can be preset and stored in "Store-A" and "Store-B" memory slots. The settings can then be gradually applied from one to another within 4 seconds. The transition time is not adjustable.
Presently, the HDR-HC1 is the only consumer camcorder that offers this feature. Newer Sony consumer models offer Spot Focus mode as a means for rack focus. Changing focus with Spot Focus is faster than with Shot Transition, but is not as reliable because the camera has to search for correct focus each time instead of switching to a stored value.
Cinema effect
Cinema effect produces the jerky look usually attributable to a motion picture film. In the world of professional Sony camcorders this effect is known as CineFrame shooting mode.
When Cinema effect is turned on, important manual controls such as shutter speed and aperture are disabled. Implementation of Cinema effect depends on the television system (50 Hz or 60 Hz) used in the target market.
The 50 Hz version of the camcorder, HDR-HC1E, throws away one field from the original interlaced video and doubles another, effectively halving both temporal and spatial resolution. The result can be treated as 25- frame/s progressive video because there is no motion between the two fields of one video frame.
The modification for 60 Hz market records 24- frame/s (more precisely, 23.98- frame/s) video instead, using the process known as 2-3 pulldown. While this recording scheme is widely used in other camcorders that offer 24- frame/s shooting mode, the camera employs an unusual algorithm of generating progressive frames, and then converting them back into video fields.
As Cinema effect is a synthetic method of achieving film-like motion on an interlaced camcorder, it does not improve vertical resolution or light sensitivity. On contrary, spatial resolution is reduced compared to native interlaced recording. The same or better film look effect can be achieved by shooting regular interlaced video and then converting it into pseudo-progressive format with computer software.
Other consumer-grade camcorders are more suitable for film-style recording. In particular, the Canon HV20 and the Canon HV30 camcorders have progressive imaging sensors and are capable of shooting true progressive video preserving spatial resolution and having an added benefit of better light sensitivity compared to interlaced shooting modes.
References
HDR-HC1
HDR-HC1 |
4020315 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Fork%20Township | East Fork Township | East Fork Township may refer to:
East Fork Township, Faulkner County, Arkansas, in Faulkner County, Arkansas
East Fork Township, Clinton County, Illinois
East Fork Township, Montgomery County, Illinois
East Fork Township, Haywood County, North Carolina
East Fork Township, Benson County, North Dakota
East Fork Township, Williams County, North Dakota, in Williams County, North Dakota
Township name disambiguation pages |
4020320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lululemon%20Athletica | Lululemon Athletica | lululemon athletica inc. (; styled in all lowercase) is a Canadian multinational athletic apparel retailer headquartered in British Columbia. It was founded in 1998 as a retailer of yoga pants and other yoga wear, and has expanded to also sell athletic wear, lifestyle apparel, accessories, and personal care products. The company has 574 stores internationally, and also sells online.
History
Lululemon was founded in 1998 by Chip Wilson in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, with its first standalone store opening in November 2000. Wilson created the name to have many L's so that it would sound western to Japanese buyers, who often have difficulty pronouncing the letter. He later remarked that he found it "funny to watch [Japanese speakers] try and say it".
The company's initial public offering was in July 2007, raising $327.6 million by selling 18.2 million shares.
Christine Day, a former co-president of Starbucks, became chief executive officer in 2008.
In 2013, the company made its third consecutive appearance on Fortune'''s Fastest-Growing Companies list. In December 2013, founder Chip Wilson announced his resignation as chairman, and that the president of TOMS Shoes, Laurent Potdevin, would become CEO.
In 2014, Lululemon opened its first store in Europe, a flagship shop in Covent Garden, London. In February 2015, Wilson announced that he was resigning from the board,Michael Calia, February 2, 2015, Wall Street Journal, lululemon Founder Wilson Quits Board: Resignation Comes About Six Months After Disagreement Was Settled on Yoga-Apparel Maker’s Strategy. Retrieved May 6, 2015 and that Michael Casey, former lead director of the board, would replace him. In 2018, Laurent Potdevin resigned as CEO and from the company's board due to misconduct.
In 2019, Lululemon announced an investment in MIRROR, a fitness startup that sells an interactive mirror with a camera and speakers for at-home workouts. The companies planned to create new content for the device, starting with meditation classes. In June 2020, Lululemon announced a $500 million deal to purchase MIRROR, capitalizing on a growing trend of people conducting virtual workouts at home instead of going to a gym due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
Management
From its founding through 2015, Lululemon incorporated elements of Landmark Forum into its leadership and development training. According to a company source, seventy per cent of managers are hired internally. Store managers are responsible for their store's layout, color coordination, and community involvement.
Products
Lululemon sells athletic wear including tops, yoga pants, shorts, sweaters, jackets and undergarments, as well as hair accessories, bags, yoga mats, water bottles, and personal care products such as deodorant and dry shampoo. Lululemon trademarked its original fabric, Luon, which included a higher-than-average amount of nylon microfiber, in 2005. Since then, the company has produced several different types of fabrics, including compression and moisture-wicking designs. Lululemon is primarily known for their leggings, which first made the brand popular.
Lululemon maintains a research and development lab, "Whitespace," within its headquarters. It has around 50 employees including scientists and physiologists.
In 2019, the company launched a luxury streetwear brand called Lab in a few of its stores. In The company planned to double its men's business in the next five years beyond its women's and accessory business, competing against other athletic wear such as Nike and Under Armour.
Marketing
Originally known for women's yoga apparel, by 2019 Lululemon had grown by acquiring more male customers, adapting its product and marketing strategies accordingly, and plans to increase awareness of the brand among men.
The company has been stated to use "holistic guerrilla marketing", aiming to make customers feel that by wearing Lululemon clothing they are part of a larger community.
Lululemon uses social media including Facebook, Twitter and Instagram as one of its main methods of marketing the company and its products. Lululemon also has its "Sweat Collective" which allows for instructors of fitness to receive 25 percent off their order.
Lululemon has a wide network of stores around the world with 270 as of 2018. It also sells all its products online to provide customers with a better shopping experience. In terms of product development, Lululemon is also trying to develop new fabrics to provide customers with more comfortable use experience, like their Nulu fabric. Lululemon also increased its liquidity by 2018, making it easier to raise capital and capture market growth opportunities.
Controversies
False advertising
In November 2007, The New York Times reported that Lululemon made false claims about its Vitasea clothing product; the firm had claimed that the clothing, made from seaweed, provided "anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, hydrating and detoxifying benefits" but laboratory tests failed to find significant differences in mineral levels between ordinary T-shirt cotton and Vitasea fabric. Lululemon was subsequently forced to remove all health claims from its seaweed-based products marketed in Canada, following a demand from a Canadian oversight agency, the Competition Bureau of Canada.
Product quality
In 2013, some customers complained that the clothing was of poor quality, with some items being "too sheer", having holes appear, and falling apart after a few uses.Michelle Chapman, AP Business Writer, November 1, 2013, USA Today, "New quality complaints about Lululemon pants: Just a few months after company pulled yoga wear from shelves, new quality issues arise". Retrieved May 6, 2015, "...New yoga pants ... recent complaints ... still too sheer... pants pilling after a few months of wear – or even just a few uses – and about holes and seams coming apart..."
In December 2010, Lululemon recalled some of the store's reusable bags that were made from polypropylene, based on reports of high levels of lead.
In 2013, Lululemon recalled its black yoga pants that were unintentionally transparent and "too thin";June 10, 2013, Tiffany Hsu, Los Angeles Times, Lululemon CEO Christine Day to step down after sheer-pants scandal. Retrieved May 6, 2015, "...The so-called Pantsgate scandal, in which Lululemon pulled all of its black yoga bottoms in March after deeming the luon fabric to be too thin,..." the recall, which amounted to approximately 17 percent of all women's pants sold in its stores, impacted its financial results. The resulting financial loss and damage to the brand led to the forced departure of the company's Chief product officer, Sheree Waterson, and of its CEO, Christine Day.
Founder's statements
Founder Chip Wilson has made numerous controversial statements. In a 2004 interview, Wilson mocked Japanese pronunciation of the company's name. In 2013 he said that the company did not make clothes for plus-size women because it was too costly. In an effort to explain away excessive pilling in the brand's clothing, he blamed some customers for wearing Lululemon's clothes improperly or for having body shapes inconsistent with his clothes. In an interview for Bloomberg TV in 2013, he stated that some women's bodies were unsuitable for the brand's clothing. Time called the remarks "fat shaming".
Comments such as these reportedly led to Wilson's resignation as chairman. In June 2016, Wilson published an open letter to shareholders stating that the company had "lost its way" and given up market share to Nike and Under Armour, after he was denied the opportunity to speak at the company's annual meetings. Since then, Wilson has used his website "Elevate Lululemon" to criticize the brand and business.
Legal disputes
In 2012, Lululemon filed a lawsuit against Calvin Klein and supplier G-III Apparel Group for infringement of three of its design patents for yoga pants. The lawsuit was somewhat unusual as it involved a designer seeking to assert intellectual property protection in clothing through patent rights. The case was settled out of court the same year.
All Lives Matter
In 2021, a Business Insider'' report revealed that an unnamed company director pushed employees to create an All Lives Matter campaign to be displayed on its website in response to the murder of George Floyd. Employees pushed back but were told to move forward and create a mock up with the All Lives Matter copy, however they also created a Black Lives Matter artwork mock up that in the end was selected instead. The director apologized to 200 members of the company over conference call and subsequently left the company.
Climate and sustainability
In September 2022, 1,698 yoga teachers and students via advocacy groups Stand.earth and Actions Speaks Louder wrote to the company demanding a transition to 100% renewable energy by 2030. They claimed that roughly half of the firm's energy came from coal production.
See also
Lululemon murder
References
External links
1998 establishments in British Columbia
2007 initial public offerings
1990s fashion
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
2020s fashion
Canadian companies established in 1998
Clothing brands of Canada
Clothing companies established in 1998
Clothing retailers of Canada
Companies based in Vancouver
Companies formerly listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange
Exercise equipment companies
Multinational companies headquartered in Canada
Retail companies established in 1998
Sportswear brands
Underwear brands
Yoga merchandise |
4020323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Pittsburgh%20at%20Johnstown | University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown | University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown (UPJ or Pitt-Johnstown) is a state-related college in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. It is a baccalaureate degree-granting regional campus of the University of Pittsburgh. The university is located in Richland Township, a suburban area of Johnstown, and was founded in 1927 as one of the first regional campuses of a major university in the United States.
History
The University of Pittsburgh first established a presence in the area prior to World War I, when the Johnstown School Board asked the university to offer continuing education courses at extension class sites in local teachers' institutions. By 1926, a more permanent relationship was sought by the school board, and UPJ was officially founded as a two-year college of the University of Pittsburgh on September 24, 1927. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s it held classes in the Johnstown High School building in the Kernville neighborhood which adjoins downtown Johnstown. After World War II, the Johnstown College moved to the Moxham section of the city where the number of courses and students increased. In the early 1960s, community leaders worked with the University of Pittsburgh to build a new campus in suburban Richland Township. The new campus opened in 1967 with two classroom buildings, five dormitories, and a student union. Degree-granting status was awarded to UPJ by the University of Pittsburgh in 1970. The campus has grown significantly since that time with five academic buildings, a library, an expanded student union, a sports and aquatic center, a conference center, a chapel, a performing arts center, and a large cluster of dormitories, lodges, townhouse apartments and other student residence housing. UPJ now offers over 40 baccalaureate and associate degree programs.
Academics
UPJ offers a Bachelor of Arts and a Bachelor of Science degree in over 40 areas of study in seven academic divisions, as well as offering the ability to obtain a Master of Social Work degree, several associate degrees in the allied health area, as well as certificate programs.
The college offers 44 undergraduate majors, with minors available in most of the major fields, as well as in other areas of arts and sciences. The average class size is 25, and the student to teacher ratio is 20:1. The college is strictly undergraduate, and all courses are taught by college faculty. Special opportunities include internships, the President's Scholars program, independent and directed studies, a self-designed major, the Freshman Seminar Series, an International Studies Certificate, and the Academic Success Center.
UPJ operates on a modified trimester calendar. The standard school year includes a 15-week fall term (September to mid-December) and a 15-week spring term (January to mid-April). Optional summer term offerings from 5-week to 15-week sessions allow students to accelerate their degrees.
The University of Pittsburgh, including UPJ and other regional campuses, is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education.
U.S. News & World Report's 2021 edition of Best Regional Colleges - North ranked Pitt-Johnstown 31st (tie) overall. The college received the following specialty rankings:
UPJ was also ranked 75th among baccalaureate colleges by Washington Monthly in 2020.
Campus and facilities
The Pitt-Johnstown campus is situated in a suburban, wooded setting occupying which makes UPJ physically the third-largest campus in Pennsylvania. It is located eight miles (13 km) outside of Johnstown, Pennsylvania (metropolitan population of 110,000); east of Pittsburgh; and north of Washington, D.C.
The 32 campus buildings, mostly in freestone masonry, include resident housing, classroom buildings, a performing arts center, sports center, library, student union, and outdoor recreation areas. Other features include a nature preserve, more than 15 intramural activities, more than 70 student organizations, and NCAA Division II men's and women's sports.
The campus has six academic/administrative buildings: Biddle Hall, Krebs Hall, Murtha Engineering and Science Building, Blackington Administrative Classroom Building, Nursing and Health Sciences Building, and the Living/Learning Center. Each building contains classrooms, laboratories, faculty offices, and/or administrative offices. Additional facilities include a music room, greenhouse, computer rooms, auditoriums, an audio-visual classroom, and conference rooms.
Also available to students is the advanced technology classroom (ATC) in Biddle Hall. The room is designed for electronic distance learning. It is equipped with satellite down-link programming, three full-motion cameras, data ports, video monitors, and much more.
The Owen Library holds more than 146,086 bound volumes, 15,358 titles on microfilm, 625 periodical subscriptions, approximately 130 online subscription databases, and more than 4,500 electronic journals. All students have additional access to many additional libraries on Pitt's other campuses.
Campus-wide computing labs for student use are available. Labs primarily contain Windows 8-based PCs, along with several Macintosh computers, application servers, laser printers, scanners, and advanced graphics devices. The labs can be used to work with software, such as word processing and programming languages, or to access network services, such as online card catalogs, electronic mail, and the Internet. There are more than 150 computers available on campus for student use.
The Student Union, located in the middle of campus, houses the Student Life Office, Health Services, Residence Services, Career Services, Campus Ministry, and the Bookstore/convenience store. Also included are a full-service mail room, a 400-person cafeteria, a fast food shop, and a nonalcoholic pub. The union also holds a game room, information desk, and many organizational offices. A recent renovation created a bistro-style restaurant, named the Mountain Cat Club, as a dining option for students. Located directly outside of the cafeteria, the club features flat screen televisions, a dance floor, and a stage in order to provide an additional area for student programming.
The Pasquerilla Performing Arts Center (PPAC) is a multipurpose facility; it was completed in 1991. It contains a 1,000-seat concert hall, a 200-seat black box theater, and supporting operational spaces. Performances include UPJ Department of Theatre Arts shows and Broadway productions. The PPAC is also home to the Johnstown Symphony Orchestra and the Southern Alleghenies Museum of Art at Johnstown. The art gallery displays at least eight exhibitions a year as well as work produced by UPJ students.
The J. Irving Whalley Memorial Chapel was constructed in 1991 as well. It is nondenominational and seats 250 people. Weekly Catholic mass and Protestant services are held, as well as personal conferences.
The Sports Center and Zamias Aquatic Center provide recreational facilities for more than 15 intramural sports, as well as intercollegiate activities. The building houses a indoor swimming pool, a workout room with free weights, an aerobic/dance studio, and locker rooms with showers. On January 5, 2011, the university opened the $9.7 million Wellness Center which is adjacent to the Sports Center The Wellness Center features a three-lane elevated running track, cardiovascular and strength-training equipment, dance/exercise/classroom space, two multipurpose courts for basketball and volleyball, an indoor climbing wall, as well as an outdoor wellness park.
In fall 2013, an approximately $12 million Nursing and Health Sciences Building was opened. The two-floor facility consists of 11 laboratories for chemistry and biology, a nursing simulation laboratory, two seminar rooms, and six faculty offices.
Student residences
The Living/Learning Center, completed in 1994, is a 400-person residence unit, which includes a full-circuit weight training room, sauna, an aerobics room, and a smaller student cafeteria. The Living/Learning Center is not only used as a residence but also as a conference center throughout the year. With several meeting rooms, the facility can accommodate groups of 20–250 people.
In addition to the residence units in the Living/Learning Center, the campus offers the choice of single-sex and coeducational housing. There are 5 freshman residence halls, one upper class residence hall, seven small-group lodges, 46 townhouse-style apartment units, and two apartment complexes.
Heroes Memorial
Pitt-Johnstown is the home to The Heroes Memorial, which is located between Whalley Memorial Chapel and Blackington Hall. The memorial's centerpiece is a 3,500 lb (1,587.6 kg) steel -beam from the World Trade Center which is surrounded by 12 granite panels that are engraved with over 9,000 names of those who died in the September 11 attacks as well as the service men and women who have been killed in the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Dedicated on November 11, 2011, it is believed to be the only memorial of its kind on any college campus in the United States.
Athletics
Pitt–Johnstown (UPJ) athletic teams are known as the Mountain Cats. The university is a member of the Division II level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the Pennsylvania State Athletic Conference (PSAC) since the 2013–14 academic year, becoming that conference's first member from the Commonwealth System of Higher Education. The Mountain Cats previously competed as a member of the West Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (WVIAC) from 2006–07 to 2012–13.
UPJ sponsors fifteen varsity men's and women's sports. Current university-sponsored varsity sports teams include:
Men's sports
Baseball
Basketball
Cross country
Golf
Ice Hockey
Soccer
Track and Field, Indoor
Track and Field, Outdoor
Wrestling
Women's sports
Basketball
Cross Country
Soccer
Softball
Track and Field, Indoor
Track and Field, Outdoor
Volleyball
Perhaps the most prominent sport at UPJ is wrestling, which has had several top national finishes and won the Division II National Championships in 1996 and 1999. The wrestling program also includes several highly decorated wrestlers among its former athletes, including the most decorated wrestler in NCAA history, Carlton Haselrig, who went undefeated during his career and won three Division I and three Division II individual national championships.
Men's Basketball is also successful and has advanced to four NCAA Men's Division II Basketball Tournaments, including appearances in the tournament in 2008 and 2009. The men's basketball team has appeared in the Division II national rankings several times, and finished as high as fifth in the nation in 1999. Women's basketball at UPJ has appeared in 13 Division II and 3 Division III NCAA tournaments, including the 1987 Division II Final Four.
The baseball team plays some of its home games at Point Stadium. The baseball program participated in the NCAA North Atlantic Regional Tournament in the 2006 and 2008 seasons.
Alumni
Carlton Haselrig - former heavyweight amateur wrestler and professional football player
Chris Dempsey - mixed martial artist
Frances Hesselbein - president and CEO of the Hesselbein Leadership Institute and former CEO of the Girl Scouts of the USA
John Murtha - member of the United States House of Representatives
Gary Gates - demographer
Jenae Neiderhiser - behavior geneticist
Gallery
References
Further reading
External links
Pitt-Johnstown Athletics website
University
Educational institutions established in 1927
Universities and colleges in Cambria County, Pennsylvania
1927 establishments in Pennsylvania |
4020327 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China%E2%80%93Japan%20Tengen | China–Japan Tengen | The China–Japan Tengen was a professional go competition. It was played between Japan's Tengen titleholder and China's Tianyuan titleholder each year in a best-of-three match. The competition was held 15 times, from 1988 to 2002. It was discontinued the following year.
Results
See also
China–Korea Tengen
List of professional Go tournaments
References
External links
China-Japan Tengen Match
International Go competitions |
4020330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan%20Barreiro | Dan Barreiro | Dan Barreiro is a sports radio talk-show host on KFAN 100.3-FM in the twin cities of Minneapolis-St. Paul. Born in Gary, Indiana, Barreiro was a sports columnist at the Star Tribune for 17 years after previously working for the Dallas Morning News . Barreiro left the Star Tribune in March 2004.
Bumper to Bumper
Dan is known as "The Big Ticket" on KFAN due to his high ratings. He is also known as "Hi-Fi" because he spends a large amount of his disposable income on stereo equipment. Producer of the show is Minnesota Golden Gophers football sideline reporter and Edina High School tennis star Justin Gaard. Barreiro began his career at KFAN in 1992 partnered on-air with Chad Hartman, who is the son of longtime Star Tribune columnist Sid Hartman. The duo was selected as the "Best Sports Talk Radio Hosts" in 2000 by local weekly City Pages. In 2001, the pair broke up, with Hartman hosting the show leading into Barreiro's. Hartman was let go due to Clear Channel budget cuts in 2009. On his own, Barreiro earned the title "Best Sports Talk Radio Host" from City Pages in 2005 and 2006.
In 2005, Barreiro also began airing a show called Sunday Sermons that airs Sunday mornings. Justin Gaard also does a Sunday show called "Cake Show".
Barreiro is known to work politics into his show and is known for his rants.
On November 8, 2007, rumors were surfacing in local Twin Cities newspapers regarding a potential move down the dial for Barreiro to AM 1500 KSTP. However, Barreiro had been in contract talks with Clear Channel regarding a long term extension at KFAN, and he did acknowledge the situation by stating "We're letting the process play out, I'll just leave it at that." Barrerio's offer from KSTP was finally matched by Clear Channel on November 28, and Dan decided to stay with KFAN for the long term.
The Sunday Sermons program ended April 6, 2008; the following Saturday, April 12, Barreiro began a new two-hour Saturday morning show (10 a.m. to noon) on KTLK-FM 100.3. Barreiro's new show is "almost exclusively non-sports," and is similar to the past Sunday morning show. Barreiro remains on KFAN weekday afternoons.
After a brief run on KLTK Barreiro returned to Sunday Sermons in 2010. He is no longer on KLTK unless it is as a fill-in for one of their regulars.
Barreiro was inducted into the Minnesota Broadcasting Hall of Fame on September 17, 2022.
More on Carl Gerbschmidt
Carl Gerbschmidt is a diehard Green Bay Packers fan who lives in Elk Mound, Wisconsin. He is notable for often guesting on the Bumper to Bumper show with Dan Barreiro which airs on Minnesota's KFAN 100.3 FM radio station.
He was introduced on KFAN in August 2001 under the guise that a tornado had blown over his property and left the remains of a damaged building situated in a manner that looked like the goal line formation of the famous 1967 Ice Bowl between the Green Bay Packers and the Dallas Cowboys. Gerbschmidt was reportedly born as Starr crossed the goal line.
He normally discusses professional football on the show, especially the Packers and the Minnesota Vikings. Gerbschmidt started a blog which can be read on Barreiro's page on KFAN's website but it has not been updated since 2010. An Eau Claire, Wisconsin newspaper contained an article with Gerbschmidt as its featured subject and questioned his very existence. Gerbschmidt used to run an Ice Bowl exhibit and a Packers wax museum (now closed) at his house in Elk Mound. Gerbschmidt is married to Mrs. Gerbschmidt, who works in biophysics. The Gerbschmidts also have a daughter who played strong safety and punter. Gerbschmidt's hobbies include drinking beer, clog dancing, Kool & the Gang memorabilia, and Star Trek. Gerbschmidt moved to the Milwaukee suburb of Oconomowoc where he worked for the Wisconsin DOT. Gerbschmidt lived in West Baraboo until 2012, but moved home to Elk Mound when he was promoted to Supervisor by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation.
He recently purchased Brett Favre's truck on EBay, and possibly out-bid himself while doing so. However, after Favre signed with the Vikings on August 18, 2009, Gerbschmidt claimed that he lit the truck on fire. That was part of a memorable rant with Barreiro on the day Favre signed with the Vikings in which Barreiro allegedly called Gerbschmidt, who was at a bar in Chippewa Falls with his brother Randy after leaving work early the morning that the Favre news broke. Admittedly drunk, Gerbschmidt spent nearly 10 minutes fuming, and at times nearly crying, over Favre's signing, saying he was sad "for the children of Wisconsin who worshiped him", and saying Favre "best watch himself" when he comes back to Wisconsin.
Some say Gerbschmidt is a fictional character. Barreiro has never admitted he is fictional. Through 18 years he has never made a public appearance. Barreiro has mentioned on his show that he has frequently heard from listeners who believe ESPN football analyst Kevin Seifert, a frequent guest on the show, provides the voice of Gerbschmidt. Barreiro and Seifert attempted to put that rumor to rest by having Seiftert in studio talking to Gerbschmidt while he called in on the phone. According to Paul Lambert (Meatsauce) at the 2016 Minnesota State Fair, Carl Gerbschmidt is voiced by Chad Abbott, but Lambert has named over nine members of the KFAN staff as doing Carl's voice. Gerbschmidt once drove to the Minnesota State Fair in his RV to prove his existence, but after not being able to find a parking spot for his large RV he decided to turn around and go home.
References
External links
Dan Barreiro KFAN personality page
Carl Gerbschmidt's blog at KFAN.com
American columnists
American sports radio personalities
Sportswriters from Minnesota
Radio personalities from Minneapolis
Writers from Gary, Indiana
1952 births
Living people
Indiana University Bloomington alumni
People from Elk Mound, Wisconsin |
4020342 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Union | East Union | East Union may refer to several places in the United States:
East Union, Indiana
East Union, Kentucky
East Union, Minnesota
East Union, Noble County, Ohio, an unincorporated community
East Union, Wayne County, Ohio, an unincorporated community
East Union Township, Wayne County, Ohio
East Union Township, Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania |
4020353 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China%E2%80%93Korea%20Tengen | China–Korea Tengen | The China–Korea Tengen was a Go competition. It was played between China's Tianyuan titleholder and Korea's Chunwon titleholder each year in a best-of-three match. The competition was held 19 times, from 1997 to 2015. China won 10 times and Korea won 9 times. The Chunwon was discontinued after 2015, which ended the China–Korea Tengen as well.
Past winners and runners-up
See also
China–Japan Tengen
List of professional Go tournaments
References
External links
China Korea Tengen at Sensei's Library
International Go competitions
Go competitions in South Korea
Go competitions in China |
4020368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20historical%20interpretations%20of%20Joan%20of%20Arc | Alternative historical interpretations of Joan of Arc | There are a number of revisionist theories about Joan of Arc which contradict the established account of her life. These include the theories she was an illegitimate royal child; that she was not burned at the stake; that most of her story is a fabrication; and that she escaped death at the stake. These theories have not gained significant acceptance among academic historians.
These alternate historical interpretations are distinct from avowedly fictional representations of Joan in art, literature, and popular culture.
Royal bastard
In 1819, Pierre Caze published La Vérité sur Jeanne d'Arc, which argued that Joan of Arc was the illegitimate daughter of the Queen, Isabeau of Bavaria, and Duke Louis of Orléans. According to Caze's reasoning, the queen hid their daughter in the countryside with the d'Arc family. When Joan of Arc met the future King Charles VII she would have given him a private sign that she was his half-sister. It has been theorized that the coat of arms he later granted her included a sword as a baton of bastardy.
Although this would provide an explanation for how she gained the trust of Charles VII in early 1429, this hypothesis has too many other difficulties to be taken seriously. Foremost among them is that the duke of Orléans died on November 23, 1407. Isabeau of Bavaria delivered a son on November 10, 1407. The likelihood of conceiving a daughter in the interim is exceedingly small. Assuming Joan of Arc was born the following year, she would have been 23 years old at her trial in 1431. She estimated her own age at 19.
Furthermore, if the sword in Joan of Arc's coat of arms represented a baton of bastardy, then it would be unique in heraldry; it is inconsistent with the laws of heraldry that a sword party per pale (see "Coat of Arms of Jeanne d'Arc") be considered a sign of illegitimacy. It would also mean that Joan of Arc and several witnesses perjured themselves about her birth. In the words of Regine Pernoud and Marie-Veronique Clin, "Yet amateur historians still insist that all these people – as well as Charles VII, the duke of Alençon, Dunois, Bertrand de Poulengy – carried out an intricate plot to disguise Joan's authentic royal parents. This thesis lacks credible documentation."
Survival
Several impostors claimed to be Joan of Arc after the execution date. The most successful was Jeanne (or Claude) des Armoises. Claude des Armoises married the knight Robert des Armoises and claimed to be Joan of Arc in 1436. She gained the support of Joan of Arc's brothers. She carried on the charade until 1440, gaining gifts and subsidies. One chronicle states, "In this year there came a young girl who said she was the Maid of France and played her role so well that many were duped by her, and especially the greatest nobles."
Some modern authors attempt to revive this claim by asserting that some other victim was substituted for Joan of Arc at the stake. The likelihood of this is extremely thin, since the trial of nullification records sworn testimony from numerous witnesses who were present at the execution and confirmed her identity.
E. Cobham Brewer wrote in his nineteenth century volume Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable:
The revisionist theory described by Brewer has been criticized on a number of grounds, including the significant number of eyewitnesses to Joan's execution, as well as the fact that Claude des Armoises subsequently confessed before a number of witnesses on multiple occasions to being an impostor.
Graeme Donald also argues that Joan was not burned and that much of the story of Joan of Arc is a myth. He says there are no accounts or portraits of Joan of Arc's victories during her time period, nor is she mentioned as a commander of the French army by Chastellain. He states that the most definitive work of her trial and rehabilitation trial, which are the basis for her story, was created by Jules Quicherat between 1841 and 1849, after he discovered a cache of documents relating to her trial. Quicherat did compile one of the first valid edition of her trial and the rehabilitation trial proceedings, but the existence of the records of Joan's trial and retrial were known before Quicherat collected and collated them. The original sources of the rehabilitation sources have been further verified, edited and amplified by Pierre DuParc's translation published in 1988.
Witch
In 1921, anthropologist Margaret Murray argued that Joan was correctly identified as a witch by the religious authorities who condemned her to death, but that what they called witchcraft was, in fact, a survival of the pagan "old religion" of pre-Christian Europe. She claimed that Joan and Gilles de Rais were leaders of a pagan witch-cult that was a rival to the Catholic church. Joan was the "incarnate God" of a cult derived from the worship of the virgin huntress Diana. Murray claimed that this was still the religion of most of the common people and the reason Joan inspired the ordinary soldier:
According to Murray, the destruction of Joan was orchestrated by the Catholic Church itself and was its first major victory against the surviving pagan cult:
Murray's views have been dismissed by later scholars as pseudo-historical fantasy. One historian called her ideas "vapid balderdash". Her claims about Joan of Arc were dismissed by historians based on the extensive evidence of Joan's actual religious views, such as the letters she dictated in which she defines her faith in "King Jesus, King of Heaven and of all the earth, my rightful and sovereign Lord." and the many eyewitness accounts of her beliefs and behaviour.
References
Historical revisionism
Alternative historical interpretations
Pseudohistory
Conspiracy theories in France |
4020373 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China-Japan%20Agon%20Cup | China-Japan Agon Cup | The China-Japan Agon Cup is a Go competition.
Outline
The China-Japan Agon Cup is a single-game match held each year between the winner of the Agon Kiriyama Cup in Japan and the Ahan Tongshan Cup in China. It is sponsored by Agon Shu. As of 2021, the winner's prize is 5 million yen, and the runner-up's prize is 2 million yen.
Past winners and runners-up
References
International Go competitions |
4020376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honiton%20%28UK%20Parliament%20constituency%29 | Honiton (UK Parliament constituency) | Honiton was a parliamentary constituency centred on the town of Honiton in east Devon, formerly represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It sent members intermittently from 1300, consistently from 1640. It elected two Members of Parliament (MPs) until it was abolished in 1868. It was recreated in 1885 as a single-member constituency.
For the 1997 general election, the town of Honiton was added to the neighbouring constituency of Tiverton to form the Tiverton & Honiton constituency. The remainder continued as the East Devon constituency.
Honiton was regarded as a potwalloper borough by the time of Thomas Cochrane. It was notorious for the bribes demanded by its electors, and was therefore a very expensive seat for a candidate to seek election in. The Yonge family of Colyton, patrons of the borough, were almost ruined by representing Honiton on several occasions. Sir William Pole, 4th Baronet (1678–1741) who had twice represented Honiton at great personal financial expense, made an "earnest request and recommendation" in his will that his son would "never stand as a candidate or if chosen will never be prevailed upon to represent or serve in Parliament for the borough of Honiton".
History
Boundaries
1885–1918: The Sessional Divisions of Axminster, Honiton, Ottery, and Woodbury.
1918–1974: The Borough of Honiton, the Urban Districts of Axminster, Budleigh Salterton, Exmouth, Ottery St Mary, Seaton, and Sidmouth, the Rural Districts of Axminster and Honiton, and part of the Rural District of St Thomas.
1974–1983: The Borough of Honiton, the Urban Districts of Budleigh Salterton, Exmouth, Ottery St Mary, Seaton, and Sidmouth, the Rural Districts of Axminster and Honiton, and part of the Rural District of St Thomas.
1983–1997: The District of East Devon wards of Axminster Hamlets, Axminster Town, Beer, Budleigh Salterton, Colyton, Edenvale, Exmouth Brixington, Exmouth Halsdon, Exmouth Littleham Rural, Exmouth Littleham Urban, Exmouth Withycombe Raleigh, Exmouth Withycombe Urban, Honiton St Michael's, Honiton St Paul's, Lympstone, Newbridges, Newton Poppleford and Harpford, Otterhead, Patteson, Raleigh, Seaton, Sidmouth Rural, Sidmouth Town, Sidmouth Woolbrook, Trinity, Upper Axe, Woodbury, and Yarty.
Members of Parliament
Honiton re-enfranchised by Parliament in Nov 1640
MPs 1640–1660
Long Parliament
1640-1643: William Poole (Royalist) - disabled to sit, June 1643
1640-1648: Walter Yonge (Parliamentarian) - not recorded as sitting after Pride's Purge, December 1648; died December 1649
1645(?)-1648: Charles Vaughan - excluded in Pride's Purge, December 1648
Honiton was unrepresented in the Barebones Parliament.
First Protectorate Parliament
1654: John Yonge
Second Protectorate Parliament
1656: Samuel Serle
Third Protectorate Parliament
1659: Walter Yonge (grandson of the Member from 1640 -1648)
1659: Samuel Serle
Long Parliament (restored)
1659-1660: Not represented
MPs 1660–1868
MPs 1885–1997
Election results
Elections in the 1830s
Elections in the 1840s
Elections in the 1850s
Elections in the 1860s
Locke's death caused a by-election.
Goldsmid's death caused a by-election.
In 1868, the seat was absorbed into East Devon. It was later recreated for 1885.
Elections in the 1880s
Elections in the 1890s
Elections in the 1900s
Elections in the 1910s General Election 1914–15:
Another General Election was required to take place before the end of 1915. The political parties had been making preparations for an election to take place and by the July 1914, the following candidates had been selected; Unionist: Clive Morrison-BellLiberal:
Elections in the 1920s
Elections in the 1930s
Elections in the 1940s General Election 1939–40:
Another General Election was required to take place before the end of 1940. The political parties had been making preparations for an election to take place from 1939 and by the end of this year, the following candidates had been selected; Conservative: Cedric DreweLabour''': J White
Elections in the 1950s
Elections in the 1960s
Elections in the 1970s
Elections in the 1980s
Elections in the 1990s
See also
List of parliamentary constituencies in Devon
Notes and references
Parliamentary constituencies in Devon (historic)
Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom disestablished in 1868
Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom established in 1885
Constituencies of the Parliament of the United Kingdom disestablished in 1997
Rotten boroughs
Honiton |
4020396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tales | Tales | Tales may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Tales (album), a 1995 album by Marcus Miller
Tales (film), a 2014 Iranian film
Tales (TV series), an American television series
Tales (video game), a 2016 point-and-click adventure game
Tales (video game series), a series of role-playing games
"Tales", or "Tales from the Forest of Gnomes", a song by Wolfmother from Wolfmother
"Tales", a song by Schoolboy Q from Crash Talk
Geography
Tales, Castellón, a municipality in Spain
Täles Railway (disambiguation), two railway lines in Baden-Württemberg in Germany
People
Rémi Tales (born 1984), French rugby union player
Tales Schütz, Brazilian footballer
See also
Tale (disambiguation) |
4020418 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansapur%2C%20Yamunanagar | Kansapur, Yamunanagar | Kansapur is a village in Yamuna Nagar, India. It has a population of about 15,000. It is mainly inhabited by Hindus and Muslims.
Kansapur falls under the Panchayat of Kansapur village and Assembly seat of Yamuna Nagar. Current sarpanch of Kansapur village is SURESH Rana.
References
Villages in Yamunanagar district |
4020424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAQY | WAQY | WAQY (102.1 FM) is a radio station in Springfield, Massachusetts, broadcasting a classic rock format. Since the late 1980s, the station has been known as "Rock 102".
History
102.1 FM in Springfield signed on December 17, 1966, as WCRX. The call letters stood for "Charles River Broadcasting extension," the station being a sister and extension of 102.5 FM WCRB-FM in Boston, Massachusetts. Both the Springfield and Boston stations programmed a classical music radio format overseen by Charles River Broadcasting owner Theodore Jones.
In the mid-1970s, owners Don Wilks and Mike Schwartz decided to put the first automated rock and roll station on the air. Their program direction, Jim Boldebook, was given the task of programming a Shafer automation system. WAQY broadcast top 40 music with song titles every third song and no on-the-air DJ. DJs went live starting in 1976.
In August 1981, WAQY switched to a rock music format known as AOR. Now known simply by the station’s call letters, WAQY played a mix of new rock music from the 1980s mixed with older rock artists of the '60s (The Beatles, Jimi Hendrix etc.) and 1970s (Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin, etc.) Artists played included then current and popular Arena rock favorites Blue Öyster Cult, Journey, Foreigner and Fleetwood Mac as well as singer and songwriter artists from Tom Petty to Billy Joel. Hard rock and heavy metal acts like AC/DC, Van Halen and Rush were also core artists. In the mid-1980s, WAQY adopted its current moniker "Rock 102" playing up to five current rock songs an hour. By 1992, WAQY stopped playing current music and completed its evolution from an AOR to a classic rock format.
The station serves as the Pioneer Valley's affiliate for the New England Patriots radio network.
Technical
WAQY transmits 17,000 watts from the top of Provin Mountain in Feeding Hills on the WWLP tower.
WAQY transmits using a 4-bay Continental (ERI) center-fed antenna and a Nautel NV20 HD transmitter. WAQY's signal covers all of the Springfield, Massachusetts, market, and can be heard as far south as Long Island, New York. WAQY is running a high-level IBOC (HD Digital signal) at -14db versus the normal -20db. WAQY simulcasts sister station WLZX-FM on its HD2 subchannel.
References
External links
Official WAQY "ROCK 102" website
AQY
Classic rock radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 1966
Mass media in Springfield, Massachusetts
1966 establishments in Massachusetts |
4020434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape%20reflex | Escape reflex | Escape reflex, or escape behavior, is any kind of escape response found in an animal when it is presented with an unwanted stimulus. It is a simple reflectory reaction in response to stimuli indicative of danger, that initiates an escape motion of an animal. The escape response has been found to be processed in the telencephalon. Escape reflexes control the seemingly chaotic motion of a cockroach running out from under a foot when one tries to squash it.
In higher animals, examples of escape reflex include the withdrawal reflex (e.g. the withdrawal of a hand) in response to a pain stimulus. Sensory receptors in the stimulated body part send signals to the spinal cord along a sensory neuron. Within the spine, a reflex arc switches the signals straight back to the muscles of the arm (effectors) via an intermediate neuron (interneuron) and then a motor neuron; the muscle contracts. There often is an opposite response of the opposite limb. Because this occurs automatically and independently in the spinal cord, the brain only becomes aware of the response after it has taken place.
Crossed extensor reflex
The crossed extensor reflex is another escape reflex, but it's a type of withdrawal reflex. It is a contralateral reflex that allows for the affected limb to have the flexor muscles contract and the extensor muscles to relax while the unaffected limb has the flexor muscles relax and the extensor muscles to contract. For example, stepping on a piece of glass causes the affected leg to be lifted or withdrawn and the unaffected leg to carry the additional burden of weight and maintain postural support. In this example, the afferent nerve fibers are stimulated on the right foot. The nerve fibers travel up to the spinal cord where they cross the midline, go to the left side, and synapse on an interneuron. When the afferent nerve fibers synapse on the interneuron, they can either inhibit or excite an alpha motor neuron on the muscles on side contralateral to the stimulus.
Escape reflex arcs
Escape reflex arcs have a high survival value enabling organisms to take rapid action to avoid potential danger or physical damage. The effectiveness of escape reflexes can be lowered when an organism is experiencing high levels of fatigue and or stress. These factors cause delays or weakness in the reflex, and they can even develop into learned helplessness, which has been found in animals and Drosophila flies. The reflex can also be habituated as seen in the tail-flip escape reflex of crayfish. More recent studies have also indicated that, once this crayfish escape response is habituated, it can also be recovered. A similar long-term habituation of the C-start escape response has also been studied in the larvae of zebrafish.
Various animals may have specialized escape reflex arcs.
Examples
Withdrawal reflexes
Ducking (flexing the neck to protect the head)
Jumping at loud sounds
Withdrawal of a body part when it touches something (e.g., excessively hot or cold)
Other
Lateral giant escape and tail-flip reflex in crayfish
Escape reflex in squid
Dorsal ramp interneuron (DRI) action in Tritonia mollusks
C-start in fish and amphibia
Escape reflex in earthworms
See also
Escape response
Caridoid escape reaction
References
Reflexes
Behavioral neuroscience |
4020435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordia%20Publishing%20House | Concordia Publishing House | Concordia Publishing House (CPH), founded in 1869, is the official publishing arm of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS). Headquartered in St Louis, Missouri, at 3558 S. Jefferson Avenue, CPH publishes the synod's official monthly magazine, The Lutheran Witness, and the synod's hymnals, including The Lutheran Hymnal (1941), Lutheran Worship (1982), and Lutheran Service Book (2006). It publishes a wide range of resources for churches, schools, and homes and is the publisher of the world's most widely circulated daily devotional resource, Portals of Prayer. Its children's books, known as Arch Books, have been published in millions of copies. Concordia Publishing House is the oldest publishing company west of the Mississippi River and the world's largest distinctly Lutheran publishing house.
