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4000747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muchea%2C%20Western%20Australia | Muchea, Western Australia | Muchea is a town in the Shire of Chittering, located north north-east of Perth. Its postcode is 6501.
The town's name comes from the Aboriginal word "Muchela" which means in Nyoongar 'water hole', referring to the abundance of water in Muchea.
History
The area was first surveyed as farmland in 1845 as part of a property to be owned by George Moore.
The opening of a railway siding in the area between 1892 and 1898 caused permanent structures to be built and by 1903 farmlots were surveyed close to the siding. The townsite was later gazetted in 1904.
In 1960, the Muchea Tracking Station was established about SSW outside of town as part of NASA's Mercury project. In 1962, the first Australian to speak with a space traveller did so from the Muchea facility. The station was closed in 1964.
References
Towns in Western Australia |
4000749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordrach%20Clinic | Nordrach Clinic | The Nordrach Clinic, or Nordrach Sanatorium, was a clinic for the treatment of advanced tuberculosis. It was established in the late 19th century by Dr. Otto Walther in Nordrach in the Black Forest region of southwestern Germany. Some of Dr. Walther's uncustomary treatments included "overfeeding" (patients were given three daily plentiful feedings of milk, cheese, meat, sweets, starches, and fruits), the complete abstinence from any drugs (save morphine for the critically ill), and plentiful rest. The rooms of the clinic, located at above sea level, had an abundance of open windows to expose patients to the putative positive effects of winds.
The Nordrach Clinic was small, housing a maximum of fifty patients, and very expensive. News of the successes of Nordrach soon spread and helped give rise to the sanatorium business in nearby Switzerland, a country whose landscape was much more suited to the high altitude and fresh wind regimen stressed by Nordrach. The Nordrach experiment also gave rise to several "mini Nordrachs", most notably Nordrach-in-Mendip, Nordach-on-Dee and Nordrach-in-Wales.
Nordrach thrived as a sanatorium for people with tuberculosis through the early 1930s. However, as a Jew, Otto Walther came under increased scrutiny by the National Socialist (Nazi) Party after it came to power in Germany in 1933 and the clinic was eventually forced to close.
References
Dormandy, Thomas. The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis. New York: New York University Press, 1999.
Gibson, J.A. The Nordrach Treatment. London: 1901.
De Guerville, A.B. La lutte contre le tuberculose. Paris: Alphonse Lemerre, 1904 (translated as The Crusade against Phthisis. London: Hugh Rees, 1904; de Guerville recounts the experiences of his own successful treatment at Nordach in 1900).
20th century in Baden-Württemberg
Tuberculosis sanatoria in Germany
Defunct organisations based in Germany |
5394985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Let%27s%20Go%21%20%28Philippine%20TV%20series%29 | Let's Go! (Philippine TV series) | Let's Go! is a Philippine situation comedy on ABS-CBN, set in a college dormitory and targeting a teenaged audience. The show premiered on June 3, 2006, at 4 pm. from July 8, 2006, the show was broadcast on Saturdays at 5 pm. The last episode aired on May 26, 2007.
Cast, characters, and appearance period
Cast table
= Main cast (credited)
= Recurring cast (3+)
= Guest cast (1-2)
Summary plot (seasons 1-3)
Norman (Blumark Roces) is the Bisoy boy next door, and is friends with Dennis (Timmy Boy Sta. Maria), who is popular with girls. Dennis is close to the shy girl Junniper (Eda Nolan). Charie (Charee Pineda) is the most attractive girl of the group, and is not intimidated by the bully Badjie (Badjie Mortiz), who is otherwise feared by everyone.
List of episodes
Season 1
Episode #01: Ang Simula
Episode #02: Bar Chillin'
Episode #03: Maling Akala
Episode #04: Initiation
Episode #05: Acquaintance Party
Episode #06: Pustahan
Episode #07: The Problem is Tubig
Episode #08: Master Showman
Episode #09: First Kiss
Episode #10: Papel, Gunting, Bato
Episode #11: You Rock My World
Episode #12: L.Q.
Episode #13: Break Na Tayo
Season 2
Episode #14: Tomaan
Episode #15: In or Out
Episode #16: Art Atak
Episode #17: Maalala Mo Kaya?
Episode #18: Girls Night Out
Episode #19: Girls Night Out
Episode #20: Kotse at Curly
Episode #21: Tsismis
Episode #22: The Grudge: Daw?
Episode #23: Labo Notes
Season 3
Episode #24: Let's Go Boracay
Episode #25: PaKiss Kiss
Episode #26: Paano
Episode #27: Mukhang Guilty
Episode #28: Kris Kringle
Episode #29: Let's Go!: Live!
Episode #30: Dennis is Back!!!!!
Episode #31: The Best of Let's Go!
Episode #32: The More You Hate, The More You Love!
Episode #33: Putina
Episode #34: Nakaw Tingin...Nakaw Halik!
Episode #35: Debut Ni Per
Episode #36: Time Waits For Norman
Episode #37: Akin Ka Na Lang
Episode #38: Don't Touch My Poochie
Episode #39: Goodbye Alex
Episode #40: Grrrl Power!!
Episode #41: Let's Go Ready to Rumble
Episode #42: Graduation Blues!!
Episode #43: Let's Go Baguio!
Episode #44: Let's Go Subic!
Episode #45: Let's Go 8 Waves
Episode #46: Halina, Let's Go Vigan
Episode #47: Let's Go Camping!!!
Episode #48: Let's Go Pangasinan!
Episode #49: Let's Go Crazy!
Episode #50: Let's Go Finale!
Season 4: Gokada Go!
Episode #01: First Day Go!
Episode #02: Biak Na Bato
Episode #03: Go Signal
Episode #04: Miss U Like Crazy
Episode #05: Let's Go Panty
Episode #06: The Naked Truth
Episode #07: Go Melody Go
Episode #08: Go Kini Go
References
External links
ABS-CBN original programming
2006 Philippine television series debuts
2007 Philippine television series endings
Philippine comedy television series
2000s college television series
2000s teen sitcoms
Filipino-language television shows
Television series about teenagers |
4000751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikkaku-ry%C5%AB%20juttejutsu | Ikkaku-ryū juttejutsu | Ikkaku-ryū juttejutsu () is a school of juttejutsu (or jittejutsu) that, as the equivalent to its sister variant Chūwa-ryū tankenjutsu (中和流短剣術), is taught alongside traditional school (ko-ryū) of Japanese martial arts, Shintō Musō-ryū. It is composed of 24 forms (kata) divided into two series. It was created by the third Shintō Musō-ryū (SMR) Headmaster, Matsuzaki Kinu'emon Tsunekatsu in the late 17th century.
Ikkaku-ryū juttejutsu utilizes the jutte as a way of self-defense for use against an attacker armed with a sword (katana).
History
The original tradition of Ikkaku-ryū did not specialize in the jutte, but was a system of seizing/capturing arts (toritejutsu) with the jutte being one of several weapons and skills used. These weapons and arts included the war-fan (tessen), grappling (jujutsu), short-stick (tebō) and short-sword (kodachi). Originally the complete Ikkaku-ryū was taught in the New Just (Shintō) Musō-ryū branch and the Ten'ami-ryū as an arresting/seizing-system for the local security force of the Kuroda domain. After the Meiji-restoration the two largest surviving branches of the Kuroda-no-jo tradition, Jigyo and Haruyoshi -branches of New Just (Shintō) Musō-ryū, was merged and streamlined into what would become the modern day Way of the Gods (Shintō) Musō-ryū system led by Shiraishi Hanjiro. Of the original seizing-arts of the Ikkaku-ryū only the jutte and tessen arts was incorporated into the new system.
The Jutte and tessen
The (jutte) is a baton made of iron with a small tine or prong fitted just above the handle. The gripspace of the handle is wrapped with a cord that hangs down from underneath the handle with a tassle at the end. The jutte was mainly used by police-forces of the Edo-period of Japan and is known to have had over 200 variations.