History
Background
In 1849, the LCMS created a publication society to provide "the most inexpensive and most general distribution of orthodox evangelical Lutheran books for education and edification". The society was to sell bonds to congregations, pastors, teachers, and lay members of the synod, who would then be repaid with the published material. However, few wanted to pay in advance for goods that might never be received, so by 1850, the society had failed. In April 1853, C. F. W. Walther and his congregation, Trinity Lutheran Church, started a separate Evangelical Lutheran Bible Society which initially imported German Bibles and later printed its own editions.
In 1857, the LCMS began using the firm of August Wiebusch und Sohn as its printer and appointed a publishing committee to negotiate prices and oversee the selection of goods to be sold. In return, Wiebusch agreed to not to print anything other than the synod's publications. This again proved to be unworkable because Wiebusch did not want his presses to sit idle when no synodical work was available. Therefore, in late 1867 or 1868, the publishing committee installed a small printing press for $3,000 on the grounds of Concordia Seminary, which at that time was on South Jefferson Avenue in St. Louis.
Early years
On September 11, 1869, the LCMS convention resolved to create a synodical typesetting facility and to fund a publishing facility by selling $25 bonds, redeemable in five years at 0 percent interest. The response was immediate and very successful, enabling construction of the first buildings of the physical plant on Miami Street between Jefferson and Indiana avenues, which remains the current site of CPH. The first CPH building was dedicated on February 28, 1870.
Martin C. Barthel, who had run a bookstore near Trinity Church that served as a retail outlet for LCMS publications starting in the 1850s, became general manager of the wholesale operations of CPH in 1869. The retail and wholesale sides were combined in 1874, when the second building of CPH opened at the corner of Indiana Avenue and Miami Street. By 1888, two additions to the second building had been built. In 1893, a third building was opened on Jefferson Avenue at Miami Street (the current 3558 South Jefferson Avenue address of CPH), with additions in 1911, 1925, and 1941.
Neither CPH nor the LCMS were incorporated during their early years. The 1870s saw attacks on church rights and parish schools as states began adding versions of the Blaine Amendment to their constitutions; this led CPH to take shelter under Concordia Seminary, which had been incorporated since 1853 and therefore had the legal right to hold real estate and bequests in trust for the LCMS, but the publishing house continued to operate independently.
In 1878, the synodical convention officially established the name of CPH as (Lutheran Concordia Publishing House). The English name "Concordia Publishing House" was used as early as 1882. In 1887, the Bible society founded by Walther was merged into CPH, bringing with it the society's $17,407.73 in assets. The 1887 convention noted that CPH had been supplementing the synod's general fund since 1881, providing $97,700 in 1887.
CPH work made up a large part of the Proceedings of the 1887 convention, and grew even larger in 1890 as delegates had to deal with debt collection resolutions. Therefore, the 1890 convention authorized CPH to incorporate, which it did on May 27, 1891, as a stock company with 196 shares at $1,000 each, held in good faith by seven members of the board of directors, 28 shares each. This structure remained in place until World War II, when the Franklin Delano Roosevelt administration filed suits for income taxes against church-related organizations that were not incorporated in a compatible manner. CPH lost the case in court and reincorporated as a not-for-profit soon thereafter.
On August 14, 1891, a scandal erupted when the assistant general manager, Martin S. Tirmenstein, detected an unauthorized $50 check made out to M. C. Barthel, the general manager. An audit found irregularities involving both Barthel and his son, M. R. Barthel Jr. The younger Barthel fled, and his father was initially declared mentally unfit for trial. However, a grand jury indicted the elder Barthel on May 23, 1892. Found competent for trial, he confessed to the synod on July 23, 1892, and to the court on August 1, 1892, that he had embezzled $50,000 over the years. The events were covered in the national trade publication, The Publishers Weekly. As a result of the report on the incident to the 1893 synodical convention, the LCMS incorporated on June 2, 1894.
Tirmenstein became the general manager on November 17, 1891, and held that position until March 10, 1907, when he resigned to take a similar position at a printing firm in Germany. Under his leadership, CPH presented a display at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis that won the grand prize for excellence of workmanship and materials for the books shown, after having similar displays at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago and the 1901 Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo. CPH installed its first Linotype hot-metal press in 1905, and had seven by 1922. The publishing plant was electrified in 1908.
Notable German-language publications
The LCMS was originally an exclusively German-language synod, so works published by CPH were in that language. Even after English language publications were introduced and ultimately became predominant, some German works were still being published until the 1970s.
In September 1844, Walther began publishing , using the printing firm of Weber and Olhausen, who also published the German-language newspaper Anzeiger des Westens. The arrangement ended in 1850 due to differences in philosophical outlook between the LCMS and the firm. Moritz Niedner was the printer from 1850 to 1857 and Wiebusch from 1857 to 1869, at which point CPH was established. In 1853, the synod established as a theological journal for the clergy, allowing to be aimed at the laity. eventually was merged with other theological periodicals of the synod to form the Concordia Theological Monthly, predecessor to today's Concordia Journal.
was published semi-monthly until World War II; it was published bi-monthly thereafter as the number of German speakers in the synod declined. The final issue was November-December 1974, with a run of 2,400 copies, many of which were sent to members of the Independent Evangelical-Lutheran Church (SELK) in Germany and to subscribers in Brazil and Finland. Its largest circulation had been 40,000 in 1922.
The first hymnal of the LCMS, (Church Hymn Book for Evangelical Lutheran Congregations), was initially published by Walther's congregation in 1847. The LCMS assumed publication in 1861, using Wiebusch as the printer. After CPH took over publication, the hymnal was revised and enlarged several times.
The largest project in the German language undertaken by CPH was the 22-volume (Dr. Martin Luther's Complete Writings). Published between 1880 and 1910 and known as the "St. Louis Edition", it is arguably the largest German-language work ever printed in the United States. The project was initiated by a proposal at the 1879 convention of the synod's Western District, and was financed by subscription orders by the synod's pastors, who pledged themselves to pay for each volume as it was issued despite not knowing in advance what that price would be. Three levels of binding were offered: cloth, cloth/leather combination, and leather with gilding on the page edges and cover. The St. Louis Edition was a revision of Johann Georg Walch's 18th-century edition, with Luther's Latin writings translated in German.
Adoption of English
Already by the 1870s, CPH's catalog offered a number of English-language resources. However, many of them were written by non-Lutherans, including Charles Spurgeon. It has been suggested it was a case of "in the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king" — that is, since so few of the pastors and theologians of the LCMS were conversant in English, CPH had to take what was available.
By 1900, increasing numbers of members of the LCMS were using English as a second or even first language. In 1911, the English Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri and Other States merged into the LCMS. Among the assets brought in with the merger was the American Lutheran Publication Board (ALPB) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The ALPB had published a second edition of the Evangelical Lutheran Hymn-Book in 1909 (the first edition having been published in Baltimore, Maryland), which CPH reissued, with music, in 1912. The ALPB had also published English translations of some of CPH's German works. Perhaps the most important publication acquired with the ALPB was The Lutheran Witness magazine, which is still published today. By 1916, its circulation equaled that of , and in 1922, its 400,000 subscriptions far exceeded the latter's.
The number of German works in the CPH catalog decreased while the number of English ones increased during the first half of the 20th century. The 1919–20 catalog had 512 pages of English resources but only 204 of German. By 1933, the catalog had grown to 1,100 pages, only 200 of which were in German. In 1948, only 100 of about 700 pages were in German, signaling that the German era of both CPH and the LCMS had just about ended.
The 1948 catalog also demonstrated an increasing reliance on conservative Protestant, especially Presbyterian, writings because many of the standard German Lutheran works had not yet been translated into English. Thus, the catalog had a number of apologetic books written against Roman Catholicism and the papacy, but few such books against Calvinism or American Protestantism in general. Notably, only one edition of the Lutheran Confessions, Book of Concord, was offered, namely, the English translation from the Concordia Triglotta that had been published in 1926, and it was "tucked away" on the last page of the "symbolics, confessions, history of dogma" section.
From 1946 into the 1950s was a boom time for CPH. By 1948, the company had over 800 employees and was adding office space at its headquarters. In 1948, the pressroom and bindery were enlarged, and in 1951, another large building was erected. A fourth floor was added in 1955 to the building constructed in 1925, and the original 1874 building was replaced with a 5-story one in 1962–63.
A working group was established in the 1950s to encourage the funding and production of scholarly works, including English translations of Luther's Works, Johann Gerhard's , and Martin Chemnitz's Examination of the Council of Trent.
Theological controversy and resolution
After World War II, LCMS theologians entered into conversation with their counterparts in Germany, leading to the use of historical criticism of the Bible in the synod's institutions such as CPH and Concordia Seminary. As a result, the types of works offered in the CPH catalog changed. The 1971 catalog featured a number of works by liberal mainline Protestants that embraced the historical critical method, the social gospel, and ecumenical movements. The catalog also announced a new curriculum for Lutheran schools and Sunday schools entitled Mission:Life furthering those initiatives that had developed by the LCMS Board of Parish Education. The synod in convention reacted negatively to these trends, resulting in the Seminex crisis, and subsequently replaced the Mission:Life material. In 1992, CPH became responsible for developing the parish education material instead of merely printing it.
Even before the Seminex crisis, CPH had produced J. A. O. Preus's translation of Chemnitz's The Two Natures in Christ and Robert Preus's The Theology of Post-Reformation Lutheranism. Since then it has released (and plans to release in the future) translations of a number of additional works by Chemnitz, Gerhard, and Walther in an effort to bridge the gap between the German-speaking of the early synod and the English-speaking one of today.
In 1974, CPH installed its first IBM computer, one of only three companies in St. Louis to have done so at that time.
By the late 1990s, CPH realized that it was having operational and financial difficulties, so it embraced a quality improvement project. As a result, In 2009, CPH won the Missouri Quality Award for its business performance and in 2011, it received a Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, the first publisher of any type to receive the award.
Notable English-language publications
Luther's Works: The American Edition
In the early 1950s, CPH and Fortress Press (the publishing house of the Lutheran Church in America) began plans to translate a significant portion of Martin Luther's writings into English as Luther's Works: The American Edition. CPH published volumes 1–30, consisting of Luther's exegetical writings, with Jaroslav Pelikan as general editor, between 1955 and 1976. Fortress published volumes 31–54, consisting of Luther's non-exegetical theological writings, with Helmut T. Lehmann as general editor, between 1957 and 1986. The 54 volumes translated about a third of the material in the Weimar edition (excluding the Deutsche Bibel subsection).
Around 2004, CPH leadership decided to publish more of Luther's works, conceiving a plan for 20 additional volumes that was approved by the CPH board of directors in 2006. Christopher Boyd Brown, and later, Benjamin T. G. Mayes, are the general editors. The first new volume was published in 2009, and the number of planned volumes was increased to 28 soon thereafter to be able to include the Church Postil and House Postil sermons for the church year. While the original 54 volumes reflected the interest of scholars at that time in focusing on the younger Luther and in isolating Luther's thoughts from those of his contemporaries, the new volumes are more interested in showing the older Luther as the leader of a reform team. The new volumes include more of Luther's sermons and disputations, and also include sermons in the Church Postil which Luther himself did not write but which he had approved. , about half of the additional volumes had been published.
Concordia Commentary series
The 1941 convention of the LCMS requested that CPH produce a Lutheran Bible commentary series, resulting in three volumes being published in 1952 and 1956. These commentaries were scholarly and aimed at pastors and theologians. However, with the translation of Luther's Works beginning at that time, CPH did not have the resources to develop both projects, so the "Bible Commentary" series was put on hold.
In 1968, CPH began publishing its first Concordia Commentary series, but the series was terminated after only five volumes had been published, due to the theological issues that had arisen in the LCMS. Two of the volumes voiced the traditional view of Scriptures that the LCMS had always used and two were sympathetic to the historical-critical method. Unlike the "Bible Commentary" series, this series attempted to be usable by both pastors and laity, but many felt that it was too superficial for pastors and too difficult for lay people.
During 1990, interest in restarting the Concordia Commentary series led to an initial proposal for a 20-year project costing $1.5 to $2 million to produce either 26, 31, or 35 volumes covering all the books of the Bible, with a target audience of pastors and theologians. A series of meetings were held with interested parties in the LCMS in 1991 and 1992 to determine support for the project, and the Marvin M. Schwan Charitable Foundation agreed to provide funding for 1992 through 1999,
Dr. Arthur A. Just of Concordia Theological Seminary agreed to write the first volume in the series, on the Gospel of Luke, by 1996. A single volume of about 500 pages had been contracted, but by 1995 it became apparent that he had written that much just to cover the first half of the gospel. Rather than attempt to condense his work and lose the depth of what he had written, CPH decided to add a second volume for Luke, setting a precedent for the remaining commentaries. The two volumes on Luke were issued in 1996 and 1997 after a year each in editorial work. As experience was gained, the process became more efficient and by 2003, the goal of issuing two volumes per year had been reached.
Dr. Jonathan F. Grothe served as general editor from 1992 to 1999. Dr. Dean O. Wenthe, who had been assistant general editor, became general editor from 1999 to 2016.
The series has been described as the "largest confessional Lutheran Bible commentary project" by any Lutheran publisher. , more than 40 authors have participated in the project, coming from the LCMS, the Evangelical Lutheran Synod, the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, the Lutheran Church–Canada, the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Brazil, and the Lutheran Church of Australia. About half of the now-projected 74 volumes had been published by 2019.
The Lutheran Witness
The Lutheran Witness is the official magazine of the LCMS. It is published by CPH monthly except for a combined June/July issue and is available in both print and digital formats.
In the 1880s, as English was becoming more used in the LCMS, the Cleveland (Ohio) District Pastoral Conference to provide $250 to support the efforts of Charles Frank, a Lutheran pastor in Zanesville, Ohio, to publish The Lutheran Witness in order to make the LCMS perspective available to English-speaking Lutherans. The first issue was published on May 21, 1882.
In 1884, the Cleveland District Pastoral Conference decided the magazine had accomplished its goals, and ended the financial support. Frank offered to give the publication to the LCMS, but the offer was declined. Nevertheless, Frank decided to continue publishing the magazine without any official support. In 1888, the newly-formed English Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri and Other States assumed ownership of The Lutheran Witness, a relationship that continued until 1911, when the English Synod merged into the LCMS and production of the magazine was transferred to CPH.
The first issues of the magazine were offered at no cost, but with a request for subscription support. It has always been distributed on a subscription basis. In the first few years there were 1,000 subscribers, increasing to almost 3,500 in 1911; 4,800 in 1914; 72,000 in 1936; 240,000 in 1946; and peaking at 625,000 in 1965, at which time about two-thirds of LCMS households received it.
In 1936, the Iowa District became the first LCMS district to have a district supplement included in the magazine. By 1946, 26 of the districts had supplements. The Witness editors at that time said that "the district edition plan" was the single most important factor in their effort to have a "church paper in every home". The digital edition of the Witness does not include the district supplement.
After 1965, the number of subscribers gradually decreased to 152,350 in 2011 and, , to 100,000, of which 95% are congregations purchasing the magazine in bulk for their members.
Other publications
A daily devotion booklet began to be published in 1937, eventually being named Portals of Prayer in 1948, the name under which it continues to be published. Almost 900,000 copies of Portals are printed and distributed quarterly. Publication of its German language counterpart, , was discontinued in 1999. It was CPH's last regularly published work in German.
Besides Sunday School and Christian Day School materials, CPH has published a number of books for children, including A Child’s Garden of Bible Stories and Little Visits with God. In 1959, it introduced a children's series of Bible stories costing 35 cents each. Originally named Lantern Books, they were renamed Arch Books in 1965 in honor of the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, which opened that year. Sixty million copies have been sold since they were introduced.
Since publishing the and the Evangelical Lutheran Hymn-Book, CPH has published the subsequent hymnals of the LCMS — The Lutheran Hymnal in 1941, Lutheran Worship in 1982, and the Lutheran Service Book in 2006 — as well as supplemental and children's hymnbooks. It also produces a large selection of choral, organ, and other liturgical music. CPH published a comprehensive edition of Johann Sebastian Bach's Orgelbüchlein, complete with short analyses of each chorale in 1984.
On September 1, 2009, CPH released The Lutheran Study Bible (TLSB), the first study Bible in English to be developed from the ground up with notes exclusively from Lutheran theologians, scholars, and pastors, representing twelve Lutheran church bodies. The TLSB uses the English Standard Version of the Bible. In October 2012, CPH released The Apocrypha: The Lutheran Edition with Notes, the first time it had published an English language version of the Apocrypha, although the German-language Bibles it had published earlier in its history had included those writings.
Notes
References
External links
Concordia Publishing House official site
Company history from the CPH website
Christian publishing companies
Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod
Publishing companies established in 1869
Publishing companies of the United States
1869 establishments in Missouri |
4020438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achilles%20of%20Troy | Achilles of Troy | Achilles of Troy is a thoroughbred horse. As a foal in 2003, he was a possible contender for the U.S. Triple Crown in 2006 but on April 5, 2006 it was announced that soreness had sidelined the colt from the Kentucky Derby and the Triple Crown.
Connections
Achilles of Troy is owned by Paraneck Stable. He was originally trained by Jennifer Pedersen but three days prior to the Gotham Stakes, former Paraneck Stables owner and presently authorized agent Ernie Paragallo switched trainers to Frank Amonte, Jr. After the Gotham, Amonte lost his trainers license after he tested positive for an opiate. The horse has been ridden in all of his starts by Ramon A. Dominguez.
Breeding
He was bred in Kentucky by Glen Hill Farm. His sire is Notebook and his dam is Steamy Recipe.
Races
2006
5th, Gotham Stakes, Grade III, Aqueduct Racetrack, One and One-Sixteenth Miles, Fast Dirt Track, March 18, 2006.
1st, Whirlaway Stakes, Aqueduct Racetrack, One and One-Sixteenth Miles, Fast Dirt Track, February 11, 2006.
1st, Count Fleet Stakes, Aqueduct Racetrack, One Mile and Seventy Yards, Fast Dirt Track, January 7, 2006.
2005
1st, Maiden, Aqueduct Racetrack, Six Furlongs, Sloppy Dirt Track, December 29, 2005.
4th, Maiden, Aqueduct Racetrack, One and One-Sixteenth Miles, Good Dirt Track, December 10, 2005.
2nd, Maiden, Aqueduct Racetrack, One and One-Eighth Miles, Fast Dirt Track, November 4, 2005.
3rd, Maiden, Belmont Park, Six Furlongs, Fast Dirt Track, October 20, 2005.
References
Achilles of Troy's pedigree and partial racing stats
2003 racehorse births
Thoroughbred family 8-f
Racehorses bred in Kentucky
Racehorses trained in the United States |
4020465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWTI | WWTI | WWTI (channel 50) is a television station in Watertown, New York, United States, affiliated with ABC and The CW Plus. Owned by Nexstar Media Group, the station has studios on Court Street in downtown Watertown, and its transmitter is located on Hayes Road in Denmark, New York.
Although identifying as a separate station in its own right, WWTI is considered a semi-satellite of WSYR-TV (channel 9) in Syracuse. WWTI clears all network programming as provided by its parent, simulcasts most of WSYR's newscasts and airs some of its syndicated programming (albeit at different times). There are some programs that only air on WWTI while some are only seen on WSYR. WWTI also airs separate station identifications and commercial inserts, and has its own website. Master control and some internal operations for WWTI and WSYR are based at Springfield, Massachusetts–licensed Nexstar sister station and NBC affiliate WWLP's studios in Chicopee.
History
The station signed on January 3, 1988 as WFYF. Airing an analog signal on UHF channel 50 from studios at Stateway Plaza (with an Arsenal Street/NY 3 postal address) in the town of Watertown, it replaced a low-powered translator of Utica's ABC affiliate WUTR previously on the allotment. The station was the third outlet established in Watertown after WWNY-TV and WNPE-TV (now WPBS-TV). Prior to WFYF's launch, WWNY was a secondary ABC affiliate and also served Massena and Malone along with WIXT-TV (now WSYR) from Syracuse.
At its sign-on, WFYF took over operation of repeater W25AB channel 25 in Massena to better serve the St. Lawrence River Valley. However, WVNY in Burlington, Vermont eventually launched a translator (W60AF channel 60) of its own in Malone. WFYF also operated a second repeater (W25AB channel 25) in order to expand its reach in and around Watertown.
In addition to being an ABC affiliate from the start, it shared a secondary NBC affiliation with WWNY until 1995, and also shared a secondary Fox affiliation with WWNY. While the latter cleared more of NBC and/or Fox's programming offerings, WFYF aired NBC Sports' coverage of National Football League (NFL) games on Sunday afternoons, which lasted until 1995 when it began airing Fox Sports' NFL games (in addition to carrying Monday Night Football through ABC). Its original ownership team consisted of several investors including General Manager David James Alteri, Steven Fox, and Richard Kimball. After the station went bankrupt under the initial partnership, it was sold to Robert Smith of Smith Broadcasting in 1990 and the current call sign WWTI was adopted September 14. A new General Manager, Shelly Markoff, took control of operations.
In 2000, the United Communications Corporation (then-owner of WWNY) entered into an agreement with Smith Broadcasting to make WWTI's repeaters (W28BC and W25AB) separate full-time Fox affiliates known together as WNYF. After a year of joint operation, United Communications took complete ownership of the two stations. The Ackerley Group purchased WWTI in 2000, reuniting channel 50 with former parent WUTR, at which point David Males, then General Sales Manager, was promoted to General Manager. It joined Ackerley's cluster of New York stations with master control and other internal operations based out of centralcasting facilities at flagship WIXT in Syracuse. Clear Channel Communications would take control of the station with its purchase of Ackerley in 2001. On July 30, 2003, WWTI began broadcasting a digital signal on UHF channel 21.
On April 20, 2007, Clear Channel entered into an agreement to sell its entire television station unit to Newport Television (a subsidiary of private equity group Providence Equity Partners). Newport announced on July 19, 2012, that it would sell twelve of its stations, including WWTI, to the Nexstar Broadcasting Group. The deal once again reunited WWTI with WUTR, by then owned by Mission Broadcasting and operated by Nexstar, and also paired it with WUTR's virtual sisters WFXV and WPNY-LP. The transaction was completed on December 3.
On April 23, 2018, WWTI moved from its longtime home at Stateway Plaza to a centrally-located site at the Top of the Square Plaza in downtown Watertown.
WWTI-DT2
WWTI-DT2, branded on-air as The North Country CW, is the CW+-affiliated second digital subchannel of WWTI, broadcasting in 720p high definition on channel 50.2.
History
In September 1998, an agreement between this station and Time Warner Cable allowed WWTI to launch cable-exclusive WB affiliate "WBWT". The arrangement was established during a period when The WB deployed various network stations outside the top 100 markets as cable-only channels. WWTI provided sales and promotional opportunities to "WBWT" which was originally on Time Warner Cable channel 31. Since it was a cable-exclusive outlet, the call sign was not officially recognized by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). At some point in time, "WBWT" moved to the more appropriate channel 14, which resulted in its rebranding to "Watertown's WB 14".
On January 24, 2006, The WB and UPN announced the two networks would end broadcasting and merge. The new combined service would be called The CW. The letters would represent the first initial of corporate parents CBS (the parent company of UPN) and the Warner Bros. unit of Time Warner. Some of UPN's programming was seen in Watertown on WNYF in a secondary nature through a tape-delayed arrangement. On May 18, it was confirmed "WBWT" would be joining The CW via The CW Plus (a similar operation to The WB 100+). When the new network launched on September 18, WWTI created a second digital subchannel to offer non-cable viewers access to CW programming. "WBWT" dropped the faux call sign in favor of WWTI-DT2 which began to be used in an official manner. On August 17, 2012, it started broadcasting in HD.
On March 4, 2013, WPTZ's second digital subchannel assumed the CW affiliation for the Plattsburgh–Burlington market. Since the main WPTZ channel is available on Charter Spectrum in Massena (along with WVNC-LD, the Watertown market's NBC affiliate), that area has access to two CW affiliates when WWTI-DT2 is included.
Programming
Syndicated programming
Syndicated programming on WWTI includes The Big Bang Theory, Dr. Phil, Judge Judy, and The Doctors among others.
News operation
For its entire existence, WWNY has held the number one spot in Nielsen ratings by a wide margin. It has been the dominant station in the North Country because the station had the market to itself until WWTI signed on. Even after this station began maintaining a minimal local news presence for many years, WWNY remained the most watched outlet. WWTI's original news team was quite small compared with other big three stations operating news departments. Its first attempt at airing newscasts and competing with WWNY ceased in early 1991. Four years later, a second attempt was established and the station maintained a small news team similar to the previous effort.
After the Ackerley Group acquired WWTI, it became more reliant on content originating from its sister stations in Upstate New York, particularly flagship WIXT in Syracuse. In July 2002, a two-hour weekday morning show called Daybreak debuted on this station. The broadcast, airing from 5 until 7, was simulcasted on sister stations WIVT in Binghamton and WUTR in Utica. The newscast was produced by WIXT from a secondary set at its studios and included brief localized updates (focusing on Watertown) twice an hour. Most coverage, however, presented was regional in nature with area-wide weather forecasts.
Having never successfully competed with WWNY, WWTI's nightly NewsWatch 50 newscasts were canceled in 2004. For a short time afterward, the station featured a 24 Hour News Source-style series of short hourly news updates seen throughout the day. After this, it continued to air several daily news and weather updates under the NewsWatch 50 branding. In December 2006, WWTI added a news and weather update on weeknights called 5 at 5. On June 5, 2009, the station's news department was shut down completely after Newport Television implemented across the board cuts. At the same time, WIVT and WBGH-CA announced their Binghamton news operation would be consolidated with sister station WETM-TV in Elmira. This affected WWTI because it only maintained one locally based meteorologist and WIVT/WBGH provided all other weather forecasts seen on-air. On September 14, the station switched its branding to "ABC 50" and website from "newswatch50.com" to "myabc50.com" de-emphasizing local news.
Even though WWTI lost a Watertown-based news department, it began simulcasting WSYR's NewsChannel 9 Eleven at 11 every night through a news share agreement. During the 2009–2010 NFL season, the station featured half-hour reports from the Buffalo Bills training camp produced by sister station WHAM-TV in Rochester. On September 8, 2009, WWTI began simulcasting WSYR's weekday morning and nightly 6 o'clock newscasts. Although that station eventually expanded its weekday morning show to 4:30, the first half hour is not seen on WWTI. Occasionally, a reporter based at WWTI will contribute content to WSYR but most local coverage is seen on WWTI's website consisting of short headlines and features. However, WSYR does provide separate weather forecasts for the North Country region that are taped in advance.
On Saturday and Sunday mornings, the station simulcasts WSYR's local news and weather cut-ins during Good Morning America. On January 29, 2011, WSYR upgraded its newscasts to high definition and the simulcasts on this station were included. WWNY remains the only station operating a news department based in the North Country; Spectrum News covers Watertown and Massena as well from a Syracuse-based newsroom with regional content.
Notable current on-air staff
Staci-Lyn Honda – weekend morning cut-ins; also reporter
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
Analog-to-digital transition
WWTI's broadcasts, which were originally scheduled to become digital-exclusive on February 17, 2009, were forced to continue in both analog and digital until June 12 due to FCC objections at an estimated $50,000 in additional cost. At 11:59 p.m. on the revised DTV transition date, the station finally turned off its analog transmitter and became digital-exclusive.
References
External links
WWTI-DT2 "The North Country CW 14/22"
WSYR-TV website
Television channels and stations established in 1988
WTI
ABC network affiliates
Laff (TV network) affiliates
Ion Mystery affiliates
Nexstar Media Group
1988 establishments in New York (state) |
4020484 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton%20Rowing%20Club | Hamilton Rowing Club | Hamilton Rowing Club is based in Hamilton, New Zealand. It was formed in 1903.
Hamilton Rowing Club is the home club of Caroline Evers-Swindell and Georgina Evers-Swindell, 2004 Olympic champions in the double, and Fiona Patterson, 2004 World Champion in the U23 quad. Ben Waters, a medallist at the 1930 British Empire Games was a member of the club.
Other notable rowers include Byron "Arms" Arnold, the first and only Hamilton Rowing Club rower to achieve a sub 6-minute 2km ergometer time.
References
www.hamiltonrowingclub.co.nz
Rowing clubs in New Zealand
Sport in Hamilton, New Zealand |
4020509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microdissection | Microdissection | Microdissection refers to a variety of techniques where a microscope is used to assist in dissection.
Different kinds of techniques involve microdissection:
Chromosome microdissection — use of fine glass needle under a microscope to remove a portion from a complete chromosome.
Laser microdissection — use of a laser through a microscope to dissect selected cells.
Laser capture microdissection — use of a laser through a microscope to cause selected cells to adhere to a film.
Microscopy |
4020516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucis%20%28band%29 | Crucis (band) | Crucis was an Argentine band considered one of the pioneers of the Argentine progressive rock.
History
Crucis was formed in 1974 by Gustavo Montesano (guitar, vocals), José Luis Fernández (bass), Daniel Leonardo Frenkel (drums) and Daniel Oil (keyboards). When Fernández left the band, Montesano became the new bass player. Later on Marrone and Kerpel joined the band. In 1975 Daniel Leonardo Frenkel left the band and Farrugia replaced him. They released two albums, Crucis in 1976 (produced by Charly García who was very famous in Argentina at the time after the demise of folk rock band Sui Generis) and Los Delirios del Mariscal in 1977. The band dissolved shortly after.
Both their LPs were put together in a single CD entitled Cronología for re-release in 1996. Some reissues include 2 bonus tracks which the band recorded for a projected single in 1977. Crucis also played on Montesano's first solo album Homenaje that year. Montesano later joined the successful Spanish pop band Olé Olé.
Discography
Crucis
Recorded in studio in 1976, it contained the following tracks.
"Todo tiempo posible"
"Mes"
"Corto Amanecer"
"La triste visión del entierro propio"
"Irónico ser"
"Determinados espejos"
"Recluso artista"
Los Delirios del Mariscal
Recorded in studio in 1977, it contained the following tracks.
"No me separen de mí"
"Los Delirios del Mariscal"
"Pollo Frito"
"Abismo Terrenal"
Delirios en el Luna
Bootleg live recorded in Luna Park 01/04/1977, it contained the following tracks.
"No me separen de mí"
"Mes"
"La triste visión del entierro propio"
"Vuelo a la obsesión"
"Determinados espejos"
"Los delirios del mariscal"
"Abismo terrenal"
Cronología
Sometimes spelled Kronología, this compilation album was released in 1996, which contained the following tracks.
"Todo tiempo posible"
"Mes"
"Corto amanecer"
"La triste visión del entierro propio"
"Irónico ser"
"Determinados espejos"
"Recluso artista"
"No me separen de mi"
"Los delirios del mariscal"
"Pollo frito"
"Abismo terrenal"
External links
Crucis at rock.com.ar (Spanish)
https://www.discogs.com/es/artist/1184126-Daniel-Leonardo-Frenkel
http://www.elretornodelgigante.com.ar/crucisellibro.htm
Argentine progressive rock groups |
4020517 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Like%20That | Like That | Like That may refer to:
"Like That" (Doja Cat song), 2020
"Like That" (Eminem song) or "Ass Like That", 2005
"Like That" (Kris Wu song), 2018
"Like That" (Now United song), 2019
"Like That", a song by Bea Miller from Chapter Two: Red, 2017
"Like That", a song by Black Eyed Peas from Monkey Business, 2005
"Like That", a song by Chase & Status from Brand New Machine, 2013
"Like That", a song by Fleur East from Love, Sax and Flashbacks, 2015
"Like That", a song by JoJo from The High Road, 2006
"Like That", a song by Lil Durk from Love Songs 4 the Streets 2, 2019
"Like That", a song by Memphis Bleek from 534, 2005
"Like That", a song by Victoria Beckham from Victoria Beckham, 2001
"Like That", a song by Webbie from Savage Life, 2005
"Like That", a song by Yo Gotti from Untrapped, 2020 |
4020531 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock%20102 | Rock 102 | Rock 102 may refer to :
a branding name for Canadian radio station CJDJ
a branding name for American radio station WAQY |
4020550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelia%20Postuma | Cornelia Postuma | Cornelia Postuma or Postuma Cornelia (born between 78-77 BC) was the only daughter of Roman Dictator Sulla and his fifth wife Valeria Messalla. She was Sulla's fifth and final known child.
Life
Postuma was delivered some months after Sulla's death. It is uncertain if her name "Postuma" was a praenomen or cognomen as the usage of the name "Postuma" as a female praenomen is unattested in epigraphical evidence for the Roman Republic period but it would have been unusual to give a cognomen at such an early date. The male equivalent praenomen Postumus is well attested. Her birth was highly significant as it unified Sulla's family with that of her mother’s.
She had three surviving older half siblings; Cornelia Silla, the twins Faustus Cornelius Sulla and Fausta Cornelia as well as a brother who died young. Her oldest sister Silla already had children by the time Postuma was born.
T. F. Carney presumes that she died young since there is no further mentions of her in literature, he states that a member of such a notorious household could not have failed to be mentioned somewhere if she had been old enough to marry. He assumes both she and her half-brother died in congenital infection, perhaps contracted by her mother from Sulla who himself died of infected ulcers.
Cultural depictions
In Colleen McCullough's book Fortune's Favourites Postuma's mother Valeria expresses doubt that she is actually Sulla's child, believing that she was instead fathered by her lover Metrobius.
See also
Posthumously born notable people
List of Roman women
Roman naming conventions for females
Notes
References
Bibliography
1st-century BC Roman women
Cornelii Sullae
Children of Sulla |
4020559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altom%C3%BCnster%20Abbey | Altomünster Abbey | Altomünster Abbey (Kloster Altomünster) was a monastery in the small Bavarian market town of Altomünster.
History
A small monastery was founded here by and named after Saint Alto, a wandering monk, before 760. The vita of Alto, likely written by Otloh of St. Emmeram after 1056 and ostensibly based on oral knowledge (written lore having been lost through plunder), reports that the monastery was visited by Saint Boniface, who dedicated the church. Another 11th-century text notes that Boniface also dedicated the church in nearby Benediktbeuern Abbey.
Sometime before 1000 the Welfs enlarged it and made it into a Benedictine abbey. Welf I, Duke of Bavaria resettled the monks in 1056 to the newly founded Weingarten Abbey in Altdorf (now also called Weingarten), while the nuns formerly resident at Altdorf moved to Altomünster, where they lived until the monastery was dissolved in 1488 by Pope Innocent VIII.
In 1496 by grant of Duke George the Rich the Bridgettines of Maihingen were permitted to establish a Bridgettine monastery at Altomünster. The monastery was dissolved on 18 March 1803 during the secularisation of Bavaria, but was later revived. At the time of its closing, it was the last Bridgettine monastery in Germany. Nearby is a museum of the history of the Bridgettine Order.
In December 2015, it was announced that the monastery was closing for good and that both its property and library, which contains around 80 percent of all known Bridgettine books, would be transferred to the Munich diocese. It officially closed on January 19, 2017.
Two gospel lectionary created for the abbey in the 12th century are held by the Bavarian State Library.
See also
List of Carolingian monasteries
Carolingian architecture
References
External links
Altomünster Abbey website
Altomünster Museum Website
Bridgettine Order
Photos of the interior of the Abbey Church, in the Warburg Institute Iconographic Database.
Monasteries in Bavaria
Benedictine nunneries in Germany
Bridgettine monasteries in Germany
Christian monasteries established in the 8th century
Carolingian architecture
Irish monastic foundations in continental Europe
8th-century establishments in Germany |
4020563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot%20drop | Foot drop | Foot drop is a gait abnormality in which the dropping of the forefoot happens due to weakness, irritation or damage to the deep fibular nerve (deep peroneal), including the sciatic nerve, or paralysis of the muscles in the anterior portion of the lower leg. It is usually a symptom of a greater problem, not a disease in itself. Foot drop is characterized by inability or impaired ability to raise the toes or raise the foot from the ankle (dorsiflexion). Foot drop may be temporary or permanent, depending on the extent of muscle weakness or paralysis and it can occur in one or both feet. In walking, the raised leg is slightly bent at the knee to prevent the foot from dragging along the ground.
Foot drop can be caused by nerve damage alone or by muscle or spinal cord trauma, abnormal anatomy, atoxins, or disease. Toxins include organophosphate compounds which have been used as pesticides and as chemical agents in warfare. The poison can lead to further damage to the body such as a neurodegenerative disorder called organophosphorus induced delayed polyneuropathy. This disorder causes loss of function of the motor and sensory neural pathways. In this case, foot drop could be the result of paralysis due to neurological dysfunction. Diseases that can cause foot drop include trauma to the posterolateral neck of fibula, stroke, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, poliomyelitis, Charcot Marie Tooth disease, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, hereditary spastic paraplegia, Guillain–Barré syndrome, Welander distal myopathy, Friedreich's ataxia and Chronic Compartment Syndrome. It may also occur as a result of hip replacement surgery or knee ligament reconstruction surgery.
Signs and symptoms
Foot drop is characterized by steppage gait. While walking, people suffering the condition drag their toes along the ground or bend their knees to lift their foot higher than usual to avoid the dragging. This serves to raise the foot high enough to prevent the toe from dragging and prevents the slapping. To accommodate the toe drop, the patient may use a characteristic tiptoe walk on the opposite leg, raising the thigh excessively, as if walking upstairs, while letting the toe drop. Other gaits such as a wide outward leg swing (to avoid lifting the thigh excessively or to turn corners in the opposite direction of the affected limb) may also indicate foot drop.
Patients with painful disorders of sensation (dysesthesia) of the soles of the feet may have a similar gait but do not have foot drop. Because of the extreme pain evoked by even the slightest pressure on the feet, the patient walks as if walking barefoot on hot sand.
Pathophysiology
The causes of foot drop, as for all causes of neurological lesions, should be approached using a localization-focused approach before etiologies are considered. Most of the time, foot drop is the result of neurological disorder; only rarely is the muscle diseased or nonfunctional. The source for the neurological impairment can be central (spinal cord or brain) or peripheral (nerves located connecting from the spinal cord to an end-site muscle or sensory receptor).
Foot drop is rarely the result of a pathology involving the muscles or bones that make up the lower leg. The anterior tibialis is the muscle that picks up the foot. Although the anterior tibialis plays a major role in dorsiflexion, it is assisted by the fibularis tertius, extensor digitorum longus and the extensor hallucis longus. If the drop foot is caused by neurological disorder all of these muscles could be affected because they are all innervated by the deep fibular (peroneal) nerve, which branches from the sciatic nerve. The sciatic nerve exits the lumbar plexus with its root arising from the fifth lumbar nerve space.
Occasionally, spasticity in the muscles opposite the anterior tibialis, the gastrocnemius and soleus, exists in the presence of foot drop, making the pathology much more complex than foot drop. Isolated foot drop is usually a flaccid condition. There are gradations of weakness that can be seen with foot drop, as follows according to MRC:
0 = complete paralysis,
1 = flicker of contraction,
2 = contraction with gravity eliminated alone,
3 = contraction against gravity alone,
4 = contraction against gravity and some resistance, and
5 = contraction against powerful resistance (normal power).
Foot drop is different from foot slap, which is the audible slapping of the foot to the floor with each step that occurs when the foot first hits the floor on each step, although they often are concurrent.
Treated systematically, possible lesion sites causing foot drop include (going from peripheral to central):
Neuromuscular disease;
Peroneal nerve (common, i.e., frequent) —chemical, mechanical, disease;
Sciatic nerve—direct trauma, iatrogenic;
Lumbosacral plexus;
L5 nerve root (common, especially in association with pain in back radiating down leg);
Cauda equina syndrome, which is caused by impingement of the nerve roots within the spinal canal distal to the end of the spinal cord;
Spinal cord (rarely causes isolated foot drop) —poliomyelitis, tumor;
Brain (uncommon, but often overlooked) —stroke, TIA, tumor;
Genetic (as in Charcot-Marie-Tooth Disease and hereditary neuropathy with liability to pressure palsies);
Nonorganic causes, e.g. as part of a functional neurological symptom disorder.
If the L5 nerve root is involved, the most common cause is a herniated disc. Other causes of foot drop are diabetes (due to generalized peripheral neuropathy), trauma, motor neuron disease (MND), adverse reaction to a drug or alcohol, and multiple sclerosis.
Gait cycle
Drop foot and foot drop are interchangeable terms that describe an abnormal neuromuscular disorder that affects the patient's ability to raise their foot at the ankle. Drop foot is further characterized by an inability to point the toes toward the body (dorsiflexion) or move the foot at the ankle inward or outward. Therefore, the normal gait cycle is affected by the drop foot syndrome.
The normal gait cycle is as follows:
Swing phase (SW): The period of time when the foot is not in contact with the ground. In those cases where the foot never leaves the ground (foot drag), it can be defined as the phase when all portions of the foot are in forward motion.
Initial contact (IC): The point in the gait cycle when the foot initially makes contact with the ground; this represents the beginning of the stance phase. It is suggested that heel strike not be a term used in clinical gait analysis as in many circumstances initial contact is not made with the heel. Suggestion: Should use foot strike.
Terminal contact (TC): The point in the gait cycle when the foot leaves the ground: this represents the end of the stance phase or beginning of the swing phase. Also referred to as foot off. Toe-off should not be used in situations where the toe is not the last part of the foot to leave the ground.
The drop foot gait cycle requires more exaggerated phases.
Drop foot SW: If the foot in motion happens to be the affected foot, there will be greater flexion at the knee to accommodate the inability to dorsiflex. This increase in knee flexion will cause a stair-climbing movement.
Drop foot IC: Initial contact of the foot that is in motion will not have normal heel-toe foot strike. Instead, the foot may either slap the ground or the entire foot may be planted on the ground all at once.
Drop foot TC: Terminal contact that is observed in patients that have drop foot is quite different. Since patients tend to have weakness in the affected foot, they may not have the ability to support their body weight. Often, a walker or cane will be used to assist in this aspect.
Drop Foot is the inability to dorsiflex, evert, or invert the foot. So when looking at the Gait cycle, the part of the gait cycle that involves most dorsiflexion action would be Heel Contact of the foot at 10% of Gait Cycle, and the entire swing phase, or 60-100% of the Gait Cycle. This is also known as Gait Abnormalities.