Ikkaku-ryū fields a truncheon about 45 cm in length with a weight of about 550 grams. It has a smooth shaft ending in a handle wrapped in a coloured cord ending with a hanging tassel. A small tine is attached just above the grip. Originally the colour of the wrapping-cord indicated the social level of the wielder. The original design of the Ikkaku-ryū jutte had a hexagonal shaft cross-section with the tine attached to one of the corners instead of the flat surface. The inside of the tine was also sharpened which enabled the wielder to use it for cutting if applicable.
The fan (tessen) used in Ikkaku-ryū is about 30 cm in length. The fan was designed to look like a regular folding-fan carried by samurai and other nobles in the samurai-era when they did not have access to their swords. These special tessens were in some cases either made totally of iron or had iron-edges thus enabling it to be a small self-defence weapon if required.
Jutte methods
Ikkaku-ryū applies the jutte, either alone or in tandem with the tessen, in response of an attack made by a swordsman armed with a katana. The jutte is made of iron and it can block and parry swordattacks either on its own or in tandem with the tessen. The jutte can be used to catch a sword between the main shaft and the tine thus controlling the sword or even snapping it in two if applicable. After deflecting or avoiding the sword, the wielder gets within arms-length of the opponent in order to successfully strike at any part of the opponents body such as hands, wrists and head.
Training
The jutte is for the most part taught only to advanced students who have achieved a high level of proficiency in the Shinto Muso-ryu Jodo forms, though the level required is not standardized and different Jodo-organisations have different requirements. Modern exponents of Ikkaku-ryū normally use all-wooden weapons in order to reduce risk of injuries during training, though this is heavily dependent on which Jodo-organisation he/she belongs to. In some groups, when a student has attained the necessary level of skill, the wooden-jutte is replaced by a real one made of metal, and the attackers wooden-sword is replaced by a metal non-sharpened sword (iaitō). The tessen is normally made of wood for safety-reasons even in advanced levels as the tessen is discarded in some of the forms and can present a risk when thrown.
Ikkaku-ryū jutte forms
The modern Ikkaku-ryū system fields 24 training-forms (kata) divided between 2 series called Omote and Ura. Some of the kata uses a war fan (Tessen) in tandem with the jutte. The forms of the Omote and Ura-series share the same name but are different in application.
Omote series
Uken (右劍)
Saken (左劍)
Zanken (殘劍)
Keageken (蹴上劍)
Ichiranken (一亂劍)
Irimiken (入身劍)
Ippuken (一風劍)
Meateken (目當劍)
Utoken (右刀劍)
Gorinken (五輪劍)
Isseiken (一聲劍)
Kasumiken (霞劍)
Ura series
(Identical names and number of forms as the Omote-series)
Uken (右劍)
Saken (左劍)
Zanken (殘劍)
Keageken (蹴上劍)
Ichiranken (一亂劍)
Irimiken (入身劍)
Ippuken (一風劍)
Meateken (目當劍)
Utoken (右刀劍)
Gorinken (五輪劍)
Isseiken (一聲劍)
Kasumiken (霞劍)
See also
Edo period
Jittejutsu
Tokugawa shogunate – The military dictatorship of the Tokugawa family that dominated Japan for the duration of the Edo period
References
Shinto Muso-ryu
Japanese martial arts |
5395017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canspell%20National%20Spelling%20Bee | Canspell National Spelling Bee | The Canwest Canspell National Spelling Bee, later called the Postmedia Canspell National Spelling Bee, was a spelling bee held annually in Canada from 2005–2012. The bee was affiliated with the United States-based Scripps National Spelling Bee and used similar rules and word lists, adapted to suit Canadian usage and spelling. It was organized by Canwest Global Communications, parent company of 9 of the regional sponsors, from 2005–2010 and by the Postmedia Network from 2010–2012 after Canwest's bankruptcy. The spelling bee ended in 2012.
Competition
As of 2011, regional finals are held in 21 Canadian cities from Victoria to St. John's.
The winner in each of the regional finals participated in the national final in Ottawa each April from 2005 to 2010. From 2005 to 2009, the regional winners also qualified for the Scripps National Spelling Bee in Washington D.C. whether they won the nationals or not. In 2010, because of the economic downturn and Canwest's bankruptcy, only the winner of the nationals participated in the SNSB. From 2011 onwards, the top 3 spellers, including the national champion, will compete in the SNSB.
The name of the competition was changed subtly in 2009 from "CanWest CanSpell" to "Canwest Canspell", in line with Canwest's elimination of CamelCase spelling from its corporate brand.
In late 2010, the competition was renamed the Postmedia Canspell Spelling Bee as a result of Canwest's bankruptcy in October 2009, where Canwest's assets were sold to Shaw Communications and the Postmedia Network.
Media and the Bee
When Canwest sponsored the bee, it enjoyed significant coverage from Canwest-owned media outlets. A documentary on the event was produced in 2005, a live broadcast was aired in 2007, and edited versions of the finals were broadcast in 2006 and 2008. These broadcasts were all aired on the Global Television Network. Live webcasts are also featured each year. In 2011, CBC became the new broadcast partner and created a special one-hour primetime feature on the Canadian final called "Spelling Night in Canada". It usually takes place in the last week of March.
All Postmedia daily newspapers participate in the spelling bee, with the exception of The Province in Vancouver, as the company also owns the sponsoring Vancouver Sun. Postmedia's National Post, based in the Toronto area, serves as sponsor for that market. Uniquely, the Hamilton competition was co-sponsored by the National Post and a Canwest-owned TV station, CHCH-TV, and not a local paper such as The Hamilton Spectator. Hamilton does not have a local sponsor beyond 2009, after which CHCH was sold from Canwest to Channel Zero Inc. Hamilton spellers compete at the Toronto National Post spelling bee.
Other newspaper sponsors include the Winnipeg Free Press, The Telegram in St. John's, The Chronicle Herald in Halifax, The Chronicle-Journal in Thunder Bay, and The Guardian in Charlottetown and The Daily News in Kamloops, British Columbia.
The Saturn brand of General Motors was the presenting sponsor for 2005 and 2006. Saturn withdrew in 2007 and was replaced by Canada Post. Other national sponsors have included Air Canada, AIC Limited, Oxford University Press, the Canadian Museum of Civilization, the Lord Elgin Hotel, the Egg Farmers of Canada, and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC).
Competition statistics
National champions
Runners-up
Winning words and word runner-up misspelled
Staff
Jacques Bailly, the long-time pronouncer for the American Scripps National Spelling Bee, also was the pronouncer for the Canadian Canspell Bee.
References
External links
Official Canspell website
English language
Spelling competitions
Educational organizations based in Canada
Recurring events established in 2005
Competitions in Canada
2005 establishments in Canada |
5395025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow-eye%20mullet | Yellow-eye mullet | Yellow-eye mullet (Aldrichetta forsteri), also known as Coorong mullet (after the Coorong area of South Australia), conmuri, estuary mullet, Forster's mullet, freshwater mullet, pilch, pilchard, Victor Harbor mullet, yelloweye, yellow-eyed mullet known are small, near-shore fish found in temperate waters of southern Australia from just north of Sydney, New South Wales to Shark Bay in Western Australia, around Tasmania, and New Zealand.
Description
Yellow-eye mullet are small, near-shore fish that usually reach 30–40 cm. Yellow-eyed Mullet fish is grey-green at the top, silver at the bottom, yellow at the bottom, bright yellow eyes. Although yellow-eye fish tastes good, they are most often used as bait fish. Yellow-eye mullet is considered to be the best bait for capturing larger species. Freshly caught mullet fillets, oozing blood and juice, are irresistible to almost any fish in the sea. They also have sharp heads and mouths, and the scales on the body are particularly small and thin and are very easy to fall off. Unlike most fish, it has two ridges, the first with 4 thorns and the second with 1 spine and 9 rays. These fish are olive or blue-brown with silver on both sides and bright yellow or gold eyes. The fins have brown edges. They can live in water depth ranging from 0–50 m, but usually, stay in 0–10 m depth. They are most comfortable in temperature ranging from 14 to 24 degree Celsius, with the upper tolerate temperature of 28 degree Celsius and the lower limit unknown.
Distribution
South-west Pacific; also Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania; all over New Zealand and the Chatham Islands.
Habitat
They usually live in shallow bays, ports and estuaries. They are often seen shoaling near the surface, but rarely enter freshwater. For example, Lake Ellesmere, south of Christchurch, will be found at any time of the year, but their spawning takes place in the sea.
Life cycle
The maximum age of yellow-eyed mullet is estimated to be seven years old. They lay their eggs between December and March, but some believe that spawning may also occur in winter. They usually lay their eggs in summer and autumn coastal waters or in the estuary. Each fish can release up to 680,000 eggs. They may live for seven years and mature in 2–4 years. Female grow faster and are more than male.
Diet and foraging
They are omnivores that feed on sea floor debris, algae and small invertebrates, crustaceans, diatoms, molluscs, insect larvae, fish, polychaetes, coelenterates and fish eggs. They are often filtered from the sand through the mouth. Ingesting a certain percentage of sand helps to grind food in the muscles of the stomach.
Predators
In the natural food chain, they are preyed by larger predators such as dolphins and orcas, and are a food source for humans.
Uses
They have two commercial uses. One is the marine beach fishery, where adult fish lay eggs for packaging as caviar. Demand is high in Australia and overseas. It can be sold fresh, or smoked or dried. Beach fences are used for this type of fishery. The second method of commercial fisheries in the estuary fishery, which accounts for the majority of mullet fish catches. Yellow-eye are caught throughout the year, but most of the capture occurs in late summer and autumn. Coastal collection gill nets and tunnel nets are the main gear forms used in the fishery. People usually look for shiny skin, solid meat, and a fresh marine scent when choosing fish. In the fillets, look for pink, grey, solid, shiny, moist meat without any brown markings or oozing water and a pleasant fresh marine scent.
References
Tony Ayling & Geoffrey Cox, Collins Guide to the Sea Fishes of New Zealand, (William Collins Publishers Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand 1982)
External links
yellow-eye mullet
Marine fish of Southern Australia
Marine fish of New Zealand
yellow-eye mullet |
5395030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinosternoidea | Kinosternoidea | Kinosternoidea is a superfamily of aquatic turtles, which includes two families: Dermatemydidae, and Kinosternidae.
Kinosternoids are cryptodires, turtles whose necks are able to retract within their shell. Molecular studies suggest they are likely the sister group to the snapping turtles of the family Chelydridae. They are also omnivorous, oviparous, phosphatic, and actively mobile.
Classification
Family Dermatemydidae
Genus Dermatemys
Genus Baptemys
Family Kinosternidae
Genus Hoplochelys
Subfamily Staurotypinae
Genus Claudius
Genus Staurotypus
Subfamily Kinosterninae
Genus Kinosternon
Genus Sternotherus
Past classification
The entirely unrelated big-headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) was previously included in classification.
References
Bibliography |
5395039 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia%20del%20Valle | Colonia del Valle | Colonia del Valle (Spanish for: Del Valle neighborhood) is a neighborhood in the Benito Juarez borough of Mexico City. It includes "...a great number of parks, vast and tree-lined streets, prestigious shopping malls, and some city landmarks...".
Del Valle is bounded by the streets of:
Viaducto Miguel Alemán to the north,
Cuauhtémoc and Universidad to the east,
Rio Mixcoac - Barranca del Muerto to the south and
Insurgentes Avenue to the west.
Adjacent neighborhoods include
Colonia Nápoles, Ciudad de los Deportes, Noche Buena and San Borja to the west,
Escandón to the northwest,
Colonia Roma Sur and Piedad Narvarte to the north,
Colonia Narvarte, Vértiz Narvarte and Letrán Valle to the east, and
Tlacomecatl del Valle, Miguel Alemán, Xoco and Santa Cruz Atoyac to the south.
History
At the beginning of the 20th century the ranches cultivated with alfalfa and fruit trees were divided, giving rise to Colonia Americana. Some neighborhood streets are named after these ranches and their fruit trees, others after Mexican philanthropists.
While serving as a streetcar route from Mexico City to Coyoacán it developed slowly until 1920, when it expanded and the Avenida de los Insurgentes was paved. Large-scale home and mansion construction started. The area also featured monument construction and green areas; one is the Paque Hundido, built on a former sand mine.
In the 1960s the area was as fully developed as many other neighborhoods of equal purchasing power on its borders. Commercial development included two major facilities, Liverpool Insurgentes opening in 1962 and the country's first shopping center, University Plaza, in 1969.
In 1978 the city built the Ejes viales, a system of wide, one-way roads criss-crossing the city, and with this Del Valle was transformed radically and permanently, its tree-lined boulevards with green medians transformed into quasi-freeways. Ejes 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 south crossed from east to west and 1, 2 and 3 from south to north. This drove many families to look for a quieter place to live and began the process of redeveloping the area. Mansions were replaced by apartment buildings, offices or schools.
Crime statistics from 2009 showed that Colonia del Valle was the second most crime-ridden neighborhood in Mexico City, sharing the top 10 list with notorious neighborhoods Tepito and Colonia Doctores. However, 2012 statistics do not place Del Valle on the list of the top 6 most crime-ridden neighborhoods.
Transportation
Major roads running through the neighborhood include: Insurgentes, Cuauhtemoc, Northern Division, University, Félix Cuevas, José María Rico, Xola.
Mexico City Metro Line 3 has several stations in the vicinity: Etiopía, Eugenia, División del Norte, Zapata and Coyoacán. Mexico City Metrobús (BRT) Line 3 stops at Amores (corner of Xola).
Architecture
The architecture includes large mansions in Californian mission revival Art Deco style and, to a lesser extent, surviving examples of Porfiriato. At the end of the 1960s many small skyscrapers, both commercial and residential, were built, making the area one of the most densely populated of Mexico City. Housing complexes were also built.
It houses churches such as the Temple of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, and buildings dating from the period of colonization and conquest between park Tlacoquemécatl including the Temple of San Lorenzo and the Xochimanca, cultural areas and parks like the Sunken Park or Mariscal Sucre Park, the French Kiosk, art galleries, libraries, auditoriums Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros, Plaza México, and Estadio Azul stadium.
Religious buildings
The religious structures found in the Del Valle include the Templo del Purísimo Corazón de María (Parish of the Most Pure Heart of Mary) at the corner of Gabriel Mancera number 415. It was built in the early 20th century. In 1996 several scenes of the film Romeo + Juliet were filmed at the church. Mexican singer Luis Miguel was baptized there.
The Temple of San Lorenzo Xochimanca, located in the park of the same name a.k.a. Parque Popular, was built in the 16th century.
The Parroquia del Señor del Buen Despacho, located in Parque Tlacoquemécatl, dates from the 18th century. The Temple of Santo Tomás Actipan, built in 1897, is located at the corner of Bufalo and Tigre streets.
The Temple of Santa Monica, with the signature "cáscaro" thin-shell structure of its architect Félix Candela, on Fresa Street opposite the park of San Lorenzo, was built in 1962. The Parish of Divine Providence in Adolfo Prieto street was constructed between 1968 and 1974.
Education
Within the Del Valle are two of the oldest educational institutions in the country; the College and Institute of Mexico and its Centro Universitario Mexico, and the Colegio Simón Bolívar. Graduates of these schools include Octavio Paz and Germán Dehesa.
International schools include:
Colegio Nuevo Continente
Tomas Alva Edison
Notable people
Helena Espinosa Berea (ca.1895 - ca.1960), Mexican academic
María Ernestina Larráinzar Córdoba (1854-1925), Mexican writer, novelist, teacher, religious order founder
References
External links
Colonia del Valle on the Internet
Benito Juárez, Mexico City
Del Valle |
5395045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maple%20Shorts | Maple Shorts | Maple Shorts is a children's television show produced by March Entertainment, producers of the TV show, Chilly Beach. Maple Shorts debuted in April 2005 and aired on the CBC Television.
Maple Shorts is hosted by a goose and a salmon. Canuckles is a cranky, conceited Canada goose who wanted to direct but settled for being a critic instead. Sela the salmon is Canuckles' bubble-headed, sweet-natured co-host. Together, they critique each short film which airs on the program.