Diagnosis
Initial diagnosis often is made during routine physical examination. Such diagnosis can be confirmed by a medical professional such as a physiatrist, neurologist, orthopedic surgeon or neurosurgeon. A person with foot drop will have difficulty walking on his or her heels because
they will be unable to lift the front of the foot (balls and toes) off the ground. Therefore, a simple test of asking the patient to dorsiflex may determine diagnosis of the problem. This is measured on a 0-5 scale that observes mobility. The lowest point, 0, will determine complete paralysis and the highest point, 5, will determine complete mobility.
There are other tests that may help determine the underlying etiology for this diagnosis. Such tests may include MRI, MRN, or EMG to assess the surrounding areas of damaged nerves and the damaged nerves themselves, respectively. The nerve that communicates to the muscles that lift the foot is the peroneal nerve. This nerve innervates the anterior muscles of the leg that are used during dorsiflexion of the ankle. The muscles that are used in plantar flexion are innervated by the tibial nerve and often develop tightness in the presence of foot drop. The muscles that keep the ankle from supination (as from an ankle sprain) are also innervated by the peroneal nerve, and it is not uncommon to find weakness in this area as well. Paraesthesia in the lower leg, particularly on the top of the foot and ankle, also can accompany foot drop, although it is not in all instances.
A common yoga kneeling exercise, the Varjrasana has, under the name "yoga foot drop," been linked to foot drop.
Treatment
The underlying disorder must be treated. For example, if a spinal disc herniation in the low back is impinging on the nerve that goes to the leg and causing symptoms of foot drop, then the herniated disc should be treated. If the foot drop is the result of a peripheral nerve injury, a window for recovery of 18 months to 2 years is often advised. If it is apparent that no recovery of nerve function takes place, surgical intervention to repair or graft the nerve can be considered, although results from this type of intervention are mixed.
Non-surgical treatments for spinal stenosis include a suitable exercise program developed by a physical therapist, activity modification (avoiding activities that cause advanced symptoms of spinal stenosis), epidural injections, and anti-inflammatory medications like ibuprofen or aspirin. If necessary, a decompression surgery that is minimally destructive of normal structures may be used to treat spinal stenosis.
Non-surgical treatments for this condition are very similar to the non-surgical methods described above for spinal stenosis. Spinal fusion surgery may be required to treat this condition, with many patients improving their function and experiencing less pain.
Nearly half of all vertebral fractures occur without any significant back pain. If pain medication, progressive activity, or a brace or support does not help with the fracture, two minimally invasive procedures - vertebroplasty or kyphoplasty - may be options.
Ankles can be stabilized by lightweight orthoses, available in molded plastics as well as softer materials that use elastic properties to prevent foot drop. Additionally, shoes can be fitted with traditional spring-loaded braces to prevent foot drop while walking. Regular exercise is usually prescribed.
Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is a technique that uses electrical currents to activate nerves innervating extremities affected by paralysis resulting from spinal cord injury (SCI), head injury, stroke and other neurological disorders. FES is primarily used to restore function in people with disabilities. It is sometimes referred to as Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES)
The latest treatments include stimulation of the peroneal nerve, which lifts the foot when you step. Many stroke and multiple sclerosis patients with foot drop have had success with it. Often, individuals with foot drop prefer to use a compensatory technique like steppage gait or hip hiking as opposed to a brace or splint.
FES is applied to lower extremities for improving functional walking in stroke patients; for the correction of foot drop. They have benefited patients by improving gait speed, muscle strength and other functions. One of the best FES foot drop systems is made by tiwan company.
Treatment for some can be as easy as an underside "L" shaped foot-up ankle support (ankle-foot orthoses). Another method uses a cuff placed around the patient's ankle, and a topside spring and hook installed under the shoelaces. The hook connects to the ankle cuff and lifts the shoe up when the patient walks.
Both these techniques show significant improvement on usage.
Identification of a suspect in a murder case
In December 2021, police in Toronto, Canada said they were looking for a person with a distinctive gait as a suspect in the murder of Barry Sherman and Honey Sherman. Medical professionals quoted by the Toronto Star said that the distinctive gait could be caused by foot drop.
See also
Yoga foot drop
Toe walking
Polymyositis
inclusion body myositis
References
Further reading
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (2011). Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project.
Balali-Mood, Mahdi (January 2008). "Neurotoxic disorders of organophosphorus compounds and their managements". Arch Iran Med. 11(1):65–89. .
Jokanovic, Milan, Melita Kosanovic, Dejan Brkic, and Predrag Vukomanovic (2011). "Organophosphate Induced Delayed Polyneuropathy in Man: An Overview". Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery 113.1: 7–10. . .
Mayo Clinic. "Foot Drop".
Pritchett, James W., MD (June 21, 2018). "Foot Drop". Vinod K Panchbhavi, MD, FACS (ed.).
Saladin, Kenneth (2015). Anatomy & Physiology: A Unity of Form & Function. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Education. Print.
Gait abnormalities
Musculoskeletal disorders
Neurological disorders |
4020567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ever%20the%20Same | Ever the Same | "Ever the Same" is the third single from Matchbox Twenty frontman Rob Thomas's 2005 debut album, ...Something to Be. The song was released on November 7, 2005, and received a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It has been used in commercials for NBA Cares.
Song
"Ever the Same" is a ballad that Rob Thomas wrote for his wife, Marisol Maldonado. For several years, she battled a serious illness that doctors were unable to identify. According to Thomas, Maldonado was "so frustrated by it that she would keep me at bay because she felt she'd be bringing me down." After one particularly painful day, she cried herself to sleep in his arms. He wrote the song, a promise that he would always be there no matter how tough life got, that evening. Thomas says that "It all stemmed from the line: 'Just let me hold you while I'm falling apart.'"
The music has a decided 80s music feel. Thomas describes it as appropriate to play in the last five minutes of a John Hughes film.
Music video
The music video, directed by Phil Harder, features various shots mixed against a drawn and partially colored city background, interspliced with shots of Thomas singing the song. The music video features Wilmer Valderrama. Wilmer's character is a dove keeper who writes messages of hope and attaches them onto the doves legs before allowing them to fly off.
As the video progresses, different people all over the city receive these tiny notes. Rob Thomas's wife Marisol is also featured in this video, playing a woman who lives in the apartment adjacent to Rob's. Both Rob and Wilmer look up to see her standing on the edge of her window ledge, presumably thinking about jumping off (most likely in a moment of despair). Wilmer then releases a dove to Marisol, who stops to read the note, smiling and taking seat on the ledge. She eventually jumps off from the ledge, transforming midway into a dove.
Rob Thomas, who is out taking his dog for a walk, is sitting on a bench when the dove that once was Marisol lands beside him. He takes the message from its leg and then releases her. The video ends with crowds of people staring up in wonder as Wilmer's flock of doves color the sky and Marisol returning to Wilmer while Rob watches from his window.
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Sales and certifications
Release history
References
2005 singles
Atlantic Records singles
Music videos directed by Phil Harder
Rob Thomas (musician) songs
Song recordings produced by Matt Serletic
Songs written by Rob Thomas (musician) |
4020574 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306%20Sunderland%20A.F.C.%20season | 2005–06 Sunderland A.F.C. season | During the 2005–06 season, Sunderland competed in the FA Premier League.
Season Summary
Despite most fans believing Sunderland's top-flight return couldn't possibly go worse than the way they left it in 2003, somehow it did. A run of five consecutive losses at the start of the season was cause for concern, if not immediate alarm, seeing how the previous two seasons had similarly poor starts and ended in finishes of 3rd and 1st respectively. A three-match unbeaten run just before the international break in October saw Sunderland move out of the relegation zone and seemingly in the right direction; unfortunately, a loss to Manchester United after the season resumed dropped them right back into the bottom three, and Sunderland never left it after that point.
With the club losing every single match in-between the international break and Christmas Day, it became increasingly apparent that Sunderland were unlikely to avoid an immediate relegation. Their second win of the season didn't come until late January, and even that was against second-bottom West Bromwich Albion. Even the cups offered little respite, with the club struggling past League Two side Cheltenham Town in their first League Cup round before losing 3–0 to Arsenal in the next round, and experiencing a humiliating FA Cup exit to League One side Brentford in the fourth round.
More dismal form saw Mick McCarthy sacked after almost exactly three years as manager, and Kevin Ball was left in charge as caretaker manager for the remainder of the season, with it being clear that the most that could be hoped for was that Sunderland would at least avoid doing worse than their own record for the lowest points total in a Premier League season. Ultimately, not only did Sunderland not succeed in avoiding that dishonour, but they broke Stoke City's 21-year-old record for the fewest points under the 3 points for a win system. The only mercies that Sunderland had were that they at least avoided equalling their own record from three years prior for fewest goals scored in a top-flight season (having scored five more goals this season), and that they would only hold their new record for two years, with Derby County going on to record fewer points and fewer goals than both of Sunderland's records.
Transfers
In
Out
Players
First-team squad
Squad at end of season
Left club during season
Reserve squad
Results
Sunderland's score comes first.
League Cup
FA Cup
Premier League
Results by matchday
Statistics
Appearances and goals
|-
! colspan=14 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Goalkeepers
|-
! colspan=14 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Defenders
|-
! colspan=14 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Midfielders
|-
! colspan=14 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Forwards
|-
! colspan=14 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Players transferred out during the season
|}
References
Notes
Sunderland A.F.C. seasons
Sunderland |
4020575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s%20Honinbo | Women's Honinbo | The is a Go competition.
Outline
The Women's Honinbo is the female version of the Honinbo. It is sponsored by the Kyodo News Agency and Sompo Japan Insurance. The winner's purse is 5,500,000 yen.
Past winners
Winners in chronological order:
Winners by number of titles:
References
External links
Nihon Ki-in archive (in Japanese)
Go competitions in Japan |
4020598 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20O%27Connell | Mike O'Connell | Michael Thomas O'Connell (born November 25, 1955) is the Director of Pro Development for the Los Angeles Kings. O'Connell was also a former professional ice hockey player and general manager. He played 860 National Hockey League (NHL) regular season games between 1977 and 1990 and later served as the general manager of the Boston Bruins from 2000 until 2006. He is the son of former National Football League (NFL) quarterback Tommy O'Connell and brother of former World Hockey Association (WHA) player Tim O'Connell.
Playing career
Youth and junior hockey
O'Connell was raised in Cohasset, Massachusetts, and grew up playing hockey and gridiron football at Archbishop Williams High School in Braintree. He moved to the Ontario Major Junior Hockey League's Kingston Canadians as a teenager, following the recommendation of Boston Bruins General Manager Harry Sinden and was promptly named best OMJHL defenceman in 1974–75.
NHL career
O'Connell was chosen in the second round, 43rd overall, by the Chicago Black Hawks in the 1975 NHL Entry Draft. His professional career for the Hawks began in the minors with the Central Professional Hockey League's Dallas Black Hawks in 1976–77. He became the first Chicago native to play for the Black Hawks in 1978, but most of his career was spent in his adopted home state of Massachusetts with the Boston Bruins, who obtained him in a trade for Al Secord in 1980. An excellent skater, O'Connell was a solid all-around player, being both reliable in the defensive zone and consistently effective on offense, with a hard, accurate shot from the point. His best years were spent in Boston, helping to make up a defensive squad that included Brad Park and Ray Bourque. He played in the 1984 NHL All-Star Game while with the Bruins, also representing the United States at the 1981 Canada Cup and 1985 Ice Hockey World Championship tournaments. O'Connell finished his NHL career as a penalty killer and defensive specialist with the Detroit Red Wings in 1989, who had obtained him in a trade for Reed Larson in 1986. He also served as an alternate captain during his time with the Red Wings.
Management career
Following retirement as a player, O'Connell served as head coach of the San Diego Gulls of the International Hockey League (IHL) in 1990–91. Despite a losing record, Harry Sinden hired his protégé to coach the Bruins' top minor league affiliate, the Providence Bruins. O'Connell was then named the Bruins' assistant general manager in 1994, also becoming vice president of hockey operations in 1998 and alternate governor in 2000. The Bruins named O'Connell vice president and general manager on November 1, 2000, and he later signed a five-year contract extension on June 21, 2002. He was however fired from the job on March 25, 2006 following a controversial number of player trades that did not work out well for the Bruins. Notably, O'Connell decided to trade high-scoring center Joe Thornton.
In 2003–04 season, under his direction, the Bruins finished first in the Northeast Division, second in the Eastern Conference and fourth overall in the NHL with 104 points. The NHL then locked-out its players for the 2004–05 season and the Bruins lost five players previously acquired by O'Connell (Michael Nylander, Brian Rolston, Sean O'Donnell, Mike Knuble and Sergei Gonchar) to free agency. O'Connell blamed Bruins owner Jeremy Jacobs for the decision to not re-sign the free agents.
In 2005, O'Connell traded Bruins star center Joe Thornton to the San Jose Sharks, receiving Brad Stuart, Marco Sturm and Wayne Primeau in exchange. Thornton would ultimately win the Hart Memorial Trophy as the League's most valuable player and the Art Ross Trophy as scoring champion at the conclusion of the 2005–06 season.
Many important players on the Bruins roster were drafted during O'Connell's tenure as general manager, including Patrice Bergeron and David Krejčí, centerpieces of the team's Stanley Cup victory in 2011.
O'Connell is currently the director of professional player development with the Los Angeles Kings. In this role he has won 2 Stanley Cups in 2012 and 2014.
NHL coaching record
Awards and achievements
OMJHL First All-Star Team (1975)
CHL First All-Star Team (1977)
Most Valuable Defenseman - CHL (1977)
Played in NHL All-Star Game (1984)
Stanley Cup Championship (2012 and 2014)
Career statistics
Regular season and playoffs
International
References
External links
O'Connell's bio at Hockeydraftcentral.com
O'Connell's bio at LAKings.com
Boston Globe article
1955 births
Living people
Boston Bruins coaches
Boston Bruins executives
Boston Bruins players
Chicago Blackhawks draft picks
Chicago Blackhawks players
Dallas Black Hawks players
Detroit Red Wings players
Ice hockey coaches from Illinois
Ice hockey players from Chicago
Ice hockey people from Massachusetts
Kingston Canadians players
Los Angeles Kings coaches
Los Angeles Kings executives
National Hockey League All-Stars
National Hockey League executives
New Brunswick Hawks players
People from Cohasset, Massachusetts
Phoenix Roadrunners draft picks
Providence Bruins coaches
American men's ice hockey defensemen
Archbishop Williams High School alumni
Stanley Cup champions
Ice hockey players from Massachusetts
Ice hockey coaches from Massachusetts
Ice hockey people from Illinois |
4020602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Here%20There%20Be%20Dragons | Here There Be Dragons | Here There Be Dragons is a children's book by American writer Roger Zelazny. It is one of two stories he wrote for children, the other being Way Up High, and one of three books without heroic protagonists. The two children's books were first published with separate dust jackets but sold only in shared slipcases bearing the title Here There Be Dragons/Way Up High . One thousand copies of each book were produced in 1992 signed by Zelazny with illustrations by Vaughn Bodē.
Zelazny wrote Here There Be Dragons and Way Up High for his children in 1968-69. He admired the work of underground comics artist Vaughn Bodē and commissioned him to illustrate the two books. The drawings were exhibited at the 1969 World Science Fiction Convention in St. Louis, but before the books could be published Bodē informed Zelazny that although Zelazny owned the pictures he did not have the reproduction rights. Christopher S. Kovacs in his literary biography of Zelazny explains the issue: “Zelazny saw the book as two of his tales illustrated by Bodē, but Bodē viewed it as a showcase of his art illuminated by Zelazny’s text.” The publication of the books foundered when Zelazny and Bodē insisted on equal royalties. Bodē died in 1975 and his estate agreed to the publication of the books with Bodē's illustrations in 1992.
Characters
William – The fourth adviser to the king goes on a quest to find a medium-sized dragon with colored lights in lieu of fireworks for the king's daughter's tenth birthday party.
the king – A foolish sovereign of a small, isolated kingdom surrounded by high, rugged mountains commands his four advisers to provide fireworks for his daughter's birthday party.
Mr. Gibberling – The royal cartographer writes “HERE THERE BE DRAGONS” in unknown territories at the edges of his maps.
Bell/Belkis – Bell is a lizard captured by William who promises to provide a medium-sized dragon for the party. However, at the party he transforms himself into Belkis, a large, ferocious, flame-breathing dragon.
Plot synopsis
In an isolated kingdom, people do not travel abroad because the kingdom is surrounded by high mountains and because they think there are ferocious dragons beyond the mountains. They think there are dragons because the royal cartographer, Mr. Gibberling, does not know what is beyond the mountains so in the blank areas on the edges of his maps he writes "HERE THERE BE DRAGONS".
The king wants fireworks for his daughter's birthday party, but the fireworks maker dies without passing on his skills to another. The king consults with his four advisers. The first adviser comes up with the idea of importing a medium-sized dragon with colored lights for the party. The king thinks this is a splendid idea and after some discussion the first three advisers assign the dragon hunting job to the fourth adviser, a young man named William.
William goes on a quest to find such a dragon, but all he captures is a lizard named Bell. The lizard promises William that he will produce a medium-sized dragon with colored lights for the party. At the party, however, Bell transforms himself into a huge, menacing, fire-breathing dragon named Belkis. The dragon, it turns out, is interested in only one thing—Mr. Gibberling's practice of writing "HERE THERE BE DRAGONS" on his maps. He says that there are very few dragons, they wish to be left alone, and disguise themselves as innocuous animals such as lizards to avoid humans.
He insists that Mr. Gibberling fly on his back and make accurate maps of the lands around the kingdom and eliminate all references to dragons. Mr. Gibberling then makes excellent maps of the whole region. But on one side of his maps is an enormous ocean with unknown lands beyond it. Since he does not know what is there he writes: "HERE THERE BE SEA SERPENTS".
Reception
Carolyn Cushman in Locus calls Here There Be Dragons “a Thurberesque idea and [Zelazny] handles it quite well.” She goes on to write: “It’s a cute story, without intrusively obvious educational elements, and with just enough truth, wonder and silliness to catch the imagination of all ages.” She likes it “for its satiric wit and appeal across ages.” Darrell Schweitzer in Aboriginal Science Fiction writes that Here There Be Dragons and its companion piece, Way Up High, “are charming, and worthy of widespread circulation.”
Notes
References
Kovacs, Christopher S. The Ides of Octember: A Pictorial Bibliography of Roger Zelazny . Boston: NESFA Press, 2010.
Other sources
External links
1992 science fiction novels
Novels by Roger Zelazny
1992 American novels
Donald M. Grant, Publisher books |
4020610 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20T.%20Kirby | Steve T. Kirby | Steven Thomas Kirby (born March 26, 1952) was the 35th Lieutenant Governor of South Dakota. He is a member of local, state, and national boards of directors.
Early life and education
Kirby graduated with a bachelor of science degree in political science from Arizona State University and a Juris Doctor from the University of South Dakota School of Law. He married Suzette Hustead and became the father of a son and two daughters.
Career and politics
Kirby worked for Western Surety Company from 1977-92 as corporate secretary and senior claim counsel. He was a founding partner in South Dakota's largest venture capital firm, Bluestem Capital Company, which was established in 1992. After serving as Lieutenant Governor of South Dakota from 1993 to 1995, Kirby ran for the Republican nomination for Governor of South Dakota in 2002.
2002 South Dakota Gubernatorial Election
He entered the race after John Thune declared he would not run, but lost the election to Mike Rounds. It was one of South Dakota's greatest political upsets. Until late in 2001, then-Congressman Thune was the front-runner for the nomination. When Thune passed on the race in order to challenge Senator Tim Johnson, state Attorney General Mark Barnett and Kirby quickly became candidates. Rounds declared his candidacy late, in December 2001 and was out-raised and outspent ten-to-one by each of his opponents.
However, the contest between Kirby and Barnett soon became very negative and "dirty". Barnett attacked Kirby for not investing in companies based in South Dakota and for his involvement with Collagenesis, a company which removed skin from donated human cadavers and processed them for use. It became the subject of a massive scandal when it was revealed that the company was using the skins for much more lucrative cosmetic surgery like lip and penis enhancements while burn victims "lie waiting in hospitals as nurses scour the country for skin to cover their wounds, even though skin is in plentiful supply for plastic surgeons". Kirby invested in the company after the scandal broke and Barnett attacked him for it in television advertisements.
However, the advertisements backfired because "the claims were so outlandish, that people thought for sure that they were exaggerated or completely fabricated."
As the two front-runners concentrated on attacking each other, Rounds insisted on running a positive campaign and was not attacked by his opponents. Rounds' positive image and extensive knowledge of state government won him many supporters who were alienated by the front-runners. On the day of the primary election, Rounds won a stunning victory, with 44.3% of the vote to Barnett's 29.5% and Kirby's 26.1%.
Other political aspirations
Kirby considered running for the U.S. Senate in 2008 but declined to do so. He has said that he considered running for the Senate in 2014 following incumbent Senator Tim Johnson's retirement.
References
External links
Steve Kirby's profile at the eGisticis Inc. website
Bluestem Capital's website- includes a profile of Steve Kirby
1952 births
Arizona State University alumni
Lieutenant Governors of South Dakota
Living people
Politicians from Sioux Falls, South Dakota
South Dakota Republicans
University of South Dakota alumni |
4020614 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Here%2C%20There%20Be%20Dragons | Here, There Be Dragons | Here, There Be Dragons is a fantasy novel by James A. Owen. It is the first book in The Chronicles of the Imaginarium Geographica series. A sequel, followed by several more books, have since been released, including The Search for the Red Dragon (January 2008), The Indigo King (October 2008), The Shadow Dragons (October 2009), The Dragon's Apprentice (October 2010), The Dragons of Winter (August 2012), The First Dragon (November 2013), and a standalone sequel The Dragon Knight (Owen Novel) (November 2020).
Plot synopsis
John, Charles, and Jack are three Oxford scholars united by the death of Stellan Sigurdsson, John's mentor, who thereafter receive The Imaginarium Geographica, which records mythical and fictional locations. When pursued by the anthropophagous, plural Wendigo, they are rescued by Bert, with whom they travel aboard the ship Indigo Dragon (captained by Bert's daughter Aven), to Avalon, and then to Paralon, the capital of the Geographicas 'Archipelago of Dreams', where they discover this Archipelago in an interregnum and discover that its social order can be restored by a descendant of Arthur Pendragon. Desirous of obtaining the royal 'Ring of Power', and thus the kingship, is the 'Winter King' (Mordred). Upon a visit to shipbuilder 'Ordo Maas' (Deucalion), the protagonists learn that the Winter King is using Pandora's Box to create the wraithlike 'Shadow-Born', his principal servants, from the citizens of lands conquered by himself. Fearing that the Winter King may gain an advantage by possession of the Imaginarium Geographica, they visit its author, the Cartographer of Lost Places, in his refuge, the Keep of Time, where they discover that their servant 'Artus' is a descendant of Arthur. Knowing this, they challenge the Winter King to pitched battle, wherein the still-loyal Elves, Dwarves, and Centaurs etc. oppose Shadow-Born, Trolls, and Goblins while Charles and the badger 'Tummeler' close Pandora's Box in secret. On the battlefield, Jack accidentally causes the death of Captain Nemo, while John and Artus approach the 'Ring of Power' (a ring of standing stones resembling Stonehenge) to summon the Archipelago's dragons, who rout the enemy. Mordred is cast from the Edge of the World by the dragon Samaranth. Upon return to their own world, John, Jack, Charles, and Bert are identified as J.R.R Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and H.G. Wells.
Characters
A number of people referenced in the novel were members of the Inklings, a literary discussion group at the University of Oxford, England, that produced some famous novelists.John (J.R.R. Tolkien) is an ex-soldier, but becomes the 'Caretaker Principia' of the Imaginarium Geographica after the former Caretaker Principa is killed. Initially unable to read the Geographica, he eventually becomes proficient in so doing, and thereafter guides the others.Jack (C.S. Lewis) is the youngest of the three central characters, having not yet attended university (Oxford). Early on he demonstrates the most imagination of the three; but his recklessness briefly costs him his integrity, and Captain Nemo's life. Thereafter he restores to their former characters, all the lands conquered by antagonist Mordred.Charles (Charles Williams) is editor of the Oxford Press. Contemptuous of lesser antagonist 'Magwich', but gradually befriended by the badger 'Tummeler'.Bert (H.G. Wells) is former Caretaker of the Imaginarium Geographica, alongside Stellan Sigurdsson and J.M. Barrie, and identified with the protagonist of the historic Wells' novel The Time Machine.Aven is the captain of the ship Indigo Dragon, on which the protagonists initially travel; the daughter of H.G. Wells by his character Weena.Bug/Artus is a boy who stows away on the Indigo Dragon after release from the service of three Norns. A descendant of King Arthur, and thus the heir to the Archipelago.The Winter King/Mordred/Captain Hook is the antagonist, desirous of conquering the Archipelago by control of its population's shadows, and eventually of the dragons that guard the Archipelago itself. He is defeated by the dragon Samaranth.Magwich is Mordred's spy and assistant, and formerly an apprentice to Charles Dickens. He is constantly threatened and beaten by the protagonists, among whom he briefly travels. In the end of the first book he becomes a Green Knight to protect Avalon.Tummeler is a talking badger who accompanies the protagonists—eventually to close Pandora's Box by the shield of Perseus (given him by Samaranth), and thus terminate Mordred's 'Shadow-Born'.Ordo Maas combines the characters of Thoth, Noah, and Deucalion. To him are attributed the sentient Dragonships: the Indigo Dragon, the Violet Dragon, the Blue Dragon, the Orange Dragon, the Yellow Dragon, the White Dragon and the Red Dragon (a modified Argo). An advisor to the protagonists.Samaranth' is the first dragon. Like Ordo Maas, he gives the protagonists advice and (among other dragons) aids them in the final battle.
References
External links
2006 American novels
The Chronicles of the Imaginarium Geographica
Modern Arthurian fiction
American fantasy novels |
4020619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wichita%20Jets | Wichita Jets | Wichita Jets are a defunct soccer club that played in the 2000 USL Premier Development League season. They played in Wichita, Kansas.
Jets
Jets
Defunct Premier Development League teams
Association football clubs established in 2000
Association football clubs disestablished in 2001
2000 establishments in Kansas
2001 disestablishments in Kansas |
4020635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbaro%20%28horse%29 | Barbaro (horse) | Barbaro (April 29, 2003 – January 29, 2007) was a champion American Thoroughbred racehorse who won the 2006 Kentucky Derby but shattered his leg two weeks later in the Preakness Stakes which ended his racing career and eventually led to his death.
On May 20, 2006, Barbaro ran in the Preakness Stakes as a heavy favorite, but, after a false start, he fractured three bones in and around the fetlock of his right hind leg. The injury ruined any chance of a Triple Crown in 2006 and ended his racing career. The next day, he underwent surgery at the New Bolton Center at the University of Pennsylvania for his injuries. In July he developed laminitis in his left rear foot. He was rushed to the hospital, where he underwent five further operations, and his prognosis varied during an exceptionally long stay in the Equine Intensive Care Unit at the New Bolton Center. While his right hind leg eventually healed, a final risky procedure on it proved futile because the colt soon developed further laminitis in both front hooves. His veterinarians and owners concluded that he could not be saved, and Barbaro was euthanized on January 29, 2007.
He was a third-generation descendant of Mr. Prospector, and as such Barbaro was related to many notable racehorses including Afleet Alex, Smarty Jones, Funny Cide and Fusaichi Pegasus.
Background
Barbaro was bred and owned by Gretchen and Roy Jackson's Lael Stables of West Grove, Pennsylvania.
Barbaro was trained by Michael R. Matz at Fair Hill Training Center. During his racing career he was ridden by Edgar Prado and Jose Caraballo. Neither jockey rode him at any time other than in his races: Peter Brette was his regular exercise rider.
Racing career
Barbaro was undefeated in his first 5 starts.
He was sent off as the second choice in the Kentucky Derby at odds of 6:1, in a full field of twenty horses. Barbaro charged ahead during the last turn and straightaway of the race to win by six and a half lengths. Barbaro's lead in the final furlong expanded, although jockey Edgar Prado did not use the whip and ask for his top speed. This margin of victory at the Kentucky Derby was the largest since 1946, when Triple Crown winner Assault took the "Run for the Roses" by eight lengths. Barbaro's win made him only the sixth undefeated horse to win the Kentucky Derby. Barbaro had not competed for five weeks prior to the race, since the Grade I Florida Derby, which was the longest layoff in 50 years for a Derby winner.
Injury
Barbaro's Preakness Stakes began with a false start when he broke from the starting gate prematurely. Barbaro was deemed fit upon being reloaded into the gate. As the restarted race began, Barbaro broke cleanly, but suffered a catastrophic injury as the horses passed the grandstand shortly after the start.
Many theories arose as to the cause of the accident, though none have been confirmed. Barbaro broke his right hind leg in more than 20 places: a broken cannon bone above the pastern, a broken sesamoid bone behind the fetlock and a broken long pastern bone below the fetlock. The fetlock joint was dislocated, and his foot was left dangling loosely. Veteran jockey Edgar Prado immediately pulled Barbaro up, and brought him to a gentle stop. He dismounted and leaned his shoulder into the horse's shoulder to support Barbaro until track attendants could arrive. Bernardini with Javier Castellano as jockey went on to win the race.
Barbaro's injuries were life-threatening. Unlike other mammals, such as dogs, a horse cannot survive in humane circumstances on three legs. A broken leg in a horse can lead to complications as the other legs attempt to bear the weight of the horse's body.
Initial surgery
In 1971 Hoist The Flag underwent successful pioneering surgery for a similar injury to that suffered by Barbaro. Having been taken to the University of Pennsylvania's New Bolton Center in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania for treatment, Barbaro was assigned to the care of equine surgeon Dr. Dean Richardson. The New Bolton Center is renowned for its specialized care, especially for animals needing complicated bone surgery. The day after the race, Richardson performed a fusion of the fetlock and pastern joints to stabilize the leg and make it strong enough for Barbaro to walk on. It was a five-hour procedure and was one of the most difficult surgeries Richardson had performed. The surgical team successfully implanted a Synthes stainless steel Locking Compression Plate (LCP) and 27 screws into the colt's injured leg to span the comminuted fracture and joints. They used the LCP because its screws thread into the plate to provide maximum strength. Richardson was one of the first equine surgeons to implement this new technology, originally designed for humans. A fiberglass cast was placed over the LCP to further protect the construct. Barbaro was put into a recovery pool at 7:40pm.
After about an hour in the pool, at around 9:00 p.m. EDT, Barbaro began to calmly awaken from the anesthesia. He stood and then practically jogged to his stall. He ate and was able to comfortably put weight on the injured leg. The blood supply to the injury site was very good, but Richardson still gave Barbaro a 50–50 chance of survival. By the following morning Barbaro was already showing interest in some of the mares at the facility. He was walking well on his limb around the stall and was quite active for his condition; his first week of recovery went well. The cast was replaced on June 13, and again on July 3.
Complications
In the first week of July, complications arose, and Barbaro had problems with both hind legs. He developed an abscess in his uninjured left foot, which was treated topically, but he carried a fever through the weekend and failed to put weight on his injured right foot for any significant time.
By July 13, Barbaro had developed a severe case of laminitis in the left hind hoof—a potentially life-threatening affliction that is common in horses who shift weight to one hoof for extended periods to keep pressure off an injured hoof. A procedure called a hoof wall resection removed 80% of Barbaro's left rear hoof. The remaining 20% of his hoof wall was attached to the coffin bone and was still living tissue, but it was unclear how much of it would grow back. Both rear legs were in casts. Richardson stated that his plans were to restrict himself to aggressive but standard treatments; he would use no experimental procedures. Barbaro was given a special support boot for his laminitic hoof and placed on painkillers; a support sling was brought into his stall to allow him to take the weight off his hooves for hours at a time.
Recovery
On August 8, Barbaro's broken right leg had fused to the point where the veterinarians would have replaced the cast with a brace if his left leg had been sound. The coronet band (the area from which the hoof grows) on his left leg appeared healthy and all signs were encouraging. On August 15 it was reported that Barbaro had been allowed to graze outside for the first time since his accident. Two days later, Barbaro was no longer using the sling to support his weight, and its use was discontinued. The next day, August 18, radiographs showed that his fractured right leg was almost completely fused.
By September 26, it was decided that Barbaro's cast would not be replaced as long as he was comfortable in it. His left hind hoof had regrown about 18 millimeters and the support shoe had been replaced with a bandage. The hoof would have to grow to at least three times that length, a process that could take more than six months.
On October 10, Barbaro's cast and protective shoe were changed. His left rear hoof was gradually improving from laminitis. There was good growth along the quarters (closer to the heel) but there were still months of healing required for the front of the hoof.
Barbaro reached another milestone on November 6, 2006 when his cast was removed permanently and replaced with a splinted bandage. Barbaro's laminitic hoof showed no new problems, but several months of growth would have been necessary before it could be further diagnosed. Around December 12, Barbaro's bandage on his right hind leg was removed completely. This was announced during a press conference on Wednesday, December 13.
Further complications and death
Early in January 2007, the laminitic left hoof became the source of further complications. On January 10, another section of the hoof was surgically removed. Updates over the next few days revealed that the cast had been reapplied to Barbaro's right hind leg for support, and that aggressive pain management and the use of the support sling had been resumed. Nevertheless, Barbaro's condition was better than it had been the previous July.
In another setback, Barbaro developed a deep abscess in his right hind foot, a problem generally caused by lack of grip exercise. Additional surgery was performed on January 27 to insert two steel pins into the healed bones of Barbaro's right foot as part of an external skeletal fixation device. This would allow the right foot to bear more weight, but the procedure was risky, with the major danger being that the bones might break again. Later that same weekend, Barbaro's front hooves, which had remained healthy throughout the ordeal, displayed clear signs of laminitis because the horse was unable to bear weight on his hind legs. Thus, Barbaro could not then comfortably put his weight on any of his legs.
Barbaro was euthanized on January 29, 2007, at around 10:30a.m. EST by decision of his owners Roy and Gretchen Jackson, who indicated that they felt that his pain was no longer manageable.
For his efforts to save Barbaro, the Turf Publicists of America voted to award Richardson their 2006 Big Sport of Turfdom Award.
Memorial
Barbaro was cremated shortly after he was euthanized. On January 29, 2008 it was announced that his remains would be interred in front of an entrance to Churchill Downs, and that a bronze statue of Barbaro would be placed atop his remains. The Jacksons chose to place his remains outside of both Churchill Downs and the adjacent Kentucky Derby Museum to allow his many admirers to pay their respects without having to pay an admission fee.
The Barbaro Sculpture, created by Alexa King, was unveiled April 26, 2009 at Churchill Downs, the week preceding the Kentucky Derby.
Gulfstream Park established scholarships to the University of Florida with an initial total funding of $30,000 for two fourth-year students in Veterinary Medicine and one graduate student in equine veterinary research.
Barbaro also inspired a large anonymous donation to the New Bolton Center, allowing the establishment of the Barbaro Fund to aid the treatment and care of large animals.
In 2006, a Limited Edition Ty Beanie Babies Barbaro Beanie plushie was released. The plushie is 7 inches tall, 8 inches long and wears Barbaro's No. 8 on a pink saddle cloth.
In 2007, Breyer Animal Creations released a Barbaro model that includes a Certificate of Authenticity from his owners, jockey, and main doctor at the New Bolton Center.
The Jacksons have endowed a chair for equine disease research at the University of Pennsylvania's veterinary school.
In honor of Barbaro's valiant fight against his injuries in the 2006 Preakness Stakes, NTRA has established the NTRA Charities, Barbaro Memorial Fund. This fund will focus on Equine Health and Safety, which will include research to find a cure for laminitis, the disease that ultimately led to Barbaro's death.
Public reaction
After his breakdown in the Preakness, Barbaro became the object of public affection. His stall at the New Bolton Center was decorated with many thousands of Get Well cards (including a card from fans at the Belmont Stakes), and flowers and presents sent in by fans. Others sent in items meant to help his recovery, such as Christian medallions and holy water. His condition was reported by news organizations on a daily basis.
Over the course of Barbaro's treatment and after his death, there were sections of the media that felt that Barbaro did not merit the amount of attention that he was receiving from either his supporters or the media.
Others suggested that Barbaro had demonstrated a disposition that might enable him to survive and in time become a breeding stallion. Time magazine commented that despite the difficulties, Barbaro's fight was inspiring and that the hope for a near-miracle was not pointless.
Pedigree
Barbaro has four full brothers, three of which have raced, Nicanor (retired), Lentenor (retired), and Margano.
Racing career
Honors
Pimlico Racecourse has renamed the Sir Barton Stakes the Barbaro Stakes. The race is a part of the Preakness Stakes Day undercard. The winner of the first Barbaro Stakes on May 19, 2007 was Chelokee, a three-year-old colt trained by Michael Matz.
Delaware Park Racetrack renamed the Leonard Richards Stakes, a Grade III race for three-year-olds, the Barbaro Stakes. Its inaugural running took place on Sunday, July 15, 2007 and was won by Xchanger.
Books
Several books have been written about Barbaro. In 2007, HarperCollins published Barbaro: A Nation's Love Story written by Pamela K. Brodowsky and Tom Philbin. Barbaro, Smarty Jones & Ruffian: The People's Horses, written by Linda Hanna was published in 2008 by Middle Atlantic Press as was My Guy Barbaro: A Jockey's Journey Through Love, Triumph, and Heartbreak with America's Favorite Horse written by Edgar Prado, Barbaro's Derby-winning jockey, co-written by John Eisenberg and published by HarperCollins. In 2011, Alex Brown authored Greatness and Goodness: Barbaro and His Legacy, which was authorized by Barbaro's owners, the Jacksons, and examined Barbaro's life and his enduring legacy.
Feature film
In 2007 Universal Pictures announced director Peter Berg would produce and direct a feature film entitled Gone Like the Wind, based on an article published in Vanity Fair by Buzz Bissinger. Berg and Bissinger previously worked together on Friday Night Lights. Sarah Aubrey was announced as co-producer. The film was shelved indefinitely in favor of the Peter Berg-directed Battleship.
See also
List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses
References
External links
Barbaro Statistics and Media, NTRA
Barbaro Memorial Fund – NTRA Charities Finding a cure for Laminitis
2003 racehorse births
2007 racehorse deaths
Horses who died from racing injuries
Kentucky Derby winners
Racehorses bred in Kentucky
Racehorses trained in the United States
Thoroughbred family 16-h
Horse monuments
Animal deaths by euthanasia |
4020639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izumi%20Kobayashi | Izumi Kobayashi | is a professional Go player.
Biography
Izumi Kobayashi grew up in a family of accomplished Go players. She has joked that she first played Go in her mother's womb. Her father is Koichi Kobayashi, the man who ranks third in number of titles held in Japan. Her maternal grandfather was Kitani Minoru, one of the leading players and probably the greatest Go teacher. Her mother was Reiko Kobayashi née Kitani (1939–1996), 6 dan, who won the All-Japan Women's Championship several times. She became a professional go player in 1995, and was promoted to her current rank, 6 dan, in 2004. She is married to Cho U, one of the top players in Japan.
Promotion record
Titles & runners-up
References
1977 births
Japanese Go players
Living people
Female Go players |
4020646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesapeake%20Dragons | Chesapeake Dragons | Chesapeake Dragons were an American soccer team, founded in 2001. The team was a member of the United Soccer Leagues Premier Development League (PDL), the fourth tier of the American Soccer Pyramid, until 2004, when the team left the league and the franchise was terminated.
The Dragons played their home games at the Maryland SoccerPlex in the city of Germantown, Maryland, 31 miles northwest of downtown Washington, DC. The team's colors were blue, silver and black.
Final Squad
vs West Virginia Chaos, 14 July 2004
Year-by-year
Stadia
Bowie State Stadium, Bowie, Maryland 2003
Maryland SoccerPlex, Germantown, Maryland 2004
Soccer clubs in Maryland
Defunct Premier Development League teams
2001 establishments in Maryland
2004 disestablishments in Maryland |
4020658 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%20railways | Ottoman railways | Ottoman railways may refer to:
Chemins de Fer Ottomans d'Anatolie an Ottoman railway company located in Central Anatolia of the Ottoman Empire.
The Syria Ottoman Railway Company
Baghdad Railway
Hejaz railway
Other railways of the Ottoman Empire
For a history of railways in the parts of the Ottoman Empire subsequently becoming the Republic of Turkey both before and after 1927 see History of rail transport in Turkey
For descendent railway systems see also:
Rail transport in Turkey
Rail transport in Syria
Rail transport in Iraq
Rail transport in Lebanon
Rail transport in Israel
Rail transport in Egypt
Palestine Railways 1920-1948 |
4020668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%C3%AAm%20language | Anêm language | The Anêm language is a Papuan language spoken in five main villages along the northwestern coast of New Britain, Papua New Guinea.
External relationships
Anêm may be related to neighboring Ata and possibly to Yélî Dnye. Stebbins et al. state that further data on Anêm and Ata would be useful for exploring the possible connection between them.
Demographics
Anêm is spoken in the following villages of West New Britain Province:
Malasoŋo () (where it is spoken alongside Bariai)
Karaiai ()
Mosiliki ()
Pudêlîŋ ()
Atiatu () (where it is spoken alongside Lusi)
Bolo () (where it is spoken alongside a version of Aria)
All of the villages above are located in Kove-Kaliai Rural LLG of West New Britain Province, except for Malasoŋo, which is located in Gurrissi ward of Gloucester Rural LLG, West New Britain Province.
Anêm is also spoken by small numbers of people, mostly of Anêm descent, scattered among the surrounding villages. There are two main dialects.
Akiblîk, the dialect of Bolo, was near functional extinction in 1982, the youngest speaker then being about 35 years old. The main dialect is spoken in the other villages named above. There are about 800 speakers.
Phonology
Grammar
Anêm has been restructured under the influence of Lusi, the local intercommunity language.
Anêm is notable for having at least 20 possessive classes.
Syntax
Anêm is an accusative language with unmarked subject–verb–object word order in plain statements. Yes/no questions are indicated with an intonation contour rather than alterations in word order. Negation (not, not yet, don't) and completive aspect (already) are indicated by modality markers which occur in clause-final position. Tense is not indicated directly. There are three distinctions of mood (realis, irrealis and hortative). Realis refers to something that has happened or is happening; irrealis refers to future tense and hypotheticals; and hortative (only in third persons) is used in commands.