Maple Shorts is the second broadcast television show produced by March Entertainment. Chilly Beach, the company's most popular show, started out as an Internet show using Flash animation.
March Entertainment, founded in 1996, also produces the Maple Shorts Canadian Animators' Flash Film Festival. The festival feeds higher-quality submissions onto the television show, and is used as a developmental vehicle for up-and-coming animators.
Episodes
Waiting for Schtumpenflugenburgermeyr 13 April 2005
The Legend of the Headless Usher 20 April 2005
Goose Encounters of the Third Kind 30 April 2005
What's Good for the Goose 4 May 2005
2000s Canadian animated television series
2005 Canadian television series debuts
2006 Canadian television series endings
Canadian children's animated television series
CBC Television original programming
Canadian flash animated television series
Animated television series about ducks
Animated television series about fish
Television shows filmed in Greater Sudbury |
5395046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knothole%20Gang | Knothole Gang | In minor league baseball promotion, the Knothole Gang is a special ticket package for children (usually no more than 12–14 years of age) sold in an effort to bring more families out to games.
An example of teams using the promotion:
Billings Mustangs – $12 38-game season pass
Jupiter Hammerheads – $15 free admittance to Tuesday games
Rochester Red Wings – $3 ticket on selected games
Palm Beach Cardinals – $15 free admittance to Tuesday games
Syracuse Chiefs – $15 Sunday game activities
Wichita Wranglers – $10 10-game pass
St. Lucie Mets – $18 free admittance to Friday and Sunday games
In addition to game admission, souvenir T-shirts, meet-the-players autograph days, and free or discount merchandise may also be included in the membership.
History
Historically, the St. Louis Cardinals are recognized as sponsoring the first "Knothole Gang club". A quote, from Baseball Though a Knothole – A St. Louis History by Bill Borst, pages 38 – 39, tells the story. "William Edward Bilheimer, a St. Louis insurance man, introduced the idea of a 'Knothole Gang'. With each fifty dollars worth of stock purchased [in the Cardinal franchise] went one bleacher seat that was opened up free of charge for the city's youth." The date was the beginning of the 1917 season. This came about as part of the plans when Mrs. Helen Britton sold the Cardinal's club to a "fan syndicate from the city's prominent businessmen that formed an army of stockholders", page 38. Executive Branch Rickey developed the idea.
The knothole gangs came about as professional ballparks were first being built with wooden fences. Kids without the price of a seat would find that the wooden fences surrounding the parks provided spy holes to watch the games for free. These holes were created when knots in the wood popped out. Naturally gangs of kids gathered around the knotholes.
In the late 1880s (perhaps 1889) – New Orleans Pelicans owner Abner Powell promoted the first knot hole gang when he allowed kids to watch free if they showed good behavior.
Another good example of a knothole gang was the Columbus Redbirds of Columbus, Ohio. If kids decided that they wanted to sign up they would do so and if they got good grades, they would be admitted free into any home game with the exceptions of the playoffs and All-Star games.
The Brooklyn Dodgers gave over 2 million free passes to kids during the 1940s and '50s. A photo of youngsters lying on the pavement to grab a view from under the center field gate at Ebbets.
From 1962 to 1965, the Houston Colt .45s called their knot-hole gang the "Six Shooter Club".
References
Minor league baseball |
5395058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Christian%20Unions%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom | List of Christian Unions in the United Kingdom | This list is drawn from the Universities and Colleges Christian Fellowship (UCCF) website. It is not necessarily exhaustive, nor are all the Christian Unions shown necessarily affiliated to UCCF.
England
East Central
Amersham & Wycombe College
Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge
Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford
Bedford College
University of Bedfordshire
Brunel University, Uxbridge – CU Website
Buckinghamshire New University, High Wycombe – CU Website
Buckinghamshire New University, Newland Park – CU Website
Cambridge Regional College
University of Cambridge (Cambridge Inter-Collegiate Christian Union) – CU Website
City College Norwich
Colchester Institute
Cranfield University, Cranfield
De Montfort University, Bedford
Downham Market High School – Sixth Form Centre
University of East Anglia – Norwich CU Website
University of Essex – CU Website
The Henley College
Hertford Regional College, Ware Centre
University of Hertfordshire – CU Website
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Norwich University of the Arts
Oaklands College, Welwyn Garden City
Oxford Brookes University
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University of Oxford (Oxford Inter-Collegiate Christian Union) – CU Website
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Goldsmiths, University of London – CU Website
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Midlands
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North East
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University of Bradford – CU Website
Bretton Hall College, University of Leeds
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Cleveland College of Art and Design, Middlesbrough
The College of Law, York
Darlington College of Technology
Dearne Valley College
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Durham University (Durham Inter-Collegiate Christian Union) CU Website
Durham University#Queen's Campus, Stockton – Stockton on Tees – CU Website; Evangelistic Sermons at QCCU
Gilesgate Sixth Form College
Greenhead College
Grimsby College
Huddersfield New College
University of Huddersfield – CU Website
University of Hull – CU Website
University of Hull, Scarborough
Leeds College of Technology
University of Leeds - CU Website
Leeds Metropolitan University – CU Website
University of Lincoln, Hull
Newcastle College
Newcastle University – CU Website
North Lindsey College
Northumbria University, Newcastle – CU Website
Park Lane College
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University of Sheffield – CU Website
Stockton Sixth Form College
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University of Teesside – CU Website
Trinity and All Saints College, University of Leeds
York College
York St John University – CU Website
University of York – CU Website
North West
Lancaster University – CU website
Liverpool Universities (University of Liverpool, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool Hope University) – CU website
Manchester Metropolitan University – CU website
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University of Cumbria (Lancaster campus) – CU website
University of Cumbria (Carlisle campus) – CU website
University of Manchester – CU website
University of Salford – CU website
University of Chester – CU website
South East
Solent University – CU website
University of Brighton – CU website
University of Kent – CU website
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University of Surrey – CU website
University of Sussex – CU website
University of Chichester
Chichester College
Eastbourne College
Bournemouth University/Arts University Bournemouth – CU website
Royal Grammar School, Guildford - CU website
South West
University of Bath – CU website
University of Bristol – CU website
University of Exeter – CU website
University of Gloucestershire – CU website
Plymouth University – CU website
University of the West of England – CU website
Falmouth University/University of Exeter, Cornwall Campus – CU website
University of St Mark & St John (Plymouth)
Northern Ireland
Belfast
Methodist College Belfast
Queen's University Belfast – CU website
Scotland
Glasgow Caledonian University - CU website
Glasgow School of Art - CU Facebook Page
Heriot-Watt University – CU website
Herriot-Watt Scottish Borders Campus – CU Facebook Page
Napier University – CU website
Queen Margaret University - CU Website
Robert Gordon University – CU website
Royal Conservatoire of Scotland - CU Facebook Page
Sabhal Mòr Ostaig - CU Facebook Page
University of Aberdeen – CU website
University of Abertay Dundee – CU website
University of Dundee – CU website
University of Edinburgh – CU website
University of Glasgow – CU website
University of St Andrews – CU website
University of Stirling – CU website
University of Strathclyde – CU website
University of the Highlands and Islands - CU Facebook Page
University of the West of Scotland - CU Facebook Page
Wales
Aberystwyth University – CU Website
Bangor University – CU Website
Cardiff University – CU Website
Cardiff Metropolitan University
University of Glamorgan – CU Website
University of Wales, Newport
Swansea University – CU Website
References
Christian student societies in the United Kingdom
Christian Unions in Great Britain
Christian
United Kingdom education-related lists
Christian Unions |
5395070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20Ahmad%20Muhammad%20Al%20Rahizi | Ali Ahmad Muhammad Al Rahizi | Ali Ahmad Muhammad Al Rahizi is a citizen of Yemen who was held in extrajudicial detention in the United States Guantanamo Bay detainment camps, in Cuba.
His Guantanamo Internment Serial Number is 45.
Joint Task Force Guantanamo counter-terrorism analysts reports he was born on October 13, 1979, in Taiz, Yemen.
He was one of the first twenty Guantanamo captives, sent there on January 11, 2002, and called "the worst of the worst".