Transitive clauses showing subject–verb–object order:
Negative markers are clause final:
Hortative mood:
Nouns
Anêm nouns are distinguished syntactically for gender, masculine or feminine. Masculine nouns are followed by demonstratives or relative pronouns that begin with /l/ while feminine nouns are followed by demonstratives or relative pronouns that begin with /s/. In addition, both subject prefixes and some object suffixes agree in gender with the noun they refer to:
Masculine and feminine gender forms of demonstratives:
Gender agreement by subject prefix and object suffix:
There are 20 possession classes in Anêm. Meanings vary depending on the assigned noun class, as shown in the examples below, with ki ‘hair’ as the noun root.
ki-l-e ‘my hair (head)’
ki-ŋ-e ‘my hair (pubic)’
ki-g-a ‘my hair (body)’
Vocabulary
100-word Swadesh list of Anêm:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Anêm
|-
| I || ue
|-
| you (sg.) || nin
|-
| we || miŋ / mîn
|-
| this (masc.) || ler
|-
| this (fem.) || ser
|-
| that (masc.) || lan
|-
| that (fem.) || san
|-
| who? || mên
|-
| what? || gîmên
|-
| not || mantu
|-
| all || buno
|-
| many || buno
|-
| one || mîdê
|-
| two || niak
|-
| big || omba
|-
| long || sêgêl
|-
| small || boid
|-
| woman || dobalîŋ
|-
| man || axaŋ
|-
| person || doxam
|-
| fish || ia
|-
| bird || êknîn
|-
| dog || kaua
|-
| louse || seim
|-
| tree || aŋ
|-
| seed || lali
|-
| leaf || ki
|-
| root || zilŋon
|-
| bark || palau
|-
| skin || palau
|-
| flesh || be
|-
| blood || esin
|-
| bone || exe
|-
| grease || êmzêk
|-
| egg || nil
|-
| horn ||
|-
| tail || taba
|-
| feather || ki
|-
| hair || ki
|-
| head || og
|-
| ear || gêt
|-
| eye || ei
|-
| nose || piŋi
|-
| mouth || boŋ
|-
| tooth || lo
|-
| tongue || êlêŋ
|-
| claw || gi
|-
| foot || ti
|-
| knee || bol
|-
| hand || tîm
|-
| belly || êtêl
|-
| neck || agîm
|-
| breasts || i
|-
| heart || dokam
|-
| liver || êl
|-
| drink || -ik
|-
| eat ||
|-
| bite || -ŋai
|-
| see || -kê
|-
| hear || -degiŋ
|-
| know || -pun
|-
| sleep || -sêm / -tel
|-
| die || -zik / -lkîl
|-
| kill || -b / -pel
|-
| swim || -us
|-
| fly || -iê
|-
| walk || -li
|-
| come || -mên
|-
| lie || -sêm / -tel
|-
| sit || -sîk / -sîl
|-
| stand || -lîk / -lul
|-
| give || -sn
|-
| say || -ual
|-
| sun || ado
|-
| moon || klîŋ
|-
| star || eilî
|-
| water || komu
|-
| rain || iuo
|-
| stone || pa
|-
| sand || iabu
|-
| earth || eidî
|-
| cloud || olok
|-
| smoke || bîl
|-
| fire || kmî
|-
| ash || goxub
|-
| burn || -pma
|-
| path || iuŋ
|-
| mountain || êbêt
|-
| red || êxiêk
|-
| green / blue || biê
|-
| yellow || iaŋo
|-
| white || iagu
|-
| black || kŋîx
|-
| night || nib
|-
| hot || êŋîl
|-
| cold || epen
|-
| full || êpêx
|-
| new || masîk
|-
| good || leim
|-
| round || puax
|-
| dry || pît
|-
| name || eŋi
|}
See also
East Papuan languages
Further reading
Thurston, William R. 1982. A comparative study in Anem and Lusi. Pacific Linguistics B-83. Canberra: Australian National University.
References
West New Britain languages
Languages of West New Britain Province
Subject–object–verb languages |
4020670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menominee%20%28disambiguation%29 | Menominee (disambiguation) | The Menominee Indians are a nation of Native Americans.
Menominee can also refer to:
Menominee language, their language
College of Menominee Nation, a community college that the tribe founded
Menominee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin
Municipalities and administrative divisions
Menominee, Illinois, a village
Menominee Township, Jo Daviess County, Illinois
Menominee, Michigan
Menominee Township, Michigan
Menominee County, Michigan
Menominee, Nebraska
Menominee, Wisconsin, a town
Menominee County, Wisconsin
Land features
Little Menominee River in Wisconsin and Illinois
Menominee River in Michigan and Wisconsin
Menominee River (Illinois)
Other
Chief Menominee (c. 1791 – 1841) of the Potawatomi
Round whitefish, called menominees in parts of the northern Great Lakes
See also
Menomonee (disambiguation)
Menomonie (disambiguation) |
4020676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menomonee | Menomonee | Menomonee can refer to:
United States
Little Menomonee River in Ozaukee and Milwaukee counties, Wisconsin
Menomonee, Wisconsin, former town
Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin, village
Menomonee River in Washington, Waukesha, and Milwaukee counties in Wisconsin
Menomonee River Valley, Milwaukee
Menomonee (sculpture), a public artwork by Hilary Goldblatt in Milwaukee, Wisconsin
See also
Menominee (disambiguation)
Menomonie (disambiguation) |
4020685 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20Order | Orange Order | The Loyal Orange Institution, commonly known as the Orange Order, is an international Protestant fraternal order based in Northern Ireland and primarily associated with Ulster Protestants, particularly those of Ulster Scots heritage. It also has lodges in England, Scotland and the Republic of Ireland, as well as in parts of the Commonwealth of Nations, Togo and the United States. The Orange Order was founded by Ulster Protestants in County Armagh in 1795, during a period of Protestant–Catholic sectarian conflict, as a fraternity sworn to maintain the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. It is headed by the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland, established in 1798. Its name is a tribute to the Dutch-born Protestant king William of Orange, who defeated Catholic king James II in the Williamite–Jacobite War (16881691). The order is best known for its yearly marches, the biggest of which are held on or around 12 July (The Twelfth), a public holiday in Northern Ireland.
The Orange Order is a conservative, British unionist and Ulster loyalist organisation. Thus it has traditionally opposed Irish nationalism/republicanism and campaigned against Scottish independence. The Order sees itself as defending Protestant civil and religious liberties, whilst critics accuse it of being sectarian, triumphalist and supremacist. As a strict Protestant society, it does not accept non-Protestants as members unless they convert and adhere to the principles of Orangeism, nor does it accept Protestants married to Catholics. Orange marches through Irish Catholic neighbourhoods are controversial and have often led to violence, such as the Drumcree conflict.
History
The Orange Institution commemorates the civil and religious privileges conferred on Protestants by William of Orange, the Dutch prince who became King of England, Scotland, and Ireland in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. In particular, the Institution remembers the victories of William III and his forces in Ireland in the early 1690s, especially the Battle of the Boyne.
Formation and early years
Since the 1690s commemorations had been held throughout Ireland celebrating key dates in the Williamite War such as the Battle of Aughrim, Battle of the Boyne, Siege of Derry and the second Siege of Limerick. These followed a tradition started in Elizabethan England of celebrating key events in the Protestant calendar. By the 1740s there were organisations holding parades in Dublin such as the Boyne Club and the Protestant Society, both seen as forerunners to the Orange Order.
Armagh disturbances
Throughout the 1780s, sectarian tension had been building in County Armagh, largely due to the relaxation of the Penal Laws. Here the number of Protestants and Catholics (in what was then Ireland's most populous county) were of roughly equal number, and competition between them to rent patches of land near markets was fierce. Drunken brawls between rival gangs had by 1786 become openly sectarian. These gangs eventually reorganised as the Protestant Peep o' Day Boys and the Catholic Defenders, with the next decade in County Armagh marked by fierce sectarian conflict between both groups, which escalated and spread into neighbouring counties.
Battle of the Diamond
In September 1795, at a crossroads known as "The Diamond" near Loughgall, Defenders and Protestant Peep o' Day Boys gathered to fight each other. This initial stand-off ended without battle when the priest that accompanied the Defenders persuaded them to seek a truce, after a group called the "Bleary Boys" came from County Down to reinforce the Peep o' Day Boys. When a contingent of Defenders from County Tyrone arrived on 21 September, however, they were "determined to fight". The Peep o' Day Boys quickly regrouped and opened fire on the Defenders. According to William Blacker, the battle was short and the Defenders suffered "not less than thirty" deaths.
After the battle had ended, the Peep o' Days marched into Loughgall, and in the house of James Sloan they founded the Orange Order, which was to be a Protestant defence association made up of lodges. The principal pledge of these lodges was to defend "the King and his heirs so long as he or they support the Protestant Ascendancy". At the start the Orange Order was a "parallel organisation" to the Defenders in that it was a secret oath-bound society that used passwords and signs.
One of the very few landed gentry that joined the Orange Order at the outset, William Blacker, was unhappy with some of the outcomes of the Battle of the Diamond. He says that a determination was expressed to "driving from this quarter of the county the entire of its Roman Catholic population", with notices posted warning them "to Hell or Connaught". Other people were warned by notices not to inform on local Orangemen or "I will Blow your Soul to the Low hils of Hell And Burn the House you are in". Within two months, 7,000 Catholics had been driven out of County Armagh. According to Lord Gosford, the governor of Armagh:
A former Grand Master of the Order, also called William Blacker, and a former County Grand Master of Belfast, Robert Hugh Wallace have questioned this statement, saying whoever the Governor believed were the "lawless banditti", they could not have been Orangemen as there were no lodges in existence at the time of his speech. According to historian Jim Smyth:Later apologists rather implausibly deny any connection between the Peep-o'-Day Boys and the first Orangemen or, even less plausibly, between the Orangemen and the mass wrecking of Catholic cottages in Armagh in the months following 'the Diamond' – all of them, however, acknowledge the movement's lower-class origins.
The Order's three main founders were James Wilson (founder of the Orange Boys), Daniel Winter and James Sloan. The first Orange lodge was established in nearby Dyan, and its first grandmaster was James Sloan of Loughgall. Its first-ever marches were to celebrate the Battle of the Boyne and they took place on 12 July 1796 in Portadown, Lurgan and Waringstown.
United Irishmen rebellion
The Society of United Irishmen was formed by liberal Presbyterians and Anglicans in Belfast in 1791. It sought reform of the Irish Parliament, Catholic Emancipation and the repeal of the Penal Laws. By the time the Orange Order was formed, the United Irishmen had become a revolutionary group advocating an independent Irish republic that would "Unite Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter". United Irishmen activity was on the rise, and the government hoped to thwart it by backing the Orange Order from 1796 onward. Irish nationalist historians Thomas A. Jackson and John Mitchel argued that the government's goal was to hinder the United Irishmen by fomenting sectarianism, thereby creating disunity and disorder under pretence of "passion for the Protestant religion". Mitchel wrote that the government invented and spread "fearful rumours of intended massacres of all the Protestant people by the Catholics". Historian Richard R Madden wrote that "efforts were made to infuse into the mind of the Protestant feelings of distrust to his Catholic fellow-countrymen". Thomas Knox, British military commander in Ulster, wrote in August 1796 that "As for the Orangemen, we have rather a difficult card to play ... we must to a certain degree uphold them, for with all their licentiousness, on them we must rely for the preservation of our lives and properties should critical times occur".
The United Irishmen saw the Defenders as potential allies, and between 1794 and 1796 they formed a coalition. The United Irishmen, despite seeing the Defenders as "ignorant and poverty-stricken houghers and rick-burners" would claim in 1798 that they were indebted to the Armagh disturbances as the Orangemen had scattered politicised Catholics throughout the country and encouraged Defender recruitment, creating a proto-army for the United Irishmen to utilise.
The United Irishmen launched a rebellion in 1798. In Ulster, most of the United Irish commanders and many of the rebels were Protestant. Orangemen were recruited into the yeomanry to help fight the rebellion and "proved an invaluable addition to government forces". No attempt was made to disarm Orangemen outside the yeomanry because they were seen as by far the lesser threat. It was also claimed that if an attempt had been made then "the whole of Ulster would be as bad as Antrim and Down", where the United Irishmen rebellion was at its strongest. However, sectarian massacres by the Defenders in County Wexford "did much to dampen" the rebellion in Ulster. The Scullabogue Barn massacre saw over 100 non-combatant (mostly Protestant) men, women, and children imprisoned in a barn which was then set alight, with the Catholic and Protestant rebels ensuring none escaped, not even a child who it is claimed managed to break out only for a rebel to kill with his pike. In the trials that followed the massacres, evidence was recorded of anti-Orange sentiments being expressed by the rebels at Scullabogue. Partly as a result of this atrocity, the Orange Order quickly grew and large numbers of gentry with experience gained in the yeomanry came into the movement.
The homeland and birthplace of the Defenders was mid-Ulster and here they failed to participate in the rebellion, having been cowed into submission and surrounded by their Protestant neighbours who had been armed by the government. The sectarian attacks on them were so severe that Grand Masters of the Orange Order convened to find ways of reducing them. According to Ruth Dudley Edwards and two former Grand Masters, Orangemen were among the first to contribute to repair funds for Catholic property damaged in the rebellion.
One major outcome of the United Irishmen rebellion was the 1800 Act of Union that merged the Irish Parliament with that of Westminster, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Many Catholics supported the Act, but the Orange Order saw it as a threat to the "Protestant constitution" and 36 lodges in counties Armagh and Monaghan alone passed declarations opposing the Union.
Suppression
In the early nineteenth century, Orangemen were heavily involved in violent conflict with an Irish Catholic secret society called the Ribbonmen. One instance, publicised in a 7 October 1816 edition of the Boston Commercial Gazette, included the murder of a Catholic priest and several members of the congregation of Dumreilly parish in County Cavan on 25 May 1816. According to the article, "A number of Orangemen with arms rushed into the church and fired upon the congregation". On 19 July 1823 the Unlawful Oaths Bill was passed, banning all oath-bound societies in Ireland. This included the Orange Order, which had to be dissolved and reconstituted. In 1825 a bill banning unlawful associations – largely directed at Daniel O'Connell and his Catholic Association, compelled the Orangemen once more to dissolve their association. When Westminster finally granted Catholic Emancipation in 1829, Roman Catholics were free to take seats as MPs (and take up various other positions of influence and power from which they had been excluded) and play a part in framing the laws of the land. The likelihood of Irish Catholic members holding the balance of power in the Westminster Parliament further increased the alarm of Orangemen in Ireland, as O'Connell's 'Repeal' movement aimed to bring about the restoration of a separate Irish Parliament in Dublin, which would have a Catholic majority, thereby ending to the Protestant Ascendancy. From this moment on, the Orange Order re-emerged in a new and even more militant form.
In 1836 the Order was accused of plotting to place Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland and Imperial Grand Master of the Orange Order, on the throne in place of Victoria when King William IV died; once the plot was revealed the House of Commons called upon the King to disband the Order. Under pressure from Joseph Hume, William Molesworth and Lord John Russell, the King indicated measures would have to be taken and the Duke of Cumberland was forced to dissolve the Orange lodges.
Hume laid evidence before the House of Commons of an approach in July 1832 to Lord Londonderry. A letter from Lieutenant-Colonel W. B. Fairman, Deputy Grand Secretary of the Orange Institution of Great Britain, advised the Marquess that following "a death of importance" (the passing of the King), the Orangemen would abandon their policy of "non-resistance" to the present "Popish Cabinet, and democratical Ministry" (the parliamentary reform ministry of Earl Grey) and that "it might be political to join" them. Londonderry demurred: he had no doubt that the Duke of Cumberland would be persuaded that "the present state of liberal Whig feeling in this very Whig county ... entirely preclude the possibility of successful efforts at this juncture".
In 1845 the ban was again lifted, but the notorious Battle of Dolly's Brae between Orangemen and Ribbonmen in 1849 led to a ban on Orange marches which remained in place for several decades. This was eventually lifted after a campaign of disobedience led by William Johnston of Ballykilbeg.
Revival and the Independent Order
By the late 19th century, the Order was in decline. However, its fortunes were revived in the 1880s after its embrace by the landlords in opposition to both the Irish Land League and later Home Rule. The Order was heavily involved in opposition to Gladstone's first Irish Home Rule Bill 1886, and was instrumental in the formation of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP). Protestant opposition to Irish self-government under Roman Catholic influence was intense, especially in the Protestant-dominated province of Ulster.
In 1903, the Order suffered a split when Thomas Sloan left the organisation to set up the Independent Orange Order. Sloan had been suspended after running against the official unionist candidate on a pro-Belfast Protestant Association platform in the 1902 Belfast South by-election. For at least some of the independents, the split was a protest against what they saw as the co-optation of the Orange Order by the Ulster Unionist Party and its alignment with the interests of landlords and employers (the "fur coat brigade"). Their Grand Master, R. Lindsay Crawford outlined the new order's democratic manifesto in Orangeism, its history and progress: a plea for first principles (1904). However, his subsequent call in the Magheramorne Manifesto (1904) on Irish Protestants to "reconsider their position as Irish citizens and their attitude towards their Roman Catholic countrymen" proved too much for Sloan and most of the membership, and Crawford was eventually expelled.
Role in the partition of Ireland
In 1912 the Third Home Rule Bill was introduced in the British House of Commons. However, its introduction would be delayed until 1914. The Orange Order, along with the British Conservative Party and unionists in general, were inflexible in opposing the Bill. The Order helped to organise the 1912 Ulster Covenant – a pledge to oppose Home Rule which was signed by up to 500,000 people. In 1911 some Orangemen began to arm themselves and train as militias. In 1913 the Ulster Unionist Council decided to bring these groups under central control, creating the Ulster Volunteer Force, an Ulster-wide militia dedicated to resisting Home Rule. There was a strong overlap between Orange Lodges and UVF units. A large shipment of rifles was imported from Germany to arm them in April 1914, in what became known as the Larne gun-running.
However, the crisis was interrupted by the outbreak of the World War I in August 1914, which caused the Home Rule Bill to be suspended for the duration of the war. Many Orangemen served in the war with the 36th (Ulster) Division, suffering heavy losses, and commemorations of their sacrifice are still an important element of Orange ceremonies.
The Fourth Home Rule Act was passed as the Government of Ireland Act 1920; the six northeastern counties of Ulster became Northern Ireland and the other twenty-six counties became Southern Ireland. This self-governing entity within the United Kingdom was confirmed in its status under the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, and in its borders by the Boundary Commission agreement of 1925. Southern Ireland became first the Irish Free State in 1922 and then in 1949 a Republic.
Since 1921
The Orange Order had a central place in the new state of Northern Ireland. From 1921 to 1969, every Prime Minister of Northern Ireland was an Orangeman and member of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP); all but three Cabinet Ministers were Orangemen; all but one unionist Senators were Orangemen; and 87 of the 95 MPs who did not become Cabinet Ministers were Orangemen. James Craig, the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, maintained always that Ulster was in effect Protestant and the symbol of its ruling forces was the Orange Order. In 1932, Prime Minister Craig maintained that "ours is a Protestant government and I am an Orangeman". This was in response to a speech the year before by Eamonn de Valera in the Irish Free State claiming that Ireland was a "Catholic nation" in a debate about protests against Protestant woman Letitia Dunbar-Harrison being appointed as County Librarian in County Mayo. Two years later he stated: "I have always said that I am an Orangeman first and a politician and a member of this parliament afterwards ... All I boast is that we have a Protestant Parliament and a Protestant State".
At its peak in 1965, the Order's membership was around 70,000, which meant that roughly 1 in 5 adult Ulster Protestant males were members. Since 1965, it has lost a third of its membership, especially in Belfast and Derry. The Order's political influence suffered greatly after the unionist-controlled government of Northern Ireland was abolished in 1973.
In 2012, it was stated that estimated membership of the Orange Order was around 34,000.
After the outbreak of "the Troubles" in 1969, the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland encouraged Orangemen to join the Northern Ireland security forces, especially the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and the British Army's Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR). The response from Orangemen was strong. Over 300 Orangemen were killed during the conflict, the vast majority of them members of the security forces. Some Orangemen also joined loyalist paramilitary groups. During the conflict, the Order had a fractious relationship with loyalist paramilitary groups, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), the Independent Orange Order and the Free Presbyterian Church. The Order urged its members not to join these organisations, and it is only recently that some of these intra-unionist breaches have been healed.
Drumcree dispute
The Drumcree dispute is perhaps the most well-known episode involving the Order since 1921. On the Sunday before 12 July each year, Orangemen in Portadown would traditionally march to-and-from Drumcree Church. Originally, most of the route was farmland, but is now the densely populated Catholic part of town. The residents have sought to re-route the march away from this area, seeing it as "triumphalist" and "supremacist".
There have been intermittent violent clashes during the march since the 19th century. The onset of the Troubles led to the dispute intensifying in the 1970s and 1980s. At this time, the most contentious part of the march was the outward leg along Obins Street. After serious violence two years in a row, the march was banned from Obins Street in 1986. The focus then shifted to the return leg along Garvaghy Road.
Each July from 1995 to 2000, the dispute drew worldwide attention as it sparked protests and violence throughout Northern Ireland, prompted a massive police/army operation, and threatened to derail the peace process. The situation in Portadown was likened to a "war zone" and a "siege". During this time, supporters of the Orangemen murdered at least six Catholic civilians. In 1995 and 1996, residents succeeded in stopping the march. This led to a standoff at Drumcree between the security forces and thousands of loyalists. Following a wave of loyalist violence, the march was allowed through. In 1997, security forces locked down the Catholic area and forced the march through, citing loyalist threats. This sparked widespread protests and violence by Irish nationalists. From 1998 onward the march was banned from Garvaghy Road and the Catholic area was sealed-off with large barricades. For a few years, there was an annual major standoff at Drumcree and widespread loyalist violence. Since 2001, things have been relatively calm, but the Order still campaigns for the right to march on Garvaghy Road. The dispute led to a short-lived boycott of businesses owned by Orangemen and their supporters elsewhere in the region.
Membership rates
Membership of the Order was historically lower in areas where Protestants are in the majority, and vice versa. In County Fermanagh, where the Catholic and Protestant populations are close to parity, membership in 1971 was three times as high as in the more Protestant counties of Antrim and Down, where it was just over 10% of adult Protestant males. Other factors that are associated with high rates of membership are levels of unemployment that more closely match Catholic levels, and low levels of support for the Democratic Unionist Party among unionists.
Beliefs and activities
Protestantism
The basis of the modern Orange Order is the promotion and propagation of "biblical Protestantism" and the principles of the Reformation. As such the Order only accepts those who confess a belief in a Protestant religion. As well as Catholics, non-creedal and non-Trinitarian Christians are also banned. This includes members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Jehovah's Witnesses, Unitarians, and some branches of Quakers.
Previous rules specifically forbade Roman Catholics and their close relatives from joining but the current rules use the wording "non-reformed faith" instead. Converts to Protestantism can join by appealing to Grand Lodge.
Masonic influences
James Wilson and James Sloan, who issued the warrants for the first Lodges of the Orange Order along with 'Diamond' Dan Winter, were Freemasons, and in the 19th century many Irish Republicans regarded the Orange Order as a front group established by Unionist Masons as a more violent and jingoist vehicle for the promotion of Unionism. Some anti-Masonic evangelical Christian groups have claimed that the Orange Order is still influenced by freemasonry. Many Masonic traditions survive, such as the organisation of the Order into lodges. The Order has a similar system of degrees through which new members advance. These degrees are interactive plays with references to the Bible. There is particular concern over the ritualism of higher degrees such as the Royal Arch Purple and the Royal Black Institutions.
Sabbatarianism
The Order considers important the Fourth Commandment, and that it forbids Christians to work, or engage in non-religious activity generally, on Sundays. When the Twelfth of July falls on a Sunday the parades traditionally held on that date are held the next day instead. In March 2002, the Order threatened "to take every action necessary, regardless of the consequences" to prevent the Ballymena Show being held on a Sunday. The County Antrim Agricultural Association complied with the Order's wishes.
Politics
The Orange Order is strongly linked to British unionism. This is a political ideology that supports the continued unity of the United Kingdom. Unionism is thus opposed to, for example, the unification of Ireland and Scottish independence.
The Order, from its very inception, was an overtly political organisation. In 1905, when the Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) was formed, the Orange Order was entitled to send delegates to its meetings. The UUC was the decision-making body of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP). Between 1922 and 1972, the UUP was consistently the largest party in the Northern Ireland Parliament, and all Prime Ministers of Northern Ireland and the vast majority of senior UUP figures were members of the Order. Due to its close links with the UUP, the Orange Order was able to exert great influence. The Order was the force behind the UUP no-confidence votes in reformist Prime Ministers Terence O'Neill (1969), James Chichester-Clark (1969–71), and Brian Faulkner (1972–74). At the outbreak of The Troubles in 1969, the Order encouraged its members to join the Northern Ireland security forces. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) attracted the most seats in an election for the first time in 2003. DUP leader Ian Paisley had been clashing with the Order since 1951, when the Order banned members of Paisley's Free Presbyterian Church from acting as Orange chaplains and later, from the 1970s, when it openly endorsed the UUP against the DUP. Recently, however, Orangemen have begun voting for the DUP in large numbers due to their opposition to the Good Friday Agreement. Relations between the DUP and Order have healed greatly since 2001, and there are now a number of high-profile Orangemen who are DUP MPs and strategists.
In December 2009, the Orange Order held secret talks with Northern Ireland's two main unionist parties, the DUP and UUP. The main goal of these talks was to foster greater unity between the two parties, in the run-up to the May 2010 general election. Sinn Féin's Alex Maskey said that the talks exposed the Order as a "very political organisation". Shortly after the election, Grand Master Robert Saulters called for a "single unionist party" to maintain the union. He said that the Order has members "who represent all the many shades of unionism" and warned, "we will continue to dilute the union if we fight and bicker among ourselves".
In the October 2010 issue of The Orange Standard, Grand Master Robert Saulters referred to 'dissident' Irish republican paramilitaries as the "Roman Catholic IRA". SDLP MLA John Dallat asked Justice Minister David Ford to find if Saulters had broken the hate speech laws. He said: "Linking the Catholic community or indeed any community to terror groups is inciting weak-minded people to hatred, and surely history tells us what that has led to in the past". In a 2011 survey of 1,500 Orangemen throughout Northern Ireland, over 60% believed that "most Catholics are IRA sympathisers".
In 2015, the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland made a submission to the Northern Ireland Department of Arts, Culture and Leisure opposing the introduction of an Irish Language Bill. In its submission, the Lodge stated that it respected "Irish as one of the indigenous languages of the British Isles". However, the Lodge argued an Irish Language Act would promote inequality because it would be "directed towards a section of the Roman Catholic community".
Parades
Parades are a big part of the Order's activities. Most Orange lodges hold a yearly parade from their Orange hall to a local church. The denomination of the church is quite often rotated, depending on local demographics.
The highlights of the Orange year are the parades leading up to the celebrations on the Twelfth of July. The Twelfth, however, remains in places a deeply divisive issue, not least because of the alleged triumphalism, anti-Catholicism and anti-Irish nationalism of the Orange Order. In recent years, most Orange parades have passed peacefully. All but a handful of the Orange Order parades, at so-called "interface areas" where the two communities live next to each other, are peaceful.
The locations used for the annual Twelfth parades are located throughout the six counties of Northern Ireland with County Down having the most venues with thirty-three. Counties Armagh and Fermanagh having a smaller population both have twelve host venues. Some smaller villages such as Carrickmore, Cushendall, Rostrevor, Crossmaglen and Draperstown are not marched in at all and areas with a sizeable population like Coalisland and Dungiven have never been the host for a major Twelfth parade.
The Grand Lodge of Ireland does not recognise the Parades Commission, which it sees as having been founded to target Protestant parades, as Protestants parade at ten times the rate of Catholics. Grand Lodge is, however, divided on the issue of working with the Parades Commission. 40% of Grand Lodge delegates oppose official policy while 60% are in favour. Most of those opposed to Grand Lodge policy are from areas facing parade restrictions like Portadown District, Bellaghy, Derry City and Lower Ormeau.
In a 2011 survey of Orangemen throughout Northern Ireland, 58% said they should be allowed to march through Irish nationalist and Catholic areas with no restrictions; 20% said they should negotiate with residents first.
Orange halls
Monthly meetings are held in Orange halls. Orange halls on both sides of the Irish border often function as community halls for Protestants and sometimes those of other faiths, although this was more common in the past. The halls often host community groups such as credit unions, local marching bands, Ulster-Scots and other cultural groups as well as religious missions and unionist political parties.
Of the approximately 700 Orange halls in Ireland, 282 have been targeted by arsonists since the beginning of the Troubles in 1968. Paul Butler, a prominent member of Sinn Féin, has said the arson is a "campaign against properties belonging to the Orange Order and other loyal institutions" by nationalists. On one occasion a member of Sinn Féin's youth wing was hospitalised after falling off the roof of an Orange hall. In a number of cases halls have been badly damaged or completely destroyed by arson, while others have been damaged by paint bombings, graffiti and other vandalism. The Order claims that there is considerable evidence of an organised campaign of sectarian vandalism by Irish republicans. Grand Secretary Drew Nelson claims that statistical analysis shows that this campaign began in the last years of the 1980s and continues to the present.
Historiography
One of the Orange Order's activities is teaching members and the general public about William of Orange and associated subjects. Both the Grand Lodge and various individual lodges have published numerous booklets about William and the Battle of the Boyne, often aiming to show that they have continued relevance, and sometimes comparing the actions of William's adversary James II with those of the Northern Ireland Office. Furthermore, historical articles are often published in the Order's monthly newspaper The Orange Standard (available in a print edition and also electronically) and the Twelfth souvenir booklet. While William is the most frequent subject, other topics have included the Battle of the Somme (particularly the 36th (Ulster) Division's role in it), Saint Patrick (who the Order argues was not Roman Catholic), and the Protestant Reformation.
There are at least two Orange Lodges in Northern Ireland which they claim represent the heritage and religious ethos of Saint Patrick. The best known is the Cross of Saint Patrick LOL (Loyal Orange lodge) 688, instituted in 1968 for the purpose of (re)claiming Saint Patrick. The lodge has had several well-known members, including Rev Robert Bradford MP who was the lodge chaplain who himself was killed by the Provisional IRA, the late Ernest Baird. Today Nelson McCausland MLA and Gordon Lucy, Director of the Ulster Society are the more prominent members within the lodge membership. In the 1970s there was also a Belfast lodge called Oidhreacht Éireann (Ireland's Heritage) LOL 1303, which argued that the Irish language and Gaelic culture were not the exclusive property of Catholics or republicans.
William was supported by the Pope in his campaigns against James' backer Louis XIV of France, and this fact is sometimes left out of Orange histories.
Occasionally the Order and the more fundamentalist Independent Order publishes historical arguments based more on religion than on history. British Israelism, which claims that the British people are descended from the Israelites and that Queen Elizabeth II is a direct descendant of the Biblical King David, has from time to time been advanced in Orange publications.
War commemoration
The Order has been prominent in commemorating Ulster's war dead, particularly Orangemen and particularly those who died in the Battle of the Somme (1916) during World War I. There are many parades on and around 1 July in commemoration of the Somme, although the war memorial aspect is more obvious in some parades than others. There are several memorial lodges, and a number of banners which depict the Battle of the Somme, war memorials, or other commemorative images. In the grounds of the Ulster Tower Thiepval, which commemorates the men of the Ulster Division who died in the Battle of the Somme, a smaller monument pays homage to the Orangemen who died in the war.
Relationship with loyalist paramilitaries
The Orange Order has been criticised for associating with loyalist paramilitary groups such as the UVF and UDA, which are classified as terrorist organisations. However, it has publicly condemned terrorism and paramilitary violence. Some bands that appear at Orange marches openly display support for loyalist paramilitary groups, such as by carrying paramilitary flags or sporting paramilitary names and emblems. For example, prominent loyalist John Gregg was a member of Cloughfern Young Conquerors band, while Coleraine-based Freeman Memorial band was named after a UVF member who was killed by his own bomb. It has also been claimed that paramilitary groups approach certain bands asking the band to carry a flag of their organisation with financial assistance sometimes offered for doing so.
A number of prominent loyalist militants were members of the Orange Order at the same time. This includes Gusty Spence, Robert Bates, Davy Payne, David Ervine, John Bingham, George Seawright, Richard Jameson, Billy McCaughey, Robert McConnell and Ernie Elliott. The banner of Old Boyne Island Heroes Orange lodge bears the names of John Bingham and Shankill Butcher Robert Bates, who were both members. Another Shankill Butcher, UDR soldier Eddie McIlwaine, was pictured taking part in an Orange march in 2003 with a bannerette of killed UVF member Brian Robinson (who himself was an Orangeman). McIlwaine was also pictured acting as a steward at a 2014 Orange march. An Orange Order spokesman refused to condemn McIlwaine's membership of the Order.
On 12 July 1972, at least fifty masked and uniformed members of the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) escorted an Orange march into the Catholic area of Portadown, saluting the Orangemen as they passed. That year, Orangemen formed a paramilitary group called the Orange Volunteers. This group "bombed a pub in Belfast in 1973 but otherwise did little illegal other than collect the considerable bodies of arms found in Belfast Orange Halls". Portadown Orangemen allowed known militants such as George Seawright to take part in a 6 July 1986 march, contrary to a prior agreement. Seawright was a unionist politician and UVF member who had publicly proposed burning Catholics in ovens. As the march entered the town's Catholic district, the RUC seized Seawright and other known militants. The Orangemen attacked the officers with stones and other missiles.
When a July 1992 Orange march passed the scene of the Sean Graham bookmakers' shooting—in which the UDA killed five Catholic civilians—Orangemen shouted pro-UDA slogans and held aloft five fingers as a taunt to residents. Journalists Henry McDonald and Jim Cusack said images of Orangemen "gloating over the massacre" were beamed around the world and were a public relations disaster for the Order. Patrick Mayhew, then Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, said the marchers "would have disgraced a tribe of cannibals". The incident led to a more concerted effort by residents to have the marches banned from the area. In 2007, a banner commemorating UDA member Joe Bratty appeared at an Orange march. Bratty was said to have orchestrated the massacre.
Orange lodges in Britain have also been accused of links with loyalist paramilitaries. In the early years of The Troubles, the Order's Grand Secretary in Scotland toured Orange lodges for volunteers to "go to Ulster to fight". Thousands are believed to have volunteered although only a small number travelled to Ulster. During the 1970s an Orangeman—Roddy MacDonald—was the UDA's 'commander' in Scotland. In 1976, senior Scottish Orangemen tried to expel him after he admitted on television that he was a UDA leader and had smuggled weapons to Northern Ireland. However, his expulsion was blocked by 300 Orangemen at a special disciplinary hearing. His successor as Scottish UDA commander, James Hamilton, was also an Orangeman. Many Scottish Orangemen were also convicted for loyalist paramilitary activity, and some Orange meetings were used to raise funds for loyalist prisoners' welfare groups. In 2006, three Liverpool Orangemen were jailed for possession of weapons and UVF membership. Local MP Louise Ellman called for them to be expelled from the Order.
During the Drumcree standoffs, loyalist militants publicly supported the Orangemen and launched waves of violence across NI in protest at the Orange march being blocked. They smuggled homemade weaponry to Drumcree, apparently unhindered by the Orangemen, and attacked police lines. Members of the UDA/UFF appeared at Drumcree with banners supporting the Orangemen. Portadown Orange Lodge said it could not stop such people from gathering, but added that it welcomed any support. Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF) leader Billy Wright was frequently seen at Drumcree in the company of Harold Gracey, head of Portadown Orange Lodge. Gracey later attended a rally in support of Wright and refused to condemn the loyalist violence linked to the standoff.
In the late 1990s, Stoneyford Orange Hall was reported to be a focal point for the Orange Volunteers. Following a police raid on the hall, two Orangemen were convicted for possession of "documents likely to be of use to terrorists", an automatic rifle, and membership of the Orange Volunteers. Their Orange lodge refused to expel them.
An Orangeman and DUP election candidate with links to the Real UFF in Antrim was jailed in 2013 for his part in a sectarian attack on a Polish family. He was expelled from the Order.
The Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland has issued several statements condemning violence and paramilitarism. Answering accusations of paramilitary links by Sinn Féin in 2011, an Orange spokesman said: "The Orange Order has consistently condemned all terrorist violence". In 2008, Armagh Orangemen condemned the flying of paramilitary flags. Denis Watson, the then secretary of the Grand Lodge of Ireland, has publicly called for anyone convicted of terrorist offences to be thrown out. Addressing a 12 July demonstration in 2000, Orangeman and Democratic Unionist politician Jeffrey Donaldson said "It is essential that the Orange Order does not allow the paramilitaries to infiltrate its parades or hijack legitimate protests as a means of flaunting their aggression and engaging in displays of naked intimidation ... The Orange Order stands for higher ideals than this and must at every opportunity condemn the illegal activities of the paramilitaries and of all those who engage in acts of violence". Eric Kaufmann, in his book The New Unionism, writes: "The Orange Order actually took a firm stand against violence and paramilitarism throughout the Troubles. This opposition was rooted in the large contingent of Protestant clergymen who are built into the power structure of the Order. Young Orangemen were urged to join the RUC (police) or UDR (local security forces) and to stay away from paramilitaries".
Requirements for entry
"An Orangeman should have a sincere love and veneration for his Heavenly Father, a humble and steadfast faith in Jesus Christ, the Saviour of mankind, believing in Him as the only Mediator between God and man. He should cultivate truth and justice, brotherly kindness and charity, devotion and piety, concord and unity, and obedience to the laws; his deportment should be gentle and compassionate, kind and courteous; he should seek the society of the virtuous, and avoid that of the evil; he should honour and diligently study the Holy Scriptures, and make them the rule of his faith and practice; he should love, uphold, and defend the Protestant religion, and sincerely desire and endeavour to propagate its doctrines and precepts; he should strenuously oppose the fatal errors and doctrines of the Church of Rome and other Non-Reformed faiths, and scrupulously avoid countenancing (by his presence or otherwise) any act or ceremony of Roman Catholic or other non-Reformed Worship; he should, by all lawful means, resist the ascendancy, encroachments, and the extension of their power, ever abstaining from all uncharitable words, actions, or sentiments towards all those who do not practice the Reformed and Christian Faith; he should remember to keep holy the Sabbath Day, and attend the public worship of God, and diligently train up his offspring, and all under his control, in the fear of God, and in the Protestant faith; he should never take the name of God in vain, but abstain from all cursing and profane language, and use every opportunity of discouraging those, and all other sinful practices, in others; his conduct should be guided by wisdom and prudence, and marked by honesty, temperance, and sobriety, the glory of God and the welfare of man, the honour of his Sovereign, and the good of his country, should be the motives of his actions."
Most jurisdictions require both the spouse and parents of potential applicants to be Protestant, although the Grand Lodge can be appealed to make exceptions for converts. Members have been expelled for attending Roman Catholic religious ceremonies. In the period from 1964 to 2002, 11% of those expelled from the order were expelled for their presence at a Roman Catholic religious event such as a baptism, service or funeral. This is based on Reformed Christian theology, which teaches that the Roman Catholic Mass is idolatry, a view promulgated by Protestant Reformers such as Martin Luther.
The Order takes as its basis the Open Bible and historical Reformed documents such as the Presbyterian Westminster Confession, Anglican 39 Articles and other Protestant creeds. All prospective members must affirm their Reformed Christian Faith prior to membership.
The Laws and Constitutions of the Loyal Orange Institution of Scotland of 1986 state, "No ex-Roman Catholic will be admitted into the Institution unless he is a Communicant in a Protestant Church for a reasonable period." Likewise, the "Constitution, Laws and Ordinances of the Loyal Orange Institution of Ireland" (1967) state, "No person who at any time has been a Roman Catholic ... shall be admitted into the Institution, except after permission given by a vote of seventy-five per cent of the members present founded on testimonials of good character ..." In the 19th century, Mortimer O'Sullivan, a converted Roman Catholic, was a Grand Chaplain of the Orange Order in Ireland. In the 1950s, Scotland also had a former Roman Catholic as a Grand Chaplain, William McDermott.
Structure
The Orange Institution in Ireland has the structure of a pyramid. At its base are about 1400 private lodges; every Orangeman belongs to a private lodge. Each private lodge sends six representatives to the district lodge, of which there are 126. Depending on size, each district lodge sends seven to thirteen representatives to the county lodge, of which there are 12. Each of these sends representatives to the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland, which heads the Orange Order.
The Grand Lodge of Ireland has 373 members. As a result, much of the real power in the Order resides in the Central Committee of the Grand Lodge, which is made up of three members from each of the six counties of Northern Ireland (Down, Antrim, Armagh, Londonderry, Tyrone and Fermanagh) as well as the two other County Lodges in Northern Ireland, the City of Belfast Grand Lodge and the City of Londonderry Grand Orange Lodge, two each from the remaining Ulster counties (Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan), one from Leitrim, and 19 others. There are other committees of the Grand Lodge, including rules revision, finance, and education.
Despite this hierarchy, private lodges are basically autonomous as long as they generally obey the rules of the Institution. Breaking these can lead to suspension of the lodge's warrant – essentially the dissolution of the lodge – by the Grand Lodge, but this rarely occurs. Private lodges may disobey policies laid down by senior lodges without consequence. For example, several lodges have failed to expel members convicted of murder despite a rule stating that anyone convicted of a serious crime should be expelled, and Portadown lodges have negotiated with the Parades Commission in defiance of Grand Lodge policy that the commission should not be acknowledged.
Private lodges wishing to change Orange Order rules or policy can submit a resolution to their district lodge, which may submit it upwards until it eventually reaches the Grand Lodge.
All Lodge meetings commence with the reading of the Bible and prayers that non-practising Protestants, Roman Catholics and people of other faiths and none, 'may become wise unto salvation' (which is direct quote from 2 Timothy 3:15 in the Bible).
Related organisations
Association of Loyal Orangewomen of Ireland
A distinct women's organisation grew up out of the Orange Order. Called the Association of Loyal Orangewomen of Ireland, this organisation was revived in December 1911 having been dormant since the late 1880s. They have risen in prominence in recent years, largely due to protests in Drumcree. The women's order is parallel to the male order, and participates in its parades as much as the males apart from 'all male' parades and 'all ladies' parades respectively. The contribution of women to the Orange Order is recognised in the song "Ladies Orange Lodges O!".
Independent Orange Institution
The Independent Orange Institution was formed in 1903 by Thomas Sloan, who opposed the main Order's domination by Unionist Party politicians and the upper classes. A dispute between unionist candidates in East Belfast who were both Orangemen, saw one being kicked out of the Order for embarrassing an Orange grandee who had apparently not voted against a nationalist motion. The Independent Order originally had radical tendencies, especially in the area of labour relations, but this soon faded. In the 1950s and 60s the Independents focused primarily on religious issues, especially the maintenance of Sunday as a holy day and separation of politics from religion. With the outbreak of the Troubles, Ian Paisley began regularly speaking at Independent meetings, although he was never a member. As a result, the Independent Institution has become associated with Paisley and the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster and Democratic Unionist Party. Recently the relationship between the two Orange Institutions has improved, with joint church services being held. Some people believe that this will ultimately result in a healing of the split which led to the Independent Orange Institution breaking away from the mainstream Order. Like the main Order, the Independent Institution parades and holds meetings on the Twelfth of July. It is based mainly in north Antrim.
Royal Black Institution
The Royal Black Institution was formed out of the Orange Order two years after the founding of the parent body. Although it is a separate organisation, one of the requirements for membership in the Royal Black is membership of the Orange Order and to be no less than 17 years old. The membership is exclusively male and the Royal Black Chapter is generally considered to be more religious and respectable in its proceedings than the Orange Order.
Apprentice Boys of Derry
The Apprentice Boys of Derry exist for their acts during the siege of Derry from James II. Although they have no formal connection with the Orange Order, the two societies have overlapping membership.
Throughout the world
The Orange Order was brought to other parts of the English-speaking world by Ulster Protestant migrants and missionaries. Grand Lodges have been set up in Scotland, England, Wales, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and West Africa. However, the Grand Lodges of Ireland and Scotland have always been the largest by far. The Imperial Grand Orange Council is made up of representatives from all of these various Grand Lodges. It has the power to arbitrate in disputes between Grand Lodges, and in internal disputes when invited.
Famous Orangemen have included Thomas Barnardo, who joined the Order in Dublin; Mackenzie Bowell, who was Grandmaster of the Orange Order of British North America before becoming the Prime Minister of Canada; William Massey, who was Prime Minister of New Zealand; Harry Ferguson, inventor of the Ferguson tractor; and Earl Alexander, the Second World War general. Mohawk chief Oronhyatekha, an Oxford scholar, was also a member.
Republic of Ireland
The Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland represents lodges in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, where Orangeism remains particularly strong in border counties such as County Cavan, County Monaghan and, in particular, County Donegal (especially East Donegal). Before the partition of Ireland, the Order's headquarters were in Dublin, which at one stage had more than 300 private lodges. After partition, the Order declined rapidly in the Irish Free State, which later became the Republic of Ireland. Following partition, parades continued to take place in Counties Monaghan and Cavan, but none have taken place in those counties since 1931. The last 12 July parade in Dublin took place in 1937. The last Orange parade in the Republic of Ireland is at Rossnowlagh in County Donegal, an event which has been largely free from trouble and controversy. It is held on the Saturday before the Twelfth as the day is not a holiday in the Republic of Ireland. There are still Orange lodges in nine counties of the Republic of Ireland – counties Cavan, Cork, Donegal, Dublin, Laois, Leitrim, Louth, Monaghan and Wicklow, but most either do not parade or travel to other areas to do so.
In February 2008 it was announced that the Orange Order was to be granted nearly €250,000 from the Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs. The grant is intended to provide support for members in border areas and fund the repair of Orange halls, many of which have been subjected to vandalism.
In July 2011 there were 45 Orange Lodges in the Republic.
Scotland
The Scottish branch of the Orange Order is the largest outside Ireland. The vast majority of Scotland's lodges are found in the Lowlands, especially the west Central Lowlands (Glasgow, Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, Lanarkshire).
Scotland's first Orange lodges were founded in 1798 by soldiers returning home from Ireland, where they had helped suppress an Irish republican rebellion. The Scottish branch grew swiftly in the early 1800s, when there was an influx of working-class Ulster Protestant immigrants into the Scottish Lowlands. Many of these immigrants saw themselves as returning to the land of their forefathers (see Plantation of Ulster).
As such, the Scottish branch has always had strong links with Ulster, and tends to be largest wherever there are most descendants of Irish Protestants. In 1881, three-quarters of its lodge masters were born in Ireland and, when compared to Canada, the Scottish branch has been both smaller (no more than two percent of adult male Protestants in west central Scotland have ever been members) and had more of an Ulster link.
Scottish Orangeism was associated with the Tory Party, especially with the Scottish Unionist Party. The Order's political influence crested between the World Wars, but was effectively nil thereafter as the Tory Party began to move away from Protestant politics.
After the onset of the Troubles, many Scottish Orangemen began giving support to loyalist militant groups in Northern Ireland, such as the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) and Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). Although the Grand Lodge publicly denounced paramilitary groups, many Scottish Orangemen were convicted of involvement in loyalist paramilitary activity, and Orange meetings were used to raise funds for loyalist prisoners' welfare groups.
The Grand Orange Lodge of Scotland has long been opposed to Scottish independence. In 2007, 12,000 Orangemen and women marched along Edinburgh's Royal Mile to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the Act of Union. It registered as an official participant in the 2014 independence referendum and formed an anti-independence campaign group called British Together.
In 2004, former Scottish Orangeman Adam Ingram, then Armed Forces Minister, sued George Galloway for stating in his book I'm Not the Only One that Ingram had "played the flute in a sectarian, anti-Catholic, Protestant-supremacist Orange Order band". The Lord Ordinary, Lord Kingarth, ruled that the phrase was 'fair comment' on the Orange Order and that Ingram had been a member, although he had not played the flute.
Between 2012 and 2016, an ethnographic study of the social, religious, and political life of the Orange Order in Scotland was conducted by anthropologist Joseph Webster. This was published by Manchester University Press in 2020 as a book entitled The Religion of Orange Politics: Protestantism and Fraternity in Contemporary Scotland.
England
The Orange Order reached England in 1807, spread by soldiers returning to the Manchester area from service in Ireland. Since then, the English branch of the Order has generally supported the Conservative and Unionist Party.
The Orange Order in England is strongest in Liverpool including Toxteth and Garston. Its presence in Liverpool dates to at least 1819, when the first parade was held to mark the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne, on 12 July. The Order was an important component in the founding of the Liverpool Protestant Party in 1909, keeping an association until the party's demise in 1974.
The Orange Order in Liverpool holds its annual Twelfth parade in Southport, a seaside town north of Liverpool. The Institution also holds a Junior parade there on Whit Monday. The Black Institution holds its Southport parade on the first Saturday in August. The parades in Southport have attracted controversy in recent times, with criticism of the disruption that results from the closure of main roads.
Other parades are held in Liverpool on the Sunday prior to the Twelfth and on the Sunday after. These parades along with Saint George's Day; Reformation Sunday and Remembrance Sunday go to and from church. Other parades are held by individual Districts of the Province, in all approximately 30 parades a year. One location is Petersfield in Hampshire, where the town square has an equestrian statue of King William III, as does Hull.
Wales
Cymru LOL 1922 was the only Orange lodge in Wales. A new Lodge in Cardiff opened on 17 March 2012, the first new Orange Lodge to be opened there for over 90 years.
Canada
Founded by Ogle Gowan, in Brockville Ontario, the Orange Order played an important role in the history of Canada, where it was established in 1830. Most early members were from Ireland, but later many English, Scots, Italians and other Protestant Europeans joined the Order, as well as Mohawk Native Americans. Four Canadian prime ministers were Orangemen. Toronto was the epicentre of Canadian Orangeism: most mayors were Orange until the 1950s, and Toronto Orangemen battled against Ottawa-driven initiatives like bilingualism and Catholic immigration. The Toronto lodge has held an annual Orange parade since 1821, claiming it to be the longest running consecutive parade on the North American continent. A third of the Ontario legislature was Orange in 1920, but in Newfoundland, the proportion has been as high as 50% at times. Indeed, between 1920 and 1960, 35% of adult male Protestant Newfoundlanders were Orangemen, as compared with just 20% in Northern Ireland and 5%–10% in Ontario in the same period.
In addition to Newfoundland and Ontario, the Orange Order played an important role in the frontier regions of Quebec, including the Gatineau-Pontiac, Quebec region. The region's earliest Protestant settlement occurred when fifteen families from County Tipperary settled in the valley in Carleton County after 1818. These families spread across the valley, settling towns near Shawville, Quebec. Despite these early Protestant migrants, it was only during the early 1820s that a larger wave of Irish migrants, many of them Protestants, came to the Ottawa valley region. Orangism developed throughout the region's Protestant communities, including Bristol, Lachute- Brownsburg, Shawville and Quyon. After further Protestant settlement throughout the 1830s and 40s, the Pontiac region's Orange Lodges developed into the largest rural contingent of Orangism in the Province. The Orange Lodges were seen as community cultural centres, as they hosted numerous dances, events, parades, and even the teaching of step dancing. Orange Parades still occur in the Pontiac-Gatineau- Ottawa Valley area; however, not every community hosts a parade. Now one larger parade is hosted by a different town every year.
United States
Participation in the Orange Institution was not as large in the United States as it was in Canada. In the early nineteenth century, the post-Revolutionary republican spirit of the new United States attracted exiled Protestant United Irishmen such as Wolfe Tone and others. Most Protestant Irish immigrants in the first several decades of the century were those who held to the republicanism of the 1790s, and who were unable to accept Orangeism. Loyalists and Orangemen made up a minority of Irish Protestant immigrants during this period. America offered a new beginning, and "... most descendents of the Ulster Presbyterians of the eighteenth century and even many new Protestant Irish immigrants turned their backs on all associations with Ireland and melted into the American Protestant mainstream."
Most of the Irish loyalist emigration was bound for Upper Canada and the Maritime provinces, where Orange lodges were able to flourish under the British flag. By 1870, when there were about 930 Orange lodges in Ontario, there were only 43 in the entire eastern United States.
The few American lodges were founded by newly arriving Protestant Irish immigrants in coastal cities such as Philadelphia and New York. The Institution maintained a home for sick and aged members. Qualifications for membership were restrictive, according to their "Declaration of Principles", and "no person who ever was or is a Roman Catholic, or who shall educate, or cause to be educated, his children or any children in his charge, in any Roman Catholic school, convent, nunnery or monastery, shall ever be admitted to membership." These ventures were short-lived and of limited political and social impact, although there were specific instances of violence involving Orangemen between Catholic and Protestant Irish immigrants, such as the Orange Riots in New York City in 1824, 1870 and 1871.
The first "Orange riot" on record was in 1824, in Abingdon, New York, resulting from a 12 July march. Several Orangemen were arrested and found guilty of inciting the riot. According to the State prosecutor in the court record, "the Orange celebration was until then unknown in the country". The immigrants involved were admonished: "In the United States the oppressed of all nations find an asylum, and all that is asked in return is that they become law-abiding citizens. Orangemen, Ribbonmen, and United Irishmen are alike unknown. They are all entitled to protection by the laws of the country."
The Orange riots of 1870 and 1871 killed nearly 70 people, and were fought out between Irish Protestant and Catholic immigrants. After this the activities of the Orange Order were banned for a time, the Order dissolved, and most members joined Masonic lodges. After 1871, there were no more riots between Irish Catholics and Protestants.
In 1923 the Loyal Orange Institution of the United States of America had 32,862 members in 256 lodges. The office of the "Supreme Grand Secretary" was at 229 Rhode Island Avenue, Washington, D.C.. There was apparently a split in the group in the early 1920s.
There are currently two Orange Lodges in New York City, one in Manhattan and the other in the Bronx.
The Ulster-Scots LOL 1690 was established in Torrance, California in 1998. It was the first new lodge to be instituted in the US for more than 20 years. The latest American Lodge, Heirs of Cromwell LOL 1599 was formed in 2011 in Naples, Florida.
Australia
The first Orange Institution Warrant (No. 1780) arrived in Australia with the ship . It was sewn in the tunic of Private Andrew Alexander of the 50th Regiment. The 50th was mainly Irish; many of its members were Orangemen belonging to the Regimental lodge and they had secretly decided to retain their lodge warrant when they had been ordered to surrender all military warrants, believing that the order would eventually be rescinded and that the warrant would be useful in Australia.
There are five state Grand Lodges in Australia which sit under the warrant of the Grand Lodge of Australia, the overall governing body for the institution in Australia.
New Zealand
New Zealand's first Orange lodge was founded in Auckland in 1842, only two years after the country became part of the British Empire, by James Carlton Hill of County Wicklow. The lodge initially had problems finding a place to meet, as several landlords were threatened by Irish Catholic immigrants for hosting it. The arrival of large numbers of British troops to fight the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s provided a boost for New Zealand Orangeism, and in 1867 a North Island Grand Lodge was formed. A decade later a South Island Grand Lodge was formed, and the two merged in 1908.
From the 1870s the Order was involved in local and general elections, although Rory Sweetman argues that 'the longed-for Protestant block vote ultimately proved unobtainable'. Processions seem to have been unusual before the late 1870s: the Auckland lodges did not march until 1877 and in most places Orangemen celebrated the Twelfth and 5 November with dinners and concerts. The emergence of Orange parades in New Zealand was probably due to a Catholic revival movement which took place around this time. Although some parades resulted in rioting, Sweetman argues that the Order and its right to march were broadly supported by most New Zealanders, although many felt uneasy about the emergence of sectarianism in the colony. From 1912 to 1925 New Zealand's most famous Orangeman, William Massey, was Prime Minister. During World War I Massey co-led a coalition government with Irish Catholic Joseph Ward. Historian Geoffrey W. Rice maintains that William Massey's Orange sympathies were assumed rather than demonstrated.
Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand argues that New Zealand Orangeism, along with other Protestant and anti-Catholic organisations, faded from the 1920s. The Order has certainly declined in visibility since that decade, although in 1994 it was still strong enough to host the Imperial Orange Council for its biennial meeting. However parades have ceased, and most New Zealanders are probably unaware of the Order's existence in their country. The New Zealand Order is unusual in having mixed-gender lodges, and at one point had a female Grand Master.
West Africa
Ghana
The Orange Order in Ghana was founded by Ulster-Scots missionaries some time during the early twentieth century, and is currently supported by the Institute of Ulster Scots Studies. Its rituals mirror those of the Orange Order in Ulster, though it does not place restrictions on membership for those who have Roman Catholic family members. The Orange Order in Ghana appears to be growing, largely based with the growing democracy there.
Nigeria
The first Orange Lodge in Nigeria was the Lagos Fine Blues LOL 801, which was first listed in 1907 in the returns of Woolwich District 64 to the Grand Orange Lodge of England, this District providing the traditional 'home' to overseas and military Lodges. Altogether there were three male lodges and one female lodge. They all appear to have died out some time in the 1960s, due to political unrest. Conversely the Ghana lodges increased greatly in popularity with the return of democracy.
Togo
In 1915, John Amate Atayi, a member of the Lagos Fine Blues LOL 801 moved to Lome, Togo, for work. Here he founded the Lome Defenders of the Truth LOL 867, under warrant of the Grand Orange Lodge of England. In 1916 a second lodge, Paline Heroes LOL No 884 was constituted.
'Diamond Dan'
As part of the re-branding of Orangeism to encourage younger people into a largely ageing membership, and as part of the planned rebranding of the July marches into an 'Orangefest', the 'superhero' Diamond Dan was created – named after one of its founding members, 'Diamond' Dan Winter – Diamond referring to the Institution's formation at the Diamond, Loughgall, in 1795.
Initially unveiled with a competition for children to name their new mascot in November 2007 (it was nicknamed 'Sash Gordon' by several parts of the British media); at the official unveiling of the character's name in February 2008, Orange Order education officer David Scott said Diamond Dan was meant to represent the true values of the Order: "... the kind of person who offers his seat on a crowded bus to an elderly lady. He won't drop litter and he will be keen on recycling". There were plans for a range of Diamond Dan merchandise designed to appeal to children.
There was however, uproar when it was revealed in the middle of the 'Marching Season' that Diamond Dan was a repaint of illustrator Dan Bailey's well-known "Super Guy" character (often used by British computer magazines), and taken without his permission, leading to the character being lampooned as "Bootleg Billy".
List of members
Grand Masters
Grand Masters, of the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland:
1795: William Blacker (Unofficial)
1798 Thomas Verner
1801: George Ogle
1818: Mervyn Archdall (to 1822)
1822?: Earl O'Neill
1828: Duke of Cumberland
1836: Earl of Roden (Unofficial)
1845: Earl of Enniskillen
1886: Earl of Erne
1914: Sir James Stronge, 5th Baronet
1915: William H. H. Lyons
1926: Sir Edward Archdale, 1st Baronet
1941: Sir Joseph Davison
1948: J. M. Andrews
1954: Sir William McCleery
1957: Sir George Clark, 3rd Baronet
1968: John Bryans
1971: Martin Smyth
1996: Robert Saulters
2011: Edward Stevenson
University Societies
Both major universities in Northern Ireland have student societies to promote Orangeism on campus. Students at Queen's University Belfast formed the first 'Student's Orange Society' in May 2007 aiming to, "educate the students of Queen's on the different aspects of the Orange Order." Societies were later formed at Ulster University, first at the Jordanstown campus in 2010, followed by Coleraine in 2012. The societies engage in a range of cultural, historical and social events. Any student can join the Orange Society at their university regardless of their religion or background.
See also
Anti-Catholicism
Drumcree conflict
Presbyterian Church in Ireland
Royal Black Institution
Notes and references
Further reading
(Considered the principal study of English Orange traditions)
(Strongly favourable)
Canada and United States:
Pierre-Luc Bégin (2008). " Loyalisme et fanatisme ", Petite histoire du mouvement orangiste Canadien, Les Éditions du Québécois, 2008, 200 p. ().
Luc Bouvier, (2002). « Les sacrifiés de la bonne entente » Histoire des francophones du Pontiac, Éditions de l'Action nationale.
External links
The Grand Orange Lodge Of Ireland
The Independent Loyal Orange Institution
Grand Orange Lodge of England
Eric Kaufmann's Orange Order Page
The Orange Order, Militant Protestantism and anti-Catholicism: A Bibliographical Essay (1999)
Eric Kaufmann's Orange Order Page
1795 establishments in Ireland
Patriotic societies
Christian fundamentalism
Protestant organizations
Protestantism in the United Kingdom
Anti-Catholicism in Northern Ireland
Anti-Catholic organizations
Ulster unionism
All-Ireland organisations
Ulster Scottish
Critics of the Catholic Church
William III of England |
4020693 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ata%20language | Ata language | The Ata language, also known as Pele-Ata after its two dialects, or Wasi, is a Papuan language spoken on New Britain island, Papua New Guinea. It appears to be related to neighboring Anêm, and possibly also to Yélî Dnye in a proposed Yele-West New Britain family. There are about 2000 speakers.
Ata is spoken in West Pomio-Mamusi Rural LLG, East New Britain Province, and in Talasea District, West New Britain Province.
Dialects
According to Yanagida (2004), there are two dialects of Ata, a Lower dialect spoken in the lowlands and an Upper dialect spoken in the mountains. The Lower dialect is spoken in Bialla Rural LLG, West New Britain Province, while the Upper dialect is spoken mostly in West Pomio-Mamusi Rural LLG, East New Britain Province:
Lower dialect (in Bialla Rural LLG, West New Britain Province):
Kiava (Old Kiava) ()
Korovasi
Malasi ()
Milikina (Elobe) ()
Mulusi
Ole
Sale (Gogosi) ()
Sege ()
Silanga [settlement] ()
Upper dialect (in West Pomio-Mamusi Rural LLG, East New Britain Province, unless noted otherwise):
Sipa (Bauka), West New Britain ()
Uasilau [settlement], West New Britain ()
Kaikou ()
Lavugi ()
Luge, West New Britain ()
Ti ()
Yauyau ()
Kukulu ()
Both the lower and upper dialects are spoken in the settlement of Silanga.
There are some lexical differences between the dialects. Some examples are listed below.
{|
! gloss !! Upper Ata !! Lower Ata
|-
| rain || uali || laʔiua
|-
| sweet potato || totoʔo || kelatu
|-
| cassava || mio || mio, mioxa
|-
| throw something || paxele || pei
|-
| yes || iou || ani
|-
| the day before yesterday || malakaumei || malaʔo
|-
| 2nd person dual independent pronoun || ngolou || ngongou
|-
| 3rd person dual independent pronoun || olou || ilou
|}
Phonology
Phonology of the Ata language:
/s/ is pronounced as alveolo-palatal [ɕ] before /i/, /x/ is voiced as [ɣ] when occurring intervocalically.
A word-initial /i/ is realized as a [j], and a word-initial /u/ becomes a [w] when preceding /o/ or /ɑ/.
Noun classes
Ata makes use of noun classes, some of which are:
Class 1 nouns: stationary and function in a state of relative stagnancy
Class 2 nouns: portable and function in a state of relative motion
Class 3 nouns: relating to the body’s internal needs
Below are some Ata noun class paradigms, using the noun roots lavo’o ‘stone’ and lexe ‘song’ as examples:
{|
! root !! lavo’o !! /stone/ !! ‘stone’
|-
| Class 1 || lavo'o-silo || /stone-my/ || ‘my stone to be used for a house’
|-
| Class 2 || lavo'o-xeni || /stone-my/ || ‘my stone to be used for breaking nuts’
|-
| Class 3 || lavo'o-xo || /stone-my/ || ‘my stone for a stone oven’
|}
{|
! root !! lexe !! /song/ !! ‘song’
|-
| Class 1 || lexe-silo || /song-my/ || ‘a song to be sung for me’
|-
| Class 2 || lexe-xeni || /song-my/ || ‘the song I sing’
|-
| Class 3 || lexe-xo || /song-my/ || ‘the song about me’
|}
Vocabulary
Selected basic vocabulary items in Ata:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! Ata
|-
| bird || ngiala
|-
| blood || sialuxu
|-
| bone || xine
|-
| breast || susu
|-
| ear || sangalie
|-
| eat || ’ie
|-
| egg || atolu
|-
| eye || iei
|-
| fire || navu
|-
| give || iti; losie
|-
| go || lai
|-
| ground || lia
|-
| leg || tava'a
|-
| louse || meni
|-
| man || aliko
|-
| moon || so'io
|-
| name || uala
|-
| one || vile
|-
| road, path || vote'i
|-
| see || maisou
|-
| sky || loxotolo
|-
| stone || lavo'o
|-
| sun || aso
|-
| tongue || levexe
|-
| teeth || anaxu ilaanu (anaxu = 'mouth')
|-
| tree || aiinu; ovu
|-
| two || tamei
|-
| water || lexa
|-
| woman || sema
|}
See also
East Papuan languages
References
Further reading
West New Britain languages
Languages of East New Britain Province
Languages of West New Britain Province |
4020699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20Court%20of%20Alabama | Supreme Court of Alabama | The Supreme Court of Alabama is the highest court in the state of Alabama. The court consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. Each justice is elected in partisan elections for staggered six-year terms. The Supreme Court is housed in the Heflin-Torbert Judicial Building in downtown Montgomery, Alabama.
The Governor of Alabama may fill vacancies when they occur for the remainder of unexpired terms. The current partisan line-up for the court is all Republican. There is no specific limitation on the number of terms to which a member may be elected. However, the state constitution under Amendment 328, adopted in 1973, prohibits any member from seeking election once they have attained the age of seventy years. This amendment would have prohibited then Chief Justice Roy Moore from seeking re-election in 2018. However, on April 26, 2017, Moore announced his intent to run for the United States Senate seat formerly held by United States Attorney General Jeff Sessions, and resigned from the court.
The Clerk of Court is Julia Jordan Weller.
History
The Supreme Court of Alabama was organized under the governorship of William Wyatt Bibb, and had its beginnings with the Alabama Constitution of 1819, which stated that until the General Assembly deemed otherwise, the functions of the Supreme Court would be handled by the judges of the Alabama circuit courts. The circuit judges were elected by a joint vote of both houses of the Alabama Legislature. These judges met in May 1820 in the capital city of Cahaba for the first term of the Supreme Court. Clement Comer Clay was appointed by the other judges as the first chief justice of the court. Following his resignation in 1823, he was succeeded by Abner Smith Lipscomb.
The court was then reorganized in 1832. It then became a separate court with three justices elected to six-year terms. Abner Lipscomb remained as chief justice. In 1851 the number of justices was increased to five. In 1853 the membership of the court was reduced to three again. By this time the court had its own chambers in the newly completed Alabama State Capitol. No changes to the court occurred during the years of the Civil War.
The new state constitution of 1868, drafted during the Reconstruction Era, committed the election of the three justices to the people rather than the legislature. The number of justices was increased to four in 1889. In 1891, the number increased to five. Following the adoption of the 1901 constitution, the 1903 session of the legislature raised the number of justices to seven. In 1940 the Supreme Court moved from the Capitol Building to 445 Dexter Avenue. The building had been built as a Scottish Rite temple in 1926 but was sold to the state during the financially difficult years of the Great Depression. The state acquired and started a remodel of the building in 1938 for the relocation of the Judicial Department, Attorney General and State Law Library.
Legislative Act Number 602, 1969 Alabama Acts was passed during Regular Session of 1969. It increased the number of associate justices to eight, bringing the number of court justices to the configuration that remains today. Former Justice Janie L. Shores was the first of six women to serve on the court. She was elected to the court in 1974. The first of three black justices to serve on the court was former Justice Oscar W. Adams Jr., who in 1980 was initially appointed by then Governor Fob James to serve the remainder of an unexpired term. Justice Adams would become the first black justice elected to the court when he was elected two years later to serve a full six-year term. The court moved to the new Heflin-Torbert Judicial Building at 300 Dexter Avenue in 1994.
Jurisdiction
The Supreme Court of Alabama has the authority to review decisions by all the lower courts of the state and the authority to determine certain legal matters over which no other court has jurisdiction. It further has the authority to issue any necessary orders to carry out the general superintendence of the Unified Judicial System of Alabama. It has exclusive jurisdiction over all appeals in disputes exceeding $50,000, as well as appeals from the Alabama Public Service Commission.
The chief justice also serves as the administrative head of the Alabama Judicial System. The court makes all rules governing administration, practice, and procedure for all Alabama courts. The exercise of this authority eliminates technicalities which usually cause delays in trial courts and reversals in appellate courts.
Chief Justices
The Alabama Supreme Court has had an unusually high turnover in the chief justice position, going back to October 1995. Since then, the post has been occupied by eight different individuals for nine different time periods. Not one of these individuals has completed an entire term of six years.
Perry Hooper Sr., elected in 1994, did not assume the office until October, 1995, after a protracted election contest that prevented him from taking office until nine months into the term. He was succeeded by Roy Moore, who was elected in 2000 but removed from office due to violations of the judicial canon of ethics. Associate Justice Gorman Houston acted as temporary chief justice during Moore's suspension but before his actual removal from office. After Moore vacated the office, the Governor appointed Drayton Nabers Jr. Sue Bell Cobb defeated Chief Justice Nabers in 2006. Cobb resigned for personal reasons in the middle of her term. Her replacement, Chuck Malone was appointed on August 1, 2011, by Governor Robert Bentley but was defeated for re-nomination by former Chief Justice Roy Moore in 2012.
Moore assumed the office a second time beginning in January 2013, and was again suspended from office on May 6, 2016, by the Court of the Judiciary. Associate Justice Lyn Stuart became chief justice on April 26, 2017, when Moore formally resigned from the seat from which he was already suspended. Moore then sought election to the U.S. Senate seat vacated by Jeff Sessions for which a special election was held in December 2017. Stuart was appointed for the remainder of the term by Governor Kay Ivey on April 26, 2017. Chief Justice Stuart, who became the first female Republican chief justice, has been an associate justice of the court since 2001. She faced Associate Justice Tom Parker in the GOP primary in June 2018, and lost the primary to Parker in a relatively close race. Parker had previously lost a GOP primary for the post to Drayton Nabers in 2006.
In November 2018, Alabamians selected a new chief justice when Republican Tom Parker easily defeated Democrat Robert Vance. Justice Parker became the eighth different chief justice in only seventeen years when he assumed office on January 11, 2019. When Parker became chief justice, he vacated the associate justice seat he then held and Governor Kay Ivey appointed outgoing Justice Mendheim to the seat. Chief Justice Parker is 67 years old and will not be constitutionally eligible to seek another term in 2024, thus resulting in another new chief justice in 2025.
List of all chief justices of Alabama Supreme Court:
Clement Claiborne Clay
Abner S. Lipscomb
Reuben Saffold
Henry Hitchcock (D)
Arthur F. Hopkins (D)
Henry W. Collier (D)
Edmund S. Dargan (D)
William P. Chilton (D)
George Goldthwaite (D)
Samuel F. Rice (D)
Abram J. Walker (D)
Elisha W. Peck (R)
Thomas Minott Peters (R)
Robert C. Brickell (D)
George W. Stone (D)
Robert C. Brickell (D) (re-elected)
Samuel D. Weakley Jr. (D)
John R. Tyson (D)
James R. Dowdell (D)
John C. Anderson (D)
Lucien D. Gardner (D)
J. Ed Livingston (D)
Howell Heflin (D)
C.C. Torbert (D) (1977-1989)
Ernest C. Hornsby (D) (1989-1995)
Perry O. Hooper Sr. (R) (1995–2001)
Roy Moore (R) (2001–2003)
Gorman Houston (R) (acting 2003–2004)
Drayton Nabers Jr. (R) (2004–2007)
Sue Bell Cobb (D) (2007–2011)
Chuck Malone (R) (2011–2013)
Roy Moore (R) (2013–2017)
Lyn Stuart (R) (acting 2016–2017; appointed 2017–2019)
Tom Parker (R) (2019–present)
Current Justices
The eight current associate justices are Sarah Hicks Stewart, Tommy Bryan, Kelli Wise, Michael F. Bolin, James L. Mitchell, Brady E. Mendheim Jr., Greg Shaw and William B. Sellers.
Most of the members of the court initially came to their seats via election, with two exceptions:
Justice Lyn Stuart's elevation to the chief justice position created a vacancy in the associate justice seat she held. That vacancy was filled by Governor Kay Ivey on May 25, 2017, with the appointment of Justice William B. Sellers.
Justice Tom Parker became chief justice on January 14, 2019, vacating the associate justice seat he held. On December 28, 2018, Governor Ivey appointed outgoing Justice Brady E. Mendheim Jr. to that seat, effective January 15, 2019. Mendheim had previously been appointed by Ivey to replace Justice Glenn Murdock, who resigned effective January 2018; Mendheim was defeated in the election to serve the remainder of that term.
Administrative Office of the Courts and State Marshals
The Administrative Office of the Courts is under the leadership of a director appointed by the chief justice of the Court. The Administrative Office of the Courts is responsible for a variety of functions including but not limited to the Juvenile Probation Offices for the Family Court System, Child Support Enforcement, Human Resources Division of the Court, and the Court Interpreter Registry. The current director, Rich Hobson, was appointed by Chief Justice Tom Parker to the position in January, 2019. This is Hobson's third time in the position having previously served in the post from 2001 to 2003 and from 2013 to 2016.
The State of Alabama marshals are responsible for protection of the Supreme Court, Court of Criminal Appeals, and the Court of Civil Appeals. They also serve subpoenas and court documents among other duties. The current marshal of the Alabama Appellate Courts is Earl Marsh, who was appointed in 2020.
See also
Courts of Alabama
Alabama Court of Civil Appeals
Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals
References
External links
Alabama
Alabama state courts
Politics of Alabama
1819 establishments in Alabama
Courts and tribunals established in 1819 |
4020701 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yok-Utian%20languages | Yok-Utian languages | Yok-Utian is a proposed language family of California. It consists of the Yokuts language and the Utian language family.
While connections between Yokuts and Utian languages were noticed through attempts to reconstruct their proto-languages in 1986, it was not until 1991 that Yok-Utian was proposed and named by Geoffrey Gamble. Yok-Utian has been further supported by Catherine Callaghan, who has argued for the family's existence on the basis of lexical, morphological, and phonological similarities between the reconstructed proto-languages. However, she and others have noted that while it is compelling, the evidence presented is not conclusive.
According to the proposal, the Yok-Utian proto-language was spoken by a group originating in the Great Basin at least as early as 4500 BC. There was a division around 2500 BC, as the group which began speaking Proto-Utian migrated from the Great Basin into California. Proto-Miwok began to emerge in the northern Bay Area between 1000 and 500 BC, and began to spread west and south. Proto-Costanoan emerged in the eastern Bay Area, splitting from the larger Utian group sometime after 1500 BC, if not earlier. The language that remained in the Great Basin turned into proto-Yokuts before gradually splitting into the various Yokuts dialects and only later began to migrate into California. However, Scott DeLancey and Victor Golla have proposed that the language distribution could be the result of a single migration of Yok-Utian speakers who later spread out throughout California.
One component of the evidence offered for Yok-Utian is that of sound correspondences in the reconstructed proto-languages for Yokuts and the Utian family, such as the sample below.
However, while the reconstructed correspondences can be compelling, they are not conclusive. As the speakers of the Yokuts and Utian languages were in contact with one another for hundreds or thousands of years, it is entirely possible that the sound correspondences are the result of borrowing, rather than a common linguistic ancestor.
While Yok-Utian can be included in the larger Penutian proposal, the Yok-Utian proposal does not directly support Penutian.
References
External links
Native Tribes, Groups, Language Families and Dialects of California in 1770 (map after Kroeber)
Penutian languages
Indigenous languages of California
Proposed language families |
4020705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbago%20drawing | Plumbago drawing | Plumbago drawings are graphite drawings from the 17th and 18th centuries. There was a group of artists whose work in plumbago is remarkable for their portraits drawn with finely pointed pieces of graphite and on vellum. These works were initially prepared as the basis of an engraving. Eventually they would be produced as works in their own right.
Early artists in plumbago
One of the earliest of this group of workers was Simon Van de Pass (1595–1647), and his pencil drawings were probably either for reproduction on silver tablets or counters or for engraved plates. The earlier miniature painters also drew in this manner, notably Nicholas Hilliard in preparing designs for jewels and seals, and Isaac Oliver and Peter Oliver in portraits.
A few pencil portraits by Abraham Blooteling, the Dutch engraver, have been preserved, which appear to have been first sketches, from which plates were afterwards engraved. David Loggan (1635–1700), a pupil of Van de Pass, also left a few portraits, as a rule drawn on vellum and executed with dexterity.
These works were not always prepared for engraving. There is one representing Charles II, set in a gold snuff box, which was given by the King to the Duchess of Portsmouth, and which went to the Duke of Richmond, and a similar portrait of Oliver Cromwell which was in the possession of Lord Verulam; and there are no engravings corresponding to these.
Later works
William Faithorne (1616–1691) derived much of his skill from the time he spent with Robert Nanteuil, whose style he followed. There are drawings by him in the Bodleian Library, at Welbeck Abbey and at Montagu House, and two fine portraits in the British Museum. Thomas Forster (c. 1695–1712) was one of the major draughtsmen in this form of portraiture, on vellum and on paper. His work was at Welbeck Abbey, in the Holburne Museum at Bath, in the Victoria and Albert Museum and elsewhere.
Robert and George White, were English artists, father and son. The former (1645–1704) was a pupil of Loggan and a prolific engraver, and most of his drawings executed on vellum were for the purpose of engraving. George White (c. 1684–1732) was taught by his father, and finished some of his father's plates. Forster and the two Whites signed their drawings and dated them. By Robert White there are portraits of John Bunyan and Sir Matthew Hale in the British Museum, and his own portrait at Welbeck; and by him and his son there are other drawings, depicting Sir Godfrey Kneller, Archbishop Tenison and others.
The two John Fabers, John Faber the Elder (c.1660–1721) and John Faber the Younger (1684–1756), were Dutch; they usually added drawn inscriptions, often found within circles around the portraits and occasionally extending to many lines below them. The son was the more significant artist, known for mezzotints. The portrait painter Jonathan Richardson (1665–1745) executed many drawings in pencil, examples of which can be seen in the British Museum.
The Scot David Paton was working in 1670. Most of his drawings belonged to the Earl of Dysart and were at Ham House; examples of his portraiture were in the possession of the Daizell family. Paton was attached to the court of Charles II, when the king was in Scotland; at that time he drew his portrait of the King. There are drawings of the same character as his, the work of George Glover (d. 1618) and Thomas Cecill (fl. 1630), but they were evidently studies for engravings. A Swiss artist, Joseph Werner (b. 1637) drew in pencil, adopting brown paper as the material on which his best drawings were done, and in some cases heightening them with touches of white paint.
Later miniature artists, including Nathaniel Hone, Grimaldi, Bernard Lens and John Downman, also drew in plumbago. Other exponents of this art were Thomas Worlidge (1700–1766), F. Steele (c. 1714), W. Robins (c. 1730), G. A. Wolffgang (1692–1775), George Vertue the engraver (1684–1756), Johann Zoffany (1733–1810), and the Swede, Charles Bancks (c. 1748).
References
External links
Attribution
Drawing |
4020713 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Harbor%2C%20Maine | New Harbor, Maine | New Harbor is a small scenic coastal village in the town of Bristol, in Lincoln County, Maine, United States. In 2019, the town of Bristol, and in-turn New Harbor was a finalist in the Reader's Digest award for "America's Nicest Place." Bristol and New Harbor were also nominated for and won the "Nicest Place in Maine Award" by Reader's Digest. In New Harbor you will find famous scenic historical sites such as the Pemaquid Point Lighthouse, which is found on the back of the Maine state quarter, and Fort William Henry. New Harbor also sports a large white sand public beach known as Pemaquid Beach, that sits on the calm Atlantic waters of Johns Bay.
The village's lobster fishermen and "Back Cove" were featured on an episode of the Discovery Channel's Sunrise Earth. The community was also used as a filming location for the 1999 film Message in a Bottle, with some scenes filmed at Shaw's Wharf. In 1922 the silent film The Seventh Day, starring Richard Barthelmess, was filmed in New Harbor.
One cannot forget the endless hiking and nature preserves that are available for public exploration. One such important public Wildlife Refuge is the Rachel Carson Salt Pond Preserve in New Harbor. One can go for a 1.1-mile walk on the 78-acre Salt Pond Preserve, which starts on the north side of Route 32 along the shore and ventures West into the preserve's woods. Activities include hiking and climbing as well as coastal activities such as tidal pool searching and sea glass gathering. The Rachel Carson Salt Pond Preserve was one of legendary scientist and environmentalist Rachel Carson's favorite spots, and inspired some of the research for her book, The Edge of the Sea.
Brief Beach History
Pemaquid Beach, is a public family beach in New Harbor, Maine. The Beach is owned by the Town of Bristol in mid-coast Maine and, along with its "sister" park- the Pemaquid Point Lighthouse, are operated by the Bristol Parks Commission. Pemaquid beach boasts clean, clear water. The sand is groomed daily to ensure beach goers enjoy the cleanest beach setting possible. The beautiful new Pavilion offers large changing rooms and, popular with the younger beach goers, are the outdoor shower towers to rinse off. You will find a Beach Shop, stocked with beach chairs, boggie boards and umbrellas for rent.
Since 2003, Pemaquid Watershed Association (now Coastal Rivers) has partnered with the Town of Bristol Parks & Recreation Commission to offer Beachcombers’ Rest, a nature center located in the pavilion at Pemaquid Beach Park.
In addition to displays and exhibits, the Nature Center is host to a number of educational programs for all ages.
Beachcombers’ Rest Nature Center offers special programs such as educational workshops, diving show-and-tells, treasure hunts, celebrations, and sand sculpture contests. All events are open to the public.
In 1958 there was a special town meeting held where voters of New Harbor approved a large purchase of what was once called "Big Beach." This town purchase officially made the beach public, allowing all residents to visit any time of the year even when closed in the off-season.
The Beach's Big Burn
In October 2019, the Village of New Harbor performed a controlled burn of the Pemaquid Beach Pavilion. This burn was designed as a training exercise for local and area fire departments. In exchange, the old pavilion was demolished and a new one was erected by the Bristol Parks and Recreation department in time for the 2020 beach season.
The Reconstruction
The new pavilion designed by The Arrowsic firm Theodore + Theodore, Architecture & Design, features a refreshed coastal chic design with larger restrooms, shower stalls, and brand-new entertainment space for events and performances. Among many other new features, the new pavilion offers clear views of Johns Bay and features a new boardwalk that stretches from the pavilion to the white sands of Pemaquid Beach for better accessibility. The project was completed during the Fall and Winter months of 2019 and 2020, opening just in time for the 2020 beach season. However, that season was greatly impacted by the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic that rocked the area's tourism community and industry.
A History of Fires
In early September 2020, The Sea Gull Shop and Restaurant, located adjacent to the Pemaquid Point Lighthouse, were incinerated in an unusual midnight fire that engulfed the entire structure in an inferno so hot that it melted the trim and windows of a nearby home. The shop was a total loss and at a great cost to the community. The lighthouse is a popular attraction for locals and tourists and a much needed restaurant nearby to the residential and tourist community is no longer operational, leaving demand in the market. Moreover, paired with the COVID-19 crisis of 2020, it packed a huge hit to an already suffering tourism industry in the area. Currently, the shop remains in ashes as the New Jersey co-owners Tim and Betsey Norland and Brooke Cotter, who have visited New Harbor for over fifty (50) years, decide what to do with what remains. The co-owners hope to have the shop and restaurant rebuilt in time for the 2021 season.
Notable residents
Benjamin Bates IV
Slaid Cleaves
Thomas Drummond (judge)
John Gyles
Marcus Hanna (lighthouse keeper)
Robert Livingston Ireland Jr.
Cabot Lyford, sculptor
William North
Elizabeth Upham Yates
References
Villages in Maine
Villages in Lincoln County, Maine
Populated coastal places in Maine |
4020722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watoosh%21 | Watoosh! | Watoosh! is the only studio album released by Canadian rock band Pezz, released in 1999 before they changed their name to Billy Talent. The album was re-released in 2005 through Atlantic Records.
Track listing
Track 13 is an instrumental, while tracks 11, 12 and 14–16 are blank.
The track "M & M" is about a group of gothic kids that used to come into the HMV where Benjamin Kowalewicz worked.