Guantanamo analysts characterized him as one of the "Dirty Thirty".
In 2009, he was classified as a "forever prisoner"—an individual for whom there was no evidence they had committed a war crime, who, nevertheless, was considered too dangerous to release.
A Periodic Review Board hearing, in April 2014, reversed this determination. He was transferred to the United Arab Emirates on November 16, 2015, with four other Yemenis.
Official status reviews
Originally the Bush Presidency asserted that captives apprehended in the "war on terror" were not covered by the Geneva Conventions, and could be held indefinitely, without charge, and without an open and transparent review of the justifications for their detention.
In 2004, the United States Supreme Court ruled, in Rasul v. Bush, that Guantanamo captives were entitled to being informed of the allegations justifying their detention, and were entitled to try to refute them.
Office for the Administrative Review of Detained Enemy Combatants
Following the Supreme Court's ruling the Department of Defense set up the Office for the Administrative Review of Detained Enemy Combatants.
Scholars at the Brookings Institution, led by Benjamin Wittes, listed the captives still
held in Guantanamo in December 2008, according to whether their detention was justified by certain
common allegations:
Ali Ahmad Muhammad Al Rahizi was listed as one of the captives who "The military alleges ... are members of Al Qaeda."
Ali Ahmad Muhammad Al Rahizi was listed as one of the captives who "The military alleges that the following detainees stayed in Al Qaeda, Taliban or other guest- or safehouses."
Ali Ahmad Muhammad Al Rahizi was listed as one of the captives who "The military alleges ... took military or terrorist training in Afghanistan."
Ali Ahmad Muhammad Al Rahizi was listed as one of the captives who "The military alleges that the following detainees were captured under circumstances that strongly suggest belligerency."
Ali Ahmad Muhammad Al Rahizi was listed as one of the captives who "The military alleges ... served on Osama Bin Laden’s security detail."
Ali Ahmad Muhammad Al Rahizi was listed as one of the captives who was an "al Qaeda operative".
Ali Ahmad Muhammad Al Rahizi was listed as one of the "82 detainees made no statement to CSRT or ARB tribunals or made statements that do not bear materially on the military’s allegations against them."
habeas corpus
A writ of habeas corpus, Ali Ahmed Mohammed Al Rezehi v. George W. Bush, was submitted on
Ali Ahmed Mohammed Al Rezehi's behalf.
In response, on October 14, 2004, the Department of Defense released 26
pages of unclassified documents related to his Combatant Status Review Tribunal.
Mentioned in the "No-hearing hearings" study
According to the study entitled, No-hearing hearings, there was an anomaly in Al Rahizi's record.
Al Rahizi's Personal Representative met with him for twenty minutes on September 23, 2004.
Al Rahizi's Tribunal convened on September 28, 2004, without Al Rahizi being present.
The study quoted from the Summary of the Basis for Tribunal Decision:
The study then commented:
Formerly secret Joint Task Force Guantanamo assessment
On April 25, 2011, whistleblower organization WikiLeaks published formerly secret assessments drafted by Joint Task Force Guantanamo analysts.
His Joint Task Force Guantanamo assessment was nine pages long, and was drafted on June 20, 2008. It was signed by camp commandant Rear Admiral David M. Thomas Jr.
He recommended continued detention.
Transfer
Guantanamo analysts characterized him as one of the "Dirty Thirty".
In 2009, he was classified as a "forever prisoner" as an individual for whom there was no evidence he had committed a war crime but still was considered too dangerous to release.
A Periodic Review Board hearing, held in April 2014, reversed this determination. He was transferred to the United Arab Emirates on November 16, 2015, along with four other Yemenis.
References
Living people
Yemeni extrajudicial prisoners of the United States
Detainees of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp
Kandahar detention facility detainees
People from Taiz
1979 births |
5395073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratz%3A%20Forever%20Diamondz | Bratz: Forever Diamondz | Bratz: Forever Diamondz may refer to:
Bratz: Forever Diamondz (film)
Bratz: Forever Diamondz Soundtrack
Bratz: Forever Diamondz (video game) |
5395085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Chenla%20II | Operation Chenla II | Operation Chenla II or Chenla Two was a major military operation conducted by the Khmer National Armed Forces (FANK) during the Cambodian Civil War from 20 August until 3 December 1971.
Background
During the days of Prince Norodom Sihanouk's rule in Cambodia in the 1960s, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and their Viet Cong (VC) allies were able to use base areas in Cambodian territory in order to provide logistical support for their combat troops within South Vietnam. Following the March 1970 coup led by the pro-U.S. General Lon Nol, the PAVN aggressively expanded their control over the provinces of northeastern Cambodia, coming dangerously close to the capital Phnom Penh.
Initially, the small, largely untrained and poorly-equipped FANK was not up to the challenge, especially against the larger and more experienced PAVN/VC forces. However, by the summer of 1971, and with massive American and South Vietnamese assistance, the FANK grew into a force of more than one-hundred thousand men.
During the period between September 1970 and June 1971, the FANK won its first victories after they successfully dislodged elements of the PAVN 9th Division along Route 13 and in some parts of the Mekong Delta.
By April 1971, Marshal Lon Nol decided to renew the offensive against the PAVN/VC forces, taking advantage of the high morale among the FANK troops following the partial success of Operation Chenla I. For the FANK everything was at stake, as many reserves and prestige were invested in the operation. The FANK High Command's main objective was to reopen all of Route 6 and to secure the road between Kampong Cham and the isolated garrison at Kampong Thom. A FANK task-force of ten infantry battalions – again including a large percentage of Khmer Krom troops – gathered into three brigade groups supported by armour and artillery was assembled for the operation, which relied heavily on U.S. air support to soften an estimated two PAVN divisions in the region.
Operation
Operation Chenla II was launched on 20 August 1971, again catching the PAVN/VC by surprise. Initially, the FANK task-force commanded by Brigadier-General Hou Hang Sin achieved their objective, as the FANK were able to retake Barai on 26 August and Kompong Thmar on 1 September. But as FANK formations were advancing towards PAVN/VC-held territory along Route 6, they were heavily exposed to attacks without adequate protection from their flanks. There was heavy fighting as the FANK 5th Brigade Group advanced towards Phnom Santuk while Tang Krasang was retaken on 20 September. On 5 October, three FANK brigades were committed to capture the areas around Phnom Santuk. The fighting there grew in intensity as the Cambodians and the PAVN engaged in heavy hand-to-hand combat. Phnom Santuk was eventually retaken, and the first phase of Chenla II was declared officially concluded on 25 October, although real military success had not yet been secured.
Victory celebrations had hardly started at Phnom Penh when on the night of 26 October, barely hours upon the conclusion of the consolidation efforts of the second phase of the operation, the PAVN 9th Division, reinforced by the VC 205th and 207th Regional Regiments, launched an all-out assault on the Cambodian positions located along Route 6 from the Chamkar Andong rubber plantation. At the same time, the FANK 14th Battalion at Rumlong was encircled and isolated. During the following days, the 118th, 211th and 377th Battalions were forced to retreat to Tang Kauk, while the 61st Infantry Brigade pulled back to Treal, held by the 22nd Battalion.
The FANK launched an unsuccessful counter-attack on 27 October, and the Cambodian corridor along Route 6 was crushed by PAVN/VC troops after weeks of heavy fighting. Elements of the PAVN 9th Division then launched a final attack which ripped apart several FANK and Khmer Krom battalions, causing the disorganized Cambodian troops to abandon several key positions on 1 December. The operation was terminated two days later.
Aftermath
For the PAVN/VC forces the battle ended with a decisive victory, as they were able to secure their strongholds in northeastern Cambodia without having to expand their control inside Cambodian territory. On 8 December 1971, North Vietnamese propaganda boasted that "By October, that is, in two months, the operation was stalemated and 4,500 enemy troops were annihilated and hundreds more captured. The 2nd and 43d Brigades were badly battered. Ten battalions and seven companies of infantry and a tank company were mauled, 39 combat vessels were sunk or set afire, nine aircraft were downed and seven 105mm artillery pieces, many vehicles and large quantities of military equipment were destroyed".2 The official PAVN history claims that 10,000 enemy troops were killed or dispersed and 4,700 weapons captured.