Personnel
Benjamin Kowalewicz – lead vocals
Ian D'Sa – lead guitar, backing vocals, cover art
Jonathan Gallant – bass, backing vocals
Aaron Solowoniuk – drums
Brad Nelson – producer
Daryl Smith – engineer/mixing
Brett Zilahi – mastering
See also
Dudebox
References
Billy Talent albums
1999 albums |
4020725 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alto%20of%20Altom%C3%BCnster | Alto of Altomünster | Alto, O.S.B., (died c. 760) was a Benedictine abbot active in the Duchy of Bavaria during the mid-8th century. Tradition holds him to be the eponymous founder of Altomünster Abbey, around which a market town grew up, also called Altomünster. He is honored as a saint by the Catholic Church.
Life
Little is known about Alto; he is believed to have arrived in the region as a wandering Irish or Scottish monk, and to have previously lived as a hermit near both Munich and Augsburg.
There is a Vita of his life written by Otloh of St. Emmeram about 1062. The Diocese of Freising has a document dating perhaps to 763 with the signature Alto reclausus (Alto the hermit) which is considered to be his.
A donation by King Pepin the Short gave Alto some wooded land on which to build his monastery. Saint Boniface is said to have come to dedicate the church about the year 750.
A Gospel lectionary made for Altomünster Abbey has a metal cover which was added to the manuscript in 1489, depicting one of Saint Alto's miracles.
Alto's feast day is celebrated on 9 February.
Legacy
St-Alto-way is a trail in the forest Alto.
References
8th-century births
760s deaths
German hermits
German Benedictines
Benedictine abbots
Colombanian saints
Medieval German saints
8th-century Christian saints |
4020736 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Kirby | Steve Kirby | Steve Kirby may refer to:
Steve T. Kirby (born 1952), 35th Lieutenant Governor of South Dakota
Steve Kirby (musician) (born 1956), American jazz musician
Steven Kirby (born 1977), English cricketer
Steve Kirby (Washington politician) (born 1951), member of the Washington House of Representatives |
4020740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitterballen | Bitterballen | Bitterballen (plural of bitterbal) are a Dutch meat-based snack, made by making a very thick stew thickened with roux and beef stock and generously loaded with meat, refrigerating the stew until it firms, and then rolling the thick mixture into balls which then get breaded and fried. Seasonings in the base stew usually include onions, salt and pepper, parsley and nutmeg. Most recipes include nutmeg and there are also variations using curry powder or that add in finely chopped vegetables such as carrot.
The bitterbal derives its name from a generic word for certain types of herb-flavoured alcoholic beverages, called a bitter in Dutch, and are popularly served as part of a bittergarnituur, a selection of savoury snacks to go with drinks, at pubs or at receptions in the Netherlands.
Bitterballen are very similar to the more common croquette (kroketten in Dutch) in ingredients and preparation/cooking methods, as well as flavour, though the larger kroketten have a distinct oblong sausage shape, but with a similar diameter.
Preparation
The ingredients are combined and cooked, then refrigerated for the mixture to firm up. Once firm, the filling is rolled into balls roughly 3 to 4 cm in diameter, then battered in a breadcrumb and egg mixture and deep-fried. They are typically served with a ramekin or small bowl of mustard for dipping. They are eaten in Suriname, the Netherlands Antilles, the Netherlands, Belgium, Bonaire, and to some degree in Indonesia.
See also
List of meatball dishes
References
External links
The Dutch Table - Bitterballen
Dutch cuisine
Dutch words and phrases
Beef dishes
Deep fried foods
Snack foods
Meatballs |
4020758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog%20biscuit | Dog biscuit | A dog biscuit is a hard biscuit-based dietary supplement for dogs or other canines, similar to human snack food.
Dog biscuits tend to be hard and dry. Dog biscuits may be sold in a flat bone-shape. The dry and hard biscuit texture helps clean the dog's teeth, promoting oral health.
History
"Dog's bread", made from bran, has been mentioned since at least Roman times. It was already criticized (as in later centuries) as particularly bad bread; Juvenal refers to dog's bread as "filth" - "And bit into the filth of a dog's bread" Et farris sordes mordere Canini.
In Spain, "pan de perro" is mentioned as early as 1623 in a play by Lope de Vega. It is used here in the sense of giving someone blows; to "give dog's bread" to someone could mean anything from mistreating them to killing them. The latter meaning refers to a special bread (also called zarazas) made with ground glass, poison and needles and intended to kill dogs.
The bread meant as food for dogs was also called parruna and was made from bran. This was very likely what was referred to in associating the bread with (non-fatal) mistreatment.
In France, Charles Estienne wrote in 1598: "Take no notice of bran bread,... it is better to leave it for the hunting, or shepherd, or watch dogs." By the nineteenth century, "pain de chien" had become a way of referring to very bad bread: "It is awful, general, they give us dog's bread!"
The English dog biscuit appears to be a nineteenth-century innovation: "With this may be joined farinaceous and vegetable articles — oat-meal, fine-pollard, dog-biscuit, potatoes, carrots, parsnips" (1827); "being in the neighbourhood of Maidenhead, I inspected Mr. Smith's dog-biscuit manufactory, and was surprised to find he has been for a long period manufacturing the enormous quantity of five tons a-week !" (1828)
In later years, dog biscuits began to be made of meat products and were sometimes treated as synonymous with dog food. In 1871, an ad appeared in Cassell's Illustrated Almanac for "SLATER'S MEAT BISCUIT FOR DOGS - Contains vegetable substances and about 25 per cent of Prepared Meat. It gives Dogs endurance, and without any other food will keep them in fine working condition."
In England, Spratt's Dog Biscuits not only obtained a patent but seems to have claimed to have invented the food:
In at least one case (in 1886) Spratt sued a seller accused of substituting another product - an early example of a company fighting "knock-offs":
Spratt lost in this case and the judge regretted that he could not grant the defendant court costs.
At one point after this, as an industrial product, dog biscuits were classified in the same category as soap: "Of the making of dog biscuits, which the census places in the same category with soap, as using animal refuse from which soap grease has been extracted, it is unnecessary to say much."
Spratt dominated the American market until 1907, when F. H. Bennett, whose own dog biscuits were faring poorly against those of the larger company, had the idea of making them in the shape of a bone. "His 'Maltoid Milk-Bones' were such a success that for the next fifteen years Bennett's Milk-Bone dominated the commercial dog food market in America." In 1931, the National Biscuit Company, now known as Nabisco, bought the company.
World's Largest Dog Biscuit
The world's largest dog biscuit weighs 279.87 kg and was baked to be 2,000 larger than average by Hampshire Pet Products from Joplin, Missouri, USA.
References
Dog nutrition
Pet foods
Biscuits |
4020775 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Nagorno-Karabakh%20War | First Nagorno-Karabakh War | The First Nagorno-Karabakh War was an ethnic and territorial conflict that took place from February 1988 to May 1994, in the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh in southwestern Azerbaijan, between the majority ethnic Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh backed by Armenia, and the Republic of Azerbaijan. As the war progressed, Armenia and Azerbaijan, both former Soviet Republics, entangled themselves in protracted, undeclared mountain warfare in the mountainous heights of Karabakh as Azerbaijan attempted to curb the secessionist movement in Nagorno-Karabakh. The enclave's parliament had voted in favor of uniting with Armenia and a referendum, boycotted by the Azerbaijani population of Nagorno-Karabakh, was held, in which a majority voted in favor of independence. The demand to unify with Armenia began in a relatively peaceful manner in 1988; in the following months, as the Soviet Union disintegrated, it gradually grew into an increasingly violent conflict between Armenians and Azerbaijanis, resulting in ethnic cleansing, including the Sumgait (1988) and Baku (1990) pogroms directed against Armenians, and the Gugark pogrom (1988) and Khojaly Massacre (1992) directed against Azerbaijanis.
Inter-ethnic clashes between the two broke out shortly after the parliament of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) in Azerbaijan voted to unite the region with Armenia on 20 February 1988. The declaration of secession from Azerbaijan was the culmination of a territorial conflict. As Azerbaijan declared its independence from the Soviet Union and removed the powers held by the enclave's government, the Armenian majority voted to secede from Azerbaijan and in the process proclaimed the unrecognized Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh.
Full-scale fighting erupted in early 1992. International mediation by several groups including the Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) failed to bring an end resolution that both sides could work with. In early 1993, Armenian forces captured seven Azerbaijani-majority districts outside the enclave itself, threatening the involvement of other countries in the region. By the end of the war in 1994, the Armenians were in full control of the enclave, in addition to surrounding Azerbaijani territories, most notably the Lachin Corridor – a mountain pass that links Nagorno-Karabakh with mainland Armenia. A Russian-brokered ceasefire was signed in May 1994.
As a result of the conflict, approximately 724,000 Azerbaijanis were expelled from Armenia, Nagorno-Karabakh and the surrounding territories, while 300,000–500,000 Armenians living in Azerbaijan or Armenian border areas were displaced. After the end of the war and over a period of many years, regular peace talks between Armenia and Azerbaijan were mediated by the OSCE Minsk Group but failed to result in a peace treaty. This left the Nagorno-Karabakh area in a state of legal limbo, with the Republic of Artsakh remaining de facto independent but internationally unrecognized. Ongoing tensions persisted, with occasional outbreaks of armed clashes. Armenian forces occupied approximately 9% of Azerbaijan's territory outside the enclave until the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war.
Background
The territorial ownership of Nagorno-Karabakh today is heavily contested between Armenians and Azerbaijanis. The current conflict has its roots in events following World War I. Amid the dissolution of the Russian Empire in November 1917 and seizure of power by the Bolsheviks, the three main ethnic groups of the South Caucasus, Armenians, Azerbaijanis and Georgians, struggled to come to an agreement on the nature of political government in the region. An attempt at shared political authority in the form of the Transcaucasian Federation in the spring of 1918 came to naught in the face of an invasion by the forces of the Ottoman Empire. In May 1918, separate Armenian, Azerbaijani and Georgian national republics declared their formal independence from Russia.
Armenian–Azerbaijani war
Fighting soon broke out between the First Republic of Armenia and the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in three regions in particular: Nakhchivan, Zangezur (today the Armenian provinces of Syunik and Vayotz Dzor) and Karabakh itself.
Armenia and Azerbaijan quarreled over the prospective boundaries of the three regions. The Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh sought to unite the region with the Armenian republic. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, forces led by Armenian general Andranik Ozanian entered Karabakh and made for the regional capital of Shusha in December 1918 when they were stopped by newly-arrived British troops. The British commander suggested Andranik desist from marching on to Shusha and allow Armenia's and Azerbaijan's territorial disputes be left to the diplomats meeting at the forthcoming Paris Peace Conference. The British in the meantime decided to appoint Khosrov bey Sultanov, an Azerbaijani statesman, as provisional governor, but insisted that all sides await the decision made at the peace conference. Intermittent fighting broke out shortly after and accelerated following the British pull-out in early 1919. The violence culminated in Shusha's partial destruction by Azerbaijani forces in April 1920.
Soviet division
In April 1920, the Soviet Eleventh Army invaded the Caucasus and within two years, the Caucasian republics were formed into the Transcaucasian SFSR of the Soviet Union. The Bolsheviks created a seven-member committee, the Caucasus Bureau (known as the Kavburo). Established under the auspices of the People's Commissariat for Nationalities, the Kavburo was tasked with resolving a myriad of national-related issues in the Caucasus. On 4 July 1921 the committee voted 4–3 in favor of assigning Nagorno-Karabakh to the newly created Soviet Socialist Republic of Armenia, but a day later the Kavburo reversed its decision and voted to leave the region within the Azerbaijan SSR.
Historians to this day debate the reason for the Kavburo's last-minute reversal. Early scholarship argued that the decision was driven by a Soviet nationality policy that sought to create divisions within different ethnic and national groups. In addition to Nagorno-Karabakh, the Soviets also turned Nakhichevan, a region with a large Armenian minority population, into an exclave of Azerbaijan, separated by Armenia's border. More recent research has pointed to geography, Soviet economic policy, and ensuring close relations with Turkish nationalist leader Mustafa Kemal as factoring heavily in the Soviet decision-making.
The creation of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) in 1923 left the region with a 94% Armenian population. The region's capital was moved from Shusha to Khankendi, which was subsequently renamed Stepanakert.
Over the following decades of Soviet rule, the Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians retained a strong desire to reunite with Armenia. A number of Armenian Communist Party officials attempted to persuade Moscow to reconsider the question, to little avail. In 1936, First Secretary of the Communist Party of Armenia Aghasi Khanjian was murdered by the deputy head (and soon head) of the NKVD Lavrentiy Beria after submitting Armenian grievances to Stalin, which included requests to return Nagorno-Karabakh and Nakhichevan to Armenia. The Armenians of the region frequently complained over the span of Soviet rule that their cultural and national rights were continually trampled upon by the Soviet Azerbaijani authorities in Baku.
Prelude
Revival of the Karabakh issue
After Stalin's death, Armenian discontent began to be voiced. In 1963, around 2,500 Karabakh Armenians signed a petition calling for Karabakh to be put under Armenian control or to be transferred to Russia. The same year saw violent clashes in Stepanakert, leading to the death of 18 Armenians. In 1965 and 1977, there were large demonstrations in Yerevan calling to unify Karabakh with Armenia.
In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power as the new general secretary of the Soviet Union and began implementing plans to reform the Soviet Union through his policies of perestroika and glasnost. Many Armenians took advantage of the unprecedented opening of political expression offered by his policies and brought the issue of Nagorno-Karabakh back into the limelight. Karabakh Armenian leaders complained that the region had neither Armenian language textbooks in schools nor in television broadcasting, and that Azerbaijan's Communist Party General Secretary Heydar Aliyev had attempted to "Azerify" the region by increasing the influence and number of Azerbaijanis living in Nagorno-Karabakh while at the same time pressuring its Armenian population to emigrate (Aliyev would step down as general secretary in 1987) Over the course of seventy years, the Armenian population of Karabakh had dwindled to nearly three-quarters of the total population by the late 1980s.
In February 1988, Armenians began protesting and staging workers' strikes in Yerevan, demanding unification with the enclave. On 20 February 1988, the leaders of the regional Soviet of Karabakh voted in favour of unifying the autonomous region with Armenia in a resolution reading:
The response from Moscow and Baku was swift and unequivocal. Counter-protests were held in Baku on 19 February 1988 (the seventh day of Armenian rallies). The poet Bakhtiyar Vahabzadeh and the historian Suleyman Aliyarov published an open letter in the newspaper Azerbaijan, declaring Karabakh historic Azerbaijani territory. On 24 February, Boris Kevorkov, the Nagorno-Karabakh autonomous region party secretary and an Azerbaijan loyalist, was dismissed. Among the Soviet intelligentsia, the reaction was far more receptive. Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov, among many others, voiced their support for the Armenians.
In an attempt to calm tempers in Armenia, on 26 February, Gorbachev met with two popular Armenian cultural figures and intellectuals prominent in the Karabakh movement, Zori Balayan and Silva Kaputikyan, and asked them for a one-month moratorium on demonstrations. Returning to Armenia the same evening, Kaputikyan told the crowds the "Armenians [had] triumphed," although Gorbachev had not made any promises. According to Svante Cornell, this was an attempt to pressure Moscow. On 10 March, Gorbachev doubled down and stated that, in accordance with Article 78 of the Soviet constitution, no borders between the republics could change. He added since that several other regions in the Soviet Union were seeking territorial changes, redrawing the boundaries in Karabakh would set a dangerous precedent. While the Armenians denounced the 1921 Kavburo decision and believed they were correcting a historical error through the principle of self-determination (a right also granted in the constitution), Azerbaijanis found calls to cede the territory unacceptable and thus found themselves in alignment with Moscow.
Askeran and Sumgait
Ethnic infighting soon broke out between Armenians and Azerbaijanis living in Karabakh. In his 2003 book Black Garden, journalist Thomas de Waal interviewed a number of Azerbaijanis who claimed that as early as the end of 1987 Azerbaijanis from the villages of Ghapan and Meghri in Armenia were forced to leave their homes as a result of tensions between them and their Armenian neighbours. They claimed in November 1987 two freight cars full of Azerbaijanis are alleged to have arrived at the train station in Baku. In later interviews, the mayors of the two villages denied that any such tension existed at the time.
Amid a swirl of rumors, further acts of violence took place in February 1988. On 20 February, two Azerbaijani trainee female students were admitted to Stepanakert hospital for rape. On 22 February 1988, rumours of an Azerbaijani having been killed in Stepanakert, which was refuted by authorities, led an angry mob of thousands of Azerbaijanis from Agdam to march towards Nagorno-Karabakh. Policemen and armed Armenian villagers met them near the town of Askeran (located on the road between Stepanakert and Aghdam), leading to a direct confrontation. Numerous people on both sides were injured, and two Azerbaijani youth were killed. One of them was probably shot by a local policeman, possibly an Azerbaijani, either by accident or as a result of a quarrel. On 27 February 1988, while speaking on Baku's central television, the Soviet Deputy Procurator Alexander Katusev reported that "two inhabitants of the Agdam district fell victim to murder" and released their names.
The clash in Askeran served as a prelude to the pogroms in the seaside town of Sumgait, where tensions, already heightened by the Karabakh crisis, increased following a series of protests starting on 27 February. Speaking at the rallies, Azerbaijani refugees from the Armenian town of Ghapan accused Armenians of "murder and atrocities." Soviet media refuted these allegations and claimed that many of the speakers were agents provocateurs. Within hours, the pogrom against Sumgait's Armenian population broke out. Armenians were beaten, raped, mutilated and killed both on the streets of Sumgait and inside their apartments during three days of violence (with the police and local authorities failing to intervene) that only ended when Soviet armed forces entered the city and quelled much of the rioting on 1 March. The pogroms resulted in the deaths of 32 people (26 Armenians and 6 Azerbaijanis), according to official Soviet figures, although many Armenians believed this to be an undercount. Nearly all of Sumgait's Armenian population fled the city after the pogrom. Among Armenians, the killings revived memories of the Armenian genocide.
On 23 March 1988, the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union rejected Armenian demands to reassign Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia. Troops were dispatched to Yerevan to curtail protests. Gorbachev's attempts to quell tensions were to no avail, however. In Armenia, there was a firm belief that what had taken place in the region of Nakhichevan would be repeated in Nagorno-Karabakh: prior to its absorption by Soviet Russia, its population had stood at about 40% Armenian; by the late 1980s, its Armenian population was virtually non-existent.
Interethnic violence
Despite promises by Gorbachev to increase spending in the Nagnorno-Karabakh region, including investing 400 million-rubles in the introduction of Armenian language textbooks and television programming, Armenians remained dissatisfied with the state of affairs in 1988. Armenian agitation briefly subsided when a devastating earthquake hit Armenia on 7 December 1988, leveling the towns of Leninakan (now Gyumri) and Spitak and killing an estimated 25,000 people. Amid the tragedy, Soviet authorities arrested eleven members of the newly-formed Karabakh Committee, including the future president of Armenia Levon Ter-Petrosyan. Such actions polarized relations between Armenian leaders and the Kremlin; Armenians lost faith in Gorbachev, not least because of the bungled Soviet earthquake relief effort.
In the months following the Sumgait pogrom, a massive population exchange took place, as Armenians living in Azerbaijan and Azerbaijanis living in Armenia were forced out or chose to abandon their homes. According to the Azerbaijani government, between 27 and 29 November 1988, 33 Azerbaijanis were killed in Spitak, Gugark and Stepanavan and 216 in the 1987–1989 period. According to Arif Yunusov, an Azerbaijani MP and statistician, in November of the same year twelve Azerbaijanis from the Armenian village of Vardan were reportedly burned to death. According to Armenian sources, the number of Azerbaijanis killed in the 1988–1989 period reached 25.
Interethnic fighting also spread across Azerbaijan. In December 1988, seven people (among them four soldiers) were killed and hundreds injured when Soviet army units attempted once more to stop attacks directed at Armenians in Kirovabad and Nakhichevan. Estimates vary on how many people were killed during the first two years of the conflict. The Azerbaijani government alleges that 216 Azerbaijanis were killed in Armenia, while Yunusov gives 127 for those killed in 1988 alone. An October 1989 article in Time reported that over 100 people were estimated to have been killed in Armenia and Azerbaijan since February 1988.
By the end of 1988, dozens of villages in Armenia had become deserted, as most of Armenia's more than 200,000 Azerbaijanis and Muslim Kurds left.
Black January
By January 1989, the situation in Nagorno-Karabakh had grown so out of control that the central government in Moscow impose direct rule over region, a move welcomed by many Armenians. In September 1989, Popular Front (APF) leaders and their ever-increasing supporters set up a railway blockade against Armenia and the NKAO, effectively crippling Armenia's economy, as 85% of cargo and goods arrived through rail traffic, although some scholars claim this was a response to Armenia's own embargo against Nakhichevan ASSR that had started earlier that year. Rail service to Armenia was also disrupted by attacks by Armenian militants against Azerbaijani train crews.
In January 1990, another pogrom directed at Armenians in Baku forced Gorbachev to declare a state of emergency and send interior ministry (MVD) troops to restore order. City residents, who saw tanks arriving at about 5 AM, said the troops were the first to open fire. The Shield Report, an independent commission from the USSR military procurator's office, rejected the military's claims of it have returning fire, finding no evidence that those manning the barricades on the roads to Baku were armed. A curfew was established and violent clashes between the soldiers and the surging APF ensued. One hundred twenty Azerbaijanis and eight MVD soldiers were killed in the fighting in Baku. The events referred to in Azerbaijan as Black January, strained relations between Azerbaijan and the central government, and led to the collapse of the Azerbaijan Communist Party .
Fighting in Qazakh
Azerbaijan has several exclaves within the territory of Armenia: Yukhari Askipara, Barkhudarli and Sofulu in the northwest and an exclave of Karki in the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan. In early 1990, the road alongside the border village of Baghanis came under routine attack by militia members from Azerbaijan. At the same time, Armenian forces attacked both these Azerbaijani enclaves within Armenia proper and the border villages of the Qazakh and Sadarak rayons in Azerbaijan proper. On 26 March 1990 several cars filled with Armenian paramilitaries arrived in the Armenian border village of Baghanis. At dusk, they crossed the border storming the Azerbaijani village Bağanis Ayrum. About 20 houses were burned and 8 to 11 Azerbaijani villagers killed. The bodies of members of one family, including infants, were found in the charred ruins of their burned homes. By the time the MVD troops arrived in Bağanis Ayrum, the attackers had already fled.
The Armenian-Azerbaijani border was also the flashpoint of fighting between Armenian units and the Soviet army. On 19 August, units of the Armenian national army fired upon Azerbaijani villages Yuxarı Əskipara, Bağanis Ayrum, Aşağı Əskipara and Quşçu Ayrım, and according to eyewitnesses used Rocket-propelled grenades and mortars. The first attack was repulsed, but with additional reinforcements arriving from Yerevan, Armenian forces were able to seize Yukhari Askipara and Bağanis Ayrum. On 20 August Soviet army tanks, anti-aircraft units, and helicopter gunships under the command of Major General Yuri Shatalin were brought in and by the end of the day the Armenians were driven off. According to the Soviet Ministry of Interior, one internal ministry officer, and two police officers were killed, nine soldiers and thirteen residents were injured. According to Armenian media reports, five militants were killed and 25 were wounded; according to Azerbaijani media, about 30 were killed and 100 wounded.
Operation Ring
In early 1991, President Gorbachev held a special countrywide referendum called the Union Treaty which would decide if the Soviet republics would remain together. Newly elected non-communist leaders had come to power in the Soviet republics, including Boris Yeltsin in Russia (Gorbachev remained the President of the Soviet Union), Levon Ter-Petrosyan in Armenia, and Ayaz Mutalibov in Azerbaijan. Armenia and five other republics boycotted the referendum (Armenia declared its independence from the Soviet Union on 23 August 1990, whereas Azerbaijan voted in favor of joining).
As many Armenians and Azerbaijanis in Karabakh began acquiring arms located in caches throughout Karabakh, Mutalibov turned to Gorbachev for support in launching a joint military operation in order to disarm Armenian militants in the region. Codenamed Operation Ring, Soviet forces, acting in conjunction with the local Azerbaijani OMON, entered villages in the Shahumyan region and began to forcibly expel their Armenian inhabitants. The operation involved the use of ground troops, armored vehicles and artillery. The deportations of the Armenian civilians was accompanied by allegations of gross human rights violations.
Operation Ring was viewed by many Soviet and Armenian government officials as a heavy-handed attempt by Moscow to intimidate the Armenian populace and forced them to give up their demands for unification. In the end, the operation proved counter-productive, with the violence only reinforcing the belief among Armenians that armed resistance remained the only solution to the conflict. The initial Armenian resistance inspired volunteers to start forming irregular volunteer detachments.
Early reconciliation efforts
In September 1991, Russian president Boris Yeltsin and Kazakhstan President Nursultan Nazarbayev tried their first hand at mediation efforts. After peace talks in Baku, Ganja, Stepanakert, and Yerevan on 20–23 September, the sides agreed to sign the Zheleznovodsk Communiqué in the Russian city of Zheleznovodsk taking the principles of territorial integrity, non-interference in internal affairs of sovereign states, observance of civil rights as a base of the agreement. The agreement was signed by Yeltsin, Nazarbayev, Mutalibov and Ter-Petrosyan. The peace talks came to an end, however, due to continuing bombardment and atrocities by Azerbaijani OMON in Stepanakert and Chapar in late September. with the final blow brought about by the shooting down of an Mi-8 helicopter near the village of Karakend in the Martuni District. The helicopter contained a peace mediating team made up of Russian and Kazakh observers and Azerbaijani high-ranking officials.
Implosion and Soviet dissolution
In late 1991, Armenian militia groups launched a number of operations to capture Armenian-populated villages seized by Azerbaijani OMON in May–July 1991. A number of Azerbaijani units burned these villages down as they withdrew from their positions. According to the Moscow-based Human Rights organization Memorial, at the same time, as a result of attacks by Armenian armed forces, several thousand residents of Azerbaijani villages in the former Shahumian, Hadrut, Martakert, Askeran and Martuni rayons of Azerbaijan left their homes. Some villages (e.g., Imereti and Gerevent) were burned by the militants. There were instances of violence against the civilian population (in particular, in the village Meshali).
Starting in late 1991, when the Azerbaijani side started its counter-offensive, the Armenian side began targeting Azerbaijani villages. According to Memorial, the villages Malibeyli and Gushchular, from which Azerbaijani forces regularly bombarded Stepanakert, were attacked by Armenians. Houses were burned and dozens of civilians were killed. Each side accused the other of using the villages for military purposes. On 19 December, interior ministry troops began to withdraw from Nagorno-Karabakh, completing their departure on 27 December. With the collapse of the Soviet Union and the withdrawal of interior ministry troops from Nagorno-Karabakh, the situation in the region spiraled out of control.
Weapons vacuum
As the dissolution of the Soviet Union accelerated in late 1991, both sides sought to acquire weaponry from military caches located throughout the region. The initial advantage tilted in Azerbaijan's favour. During the Cold War, Soviet military doctrine for the defense of the Caucasus had outlined a strategy where Armenia would become a combat zone in the event that NATO member Turkey invaded from the west. Thus, there were only three military divisions stationed in the Armenian SSR, and the country had no airfields, while Azerbaijan had a total of five divisions and five military air bases. Furthermore, Armenia had approximately 500 railroad cars of ammunition compared to Azerbaijan's 10,000.
As MVD forces began pulling out, they bequeathed the Armenians and Azerbaijanis a vast arsenal of ammunition and armored vehicles. The government forces initially sent by Gorbachev three years earlier were from other Soviet republics and many had no wish to stay too long. Most were poor, young conscripts and many simply sold their weapons for cash or even vodka to either side, some even trying to sell tanks and armored personnel carriers (APCs). The unsecured weapons caches led both sides to accuse Gorbachev of allowing the region to slip into conflict. The Azerbaijanis purchased a large quantity of vehicles, with the Foreign Ministry of Azerbaijan reporting in November 1993 the acquisition of 286 tanks, 842 armored vehicles and 386 artillery pieces during the power vacuum. The emergence of black markets helped facilitate the import of Western-made weaponry.
Most weaponry was of either Russian or former Eastern bloc manufacture; although, some improvisation was also made by both sides. Azerbaijan received substantial military aid and provisions from Turkey, Israel and numerous Middle East countries. The Armenian Diaspora donated a significant amount of aid to Armenia through the course of the war and even managed to push for legislation in the United States Congress to ban American military aid to Azerbaijan in 1992. While Azerbaijan charged the Russians with helping the Armenians, a reporter from Time magazine confirmed that "the Azerbaijani fighters in the region [were] far better equipped with Soviet military weaponry than their opponents."
Following Gorbachev's resignation as president of the USSR on 25 December 1991, the remaining republics, including Kazakhstan, Belarus and Russia itself, declared their independence and the Soviet Union ceased to exist on 31 December 1991. This dissolution removed any barriers that were keeping Armenia and Azerbaijan from waging a full-scale war. One month prior, on 26 November, the Azerbaijani Parliament had rescinded Karabakh's status as an autonomous region and renamed Stepanakert "Xankandi." In response, on 10 December, a referendum was held in Karabakh by parliamentary leaders (the local Azerbaijani community boycotted the referendum), with the Armenians voting overwhelmingly in favour of independence. On 6 January 1992, the region declared its independence from Azerbaijan.
The withdrawal of Soviet interior troops from Nagorno-Karabakh did not necessarily lead to the complete drawdown of former Soviet military power. In February 1992, the former Soviet republics came to form the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). While Azerbaijan abstained from joining, Armenia, fearing a possible invasion by Turkey, did, bringing the country under the organization's "collective security umbrella". In January 1992, CIS forces established their new headquarters at Stepanakert and took up an active role in peacekeeping. The CIS incorporated older Soviet formations, including the 366th Motorized Rifle Regiment and elements of the Soviet Fourth Army.
Building armies
Sporadic battles between Armenians and Azerbaijanis intensified after Operation Ring. Thousands of volunteers joined the new armies Armenia and Azerbaijan were trying to build from the ground up. In addition to the formation of regular army units, in Armenia many men volunteered to join detachments (jokats), units of about forty men, which, combined with several others, were placed under the command of a lieutenant colonel. Many saw themselves in the mold of historic Armenian military figures, such as Andranik Ozanian and Garegin Nzhdeh, who had fought against the Ottoman Empire and Azerbaijan Democratic Republic during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. According to a biographer of one of the men who served in these units, the detachments at first lacked organization and often chose to attack or defend certain targets and areas without central coordination. Insubordination was common, as many men simply chose not to show up, looted the belongings of dead soldiers and sold supplies, such as diesel oil intended for armoured vehicles, on the black market.
Many women also enlisted in the Nagorno-Karabakh military, taking part in the fighting as well as serving in auxiliary roles such as providing first-aid and evacuating wounded men from the battlefield.
Azerbaijan's military functioned in much the same manner: it was better organized during the first years of the war. The Azerbaijan government carried out conscription and many Azerbaijanis enthusiastically enlisted for combat in the first months after the Soviet Union collapsed. Azerbaijan's national army consisted of roughly 30,000 men, as well as nearly 10,000 in its OMON paramilitary force and several thousand volunteers from the Popular Front. Suret Huseynov, a wealthy Azerbaijani, also improvised by creating his own military brigade, the 709th, and purchased many weapons and vehicles from the 23rd Motor Rifle Division's arsenal. Isgandar Hamidov's Grey Wolves (bozqurt) Brigade was another privately-funded military outfit. The Azerbaijan government, flush with money from oil revenues, also hired foreign mercenaries.
Former troops of the Soviet Union similarly offered their services to either side. One of the most prominent officers to serve on the Armenian side, for example, was former Soviet general Anatoly Zinevich, who remained in Nagorno-Karabakh for five years (1992–1997) and was involved in the planning and implementation of many operations of the Armenian forces. By the end of the war, he held the position of Chief of Staff of the Republic of Artsakh armed forces. The Azerbaijani military, on the other hand, was assisted by Afghan commander Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. The recruitment for the purpose was mostly made in Peshawar by commander Fazle Haq Mujahid and several groups were dispatched to Azerbaijan for different duties.
The estimated manpower and equipment of each side in 1993–1994 was:
Because at the time Armenia did not have the kind of far-reaching treaties with Russia (signed later in 1997 and 2010), and because the CSTO did not yet exist, it had to allocate its own resources for the defense of its western border with Turkey. For the duration of the war, most of the military personnel and equipment of the Republic of Armenia stayed in the country proper.
In an overall military comparison, the number of men eligible for military service in Armenia, in the age group of 17–32, totalled 550,000, while in Azerbaijan it was 1.3 million. Most men from both sides had served in the Soviet army and so had some form of military experience prior to the conflict, including men who had served their tours of duty in Afghanistan. Among Karabakh Armenians, about 60% had served in the Soviet amy Most Azerbaijanis were often subject to discrimination during their service in the Soviet military and relegated to work in construction battalions rather than fighting corps. Despite the presence of two military academies, including a naval school in Azerbaijan, the lack of such military experience was one factor that left Azerbaijan unprepared for the war.
War
Stepanakert under siege
During the winter of 1991–1992 Stepanakert, the capital of Nagorno-Karabakh was blockaded by Azerbaijani forces and many civilian targets in the city were intentionally bombarded by artillery and aircraft. The bombardment of Stepanakert and adjacent Armenian-held towns and villages during the blockade caused widespread destruction and the Interior Minister of Nagorno-Karabakh claimed that 169 Armenians died between October 1991 and April 1992. Azerbaijan used weapons such as the BM-21 Grad multiple-launch rocket system during the bombardment. The indiscriminate shelling and aerial attacks, terrorized the civilian population and destroyed numerous civilian buildings, including homes, hospitals and other non-legitimate military targets.
Human Rights Watch reported that main bases used by Azerbaijani armed forces for the bombardment of Stepanakert were the towns of Khojaly and Shusha. In February 1992, Khojaly was captured by a mixed force of ethnic Armenians and, according to international observers, the 366th CIS Regiment. After its capture, Khojaly became the site of the largest massacre to occur during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Human Rights Watch estimates that at least 161 Azerbaijani civilians, as well as a number of unarmed hors de combat, were killed as they fled the town. The siege was finally lifted a few months later, in May 1992, when Armenian forces scored a decisive victory by capturing Shusha.
Early Armenian offensives
Khojaly
On 2 January 1992 Ayaz Mutalibov assumed the presidency of Azerbaijan. Officially, the newly created Republic of Armenia publicly denied any involvement in providing any weapons, fuel, food, or other logistics to the secessionists in Nagorno-Karabakh. Ter-Petrosyan later did admit to supplying them with logistical supplies and paying the salaries of the separatists, but denied sending any of its own men into combat. Armenia faced a debilitating blockade by the now Republic of Azerbaijan, as well as pressure from neighbouring Turkey, which decided to side with Azerbaijan and build a closer relationship with it. In early February, the Azerbaijani villages of Malıbəyli, Karadagly and Agdaban were conquered and their population evicted, leading to at least 99 civilian deaths and 140 wounded.
The only land connection Armenia had with Karabakh was through the narrow, mountainous Lachin corridor which could only be reached by helicopters. The region's only airport was in Khojaly, a small town north of Stepanakert and a population of somewhere between 6,000–10,000 people. Khojaly had been serving as an artillery base from which Grad rockets were launched upon the civilian population of capital Stepanakert:
On some days as many as 400 Grad rockets rained down on Armenian multi-story apartments. By late February, the Armenian forces reportedly warned about the upcoming attack and issued an ultimatum that unless the Azerbaijanis stopped the shelling from Khojaly they would seize the town.
By late February, Khojaly had largely been cut off. On 26 February, Armenian forces, with the aid of some armored vehicles from the 366th, mounted an offensive to capture Khojaly. According to the Azerbaijani side and the affirmation of other sources including Human Rights Watch, the Moscow-based human rights organization Memorial and the biography of a leading Armenian commander, Monte Melkonian, documented and published by his brother, after Armenian forces captured Khojaly, they killed several hundred civilians evacuating from the town. Armenian forces had previously stated they would attack the city and leave a land corridor for them to escape through. When the attack began, the attacking Armenian force easily outnumbered and overwhelmed the defenders who along with the civilians attempted to retreat north to the Azerbaijani held city of Agdam. The airport's runway was found to have been intentionally destroyed, rendering it temporarily useless. The attacking forces then went on to pursue those fleeing through the corridor and opened fire upon them, killing scores of civilians. Facing charges of an intentional massacre of civilians by international groups, Armenian government officials denied the occurrence of a massacre and asserted an objective of silencing the artillery coming from Khojaly.
An exact body count was never ascertained but conservative estimates have placed the number to 485. The official death toll according to Azerbaijani authorities for casualties suffered during the events of 25–26 February is 613 civilians, of them 106 women and 83 children. On 3 March 1992, the Boston Globe reported over 1,000 people had been slain over four years of conflict. It quoted the mayor of Khojaly, Elmar Mamedov, as also saying 200 more were missing, 300 were held hostage and 200 injured in the fighting.
A report published in 1992 by the human rights organization Helsinki Watch stated that their inquiry found that the Azerbaijani OMON and "the militia, still in uniform and some still carrying their guns, were interspersed with the masses of civilians" which may have been the reason why Armenian troops fired upon them.
Under pressure from the APF due to the mismanagement of the defence of Khojaly and the safety of its inhabitants, Mutalibov was forced to submit his resignation to the National Assembly of Azerbaijan.
Capture of Shusha
On 26 January 1992, the Azerbaijani forces stationed in Shusha encircled and attacked the nearby Armenian village Karintak (located on the way from Shusha to Stepanakert) in an attempt to capture it. This operation was conducted by Azerbaijan's then-defence minister Tajedin Mekhtiev and was supposed to prepare the ground for a future attack on Stepanakert. The operation failed as the villagers and the Armenian fighters strongly retaliated. Mekhtiev was ambushed and up to 70 Azeri soldiers died. After this debacle, Mekhtiev left Shusha and was fired as defence minister.
On 28 March, Azerbaijani troops deployed to attack Stepanakert, attacked Armenian positions above the village Kərkicahan from the village of Dzhangasan. During the afternoon of the next day, Azerbaijani units took up positions in close proximity to the city, but were quickly repulsed by the Armenians.
In the ensuing months after the capture of Khojaly, Azerbaijani commanders holding out in the region's last bastion of Shusha began a large-scale artillery bombardment with Grad rocket launchers against Stepanakert. By April, the shelling had forced many of the 50,000 people living in Stepanakert to seek refuge in underground bunkers and basements. Facing ground incursions near the city's outlying areas, military leaders in Nagorno-Karabakh organized an offensive to take the town.
On 8 May a force of several hundred Armenian troops accompanied by tanks and helicopters attacked Shusha. Fierce fighting took place in the town's streets and several hundred men were killed on both sides. Although the Armenians were outnumbered and outgunned by the Azerbaijani Army, they managed to capture the town and force the Azerbaijanis to retreat on 9 May.
The capture of Shusha resonated loudly in neighbouring Turkey. Its relations with Armenia had grown better after it had declared its independence from the Soviet Union; they gradually worsened as a result of Armenia's gains in the Nagorno-Karabakh region. Turkey's prime minister Suleyman Demirel said that he was under intense pressure by his people to have his country intervene and aid Azerbaijan. Demirel was opposed to such an intervention, saying that Turkey's entrance into the war would trigger an even greater Muslim-Christian conflict (Turkey is overwhelmingly Muslim).
Turkey never sent troops to Azerbaijan but did contribute substantial military aid and advisers. In May 1992, the military commander of the CIS forces, Marshal Yevgeny Shaposhnikov, issued a warning to Western nations, especially the United States, to not interfere with the conflict in the Caucasus, stating it would "place us [the Commonwealth] on the verge of a third world war and that cannot be allowed".
The Lachin Corridor
TheAzerbaijani parliament blamed Yaqub Mammadov, then acting President of Azerbaijan, for Shusha's loss, and removed him from power. This cleared Mutalibov of any responsibility after the loss of Khojaly, and paved the way for reinstatement him as president on 15 May 1992. Many Azerbaijanis objected to this move, viewing as an attempt to forestall parliamentary elections due in June of that year. The Azerbaijani parliament at that time was made up of former leaders from the country's communist regime, and the losses of Khojaly and Shusha led to further agitation for free elections.
To add to the turmoil, on 18 May Armenian forces launched an offensive to take the town of Lachin, situated along a narrow corridor that separated Armenia proper from Nagorno-Karabakh. The town was poorly guarded, and the next day Armenian forces took control of the town and opened the road that linked the region to Armenia. The capture of Lachin allowed an overland route for supply convoys to Karabakh.
The loss of Lachin was the final blow to Mutalibov's regime. Demonstrations were held despite Mutalibov's ban and an armed coup was staged by Popular Front activists. Fighting between government forces and Popular Front supporters escalated as the political opposition seized the parliament building in Baku as well as the airport and presidential office. On 16 June 1992 Abulfaz Elchibey was elected leader of Azerbaijan with many political leaders from the Azerbaijan Popular Front Party were elected into the parliament. The instigators lambasted Mutalibov as an undedicated and weak leader in the war in Karabakh. Elchibey was staunchly opposed to asking for help from Russians, preferring instead to build closer ties with Turkey.
There were times when the fighting also spilled outside the Nagorno-Karabakh region. Nakhchivan, for example, was shelled by Armenian troops in May 1992.
Escalation
Azerbaijani offensive in June 1992
On 12 June 1992, the Azeri military, along with Huseynov's own brigade, used a large amount of tanks, armored personnel carriers and attack helicopters to launch a three-day offensive from the relatively unguarded region of Shahumian, north of Nagorno-Karabakh, in the process taking back several dozen villages in the Shahumian region originally held by Armenian forces. Another reason the front collapsed so effortlessly was because it was manned by the volunteer detachments from Armenia, having abandoned their positions to return to Armenia proper after the capture of Lachin. The offensive prompted the Armenian government to openly threaten Azerbaijan that it would overtly intervene and assist the separatists fighting in Karabakh.
The scale of the Azerbaijani offensive prompted the Armenian government to threaten Azerbaijan with directly intervening and assisting the separatists. The assault forced Armenian forces to retreat south towards Stepanakert, where Karabakh commanders contemplated destroying a vital hydroelectric dam in the Martakert region if the offensive was not halted. An estimated 30,000 Armenian refugees were also forced to flee to the capital as the assaulting forces had taken back nearly half of Nagorno-Karabakh. However, the offensive soon ground to a halt as helicopter gunships began picking away at the columns.