Indeed, the final attack on FANK positions during the month of December virtually wiped out ten infantry battalions (including the sacrifice of the best Khmer Krom battalions) and resulted in the loss of another ten battalions-worth of equipment, which included two howitzers, four tanks, five armoured personnel carriers, one scout car, ten jeeps, and about two dozen other vehicles. Militarily and psychologically, the damage suffered during Operation Chenla II was a big one from which the Cambodians would never recover. From then on, the Republican government focused on consolidating its hold over the key urban centers, the main garrisons and the lower Mekong-Bassac river corridors, thus leaving most of the countryside virtually open to Khmer Rouge recruiting drives.
See also
Battle of Kampot
Cambodian Civil War
Khmer National Armed Forces
Khmer Rouge
Weapons of the Cambodian Civil War
References
Bibliography
John S. Bowman, The Vietnam War, Day by Day, Mallard Books, New York 1989.
Sak Sutsakhan, The Khmer Republic at War and the Final Collapse, U.S. Army Center of Military History, Washington D.C. 1980. – available online at Part 1Part 2Part 3 Part 4.
Royal College Of Defence Studies 1975 Course – The War in Cambodia Its Causes And Military Development And The Political History Of The Khmer Republic 1970 – 1975.
External links
1-FANK Order of the Day, 5 October 1971
2-Quan Doi Nhan Dan On Blows to Nixon's Khmerization Scheme
Chenla II
Chenla II
1971 in Cambodia
Chenla II
Military history of Cambodia
Chenla II
Chenla II |
5395098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supposition%20theory | Supposition theory | Supposition theory was a branch of medieval logic that was probably aimed at giving accounts of issues similar to modern accounts of reference, plurality, tense, and modality, within an Aristotelian context. Philosophers such as John Buridan, William of Ockham, William of Sherwood, Walter Burley, Albert of Saxony, and Peter of Spain were its principal developers. By the 14th century it seems to have drifted into at least two fairly distinct theories, the theory of "supposition proper", which included an "ampliation" and is much like a theory of reference, and the theory of "modes of supposition" whose intended function is not clear.
Supposition proper
Supposition was a semantic relation between a term and what that term was being used to talk about. So, for example, in the suggestion Drink another cup, the term cup is suppositing for the wine contained in the cup.
The logical suppositum of a term was the object the term referred to. (In grammar, suppositum was used in a different way). However, supposition was a different semantic relationship from signification. Signification was a conventional relationship between utterances and objects mediated by the particularities of a language. Poculum signifies in Latin what cup signifies in English. Signification is the imposition of a meaning on an utterance, but supposition is taking a meaningful term as standing in for something. According to Peter of Spain "Hence signification is prior to supposition. Neither do they belong to the same thing. For to signify belongs to an utterance, but to supposit belongs to a term already, as it were, put together out of an utterance and a signification." An easy way to see the difference is in our drink another cup example. Here cup as an utterance signifies a cup as an object, but cup as a term of the language English is being used to supposit for the wine contained in the cup.
Medieval logicians divided supposition into many different kinds; the jargons for the different kinds, their relations and what they all mean get complex, and differ greatly from logician to logician. Paul Spade's webpage has a series of helpful diagrams here. The most important division is probably between material, simple, personal, and improper supposition. A term supposits materially when it is used to stand in for an utterance or inscription, rather than for what it signifies. When I say Cup is a monosyllabic word, I am using the word cup to supposit materially for the utterance cup rather than for a piece of pottery. Material supposition is a medieval way of doing the work we would do today by using quotation marks. According to Ockham (Summa of Logic I64, 8) "Simple supposition occurs when a term supposits for an intention of the soul, but is not take significatively." The idea is that simple supposition happens when the term is standing in for a human concept rather than for the object itself. If I say Cups are an important type of pottery the term cups is not standing in for any particular cup, but for the idea of a cup in the human mind (according to Ockham, and many medieval logicians, but not according to John Buridan). Personal supposition in contrast is when the term supposits for what it signifies. If I say Pass me the cup the term cup is standing in for the object that is called a cup in English, so it is in personal supposition. A term is in improper supposition if it is suppositing for an object, but a different object than it signifies, as in my example Drink another cup.
Modes of supposition
Personal supposition was further divided in types such as discrete, determinate, merely confused, and confused and distributive. In 1966 T.K. Scott proposed giving a separate name for Medieval discussions of the subvarieties of personal supposition, because he thought it was a fairly distinct issue from the other varieties of supposition. He proposed calling the subvarieties of personal supposition a theory of "modes of supposition."
The Medieval logicians give elaborate sets of syntactical rules for determining when a term supposits discretely, determinately, confusedly, or confusedly and distributively. So for example the subject of a negative claim, or indefinite one supposits determinately, but the subject of a singular claim supposits discretely, while the subject of an affirmative claim supposits confusedly and determinately. Albert of Saxony gives 15 rules for determining which type of personal supposition a term is using. Further the medieval logicians did not seem to dispute about the details of the syntactic rules for determining type of personal supposition. These rules seem to be important because they were linked to theories of descent to particulars and ascent from particulars.
When I say I want to buy a cup I've made an indefinite affirmative claim, with cup as the predicate term. Further cup is a common term, including many particular cups within it. So if I "descend to particulars" I can re-phrase my claim as I want to buy this cup or I want to buy that cup, or I want to buy that other cup - and so on for all cups. If I had an infinite disjunction of all particular cups, it could stand in for the term cup, in its simple supposition in I want to buy a cup. This is called determinate supposition. That is when I say I want to buy a cup I mean some determinate cup, but I don't necessarily know which one yet. Likewise if I say Some cup isn't a table, I could substitute This cup isn't a table, or that cup isn't a table or ...
On the other hand, if I say No cup is a table, I don't mean This cup isn't a table or that one isn't a table or ... I mean This cup isn't a table, AND that cup isn't a table, AND that other cup isn't a table, AND .... Here I am referring not to a determinate particular cup, but to all cups "fused" together, that is all cups "confusedly." This is called confused and distributive supposition.
If I say This cup is made of gold I cannot descend to a disjunction of particulars, or to a conjunction of particulars, but only because this cup is already a particular. This kind of personal supposition is called discrete supposition.
However, the predicate of a universal affirmative claim won't really fit any of these models. All coffee cups are cups does not imply All coffee cups are this cup, or all coffee cups are that cup, or ..., but still less does it imply All coffee cups are this cup, and all coffee cups are that cup, and .... On the other hand, if it happened to be the case that there was only one coffee cup left in the world, it would be true that All coffee cups are that cup, so I can validly infer from All coffee cups are that cup, to All coffee cups are cups. Here descent to disjunction fails, and descent to conjunction fails, but "ascent from particulars" is valid. This is called "merely confused supposition."
That is basically how the theory works, a much thornier problem is exactly what the theory is for. Some commentators, like Michael Loux, have suggested that the theory of ascent and descent to particulars is intended to provide truth conditions for the quantifiers. T. K. Scott has suggested that the theory of supposition proper was designed to answer the question What kind of thing are you talking about? but the theory of personal supposition was aimed at answering the question How many of them are you talking about? Paul Spade has suggested that by the 14th century the theory of modes of personal supposition wasn't aimed at anything at all anymore.
Ampliation
When I say No cups are made of lead, cups supposits for all the cups that exist. But if I say Some cups were made of lead in Roman times, cups cannot just be suppositing for all the cups that exist, but for cups in the past as well. Here I am expanding the normal supposition of the terms I use. Peter of Spain says "Ampliation is the extension of a common term from a lesser supposition to a greater one." In practice, if I speak of the past, or the future, or make a modal claim, the terms I use get ampliated to supposit for past things, future things, or possible things, rather than their usual supposition for present actual things. Thus, ampliation becomes the medieval theory for explaining modal and tense logics within the theory of supposition.
References
Bos, E.P. (ed. 2013), Medieval Supposition Theory Revisited. Studies in Memory of L. M. de Rijk, Brill: Leiden.
De Rijk, Lambertus M. (1967). Logica Modernorum. Assen: Van Gorcum.
Dutilh Novaes, C. (2007), Formalizing Medieval Logical Theories. Suppositio, Consequentiae and Obligationes. New York: Springer.
Dutilh Novaes, C. (2011), Supposition Theory in H. Lagerlund (ed.) Encyclopedia of Medieval Philosophy, Dordrecht: Springer, 2011, pp. 1229-1236.
Kneale, William & Martha Kneale (1962). Development of Logic. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Kretzmann, Norman, Anthony Kenny & Jan Pinborg (1982). Cambridge History of Later Medieval Philosophy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McGrade, A.S. (editor), (2003). The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy, Cambridge University Press. .
Terence Parsons (2014). Articulating medieval Logic, New York: oxford University Press.
External links
Paul Vincent Spade. Mediaeval Logic and Philosophy
Paul Vincent Spade. Thoughts, Words, and Things. An Introduction to Late Medieval Logic and Semantic Theory (PDF)
Raul Corazzon. Annotated Bibliography on the Medieval Theories of Supposition and Mental Language
Theories of language
Medieval philosophy
History of logic |
4000763 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20High%20School%20%28Denver%2C%20Colorado%29 | East High School (Denver, Colorado) | East High School is a historical public high school located in the City Park neighborhood on the east side of Denver, Colorado, United States. It is part of the Denver Public Schools system, and is one of four original high schools in Denver. The other three are West, North, and South.
History
East High opened in 1875 and was the first high school in Denver. The first graduating class was in 1877. In 1889, it moved to 19th and Stout Street because of the need for more room. This location is now referred to as "Old East," and could accommodate 700 students.
The architect for the current facility was Denver native George H. Williamson, himself an 1893 graduate of "Old East" High. Williamson won national recognition for his design of the "new" East, which has a high clock tower modeled after Independence Hall in Philadelphia.
In early 1991, the East High building was declared an official Denver Historic Landmark by the Denver Landmark Commission and the Denver City Council.
In July 2005, a music video for the song "Over My Head (Cable Car)", by The Fray was filmed in East High.
East High has been repeatedly honored as one of America's top high schools. It was honored in 1957 as one of the country's top high schools and subsequently selected in 1968 as one of America's Top Ten Schools. In 2000 Newsweek recognized East as one of America's top hundred public high schools. In 2008, Newsweek again recognized East in its annual list of the country's "Top High Schools". It is ranked 23rd out of Colorado high schools and 974th nationally by U.S. News "Best High Schools".
Demographics
As of the 2020–2021 school year, East High School has a total enrollment of 2,579 students in grades nine through twelve.
White: 52.3%
Hispanic/Latino: 21.5%
African American/Black: 16.2%
Multiple Races: 6.6%
Asian & Pacific Islander: 2.9%
American Indian: <1%
Athletics
East High is ranked 4th in the State of Colorado for greatest amount of State Championships with the Angels holding 71 total state championships; 64 in boys teams and 7 in girls teams. Additionally, teams representing Denver East outside of the Colorado High School Activities Association (CHSAA) as club teams have accumulated 11 combined state championships bringing the high school's count to 82 1st-place finishes since the early 1900s.
In 2007, the boys' basketball team was named the top-ranked team in the state by RISE Magazine and Sports Illustrated, and finished the season with another 5A state championship win, topping a season with a 22–3 record.
Academics and activities
Constitutional Law
Constitutional Law, or "Con-Law" as most Angels refer to it, is a large part of the academic extracurricular setting at East. The team, usually composed of 11th and 12th graders, has continuously traveled to Washington D.C. to compete in the Center for Civic Education's national "We the People: The Citizens and the Constitution" competition. This competition involves on average 54 other teams who have qualified by winning their state's competition and totals to around 300 students. The team has won 5 national titles with the most recent being in April 2019. Other national titles include 2009, 2008, 2007, and 1992.
Model United Nations
Model United Nations has been an active club at Denver East since the early 1980s. In recent years they have traveled to many conferences ranging from ones in Colorado, to ones at the national and international level. In February 2019, the team took 11 students to Birkerød, Denmark to compete against 400 other students, returning two 1st place or Best Delegate international recognitions. As well in 2019 East's Model U.N. team hosted a conference at Denver East High School that brought in over 200 competitors from 29 schools. In 2020, East traveled to Mexico City, Mexico for their 2nd international competition fielding 13 students and returning 5 international recognitions.
Notable alumni
Norman R. Augustine, aerospace businessman; Under Secretary of the Army 1975–77; currently serves as chairman of the Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee
Philip Bailey, member of Earth, Wind & Fire; inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
Jean Knight Bain, state legislator
R. Stephen Berry, chemistry professor
J. B. Bickerstaff, basketball head coach of the Cleveland Cavaliers
Jerome Biffle, track and field gold medalist at the 1952 Olympics
Joan Birkland, Colorado state women's amateur golf and tennis champion
Ward Bond, film actor
Joe Barry Carroll, NBA All-star
Neal Cassady (attended for a short time), Beat generation icon; model for character Dean Moriarty in Jack Kerouac's novel On the Road, played a prominent role in the counter-culture of 1960s
Herrick Chapman, associate professor of History and French Studies, New York University (1992–present)
Don Cheadle, actor
Dan Cohn-Sherbok, Professor Emeritus of Judaism, University of Wales
Judy Collins, folk and standards singer and songwriter
Harlon L. Dalton, professor of law, Yale Law School
Larry Dunn, member of Earth, Wind & Fire; inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
Bruce Egloff, former MLB player (Cleveland Indians)
Barry Lersch, former MLB pitcher (Philadelphia Phillies) and (St Louis Cardinals)
Mamie Eisenhower, wife of President Dwight D. Eisenhower; First Lady of the United States from 1953 to 1961
Douglas Fairbanks, was expelled from East High School; went on to become one of the most famous silent movie stars of all time
Edwina Hume Fallis, educator, writer, and toy designer
Bryan Fogel, playwright and author
Bill Frisell, jazz guitarist
Miriam Goldberg, newspaper publisher and editor
Pam Grier, actress
Peter Groff, first African-American President Pro Tem of the Colorado Senate
Regis Groff, East history teacher, 20-year member of the Colorado Senate
General Irving Hale, Spanish–American War veteran
Ronnie Harrell (born 1996), basketball player for Hapoel Gilboa Galil of the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Christopher A. Hart, Chairman of the National Transportation Safety Board
General Robert T. Herres, first Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Daniel Walker Howe, Pulitzer Prize for History; Rhodes Professor of American History Emeritus at Oxford University in England; Professor of History Emeritus at the University of California, Los Angeles
Cobe Jones, former MLB player (Pittsburgh Pirates)
Jamie Laurie (aka Jonny 5), singer/songwriter for The Flobots
Harold Lloyd, silent film actor
Hattie McDaniel, actress; first African American to win an Academy Award, for her performance in Gone with the Wind
Stephen L.R. McNichols, Colorado governor (1957–1963)
Ron Miles, jazz trumpeter, cornetist and composer
T. J. Miller, comedian and actor, known for his role in the show Silicon Valley and the 2014 film Big Hero 6
Yvie Oddly, winner of the eleventh season of RuPaul's Drag Race
David Oliver, professional track athlete
Antoinette Perry, stage actress; namesake of the Tony Awards
Dianne Reeves, jazz vocalist (graduated from George Washington HS in Denver)
Reese Roper, singer/songwriter for Five Iron Frenzy
Brandon Shaffer, President of the Colorado Senate
Sidney Sheldon, Academy Award-winning writer; created The Patty Duke Show (1963–66), I Dream of Jeannie (1965–70) and Hart to Hart (1979–84); best-selling novels include Master of the Game (1982), The Other Side of Midnight (1973) and Rage of Angels (1980); the seventh best selling fiction writer of all time
George Gaylord Simpson, paleontologist and evolutionary biologist
Maurice Rose, Major general in the United States Army during World War II and a World War I veteran. General Rose was at the time the highest ranking Jew in the U.S. Army. Rose Medical Center in Denver, Colorado, was named in his honor.