On 18 June 1992, a state of emergency was announced throughout the NKR. On 15 August, the Committee for State Defense of the NKR was created, headed by Robert Kocharyan and later by Serzh Sargsyan. Partial mobilization was called for, which covered sergeants and privates in the NKR, NKR men available for military service aged 18–40, officers up to the age of 50 and women with previous military training. Many of the crew members of the armored units in the offensive belonged to the Russian 23rd Division of the 4th Army, based out of Ganja and, ironically, as were the units that eventually stopped them. According to an Armenian government official, they were able to persuade Russian military units to bombard and effectively halt the advance within a few days; allowing the Armenian government to recuperate for the losses and mount a counteroffensive to restore the original lines of the front.
Renewed peace talks
New efforts at peace talks were initiated by Iranian President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani in the first half of 1992, after the events in Khojaly and the resignation of Azerbaijani President Ayaz Mutallibov. Iranian diplomats conducted shuttle diplomacy and were able to bring the new president of Azerbaijan Yaqub Mammadov and President of Armenia Levon Ter-Petrosian to Tehran for bilateral talks on 7 May 1992. The Tehran Communiqué was signed by Mammadov, Ter-Petrosian and Rafsanjani following the agreement of the parties to international legal norms, stability of borders and to deal with the refugee crisis. The peace efforts were disrupted on the next day when Armenian troops captured the town of Shusha and completely failed following the capture of Lachin on 18 May.
In mid-1992, the CSCE (later to become the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe), created the Minsk Group in Helsinki which comprised eleven nations and was co-chaired by France, Russia and the United States with the purpose of mediating a peace deal with Armenia and Azerbaijan. In their annual summit in 1992, the organization failed to address and solve the many new problems that had arisen since the Soviet Union collapsed, much less the Karabakh conflict. The wars in Yugoslavia, Moldova's war with the breakaway republic of Transnistria, the secessionist movement in Chechnya and Georgia's renewed disputes with Russia, Abkhazia, and Ossetia were all top agenda issues that involved various ethnic groups fighting each other.
The CSCE proposed the use of NATO and CIS peacekeepers to monitor ceasefires and protect shipments of humanitarian aid being sent to displaced refugees. Several ceasefires were put into effect after the June offensive, but the implementation of a European peacekeeping force, endorsed by Armenia, never came to fruition. The idea of sending 100 international observers to Karabakh was once raised but talks broke down completely between Armenian and Azerbaijani leaders in July. Russia was especially opposed to allowing a multinational peacekeeping force from NATO to entering the Caucasus, seeing it as a move that encroached on its "backyard".
The southern front
In late June, a new, smaller Azerbaijani offensive was planned, this time against the town of Martuni in the southeastern half of Karabakh. The attack force consisted of several dozen tanks and armored fighting vehicles along with a complement of several infantry companies massing along the Machkalashen and Jardar fronts near Martuni and Krasnyy Bazar. Martuni's regimental commander, Monte Melkonian, although lacking heavy armor, managed to beat back repeated assaults by the Azerbaijani forces.
In late August 1992, Nagorno-Karabakh's government was in order disorder, and its members resigned on 17 August. Power was subsequently assumed by a council called the State Defense Committee and chaired by Robert Kocharyan. The committee would temporarily govern the enclave until war's end. At the same time, Azerbaijan also launched attacks by fixed-wing aircraft, often bombing civilian targets. Kocharyan accused Azerbaijan of intentionally targeting civilians in the aerial campaign. He also blamed Russia for allowing its army's weapons stockpiles to be sold or transferred to Azerbaijan.
Winter thaw
As winter approached, both sides largely abstained from launching full-scale offensives so as to preserve resources, such as gas and electricity, for domestic use. Despite the opening of an economic highway to the residents living in Karabakh, both Armenia and the enclave suffered a great deal due to the economic blockades imposed by Azerbaijan. While not completely shut off, material aid sent through Turkey arrived sporadically.
Experiencing both food shortages and power shortages, after the shutting down of the Metsamor nuclear power plant, Armenia's economic outlook appeared bleak: in Georgia, a new bout of civil wars against separatists in Abkhazia and Ossetia began, and supply convoys were raided and the only oil pipeline leading from Russia to Armenia was repeatedly destroyed. As in 1991–1992, the 1992–1993 winter was especially cold, as many families throughout Armenia and Karabakh were left without heating and hot water.
Grain had become difficult to procure. The Armenian Diaspora raised money and donated supplies to Armenia. In December, two shipments of 33,000 tons of grain and 150 tons of infant formula arrived from the United States via the Black Sea port of Batumi, Georgia. In February 1993, the European Community sent 4.5 million ECUs to Armenia. Iran also helped by providing power and electricity to Armenian. Elchibey's acrimonious stance toward Iran and provocative remarks about unifying with Iran's Azerbaijani minority alienated relations between the two countries.
Azerbaijanis were displaced as internal and international refugees were forced to live in makeshift camps provided by both the Azerbaijan government and Iran. The International Red Cross also distributed blankets to the Azerbaijanis and noted that by December, enough food was being allocated for the refugees. Azerbaijan also struggled to rehabilitate its petroleum industry, the country's chief export. Its oil refineries were not generating at full capacity and production quotas fell well short of estimates. In 1965, the oil fields in Baku were producing 21.5 million tons of oil annually; by 1988, that number had dropped down to almost 3.3 million. Outdated Soviet refinery equipment and a reluctance by Western oil companies to invest in a war region where pipelines would routinely be destroyed prevented Azerbaijan from fully exploiting its oil wealth.
Mid-1993
The northern front
Despite a brutal winter, both sides looked to the new year to break the inertia of the war. Azerbaijan's President Elchibey expressed optimism toward bringing solution to the conflict with Armenia's Ter-Petrosyan. Glimmers of such hope quickly began to fade in January 1993, despite the calls for a new ceasefire by Boris Yeltsin and George H. W. Bush. Armenian forces launched a new round of attacks that overran villages in northern Karabakh that had been held by the Azerbaijanis since the previous year. After Armenian losses in 1992, Russia started massive armament shipments to Armenia in the following year. Russia supplied Armenia with arms with a total cost of US$1 billion in value in 1993. According to Russian general Lev Rokhlin, Russians supplied Armenians with such massive arms shipment in return for "money, personal contacts and lots of vodkas".
Frustration over these military defeats took a toll on the domestic front in Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan's military had grown more desperate and defence minister Gaziev and Huseynov's brigade turned to Russian help, a move which ran against Elchibey's policies and was construed as insubordination. Political infighting and arguments about where to shift military units between the country's ministry of the interior Isgandar Hamidov and Gaziev led to the latter's resignation on 20 February. Armenia was similarly wracked by political turmoil and growing Armenian dissension against President Ter-Petrosyan.
Kalbajar
Situated west of northern Karabakh, outside the official boundaries of the region, was the rayon of Kalbajar, which bordered Armenia. With a population of about 60,000, the several dozen villages were made up of Azerbaijani and Kurds. In March 1993, the Armenian-held areas near the Sarsang reservoir in Mardakert were reported to have been coming under attack by the Azerbaijanis. After successfully defending the Martuni region, Melkonian's fighters were tasked to move to capture the region of Kalbajar, where the incursions and artillery shelling were said to have been coming from.
Scant military opposition by the Azerbaijanis allowed Melkonian's fighters to gain a foothold in the region and along the way capture several abandoned armored vehicles and tanks. At 2:45 pm, on 2 April, Armenian forces from two directions advanced toward Kalbajar in an attack that struck Azerbaijani armor and troops entrenched near the Ganja-Kalbajar intersection. Azerbaijani forces were unable to halt the advances made by Armenian armor and were wiped out completely. The second attack toward Kalbajar also quickly overran the defenders. By 3 April, Armenian forces were in possession of Kalbajar.
On 30 April, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) passed Resolution 822, co-sponsored by Turkey and Pakistan, demanding the immediate cessation of all hostilities and the withdrawal of all occupying forces from Kalbajar. Human Rights Watch concluded that during the Kalbajar offensive Armenian forces committed numerous violations of the rules of war, including the forcible exodus of a civilian population, indiscriminate fire, and taking of hostages.
The political repercussions were also felt in Azerbaijan when Huseynov embarked on his "march to Baku". Frustrated with what he felt was Elchibey's incompetence and demoted from his rank of colonel, his brigade advanced in early June from its base in Ganja toward Baku with the explicit aim of unseating the president. Elchibey stepped down from office on 18 June and power was assumed by then parliamentary member Heydar Aliyev. On 1 July, Huseynov was appointed prime minister of Azerbaijan. As acting president, Aliyev disbanded 33 voluntary battalions of the Popular Front, which he deemed politically unreliable.
Agdam, Fuzuli, Jabrail and Zangilan
The Armenian side took advantage of the turmoil in Baku, which had left the Karabakh front almost undefended. The following four months of political instability in Azerbaijan led to the loss of control over five districts, as well as the north of Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijani military forces were unable to put up much resistance in the face of Armenian advances and abandoned most of their positions with little resistance. In late June 1993, they were driven out from Mardakert, losing their final foothold of the enclave. By July, Armenian forces were seen preparing for to attack and capture Agdam, another district that fell outside of Nagorno-Karabakh, with the aim of widening a cordon that would keep towns and villages and their positions out of the range of Azerbaijani artillery.
On 4 July Armenian forces commenced an artillery bombardment on Agdam, destroying many parts of the town. Soldiers, along with civilians, began to evacuate Agdam. Facing military collapse, Aliyev resumed talks with the Karabakh government and Minsk Group officials. In mid-August, Armenians massed a force to take Fuzuli and Jebrail, two regions in Azerbaijan proper.
In the wake of the Armenian offensive in these two regions, Turkish prime minister Tansu Çiller demanded that the Armenians withdraw and issued a warning to the Armenian government not to undertake any offensives in Nakhichevan. Thousands of Turkish troops were sent to the border between Turkey and Armenia in early September. Russian forces in Armenia, in turn, likewise mobilized in the country's northwest border.
By early September, Azerbaijani forces were in a state of complete disarray. Many of the heavy weapons they had received and bought from the Russians were either taken out of action or abandoned during battles. Since the June 1992 offensive, Armenian forces had captured dozens of tanks, light armor, and artillery from Azerbaijan. According to Monte Melkonian, his forces in Martuni alone had captured or destroyed a total of 55 T-72s, 24 BMP-2s, 15 APCs and 25 heavy artillery pieces since the June 1992 Goranboy offensive. Serzh Sargsyan, the then-military leader of the Karabakh armed forces, calculated a total of 156 tanks captured over the course of the war.
Azerbaijan was so desperate for manpower that Aliyev recruited 1,000–1,500 mujahadeen fighters from Afghanistan. Azerbaijan's government refuted the claim at the time, although the Armenian side provided correspondence and photographs to support their presence in the region. A shady American petroleum company, MEGA OIL, was also alleged to have sent American military trainers to Azerbaijan in order to acquire oil drilling rights in the country.
Air war over Karabakh
The aerial warfare in Karabakh involved primarily fighter jets and attack helicopters. The primary transport helicopters of the war were the Mi-8 and its cousin, the Mi-17 and were used extensively by both sides. The most widely used helicopter gunship by both sides was the Soviet-made Mi-24 Krokodil. Armenia's active air force at the time consisted of only two Su-25 ground support bombers, one of which was lost due to friendly fire. There were also several Su-22s and Su-17s; these ageing craft took a backseat for the duration of the war.
Azerbaijan's air force was composed of 45 combat aircraft which were often piloted by experienced Russian and Ukrainian mercenaries from the former Soviet military. They flew mission sorties over Karabakh with such sophisticated jets as the MiG-25 and Sukhoi Su-24 and with older-generation Soviet fighter bombers, such as the MiG-21. They were reported to have been paid a monthly salary of over 5,000 rubles and flew bombing campaigns from air force bases in Azerbaijan, often targeting Stepanakert. These pilots, like the men from the Soviet interior forces at the onset of the conflict, were also poor and took the jobs as a means of supporting their families. Several were shot down over the city by Armenian forces and according to one of the pilots' commanders, with assistance provided by the Russians. Many of these pilots risked the threat of execution by Armenian forces if they were shot down. The setup of the defence system severely hampered Azerbaijan's ability to carry out and launch more airstrikes.
Azerbaijani fighter jets attacked civilian airplanes too. An Armenian civil aviation Yak-40 plane traveling Stepanakert Airport to Yerevan with 34 passengers and crew was attacked by an Azerbaijani Su-25. Though suffering engine failure and a fire in rear of the plane, it eventually made a safe landing in Armenian territory.
Armenian and Azerbaijani aircraft equipment
Below is a table listing the number of aircraft that were used by Armenia and Azerbaijan during the war.
1993–1994, exhaustion and peace
In October 1993, Aliyev was formally elected president of Azerbaijan and promised to bring social order to the country in addition to recapturing the lost regions. In October, Azerbaijan joined the CIS. The winter season was marked with similar conditions as in the previous year, both sides scavenging for wood and harvesting foodstuffs months in advance. Two subsequent UNSC resolutions on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict were passed, 874 and 884, in October and November. Reemphasizing the same points as the previous two, they acknowledged Nagorno-Karabakh as a region of Azerbaijan.
In early January 1994, Azerbaijani forces and Afghan guerrillas recaptured part of the Fuzuli district, including the railway junction of Horadiz on the Iranian border, but failed to recapture the town of Fuzuli itself. On 10 January an offensive was launched by Azerbaijan toward the region of Mardakert in an attempt to recapture the northern section of the enclave. The offensive managed to advance and take back several parts of Karabakh in the north and to the south but soon petered out. In response, Armenia began sending conscripts and regular Army and Interior Ministry troops to stop the Azerbaijani advance in Karabakh. To bolster the ranks of its army, the Armenian government issued a decree that instituted a three-month call-up for men up to age 45 and resorted to press-gang raids to enlist recruits. Several active-duty Armenian Army soldiers were captured by the Azerbaijani forces.
Azerbaijan's offensives grew more desperate as boys as young as 16, with little to no training, were recruited and sent to take part in ineffective human wave attacks (a tactic often compared to the one employed by Iran during the Iran–Iraq War). The two offensives that took place in the winter cost Azerbaijan as many as 5,000 lives (at the loss of several hundred Armenians). The main Azerbaijani offensive was aimed at recapturing the Kalbajar district, which would thus threaten the Lachin corridor. The attack initially met little resistance and was successful in capturing the vital Omar Pass. As the Armenian forces reacted, the bloodiest clashes of the war ensued and the Azerbaijani forces were soundly defeated. In a single clash, Azerbaijan lost about 1,500 of its soldiers after the failed offensive in Kalbajar.
While the political leadership changed hands several times in Azerbaijan, most Armenian soldiers in Karabakh claimed that the Azerbaijani youth and Azerbaijanis themselves, were demoralized and lacked a sense of purpose and commitment to fighting the war. Russian professor Georgiy I. Mirsky supported this contention in his 1997 book On Ruins of Empire, writing that "Karabakh does not matter to Azerbaijanis as much as it does to Armenians. Probably, this is why young volunteers from Armenia proper have been much more eager to fight and die for Karabakh than the Azerbaijanis have." A New York Times correspondent who visited the region in 1994 noted that, "In Stepanakert, it is impossible to find an able-bodied man – whether volunteer from Armenia or local resident – out of uniform. [Whereas in] Azerbaijan, draft-age men hang out in cafes." At the outset of the conflict, Andrei Sakharov famously remarked: "For Azerbaijan, the issue of Karabakh is a matter of ambition, for the Armenians of Karabakh, it is a matter of life or death."
1994 ceasefire
After six years of intense fighting, both sides were ready for a ceasefire. Azerbaijan, with its manpower exhausted and aware that Armenian forces had an unimpeded path to march on to Baku, counted on a new ceasefire proposal from either the OSCE or Russia. As the final battles of the conflict took place near Shahumyan, in a series of brief engagements in Gulustan, Armenian and Azerbaijani diplomats met in the early part of 1994 to hammer out the details of the ceasefire. On 5 May, with Russia acting as a mediator, all parties agreed to cease hostilities and vowed to observe a ceasefire that would go into effect at 12:01 AM on 12 May. The agreement was signed by the respective defence ministers of the three principal warring parties (Armenia, Azerbaijan and the Republic of Artsakh). In Azerbaijan, many welcomed the end of hostilities. Sporadic fighting continued in some parts of the region but all sides vowed to abide by the terms of the ceasefire.
Media coverage
Coverage of the war was provided by a number of journalists from both sides, including Vardan Hovhannisyan, who won the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival's prize for a best new documentary filmmaker for his A Story of People in War and Peace, and Chingiz Mustafayev, who was posthumously awarded the title of National Hero of Azerbaijan. Armenian-Russian journalist Dmitri Pisarenko who spent a year at the front line and filmed many of the battles later wrote that both Armenian and Azerbaijani journalists were preoccupied with echoing the official stands of their respective governments and that "objectiveness was being sacrificed for ideology." Armenian military commanders were eager to give interviews following Azerbaijani offensives when they were able to criticise the other side for launching heavy artillery attacks that the "small-numbered but proud Armenians" had to fight off. Yet they were reluctant to speak out when Armenian troops seized a village outside Nagorno-Karabakh in order to avoid justifying such acts. Therefore, Armenian journalists felt the need to be creative enough to portray the event as "an Armenian counter-offensive" or as "a necessary military operation".
Bulgarian journalist Tsvetana Paskaleva is noted for her coverage of Operation Ring. Some foreign journalists previously concerned with emphasizing the Soviets conceding in the Cold War, gradually shifted toward presenting the USSR as a country awash in ethnic conflict, the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict being one of them.
Due to lack of available information about the roots and causes of the conflict, foreign reporters filled the information vacuum with constant references to the religious factor, i.e. the fact that Armenians were predominantly Christian, whereas Azeris were predominantly Muslim; a factor which in fact was virtually irrelevant in the course of the entire conflict. Readers already aware of rising military Islamism in the Middle East were considered a perfect audience to be informed of a case of "Muslim oppressors victimising a Christian minority". Religion was unduly stressed more than political, territorial and ethnic factors, with very rare references to democratic and self-determination movements in both countries. It was not until the Khojaly Massacre in late February 1992, when hundreds of civilian Azeris were massacred by Armenian units, that references to religion largely disappeared, as being contrary to the neat journalistic scheme where "Christian Armenians" were shown as victims and "Muslim Azeris" as their victimisers. A study of the four largest Canadian newspapers covering the event showed that the journalists tended to present the massacre of Azeris as a secondary issue, as well as to rely on Armenian sources, to give priority to Armenian denials over Azerbaijani "allegations" (which were described as "grossly exaggerated"), to downplay the scale of death, not to publish images of the bodies and mourners, and not to mention the event in editorials and opinion columns.
As to mujahedin, they were actually sometimes disappointed over Azeris' lack of religious zeal and focus on nationalism; nevertheless, many remained in Azernaijan after the 1994 ceasfire. By 1999 the US State Department started to characterize Azerbaijan as a logistic hub for Mujahedin with ties to terrorist groups.
Post-ceasefire violence and mediation
The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict remains one of several frozen post-Soviet conflicts, alongside Georgia's conflicts with Abkhazia and South Ossetia, the Transnistria conflict and the Russo-Ukrainian War. Karabakh remains under the jurisdiction of the government of the unrecognized but de facto independent Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh (now the Republic of Artsakh), which maintains its own uniformed military, the Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army.
Contrary to media reports that nearly always mentioned the religions of the Armenians and Azerbaijanis, religious aspects never gained significance as an additional casus belli, and the Karabakh conflict has remained primarily an issue of territory and the human rights of Armenians in Karabakh. Since 1995, the co-chairs of the OSCE Minsk Group has been mediating with the governments of Armenia and Azerbaijan for a new solution. Numerous proposals have been made which have primarily been based on both sides making several concessions. One such proposal stipulated that as Armenian forces withdrew from the seven regions surrounding Karabakh, Azerbaijan would share some of its economic assets including profits from an oil pipeline that would go from Baku through Armenia to Turkey. Other proposals also included that Azerbaijan would provide the broadest form of autonomy to Karabakh next to granting it full independence. Armenia has also been pressured by being excluded from major economic projects throughout the region, including the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline and Kars-Tbilisi-Baku railway.
According to Armenia's former president, Levon Ter-Petrosyan, by giving certain Karabakh territories to Azerbaijan, the Karabakh conflict would have been resolved in 1997. A peace agreement could have been concluded and a status for Nagorno-Karabakh would have been determined. Ter-Petrosyan noted years later that the Karabakh leadership approach was maximalist and "they thought they could get more." Most autonomy proposals have been rejected by the Armenians, who consider it as a matter that is not negotiable. Likewise, Azerbaijan warns the country is ready to free its territories by war, but still prefers to solve the problem by peaceful means. On 30 March 1998, Robert Kocharyan was elected president and continued to reject calls for making a deal to resolve the conflict. In 2001, Kocharyan and Aliyev met in Key West, Florida for peace talks sponsored by the OSCE. While several Western diplomats expressed optimism, failure to prepare the populations of either country for compromise reportedly thwarted hopes for a peaceful resolution.
An estimated 400,000 Armenians living in Azerbaijan fled to Armenia or Russia and a further 30,000 came from Karabakh. Many of those who left Karabakh returned after the war ended. An estimated 800,000 Azerbaijanis were displaced from the fighting including those from both Armenia and Karabakh. Various other ethnic groups living in Karabakh were also forced to live in refugee camps built by both the Azerbaijani and Iranian governments. While Azerbaijan has repeatedly claimed that 20% of its territory has fallen under Armenian control, other sources have given figures as high 40% (the number comes down to 9% if Nagorno-Karabakh itself is excluded).
The First Nagorno-Karabakh War has given rise to strong anti-Armenianism in Azerbaijan and anti-Azerbaijani sentiment in Armenia. The ramifications of the war were said to have played a part in the February 2004 murder of Armenian Lieutenant Gurgen Markaryan who was hacked to death with an axe by his Azerbaijani counterpart, Ramil Safarov at a NATO training seminar in Budapest, Hungary.
Presumably trying to erase any traces of Armenian heritage, the Azerbaijani government ordered its military the destruction of thousands of unique medieval Armenian gravestones, known as khachkars, at a massive historical cemetery in Julfa, Nakhichevan. This destruction was temporarily halted when first revealed in 1998, but then continued on to completion in 2005.
Current situation
In the years since the end of the war, a number of organizations have passed resolutions regarding the conflict. On 25 January 2005, for example, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) adopted a controversial non-binding resolution, Resolution 1416, which criticized the "large-scale ethnic expulsion and the creation of mono-ethnic areas" and declared that Armenian forces were occupying Azerbaijan lands. The Assembly recalled that the occupation of a foreign country by a Member State was a serious violation of the obligations undertaken by that State as a member of the Council of Europe and once again reaffirmed the right of displaced persons to return to their homes safely. On 14 May 2008 thirty-nine countries from the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 62/243 which called for "the immediate, complete and unconditional withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of the Republic of Azerbaijan". Almost one hundred countries abstained from voting while seven countries, including the three co-chairs of the Minsk Group, Russia, the United States and France, voted against it.
During the summit of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and the session of its Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, member states adopted OIC Resolution No. 10/11 and OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution No. 10/37, on 14 March 2008 and 18–20 May 2010, respectively. Both resolutions condemned alleged aggression of Armenia against Azerbaijan and called for immediate implementation of UN Security Council Resolutions 822, 853, 874 and 884. As a response, Armenian leaders have stated Azerbaijan was "exploiting Islam to muster greater international support".
In 2008, the Moscow Defense Brief opined that because of the rapid growth of Azerbaijani defence expenditures – which is driving the strong rearmament of the Azerbaijani armed forces – the military balance appeared to be now shifting in Azerbaijan's favour: "The overall trend is clearly in Azerbaijan's favour, and it seems that Armenia will not be able to sustain an arms race with Azerbaijan's oil-fueled economy. And this could lead to the destabilization of the frozen conflict between these two states", the journal wrote. Other analysts have made more cautious observations, noting that administrative and military deficiencies are obviously found in the Azerbaijani military and that the Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army maintains a "constant state of readiness".
Clashes
In early 2008, tensions between Armenia, the NKR Karabakh and Azerbaijan grew. On the diplomatic front, President Ilham Aliyev repeated statements that Azerbaijan would resort to force, if necessary, to take the territories back; concurrently, shooting incidents along the line of contact increased. On 5 March 2008 a significant breach of the ceasefire occurred in Mardakert when up to sixteen soldiers were killed. Both sides accused the other of starting the battle. Moreover, the use of artillery in the skirmishes marked a significant departure from previous clashes, which usually involved only sniper or machine-gun fire. Deadly skirmishes took place during mid-2010 as well.
Tensions escalated again in July–August 2014 with ceasefire breaches by Azerbaijan taking place and President Aliyev, threatening Armenia with war.
Rather than receding, the tension in the area increased in April 2016 with the 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes when the worst clashes since the 1994 ceasefire erupted. The Armenian Defense Ministry alleged that Azerbaijan launched an offensive to seize territory in the region. Azerbaijan reported that 12 of its soldiers were killed in action and that an Mi-24 helicopter and tank were also destroyed. Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan stated that 18 Armenian soldiers were killed and 35 were wounded.
2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war
The clashes began on the morning of 27 September 2020 along the Nagorno-Karabakh Line of Contact. In response to the clashes, Armenia and Artsakh introduced martial law and total mobilization, while Azerbaijan introduced martial law and a curfew. On 28 September, partial mobilization was declared in Azerbaijan. Engagements were characterised by the use of heavy artillery, armoured warfare, rocket attacks, and drone warfare, as well as by emerging accounts of the use of cluster munitions, banned by most of the international community but not by Armenia or Azerbaijan, and ballistic missile attacks on civilian populations. The amount of territory contested has been relatively restricted, but the conflict has expanded beyond the borders of Nagorno-Karabakh due to the kind of munitions deployed and spilled over international borders. Shells and rockets have landed in East Azerbaijan Province in Iran, though causing no damage, and Iran has downed several unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), while Georgia stated that two UAVs crashed in Kakheti Province. As claims of Syrian fighters taking part in the conflict have surfaced, Azerbaijan was quick to deny. According the Syrian National Army (SNA), Turkey, and geolocated videos, Turkish backed Syrian mercenary groups, such as the Sultan Murad and Al Hamza divisions, are fighting in Nagorno-Karabakh in aid of Azerbaijan.
Civilian and military casualties have been high and may be being underestimated as casualty claims have not been independently verified. Civilian areas, including major cities, have been hit, including Azerbaijan's second-largest city, Ganja, and the region's capital, Stepanakert, with many buildings and homes destroyed; Ghazanchetsots Cathedral in Shusha has been damaged.
A fragile humanitarian ceasefire brokered by Russia, facilitated by the International Committee of the Red Cross, and agreed to by both Armenia and Azerbaijan, formally came into effect on 10 October.
On 9 October 2020, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Michelle Bachelet expressed alarm over the suffering of civilians, as hostilities continued to widen in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict zone, and appealed for an urgent ceasefire. The UN report suggest that artillery strikes have reportedly hit several cities, towns and villages, destroying a large number of buildings, including houses, schools and other civilian facilities.
On 2 November 2020, Michelle Bachelet, warned of possible war crimes
in the ongoing fighting between Armenia and Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict zone. The UN Chief cited that despite a truce signed between Armenia and Azerbaijan, which called for refraining from deliberately targeting civilian populations, artillery strikes and indiscriminate attacks in populated areas continued.
The second war ended with the victory of Azerbaijan, which took control of 4 Armenian-occupied districts, as well as towns of Shusha and Hadrut in Nagorno-Karabakh proper, and signing of a Russian-brokered ceasefire agreement, under which Armenia agreed to withdraw from another 3 occupied districts. The agreement also provided for deployment of Russian peacekeeping forces along the line of contact and the Lachin corridor.
War crimes
Emerging from the collapse of the Soviet Union as nascent states and due to the near-immediate fighting, it was not until mid-1993 that Armenia and Azerbaijan became signatories of international law agreements, including the Geneva Conventions. Allegations from all three governments (including Nagorno-Karabakh's) regularly accused the other side of committing atrocities which were at times confirmed by third party media sources or human rights organizations. Khojaly Massacre, for example, was confirmed by both Human Rights Watch and Memorial. The Maraga Massacre was testified to by British-based organization Christian Solidarity International and by the Vice-Speaker of the British Parliament's House of Lords, Caroline Cox, in 1992. Azerbaijan was condemned by HRW for its use of aerial bombing in densely populated civilian areas and both sides were criticized for indiscriminate fire, hostage-taking, and the forcible displacement of civilians. The pogrom of Armenians in Baku was one of the acts of ethnic violence in the context of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
As neither side was party to international military conventions, instances of ill-discipline and atrocity were rife. Looting and mutilation of body parts (brought back as war trophies) of dead soldiers were common. Another activity that was by regular civilians and not just soldiers during the war was the bartering of prisoners between Armenians and Azerbaijanis. Often, when contact was lost between family members and a soldier or a militiaman serving at the front, they took it upon themselves to organize an exchange by personally capturing a soldier from the battle lines and holding them in the confines of their own homes. New York Times journalist Yo'av Karny noted this practice was as "old as the people occupying [the] land".
After the war ended, both sides accused their opponents of continuing to hold captives; Azerbaijan claimed Armenia was continuing to hold nearly 5,000 Azerbaijani prisoners while Armenians claimed Azerbaijan was holding 600 prisoners. The non-profit group, Helsinki Initiative 92, investigated two prisons in Shusha and Stepanakert after the war ended, but concluded there were no prisoners-of-war there. A similar investigation arrived at the same conclusion while searching for Armenians allegedly labouring in Azerbaijan's quarries.
Cultural legacy
The 1992–94 war figures heavily in popular Armenian and Azerbaijani media. It is a subject of many films and popular television shows. In June 2006, the film Destiny (Chakatagir) premiered in Yerevan and Stepanakert. The film, written and starring Gor Vardanyan, is a fictional account of the events revolving around Operation Ring. It cost $3.8 million to make, the most expensive film ever made in the country, and was touted as the first film made about the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. In mid-2012, Azerbaijanis in Azerbaijan released a video game entitled İşğal Altında: Şuşa (Under Occupation: Shusha), a free first-person shooter that allows the player to assume the role of an Azerbaijani soldier who takes part in the 1992 battle of Shusha. Commentators have noted that the game "is not for the faint of heart: there's lots of killing and computer-generated gore. To a great extent, it's a celebration of violence: to advance, players must handle a variety of tasks, including shooting lots of Armenian enemies, rescuing a wounded Azerbaijani soldier, retrieving a document, and blowing up a building in the town of Shusha." Another opus followed, İşğal Altında: Ağdam, which was released in 2013. This episode is very similar to the previous one, but this time it takes place in Agdam. In April 2018, a documentary film about an Azerbaijani Nagorno-Karabakh War participant Imran Gurbanov, called Return was premiered in Baku. It was directed by Rufat Asadov and written by Orkhan Fikratoglu.
Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
Books
Chapters
Karim, Karim H. "Covering the South Caucasus and Bosnian Conflicts: Or How the Jihad Model Appears and Disappears". in Abbas Malek, Anandam P. Kavoori. The Global Dynamics of News. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000
Journal articles
Yasemin Kilit Aklar (Kocaeli University). The Teaching of History in Azerbaijan and Nationalism // Ab imperio 2/2005
Reports
Report by Professor Richard Wilson "On the Visit to the Armenian-Azerbaijani Border, May 25–29, 1991" Presented to the First International Sakharov Conference on Physics, Lebedev Institute, Moscow on 31 May 1991.
Further reading
Broers, Laurence (2019). Armenia and Azerbaijan: Anatomy of a Rivalry. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Goltz, Thomas (1998). Azerbaijan Diary: A Rogue Reporter's Adventures in an Oil-Rich, War-Torn, Post-Soviet Republic. New York: M.E. Sharpe
Geukjian, Ohannes (2016). Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karabakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy. London: Routledge.
Hovannisian, Richard G. "The Armeno-Azerbaijani Conflict Over Mountainous Karabagh". Armenian Review 24 (Summer 1971).
Hovannisian, Richard G. "Mountainous Karabagh in 1920: An Unresolved Contest". Armenian Review 46 (1993, 1996).
Malkasian, Mark (1996). Gha-Ra-Bagh!: The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia. Wayne State University Press.
Shahmuratian, Samvel (ed.) (1990). The Sumgait Tragedy: Pogroms Against Armenians in Soviet Azerbaijan. New York: Zoryan Institute.
External links
Dr. Laurence BROERS: "There won't be Armenian-Azerbaijani Dayton*" — Interview for Caucasian Journal
Articles and Photography on Artsakh/Nagorno-Karabakh – War and its Legacy, from Russell Pollard UK Photojournalist
Information Site about Nagorno-Karabakh, history and background of the present-day conflict, maps and resolutions
Crisis Briefing Nagorno-Karabakh From Reuters Alertnet
Military Analysis of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict by GlobalSecurity.org
A 2005 report on the status of undetonated land mines in Nagorno-Karabakh compiled by the International Campaign to Ban Landmines
A chronology of the events of Nagorno-Karabakh from 1988 to Present by Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
Regions and territories: Nagorno-Karabakh Overview of the region by the BBC
– a documentary film by Armenia's Vardan Hovhannisyan, who won the prize for best new documentary filmmaker at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival in New York, about the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh.
BBC News, Regions and Territories- Nagorno-Karabakh
1988 in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
1988 in the Soviet Union
1989 in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
1990 in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
1991 in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
1992 in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
1993 in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
1994 in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
20th century in Armenia
Armenia–Azerbaijan relations
Azerbaijan–Turkey relations
Conflicts in 1988
Conflicts in 1989
Conflicts in 1990
Conflicts in 1991
Conflicts in 1992
Conflicts in 1993
Conflicts in 1994
Grey Wolves (organization)
History of Stepanakert
Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
Post-Soviet conflicts
Separatism in Azerbaijan
Wars involving Armenia
Wars involving Azerbaijan
Military conflicts between Armenia and Azerbaijan |
4020779 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Leyland%20buses | List of Leyland buses | This is a list of all known passenger chassis and integral bus vehicles manufactured by Leyland Motors and Leyland Bus from 1919 until closure.
1919 - 1925
A1, A5, A7, A9, A11, A13 - 1920-1926
B - 1919-1920
C, C1, C5, C7, C9 - 1919-1926
D - 1920-1924
E - 1919-1920
F - 1919
G, G1, G2, G3, G4, G5, G6, G7, G8 - 1919-1924
H - 1919-1920
J - 1919-1920
K - 1919
L - 1919-1920
M, M1 - 1919-1921
N - 1919-1921
O, O1 - 1919-1921
RAF - 1919-1925
SG2, SG4, SG6, SG7, SG9, SG11 - 1923-1926
GH2, GH4, GH5, GH7, GH8 - 1923-1926
OP2 - 1921-1924
OH2 - 1923-1926
LB2, LB4, LB5 - 1922-1926
Z3, Z4, Z5, Z6, Z7 - 1923-1926
1925 - 1942
Leviathan - 1925-1927
Lion LSC1, LSC3 - 1925-1931
Leopard (PLSC2) - 1926
Leveret - 1926-1928
Lioness - 1926-1934
Lion (LT series) - 1929-1940
Titan (front-engined, TD series) - 1927-1942, unfrozen only after 1940
Titanic - 1927-1931
Tiger (front-engined, TS series) - 1927-1942, unfrozen only after 1940
Tigress - 1934-1939
Badger - 1930-1936
Cub - 1931-1938
Cheetah - 1935-1940
Gnu - 1937-1939
Tiger FEC (underfloor engine) - London Transport TF Class - 1939
REC Cub (rear engine) - London Transport CR Class - 1939
Panda - 1940
Most chassis with names beginning with the letter L had four-cylinder engines; those beginning with the letter T had six-cylinder engines. There was a Tiger model (built in small numbers) with a four-cylinder engine
1945 - closure
Articulated
Leyland-DAB articulated bus 1980-?
Double deck
Titan (front-engined, PD series) - 1945-1970
Lowlander - 1961-1966
Atlantean - 1956-1986
Fleetline - 1973-1980, from Daimler
Titan (B15) - 1974-1984
Victory Mark 2 - 1978-1981, built at Guy factory at Wolverhampton
Olympian - 1979-1993
Lion - 1986-1988
Single deck
Tiger (front-engined, PS series) - 1948-1968
Comet - 1948-1971
Olympic - 1949-1971
Royal Tiger - 1950-1955
Worldmaster - 1955-1979
Tiger Cub - 1952-1969
Olympian - 1953-1958
Leopard - 1959-1982
Lion - 1960-1965
Royal Tiger Cub - 1960-1968
Panther - 1964-1972
Panther Cub - 1964-1968
National/National 2 - 1969-1985
Cub - 1979-1987
Tiger (mid-engined) - 1979-1992
B21 - 1975-1983
Super Viking - 1980-1984
Royal Tiger (B50/B54) - 1982-1987
Lynx - 1984-1992
Swift - 1987-1991
See also
List of buses
Leyland Motors
Leyland Bus
Leyland Buses
Leyland Buses |
4020780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henning%20Meyer | Henning Meyer | Henning Meyer is a German social scientist, consultant and policy specialist. He is the first Fellow of the German Federal Ministry of Finance and Honorary Professor for Public Policy and Business at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen. Furthermore, he is Research Associate at Cambridge University’s Centre for Business Research (CBR), Future World Fellow at the Centre for the Governance of Change at IE University and founder and Editor-in-Chief of Social Europe. Previously, he was John F. Kennedy Memorial Fellow at the Minda de Gunzburg Center for European Studies at Harvard University, Senior Visiting Fellow and Research Associate at the London School of Economics and Political Science and Visiting Fellow at Cornell University.
Education
After undergraduate studies in Political Science and English at the University of Trier, Meyer continued his education in the UK. He studied for an MA in British and European Politics and Government at London Guildhall University, a PhD in Comparative Politics and an Executive MBA at London Metropolitan University, an MSc in Finance with a focus on economic policy at the University of London as well as a Diploma in Global Business at the University of Oxford. At Oxford, Meyer won two Said Prizes as best overall student and for the best project in global business.
Career
Until 2010, Meyer was Senior Research Fellow and Head of the European Programme at the Global Policy Institute at London Metropolitan University. Following this, he was Director of the consultancy New Global Strategy Ltd. and the digital media publishing company Social Europe Ltd. until he relocated to Germany in 2018. He is an expert on Public Policy, Social Democracy, Political Economy, European Union, Digital Technology, Strategy and Business.
Media
Meyer has been a frequent contributor to academic and mainstream publications such as The Guardian, New York Times, Foreign Affairs, DIE ZEIT and Süddeutsche Zeitung. He is also a regular TV commentator on political and economic issues on news channels such as BBC News, Sky News, CNBC, Al Jazeera International, France 24 and SBS Broadcasting Group Australia.
Selected bibliography
Books
Chapters in books
References
External links
Social Europe
1978 births
German political scientists
German social democrats
Living people
Political commentators |
4020784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluegrass%20Cat | Bluegrass Cat | Bluegrass Cat (foaled January 23, 2003) is an American thoroughbred race horse. Although he won several major stakes races, he is best known for finishing second in both the 2006 Kentucky Derby and Belmont Stakes.
Background
Bluegrass Cat was bred by WinStar Farm in Versailles, Kentucky and raced under their colors as a homebred. He is by leading American sire Storm Cat, while his dam She's a Winner belongs to "the best family on earth", descending from La Troienne through Numbered Account.
He was trained by Hall of Famer Todd Pletcher. His jockey was John Velazquez except in the Kentucky Derby, where Ramon Dominguez picked up the mount after Velazquez suffered a serious injury two weeks before the race.
Racing career
2005: Two-year-old season
Bluegrass Cat made his debut on June 24 in a maiden race at Churchill Downs, finishing eighth after being bumped hard at the start. On September 24, he broke his maiden by lengths in his second lifetime start in a seven-furlong race at Belmont Park. In his third career race, he won the one mile Nashua Stakes, also at Belmont. "What I loved about the race today was that he was in behind horses, and got an education," said Pletcher. "He had to make room for himself at the top of the stretch and pushed his way through."
In his final start at age two on November 26, he won the -mile Remsen Stakes at Aqueduct Racetrack. In his first two-turn race, he prevailed by lengths after being challenged by Flashy Bull in the stretch. "He's quite a fighter," said Velazquez. "He was a little spooked at the end of the race when he saw a tire track. But, he's a nice horse, and I look forward to next year."
2006: Three-year-old season
Bluegrass Cat started his three-year-old campaign at Tampa Bay Downs in the Sam F. Davis Stakes on February 16. He won by lengths in a good time of 1:44.17 for miles, less than 1 second off the track record. On March 18, Bluegrass Cat was the 2-5 favorite in the Tampa Bay Derby but lost his footing on the far turn and finished second to Deputy Glitters, a horse he had defeated in the Sam Davis. Bluegrass Cat next entered the Blue Grass Stakes at Keeneland on April 15, where he was badly beaten by front running Sinister Minister. Pletcher felt the loss may have been due to the Keeneland surface, which had shown a speed bias that favored horses on the lead.
In the 2006 Kentucky Derby on May 6, Bluegrass Cat was a 30-1 longshot in a field of 20. For the first of a mile, he raced in fifth or sixth a few lengths behind the leaders, with Barbaro just ahead on the outside. On the far turn, Barbaro made his move, eventually winning by lengths. Bluegrass Cat could not match Barbaro's acceleration but was good enough to finish second by two lengths over Steppenwolfer, with Jazil and Brother Derek in a dead heat for fourth another length back. Bluegrass Cat's connections skipped the Preakness Stakes, won by Bernardini after Barbaro's tragic breakdown, and rested him for the Belmont Stakes. When Bernardini skipped the Belmont Stakes, Bluegrass Cat became the second choice in a wide-open field of twelve. He raced just behind the early pace and made his move on the far turn, but was out-kicked by Jazil and finished second.
After a brief rest, Bluegrass Cat next ran in the Haskell Invitational at Monmouth Park on August 6. Racing just off the pace for the first miles, he made a "devastating" move coming into the stretch and drew off to win by seven lengths. "We're delighted with his effort," said Pletcher. "His performance today is as good as any 3-year-old's this year. To win a grade one as significant as the Haskell puts him in the elite category."
In the Travers Stakes on August 26, Bluegrass Cat finished second to Bernardini, who won by lengths. Although he seemed to come out of the race in good shape, the next morning he was found to be lame in his right hind pastern. X-rays showed he had a nondisplaced fracture, which his connections believe occurred in the latter part of the Travers. "It's obviously very disappointing when you have your leading earner and top 3-year-old injured, but it emphasizes that this is a horse with tremendous quality and tremendous courage," stated Pletcher. "To get injured in a race like that and still run as well as he did and continue trying just emphasizes the quality of horse he is."
Bluegrass Cat was retired from racing with five wins and four places out of eleven starts, and earnings of $1,761,280.
Statistics
Stud career
Bluegrass Cat was retired to stud for the 2007 season at WinStar Farm, where his initial fee was $50,000. Because of the economic downturn in 2008, his fee subsequently declined to $25,000. He got off to a fast start when his first crop reached racing age in 2010, with seven winners by July, all of them reinforcing Bluegrass Cat's linebreeding to La Troienne. He eventually finished second on the freshman sire list with two graded stakes winners including Kathmanblu, his leading earner.
In the 2011 second-crop sire listing, Bluegrass Cat finished second behind Bernardini but was moved to New York for the 2012 season in partnership with Vinery Stud. After being the leading sire in New York for 2013 and 2014, he was relocated to Ballena Vista stud in California for the 2015 season. He finished 2015 as the number 1 ranked sire in California.
Bluegrass Cat's descendants include:
c = colt, f = filly
Pedigree
Bluegrass Cat's sire Storm Cat was one of the most important American stallions of the late 20th century and early 21st century. Although he started at stud with low expectations, by the end of his career his fee was $500,000, the highest in North America. Storm Cat was the leading sire in North America for 1999 and 2000, and led the juvenile (two-year-old) sire list a record seven times. His offspring tended to be precocious and fast, but sometimes inherited his offset knees, making them vulnerable to injury.
Bluegrass Cat's dam She's a Winner was unraced but was descended from a high quality family. Bred by Ogden Phipps, she was privately purchased by WinStar Farms and produced 7 winners from 12 named foals. In late 2006, WinStar Farm purchased her full sister Supercharger in foal to Maria's Mon for $160,000: The resulting colt was 2010 Kentucky Derby winner Super Saver. Both She's a Winner and Supercharger were out of stakes winner Get Lucky, who was out of stakes winner Dance Number, who was out of stakes winner and Champion Numbered Account. Bluegrass Cat has a total of five strains of the highly influential mare La Troienne: two through Numbered Account, two through Seattle Slew's dam My Charmer and one through A.P. Indy's dam Weekend Surprise.
Bluegrass Cat is inbred 3s x 4d to both Secretariat and Northern Dancer, meaning these stallions each appear in the 3rd generation of the sire's side of his pedigree and in the 4th generation of the dam's side.
References
NTRA bio and stats
NTRA bio of WinStar Farm
Racehorses bred in Kentucky
Racehorses trained in the United States
2003 racehorse births
Thoroughbred family 1-x |
4020794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millicent%20Hearst | Millicent Hearst | Millicent Veronica Hearst (née Willson; July 16, 1882 – December 5, 1974), was the wife of media tycoon William Randolph Hearst. Willson was a vaudeville performer in New York City whom Hearst admired, and they married in 1903. The couple had five sons, but began to drift apart in the mid-1920s, when Millicent became tired of her husband's longtime affair with actress Marion Davies.
Life and career
She was the daughter of vaudevillian George Willson and Hannah Murray Willson. Following in their father's footsteps, Millicent and her older sister Anita performed at the Herald Square Theater on Broadway in 1897 as "bicycle girls" in Edward Rice's The Girl From Paris. The girls caught the eye of the 34-year-old W.R. Hearst, and their first dates were chaperoned by her sister Anita. After a six-year courtship, the publisher and aspiring politician Hearst married 20-year-old Millicent Willson on April 28, 1903.
Millicent Hearst gave birth to five sons: George Randolph Hearst, born on April 23, 1904; William Randolph Hearst Jr., born on January 27, 1908; John Randolph Hearst, born in 1909; and the twins, Randolph Apperson Hearst and David Whitmire (né Elbert Willson) Hearst, born on December 2, 1915. Hearst's mother, Phoebe Apperson Hearst, was dismayed by Millicent’s humble origins, but warmed to her daughter-in-law with the birth of the grandchildren.
She was a member of the New York State Commission for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in 1915, and acted as chief official hostess at the New York Pavilion during the exposition.
New York City Mayor John Hylan appointed her chairman of the Mayor’s Committee of Women on National Defense during World War I. The committee sponsored entertainments for servicemen, operated a canteen, encouraged enlistments, sponsored patriotic rallies, and provided staples such as coal, milk, and ice to the needy. Hearst also served on wartime committees to raise funds for the rebuilding of France and the relief of French orphans.
In 1921, she founded the Free Milk Fund for Babies, which provided free milk to the poor of New York City for decades. She also hosted charitable fundraisers for a variety of causes, including crippled children, unemployed girls, the New York Women’s Trade League, the Democratic National Committee, the Evening Journal - New York Journal Christmas Fund, and the Village Welfare of Port Washington, New York. Eleanor Roosevelt joined Millicent Hearst at many of these charitable events during the Great Depression.
The Hearsts remained married until W.R. Hearst's death in 1951 partly due to her being a Catholic, but were estranged beginning in 1926 when his liaison with Marion Davies became public. M. Hearst had sought a divorce from W.R. Hearst in around 1937, but the terms of the divorce agreement fell through when she included handing her Cosmopolitan Magazine as part of the settlement, which W.R. Hearst could not agree to. M. Hearst established a separate life and residence in New York City as a socialite and philanthropist, rarely visiting her husband at their estate in San Simeon, California, known as Hearst Castle. She was close to her five sons throughout her life and they generally sided with her.
Millicent Willson Hearst died on December 5, 1974, more than two decades after the death of her husband, and was buried at the Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx.
References
External links
Finding Aid to the Millicent Willson Hearst Papers, 1914-1947 (bulk 1926-1935) at The Bancroft Library
1882 births
1974 deaths
Millicent
Vaudeville performers
American women in World War I
California Democrats
New York (state) Democrats |
4020795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20route | Northern route | Northern route may refer to
North–South Expressway northern route
Northern Dispersal
Northern Sea Route |
4020805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken%20Willard | Ken Willard | Kenneth Henderson Willard (born July 14, 1943) is a former American football running back/fullback in the National Football League, where he was a four-time Pro-Bowler with the San Francisco 49ers in the 1960s.
College career
He attended the University of North Carolina after turning down Ted Williams and a contract with the Boston Red Sox. He went to Carolina on a football scholarship and also played baseball for the Tar Heels. He led the ACC in home runs two times and is unofficially credited with the longest home run in Tar Heel history at . He is the first UNC athlete to be named to the first-team Academic All-America team and had his portrait placed on Kenan Stadium in 2013 celebrating this honor.
Professional career
Willard was drafted with the second pick of the 1965 NFL Draft, by the San Francisco 49ers ahead of future NFL Hall of Famers Dick Butkus and Gale Sayers. He played nine seasons with the San Francisco 49ers and one with the St. Louis Cardinals. He opted to pass on his eleventh season after two consecutive years of knee injuries in St. Louis.
Willard was a four-time Pro Bowler, selected in 1965, 1966, 1968 and 1969 and scored 45 rushing and 17 receiving touchdowns. His best year was 1968 when he ran for and 7 touchdowns. He was a member of the 49ers when the team won the NFC West title in 1970, 1971 and 1972 and with the Cardinals when they won the division title in 1974. On the retirement of Leroy Kelly, Willard became the NFL's active leader in career rushing yards for most of the 1974 season, before being passed by O. J. Simpson in Game 11. He retired with 6,105 rushing yards (then 8th all-time) and 45 rushing touchdowns (tied for 12th).
NFL career statistics
Source
Honors
In 1985, he was inducted into the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame and was honored as an ACC football Legend on May 6, 2013.
References
1943 births
Living people
American football running backs
Players of American football from Richmond, Virginia
San Francisco 49ers players
St. Louis Cardinals (football) players
Western Conference Pro Bowl players
North Carolina Tar Heels football players |
4020807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey%20of%20London | Survey of London | The Survey of London is a research project to produce a comprehensive architectural survey of central London and its suburbs, or the area formerly administered by the London County Council. It was founded in 1894 by Charles Robert Ashbee, an Arts-and-Crafts designer, architect and social reformer and was motivated by a desire to record and preserve London's ancient monuments. The first volume was published in 1900, but the completion of the series remains far in the future.
The London Survey Committee was initially a volunteer effort, but from 1910 published the surveys jointly with the London County Council (later the Greater London Council, GLC). From 1952, the voluntary committee was disbanded, and all survey work was wholly council-run. Following the abolition of the GLC in 1986, responsibility for the survey was taken over by the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England (RCHME). Since 2013, it has been administered by The Bartlett School of Architecture, University College London.
The series borrows its title from John Stow's A Survay of London (first edition 1598; revised edition 1603).
Scope
The Survey consists of a series of volumes based mainly on the historical parish system. Each volume gives an account of the area, with sufficient general history to put the architecture in context, and then proceeds to describe the notable streets and individual buildings one by one. The accounts are exhaustive, reviewing all available primary sources in detail. The Survey devotes thousands of words to some buildings that receive the briefest of mentions in the Buildings of England series (itself a vast and detailed reference work by most standards). However, the earlier volumes largely ignored buildings built after 1800.
Due to the scale of the existing endeavour, there are no current plans to extend the project to take in the whole of Greater London. As of 2020, 53 volumes in the main series have been published. Separately, 18 monographs on individual buildings have been published. Most of the volumes have not been updated since publication, but those published online (up to Vol. 47) have received a limited amount of updating.
Since 2008, the Survey of London has been published by Yale University Press. With the publication of the volumes on Clerkenwell in 2008, colour photography was used for the first time, and the images incorporated in the text – previously they had been grouped separately as plates. A further volume on Woolwich was published in 2012, and two on Battersea appeared in late 2013. Two volumes on the eastern part of Marylebone, south of Marylebone Road, were issued in late 2017. Work has begun on Whitechapel, the historically rich and complex area on the eastern fringe of the City of London.
The British History Online digital library project of the Institute of Historical Research has published all volumes, sponsored by English Heritage.
Volumes
Bromley-by-Bow – C. R. Ashbee (editor) (1900) (LSC)
Chelsea, pt I – Walter H. Godfrey (1909) (LSC)
St Giles-in-the-Fields, pt I: Lincoln's Inn Fields – W. Edward Riley and Sir Laurence Gomme (editors) (1912) (LCC)
Chelsea, pt II – Walter H. Godfrey (1913) (LSC)
St Giles-in-the-Fields, pt II – W. Edward Riley and Sir Laurence Gomme (editors) (1914) (LSC)
Hammersmith – James Bird and Philip Norman (general editors) (1915) (LSC)
Chelsea, part III: The Old Church – Walter H. Godfrey (editor) (1921) (LSC)
Shoreditch – Sir James Bird (editor) (1922) (LCC)
The parish of St Helen, Bishopsgate, part I – Minnie Reddan and Alfred W. Clapham (1924) (LSC)
St. Margaret, Westminster, part I: Queen Anne's Gate area – Montague H. Cox (editor) (1926) (LCC)
Chelsea, part IV: The Royal Hospital – Walter H. Godfrey (editor) (1927) (LSC)
The parish of All Hallows Barking, part I: The Church of All Hallows – Lilian J. Redstone (1929) (LSC)
St Margaret, Westminster, part II: Whitehall I – Montagu H. Cox and Philip Norman (editors) (1930) (LCC)
St Margaret, Westminster, part III: Whitehall II – Montague H. Cox and G. Topham Forrest (editors) (1931) (LCC)
All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower, pt II – G. H. Gater and Walter H. Godfrey (general editors) (1934) (LSC)
St Martin-in-the-Fields I: Charing Cross – G. H. Gater and E. P. Wheeler (editors) (1935) (LCC)
The parish of St Pancras part 1: The village of Highgate – Percy Lovell and William McB. Marcham (editors) (1936) (LSC)
St Martin-in-the-Fields II: The Strand – G. H. Gater and E. P. Wheeler (editors) (1937) (LCC)
The parish of St Pancras part 2: Old St Pancras and Kentish Town – Percy Lovell and William McB. Marcham (editors) (1938) (LSC)
St Martin-in-the-Fields, pt III: Trafalgar Square & Neighbourhood – G. H. Gater and F. R. Hiorns (editor) (1940) (LCC)
The parish of St Pancras part 3: Tottenham Court Road & neighbourhood – J. R. Howard Roberts and Walter H. Godfrey (editors) (1949) (LSC)
Bankside (the parishes of St. Saviour and Christchurch Southwark) – Sir Howard Roberts and Walter H. Godfrey (editors) (1950) (LCC)
Lambeth: South Bank and Vauxhall – Sir Howard Roberts and Walter H. Godfrey (editors) (1951) (LCC)
The parish of St Pancras part 4: King's Cross Neighbourhood – Walter H. Godfrey and W. McB. Marcham (editors) (1952) (LSC)
St George's Fields (The parishes of St. George the Martyr Southwark and St. Mary Newington) – Ida Darlington (editor) (1955) (LCC)
Lambeth: Southern area – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1956) (Athlone Press for the LCC)
Spitalfields and Mile End New Town – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1957) (Athlone Press for the LCC)
Brooke House, Hackney – W. A. Eden, Marie P. G. Draper, W. F. Grimes and Audrey Williams (1960) (Athlone Press for the LCC)
St James Westminster, Part 1 (Vol I) – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1960) (Athlone Press for the LCC)
St James Westminster, Part 1 (Vol II) – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1960) (Athlone Press for the LCC)
St James Westminster, Part 2 (Vol I) – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1963) (Athlone Press for the LCC)
St James Westminster, Part 2 (Vol II) – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1963) (Athlone Press for the LCC)
St Anne Soho (Vol I) – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1966) (Athlone Press for the GLC)
St Anne Soho (Vol II) – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1966) (Athlone Press for the GLC)
The Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, and the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1970) (Athlone Press for the GLC)
The Parish of St. Paul Covent Garden – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1970) (Athlone Press for the GLC)
Northern Kensington – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1973) (Athlone Press for the GLC)
The Museums Area of South Kensington and Westminster – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1975) (Athlone Press for the GLC)
The Grosvenor Estate in Mayfair, Part 1 (General History) – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1977) (Athlone Press for the GLC)
The Grosvenor Estate in Mayfair, Part 2 (The Buildings) – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1980) (Athlone Press for the GLC)
Brompton – F. H. W. Sheppard (General Editor) (1983) (Athlone Press for the GLC)
Kensington Square to Earl's Court – Hermione Hobhouse (General Editor) (1986) (Athlone Press for the GLC)
Poplar, Blackwall and Isle of Dogs (Vol I) – Hermione Hobhouse (General Editor) (1994) (Athlone Press for the RCHME)
Poplar, Blackwall and Isle of Dogs (Vol II) – Hermione Hobhouse (General Editor) (1994) (Athlone Press for the RCHME)(A supplement to Volumes 43 and 44 entitled Docklands in the Making: The Redevelopment of the Isle of Dogs, 1981–1995 by Alan Cox () was issued in 1995 in an attempt to keep up with the pace of redevelopment in the area)
Knightsbridge – John Greenacombe (General Editor) (2000) (Continuum Publishing for English Heritage)
South and East Clerkenwell – Philip Temple (Editor) (2008) (Yale University Press)
Northern Clerkenwell and Pentonville – Philip Temple (Editor) (2008) (Yale University Press)
Woolwich – Peter Guillery (Editor) (2012) (Yale University Press)
Battersea: Public, Commercial and Cultural – Andrew Saint (Editor) (2013) (Yale University Press)
Battersea: Houses and Housing – Colin Thom (Editor) (2013) (Yale University Press)
South-East Marylebone: Part 1 – Andrew Saint (General Editor) (2017) (Yale University Press)
South-East Marylebone: Part 2 – Andrew Saint (General Editor) (2017) (Yale University Press)
Oxford Street – Andrew Saint (General Editor) (2020) (Yale University Press)
Monographs
Monographs, focusing only on one structure, were published during the existence of the voluntary survey committee. The first monograph predated the first Survey volume, and work on the subsequent publications was always outside the auspices of the LCC. The original sequence ended with the disbanding of the voluntary committee; the sixteenth volume represented work which had started under the committee's governance.
Almost thirty years later, a further monograph (No. 17) was published, focusing on County Hall and written by Hermione Hobhouse (1991). It was intended as a tribute to the LCC/GLC which, until its abolition in 1986, had responsibility for the Survey. Nearly twenty years after that, an eighteenth volume was issued, describing the Charterhouse in Smithfield and written by Philip Temple (2010).
Trinity Hospital, Mile End – C. R. Ashbee (1896)
Saint Mary, Stratford Bow – Osborn C. Hills (1900)
Old Palace, Bromley-by-Bow – Ernest Godman (1902)
The Great House, Leyton – Edwin Gunn (1903)
Brooke House, Hackney – Ernest A. Mann (1904)
St Dunstan's Church, Stepney – W. Pepys and Ernest Godman (1905)
East Acton Manor House – no author listed
Sandford Manor, Fulham – W. Arthur Webb (1907)
Crosby Place – Philip Norman (1908)
Morden College, Blackheath – Frank T. Green (1916)
Eastbury Manor House, Barking – Hubert Curtis (1917)
Cromwell House, Highgate – Philip Norman (1926)
Swakeleys, Ickenham – Walter H. Godfrey (1933)
The Queen's House, Greenwich – George H. Chettle (1937)
St. Bride's Church, Fleet Street – Walter H. Godfrey (1944)
College of Arms, Queen Victoria Street – Walter H. Godfrey and Anthony Wagner (1963)
County Hall – Hermione Hobhouse (1991)
The Charterhouse – Philip Temple (2010)
See also
Victoria County History
References
External links
Official website
Map showing areas covered by the Survey of London (as of June 2019)
The first 47 main sequence volumes and 17 monograph volumes online at British History Online
'Cinematic Geographies' Battersea film project
Architecture of London
Architecture books
1894 establishments in England
History of the built environment of London |
4020827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KNAI%20%28AM%29 | KNAI (AM) | KNAI (860 AM; "La Campesina 101.9") is a Regional Mexican-formatted radio station in Phoenix, Arizona. KNAI is owned by the Farmworker Educational Radio Network, Inc. Its studios are located in Phoenix near Piestewa Peak and its transmitter is in South Phoenix near Broadway and 27th Avenue.
KNAI operates by day with 940 watts non-directional and at 1,000 watts at night with a directional antenna. Its programming is also heard on two translator stations, K270BZ (101.9 FM) and K270CV (101.9 FM).
860 AM is a Canadian clear-channel frequency, on which CJBC in Toronto, Ontario is the dominant Class A station.
History
KIFN and KVVA
On June 8, 1949, the Western Broadcasting Company received the construction permit to build a new radio station in Phoenix on 860 kHz. Construction work on KIFN's facilities in Riverside Park began in September, and an accelerated schedule allowed Arizona's first full-time Spanish-language radio station, KIFN signed on at midnight on Tuesday, November 22. KIFN initially broadcast with 250 watts but benefitted from an increase to 1,000 watts in 1952. From the time it signed on until the early 1980s, KIFN operated as a daytime-only station. (860 is a Canadian clear channel frequency, limiting the coverage of American stations operating at 860.)
The partners in Western sold their interests to H. Walker Harrison in 1959. Harrison sold KIFN in 1966 to the Tichenor family, which owned a group of Spanish-language stations that ultimately became the Hispanic Broadcasting Corporation. Mauricio Méndez, operating as Hispanic Communications Corporation, acquired KIFN in 1979.
Citing the difficulty of getting authorization to go to 24-hour operation on 860 and facing competition from 24-hour station KPHX, Méndez sold KIFN in 1982 to Beta Communications, bringing it under common ownership with Apache Junction's KSTM-FM. Beta relaunched the station as KVVA ("Viva"), retaining its Spanish-language format. In 1987, Beta changed KSTM-FM, a rock station known as "The Storm", to KVVA-FM, a more contemporary Spanish-language station, to pair with KVVA AM; it was the first Spanish-language FM station for Phoenix since 99.9 KNNN had been sold in 1984 and flipped formats. Among the programs aired in this era was a simulcast of Channel 10 KTSP-TV's 10 p.m. news, which began in 1988.
As a sports station
In 1996, KVVA-AM-FM went bankrupt, and the two stations found different buyers at auction. All of the Spanish-language programming moved to KVVA-FM, which was bought by Z-Spanish Network, a predecessor to Entravision Communications Corporation. The AM frequency, however, was purchased by Pulitzer Broadcasting Company, which acquired it with intentions on moving play-by-play sports contracts from 620 KTAR (then a news/talk outlet) to 860. Pulitzer beat out MAC America Communications, owners of KTVK-TV and KESZ, for the frequency. On December 12, 1996, KVVA left AM, ending 47 straight years of Spanish-language radio on 860. Pulitzer relaunched the station with new call letters KMVP (for "most valuable player"). Eventually, fans and team owners found the KMVP nighttime signal too weak to cover the entire Phoenix metropolitan area for play-by-play coverage, and the Phoenix Suns and Arizona Diamondbacks moved back to KTAR with KMVP retaining broadcasts of the Phoenix Mercury and Arizona Rattlers games. Over time, KMVP added more national sports talk (including ESPN Radio) and less local programs.
Along with KTAR, ownership passed from Pulitzer to Hearst-Argyle, then Emmis Communications, and then Bonneville International, a subsidiary of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
When KTAR became a full-time sports station in 2007, it simulcast the programs of KMVP. The simulcast of KTAR and KMVP ended on April 14, 2007. On August 27, KMVP converted to Spanish language religious programming from Radio Vida Abundante. It later became a gospel music station, under a time brokerage agreement.
KMVP continued to air some sports programs. When Bonneville's two Phoenix sports stations, 98.7 KMVP-FM and 620 KTAR, were already committed to running other sporting events, KMVP aired the "overflow" games, such as Phoenix Coyotes play-by-play and Arizona State Sun Devils basketball. In 2016, Bonneville reassumed control of KMVP, and started simulcasting sister sports station KMVP-FM.
Sale to CCF
On March 9, 2017, Bonneville announced that it would sell KMVP to César Chávez Foundation’s Farmworker Educational Radio Network, Inc. for $800,000; the foundation already owned KNAI (88.3 FM) in Phoenix. The sale was completed on May 15, 2017; concurrently, the call letters changed to KNAI while 88.3 became KNAI-FM.
On May 15, 2017, 860 AM dropped the KMVP-FM simulcast and began simulcasting KNAI-FM's Regional Mexican format, including programming after KNAI-FM's handover to KPHF at 7:30 pm each night. In August, after remediating interference concerns, newly bought translator K270BZ, which prior to going dark had been relaying KKFR from South Mountain, re-emerged to be fed by KNAI. In October 2017, the "La Campesina" programming moved exclusively to 860 AM and 101.9 FM; 88.3 FM, which changed its call letters to KCCF-FM, then began carrying a loop directing listeners to KNAI. KCCF-FM was sold to VCY America in 2018.
Translators
References
External links
FCC History Cards for KNAI
NAI (AM)
Radio stations established in 1949
1949 establishments in Arizona |
4020844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Tkaczuk | Daniel Tkaczuk | Daniel Tkaczuk (born June 10, 1979) is a Canadian ice hockey coach and former centre who played 19 games in the National Hockey League for the Calgary Flames. He is currently an assistant coach for the Springfield Thunderbirds of the American Hockey League.
Playing career
Tkaczuk was born in Toronto, Ontario. As a youth, he played in the 1993 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with Toronto Marlboros minor ice hockey team.
He was selected sixth overall in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft by the Calgary Flames. He represented Canada at the 1999 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships, where he won a silver medal and led the team in scoring. Tkaczuk was named to the American Hockey League's All-Rookie Team the following season. He played in the National Hockey League for the Calgary Flames during the 2001–02 campaign, but suffered a severe concussion in a game against the Arizona Coyotes during his 19th game. He returned to the minors and never saw NHL action again.
Tkaczuk left the Flames system at the end of 2000–01 after winning the Calder Cup when traded along with Fred Brathwaite, Sergei Varlamov, and a 2001 ninth-round pick to the St. Louis Blues for goaltender Roman Turek on June 23, 2001. He would then play two more years in the AHL for the Worcester IceCats and after being released by the St. Louis Blues, for the Bridgeport Sound Tigers.
Unhappy with his shaky status in the minors, he tried his luck in Europe, spending the 2003–04 season with Lukko of Finland's major league, the SM-liiga, where his numbers were respectable, but not impressive enough to earn him a significant profile in Finland.
Tkaczuk then turned to Milan, the highest paying club in the Italian league, where he enjoyed considerable success, maintaining his preeminence even during the 2004–5 season, when the squad was strengthened by the arrival of NHL players during the NHL lockout. He led Milan in goals (23), assists (33) and points (56) during the regular season and playoffs, good enough for third place overall in Serie A scoring. Thanks to those solid numbers, Tkaczuk was one of three Milan players, along with defenceman Marc Savard and veteran forward Ryan Savoia, named to Team Canada's roster for the 2004 Loto Cup in Slovakia. Milan went on to win the national title, their fourth in a row, defeating Cortina in the finals.
In the late summer of 2005, Tkaczuk held talks with Krefeld Pinguine of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL), Grand Rapids Griffins of the American Hockey League, and Lada Togliatti of the Russian Super League before eventually returning to Milan.
In 2006, Tkaczuk signed for ERC Ingolstadt of the DEL. In 2007, he moved to EV Duisburg Die Füchse and played there until the completion of the 2008–09 season. Tkaczuk was second in goals during the 2007–08 season (17).
After six years abroad, Tkaczuk returned to North America and signed with the Charlotte Checkers of the ECHL on November 13, 2009. He would later be loaned to the Rochester Americans on December 7, 2009. On January 6, 2010, the Hartford Wolf Pack signed Tkaczuk to a professional tryout (PTO) contract. Tkaczuk finished the season with 45 points in 46 games for the Checkers.
In the following season, Tkaczuk signed a one-year contract with the EC TREND-Dornbirn of the second-tier Austrian National League on September 16, 2010 After scoring 33 points in 26 games with Trend, Tkaczuk signed for the Nottingham Panthers of the Elite Ice Hockey League (EIHL) in the United Kingdom, on January 19, 2011.
Coaching career
After retiring, he became an assistant coach with the Owen Sound Attack and the Kitchener Rangers of the OHL. He then became assistant coach of the American Hockey League's Chicago Wolves in 2016 before spending the 2017–18 season as skills coach with the St. Louis Blues. In 2018, he became an assistant coach for the Blues' AHL affiliate the San Antonio Rampage.
Personal
Tkaczuk is the president of iHockeyTrainer.com, an online hockey school for training and skill development. He is also a columnist for The Hockey News, often providing insight from a player's perspective He is married and has two young boys, Weylan and Sawyer Tkaczuk.
Career statistics
Regular season and playoffs
International
References
External links
1979 births
Living people
Barrie Colts players
Bridgeport Sound Tigers players
Calgary Flames draft picks
Calgary Flames players
Canadian ice hockey centres
Charlotte Checkers (1993–2010) players
Dornbirn Bulldogs players
ERC Ingolstadt players
Füchse Duisburg players
Hartford Wolf Pack players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Lukko players
National Hockey League first round draft picks
Nottingham Panthers players
Rochester Americans players
Saint John Flames players
Sportspeople from Toronto
Syracuse Crunch players
Worcester IceCats players
Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in England
Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in Finland
Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in Germany |
4020851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoly%20Morozov | Anatoly Morozov | Anatoly Morozov may refer to:
Anatoly Morozov (pilot) (19161944), Soviet World War II pilot and Hero of the Soviet Union
Anatoly Morozov (scientist) (born 1939), Ukrainian scientist
Anatoly Morozov (athlete) (born 1973), Russian football player |
4020853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County%20Route%20585%20%28New%20Jersey%29 | County Route 585 (New Jersey) | County Route 585 (CR 585) is a county highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. The highway extends from MacArthur Boulevard (Route 52) in Somers Point to Absecon Boulevard (U.S. Route 30 or US 30) in Absecon.
Route description
CR 585 begins at the former location of the Somers Point Circle in Somers Point, intersecting Route 52 and the southern terminus of CR 559. The route heads north-northeast on two-lane undivided Shore Road through residential and commercial areas, intersecting CR 635 and CR 665 before passing west of Shore Medical Center and coming to CR 620, which provides access to Route 152. CR 585 intersects with the eastern terminus of CR 559 Alternate at the point it crosses into Linwood. In Linwood, the road passes several homes as well as the Linwood Country Club. Continuing into Northfield, CR 585 reaches a junction with CR 563 and CR 662. Past this intersection, the road turns northeast and passes the Atlantic City Country Club and meets CR 615 and CR 644.
Upon entering Pleasantville, the route becomes Main Street and passes a mix of homes and businesses as it reaches the US 40/US 322 junction. Following this, CR 585 crosses the Southern Railroad of New Jersey's Pleasantville Industrial Track line and CR 608 as it heads through commercial areas. The road passes over the Atlantic City Expressway as it enters a mix of homes and commercial establishments. The route crosses CR 646 before intersecting CR 663, at which point it enters Absecon. In Absecon, CR 585 becomes Shore Road again and passes residences, intersecting CR 631 and CR 630. Immediately after the intersection with the latter, the route passes under NJ Transit’s Atlantic City Line and reaches US 30. Here, CR 585 ends and Shore Road continues north as Route 157.
History
CR 585 once continued farther to the south, ending at Route 109 in Lower Township, Cape May County. From its current southern terminus, it followed Route 52 into Ocean City, where it then continued on 9th Street before heading south on CR 656. It then headed west onto CR 623 into Upper Township. The route then headed to the southwest on CR 631 and then onto CR 610 passing through the eastern part of Woodbine and entering Dennis Township. CR 585 then ran concurrent with Route 47 through South Dennis before heading to the south on CR 657. It headed into Middle Township and into Cape May Court House, where CR 657 currently continues to Stone Harbor. At this point, CR 585 headed south concurrent with US 9. It then headed east on Route 147 into North Wildwood, where it turned south on CR 621. It then shifted to Park Boulevard, which carried it south through Wildwood and into Wildwood Crest, where it rejoined CR 621. It then headed into Lower Township to its terminus at Route 109.
A spur route, CR 585 Spur, existed, which is now CR 618.
As part of improvements to Route 52, including the construction of a new causeway over the Great Egg Harbor Bay, the Somers Point Circle at the southern terminus of CR 585 was replaced with a traffic light in October 2010.
Major intersections
CR 585 Spur
County Route 585 Spur was a highway running from Route 47 east to US 9/CR 585 in Middle Township, Cape May County. That designation was removed when CR 585 was truncated to Somers Point and is currently CR 618.
See also
References
External links
County Route 585
585
585 |
4020858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill%20Hume%20%28footballer%29 | Bill Hume (footballer) | William McLeod Hume (1 December 1937 – 10 December 2005) was a footballer.
Born in Alloa, Scotland, Hume signed as an apprentice for Hibernian in 1955, before emigrating to New Zealand the following year. Hume represented both New Zealand and Australia at international level.
His senior career began with Hamilton Wanderers before he moved to Australia to join Gladesville-Ryde in the NSW Premier League, and later playing for Sydney Hakoah. He returned to New Zealand in the early 1960s playing out his career with club side Hamilton Wanderers.
Hume made his full All Whites debut in a 2–3 loss to Australia on 16 August 1958 and made four more appearances over the following month, scoring a total of six goals, the last of his A-international caps being in a 2–1 win over New Caledonia on 14 September 1958.
He moved to Australia in 1959 and later that year he made his two appearances for Australia in unofficial matches against Scottish club Heart of Midlothian in Sydney and Melbourne, scoring in the Melbourne match.
Hume died of a heart attack on St Andrews golf course on 10 December 2005.
References
2005 deaths
New Zealand association footballers
Scottish footballers
Scottish emigrants to New Zealand
Australian soccer players
New Zealand international footballers
Australia international soccer players
Dual internationalists (football)
Association football forwards
1937 births
Hibernian F.C. players |
4020861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwest%20Collegiate%20Hockey%20Association | Midwest Collegiate Hockey Association | Midwest Collegiate Hockey Association was a college athletic conference which operated in the midwestern United States. It participated in the NCAA's Division III as a hockey-only conference. The conference included only men's teams.
History
The league was founded in 1998 with six teams: Benedictine University, the University of Findlay, Lawrence University, Marian University, the Milwaukee School of Engineering, and Northland College. After one year in the conference, Benedictine dropped hockey, and Findlay moved to the Division I College Hockey America conference. The University of Minnesota Crookston joined in 1999. As a Division II school, Minnesota Crookston operated the hockey team with no scholarships like the other Division III members of the league. While they competed in the conference championship, they were ineligible for the NCAA Division III Tournament, but they were eligible for the Harris Cup.
In 2007, in order to meet NCAA guidelines and receive an automatic bid for the Division III tournament, the NCHA mandated that all member programs be Division III by the end of the 2008–09 season. Minnesota–Crookston continued to play in the conference for the next two years but after the '09 season the university dropped varsity hockey and were replaced by Lake Forest.
Finlandia University joined the conference for the 2004–05 season. Before the 2007–08 season, the MCHA added Concordia University in Mequon, Wisconsin, and Adrian College in Adrian, Michigan.
In the summer of 2012, the five hockey-playing schools in the University of Wisconsin System announced that they would leave the Northern Collegiate Hockey Association (NCHA) to begin playing hockey in their all-sports conference, the Wisconsin Intercollegiate Athletic Conference. The move would have left only two men's teams in the NCHA, leading St. Norbert College and the College of St. Scholastica to join the MCHA. In April 2013, the NCHA and MCHA announced a merger, where the NCHA would absorb the MCHA's teams (of the MCHA's 10 schools, all seven who also sponsored women's hockey played in the NCHA). The men's and women's sides will retain separate administrative structures, as well as their automatic bids to the NCAA Tournament.
Members
Champions
MCHA regular season champions
1998–99: Findlay
1999–2000: UM–Crookston
2000–01: UM–Crookston
2002–03: UM–Crookston
2001–02: Marian
2003–04: Marian
2004–05: MSOE
2005–06: MSOE
2006–07: MSOE
2007–08: Adrian
2008–09: Adrian
2009–10: Adrian
2010–11: Adrian
2011–12: Adrian
2012–13: Adrian
Harris Cup Champions (playoffs)
2002: Marian
2003: UM–Crookston
2004: UM–Crookston
2005: MSOE
2006: MSOE
2007: Finlandia
2008: Adrian
2009: Adrian
2010: Adrian
2011: Adrian
2012: MSOE
2013: Adrian
NCAA Tournament Results
2010 Adrian
First Round vs. St. Norbert College L 3–4
2011 Adrian
Quarterfinals vs. Elmira College W 5–3
Semifinals vs. Oswego State University W 5–3
Championship vs. St. Norbert College L 3–4
2012 MSOE
First Round vs. Gustavus Adolphus College L 1–3
2013 Adrian
Quarterfinals vs. Oswego State University L 2-3 (OT)
References
External links
Official web site
MCHA Page on U.S. College Hockey Online |
4020862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiona%20Rae | Fiona Rae | Fiona Rae (born 10 October 1963) is a Hong Kong-born British artist. She is one of the Young British Artists (YBAs) who rose to prominence in the 1990s. Throughout her career, she has been known for having a portfolio of work that includes elements of energy, and complexity. Her work is known for aiming at expanding the modern traditions of painting.
Life and career
Rae was born in Hong Kong and also lived in Indonesia before moving to England in 1970. After moving to England she attended Downe House which is an all girls boarding school in Berkshire. She then attended Croydon College of Art to study a Foundation Course (1983–1984) and Goldsmiths College (1984–1987), where she completed a BA (Hons) Fine Art.
Young British Artist
In 1988, she participated in Freeze, an art exhibition organised by Damien Hirst in London Docklands; the exhibition helped launch a generation of artists who became known as Young British Artists or YBAs.
In 1991, Rae was shortlisted for the Turner Prize, and in 1993 she was nominated for the Austrian Eliette Von Karajan Prize for Young Painters.
She was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts in 2002 and is referred to as a Royal Academician allowing the use of RA after her name. In 2002 she was appointed a Tate Artist Trustee between 2005 and 2009. She was commissioned by Tate Modern to create a 10-metre triptych Shadowland for the restaurant there in 2002.
In December 2011, she was appointed Professor of Painting at the Royal Academy, one of the first two female professors since the Academy was founded in 1768.
Rae has exhibited extensively in museums and galleries internationally and her work is held in public and private collections worldwide. Of her work, William Corwin summarises, "Rae's paintings are very much objects to be admired; windows into worlds in which she is mistress, giving the viewer over to a semi-recognizable, occasionally comforting, but mostly alien dreamscape."
Public collections
Tate Collection: five works: ‘Untitled (yellow)’, 1990, ‘Untitled (grey and brown)’, 1991, ‘Untitled (emergency room)’, 1996, ‘Night Vision', 1998, ‘Shadowland', 2002
Birmingham Museums & Art Gallery; 'Dark Star', (2000)
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington D.C.; 'Sunburst Finish' (1997)
Royal Academy of Arts, London, UK; 'Untitled (six on brown)'
Sintra Museum of Modern Art: The Berardo Collection, Sintra, Portugal
Southampton City Art Gallery, England (6/1998); Fast Breeder
Solo exhibitions
Following the success of 'Freeze' in 1988, Rae's paintings have appeared in solo shows internationally.
'Fiona Rae' Kunsthalle Basel, Switzerland (1992)
'Fiona Rae' at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London (1993–1994)
'Fiona Rae', Carré d'Art Musée d'art contemporain de Nîmes, France (2002–2003)
Publications
Aside from numerous exhibition catalogues, Rae’s paintings are discussed in many publications including:
1996 – Morgan, Stuart, "Fiona Rae: Playing for Time", What the Butler Saw, Ian Hunt (ed.), London, UK: Durian Publications
1996 – The 20th-Century Art Book, London, UK, Phaidon Press
1999 – Stallabrass, Julian, High Art Lite: British Art in the 1990s, Verso London and New York
1997 – Button, Virginia, The Turner Prize, London, UK, Tate Gallery Publishing
2004 – Tate Women Artists, text by Alicia Foster, London, UK, Tate Gallery Publishing
2006 – Tate Modern: The Handbook, Frances Morris (ed.), texts by Michael Craig-Martin, Andrew Marr and Sheena Wagstaff, London, UK, Tate Publishing
2007 – The Turner Prize. Revised Edition, Virginia Button, London, UK, Tate Publishing
2007 – Open Space: Art in the Public Realm in London 1995–2005, Jemima Montagu (ed.), London, UK, Arts Council England and Central London Partnership
2009 – Painting Today, Tony Godfrey (ed.), London, UK, Phaidon Press
2010 – Barret, Terry, Making Art: Form and Meaning, New York City: McGraw-Hill Publishers
2010 – Pooke, Grant, Contemporary British Art: An Introduction, London, UK: Routledge
2012 – Fiona Rae: maybe you can live on the moon in the next century, London, UK: Ridinghouse in association with Leeds Art Gallery.
References
External links
Artists site
Paintings, list of exhibitions and literature
Fiona Rae on Artcyclopedia
1963 births
Living people
Royal Academicians
British women painters
British contemporary painters
Hong Kong people
Alumni of Goldsmiths, University of London
English contemporary artists
20th-century British women artists
21st-century British women artists |
4020868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Russell | Stephen Russell | Stephen L. Russell is an American actor, playwright, and theater director. He is best known for his video game voice roles as Garrett in the Thief series, Corvo Attano in Dishonored 2, and various characters in Skyrim and the Fallout series.
Career
Russell appeared onstage in Huntington's The Last Hurrah. Other stage credits include The Life of Galileo (Underground Railway Theater), The Bottom of the Lake (Tir Na Theatre), Daughter of Venus (Boston Playwrights' Theatre), A Pinter Duet, A House With No Walls, White People (New Repertory Theatre), And Then There Were None, A Prayer for Owen Meany (Stoneham Theatre), Talley's Folly (The Lyric Stage Company of Boston), and more than two dozen productions with the Wellfleet Harbor Actors' Theatre (WHAT), including The Beauty Queen of Leenane and the Eliott Norton Award-winning production of A New War. He is the author of 13 plays for young audiences and won the 2009 WHAT Award for Sustained Artistic Excellence.
Russell made his debut film appearances as Bob in the 2007 film Noëlle and in 2008 appeared as Luther Norris in the film Chatham. In 2009, he played a minor role in the film The Ghosts of Girlfriends Past. In addition to voicing Garrett in the Thief video game series, he voiced Garrett's chief antagonist Karras in Thief II: The Metal Age, as well as many of the supporting characters in the series. He contributed the voice of the starship Von Brauns central computer XERXES and William Bedford Diego in System Shock 2. He also provided the voices of Andy, Mr. Buckingham, The Great One, Wadsworth, Sergeant RL-3, Cerberus, Enclave Scientists, an Enclave Soldier, and every Mr. Handy in Fallout 3, Fallout 4, and Fallout 76. The 2011 game Skyrim features Russell voicing a range of characters, including Barbas the talking dog, Daedric Prince Clavicus Vile, Belethor, and Thieves Guild leader Mercer Frey. In the 2015 game Fallout 4, he voices Codsworth and the android detective Nick Valentine. He provided the voice for Lord Protector Corvo Attano in the 2016 video game Dishonored 2.
Russell did not return to the Thief franchise for the 2014 reboot because it utilized motion-capture acting, which required the voice actors to physically portray the characters and perform their own stunts. Eidos-Montréal announced that Russell had been replaced by Romano Orzari for the role of Garrett in the series, and explained their decision: "The actor playing Garrett needed to be able to perform his own stunts. Garrett's a really athletic guy. We could have pasted Stephen's voice on top of the actions and stunts of someone else, but this wouldn't appear natural." The decision upset some fans of the series, who initiated an online petition requesting Eidos-Montréal to bring back Russell as lead voice actor.
Personal life
He is a vegetarian. He has a son named Peter, who is an actor and musician, and a daughter named Robin, who is a voice actress.
Selected voice credits
References
External links
IGDB.com
Place of birth missing (living people)
Date of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American male film actors
American theatre directors
American male voice actors
American male video game actors
Year of birth missing (living people)
American male writers |
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