Robert F. Smith, businessman, investor, and philanthropist.
Jack Swigert, NASA astronaut and member of the Apollo 13 mission
Donnette Thayer, songwriter, singer
Edward D. White Jr., architect based in Denver, whose forty-year practice (1955–1995) focused on contemporary architecture and historic preservation
Paul Whiteman, jazz composer and bandleader
Stan Williams, former MLB player (Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Yankees, Cleveland Indians, Minnesota Twins, St. Louis Cardinals, Boston Red Sox)
Andrew Woolfolk, member of Earth, Wind & Fire; inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
Bernard Wrightson, Olympic springboard diving gold medalist
Jean Yancey, women's small business consultant and motivational speaker, inducted into Alumni Heritage Hall
References
High schools in Denver
Educational institutions established in 1875
National Register of Historic Places in Denver
Clock towers in the United States
Public high schools in Colorado
School buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Colorado
1875 establishments in Colorado Territory |
4000765 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Walsh%20%28sports%20broadcaster%29 | Peter Walsh (sports broadcaster) | Peter Walsh is a sports commentator for ABC Radio Grandstand and is based in Adelaide, Australia.
Early life/career
Peter grew up in Ballarat, Victoria and had a passion for sport from a very early age.
His first media job was working in radio at Ballarat station 3BA, where he covered junior football and was then given the chance to write for the Ballarat Courier newspaper.
He is well known for his love of the Hawthorn Football Club and has hosted/MC'ed the past three Best and Fairest counts for the club.
Sport coverage
He covered sport in Ballarat and Bendigo for five years, before being approached by the ABC to cover VFL football in Melbourne and called his first match during the season of 1978 Fitzroy v South Melbourne at the Junction Oval.
In 1981, he secured a spot on the football broadcast team at 3GL (now K Rock) and called football with the great Ted Whitten and was a member of the 3GL team for three years of "bliss" as Peter describes it.
He moved to Tasmania in 1985 after the ABC appointed him to a permanent position where he called Tasmanian Football League matches on 7ZR as well as cricket and the now defunct Tassie Devils NBL basketball matches and has been based in Adelaide since late 1999.
Major events
Some of the major sporting events he has covered include:
1990 World Rowing Championships Tasmania, 1990 Commonwealth Games Auckland, 1992 Summer Olympics Barcelona, 1994 Cricket tour of Pakistan, 1996 Olympic Games Atlanta, 1998 Commonwealth Games Kuala Lumpur, 1999 Cricket tour of Zimbabwe, 2000 Olympic Games Sydney, 2000 Paralympic Games Sydney, 2002 Commonwealth Games Manchester, 2004 Olympic Games Greece.
This also includes countless Australian rules football matches at VFL and AFL level, as well as calling international and state cricket.
Today
Walsh has hosted the National Grandstand program on ABC Local Radio and shares this role during the summer, with Sydney-based ABC sports broadcaster Tracey Holmes. Walsh formally hosted alongside Simone Thurtell, although she now works for 1233 ABC Newcastle as a Drive presenter.
He is also known for his "loud shirts" and can often been seen chasing international cricketers around the Adelaide Oval during Test cricket matches offering them an opportunity to photographed wearing one of the shirts.
Walsh also commentates on National Basketball League home matches for the Adelaide 36ers. He is known for his rowdy and excitable style of commentary akin to the manner of a boxing announcer, particularly after a player has made a flamboyant or attacking action.
References
Australian rules football commentators
People from Ballarat
Australian radio personalities
Living people
Tasmanian Football Hall of Fame inductees
Year of birth missing (living people) |
4000767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bickley%2C%20Western%20Australia | Bickley, Western Australia | Bickley is a suburb located within the City of Kalamunda, in Perth, Western Australia.
It is situated on the Darling Scarp and is known for the brook of the same name.
Before 1949 it was a stopping place on the Upper Darling Range Railway. It was originally known as "Heidelburg" or "Heidelberg", but during World War I, Western Australian Government Railways and Tramways renamed it "Bickley" after a local pioneer Wallace Bickley.
It has been the site of holiday and other sorts of camps.
The Seven Network and Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Perth television transmission towers have been located there since the founding of television in Perth in 1959.
Perth Observatory, originally situated in West Perth is also currently located in Bickley.
It is also one of the major meteorological stations within the Perth Metropolitan Area due to its length of time of operation and location on the Darling Scarp.
It is also the location of water reservoirs.
Climate
Bickley has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa), like the rest of Perth. Bickley has one of the highest average annual rainfalls for the Perth metropolitan region, and it experiences cooler nights than the rest of Perth, meaning that Bickley has a microclimate.
See also
Australian place names changed from German names
References
External links
Suburbs in the City of Kalamunda |
5395117 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sternotherus | Sternotherus | Sternotherus is a genus of turtles in the family Kinosternidae including six species commonly known as musk turtles. The genus is endemic to North America, occurring in the eastern third of the USA and southeast Ontario, Canada. Musk glands positioned near the bridge of the shell can produce foul smelling secretions when the turtles are threatened, although genital handling does not normally provoke a response. Sternotherus are moderately small turtles, with the largest species in the genus, the razor-backed musk turtle (S. carinatus), attaining a maximum of 17.6 cm. in shell length. The carapace is characteristically oval and domed (an exception being the flattened musk turtle, S. depressus), with most species having one or three keels on the back which may become smoother and obscure with age in some species. Musk turtles are generally drab in color, mostly black, gray, brown, olive, or ocher, which aid in camouflaging them in their natural habitats. The head is relatively large and stout, marked with spots, streaks, or strips. The plastron has only 10 or 11 scutes, as opposed to 12, a more common condition in North American turtles. The tail is short, with males having a horny claw like tip.
Sternotherus are largely aquatic, however some species frequently bask on fallen logs or rocks emerging from the water, and eastern musk turtles (S. odoratus) occasionally leave the water to forage. Sternotherus are omnivorous and opportunistic generalist in their diet, although inclining toward being carnivorous, with mollusks (gastropods and bivalves) and insects making up a significant percentage of their diet. Some older adults develop large musculature on the head and expanded, crushing jaw surfaces aiding in the consumption of mollusk. Musk turtles are oviparous with females producing one to six clutches a year. The typical clutch size is two to four eggs, although clutches may range from one to 13. The sex of the hatchlings is determined by the incubation temperature. The eggs are deposited in shallow nest excavated on the banks or in woodlands a few meters from the water. Eggs may be laid singly, or in groups, and some species are known to share communal nesting areas.
Etymology
The generic name Sternotherus is Greek meaning hinged breast or chest, referring to the hinged plastron. The trivial names, or specific epithets include: carinatus – Latin for keeled in reference to the shape of the carapace; depressus – Latin for pressed down or low also referring to the shape of the carapace; intermedius – Latin for intermediate, historically believed to be a hybrid from between S. minor and S. peltifer; minor – Latin referencing its relatively small size compared to S. carinatus; odoratus – Latin for having an odor, referring the smell of the musk produced by its scent glands; peltifer – Latin meaning bearing a small shield, in reference to the small size of the scutes on the bridge the species.
Taxonomy
Sternotherus is one of four genera in the family Kinosternidae including: narrow-bridged musk turtles (Claudius), American mud turtles (Kinosternon), giant musk turtles (Staurotypus), and musk turtles (Sternotherus). Sternotherus are closely related, similar in appearance, and sympatric in much of their range with some species of mud turtles (Kinosternon), and the two genera constitute the subfamily Kinosterninae within the family Kinosternidae. In the past some taxonomist placed Sternotherus in the synonymy of the genus Kinosternon but they are generally regarded as two separate genera with six species currently (2022) recognized in the genus Sternotherus.
Genus
Sternotherus – musk turtles
Extant species
Sternotherus carinatus – razor-backed musk turtle
Sternotherus depressus – flattened musk turtle
Sternotherus intermedius – intermediate musk turtle
Sternotherus minor – loggerhead musk turtle
Sternotherus odoratus – eastern musk turtle
Sternotherus peltifer – stripeneck musk turtle
Fossil species
†Sternotherus palaeodorus
Nota bene: A binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than Sternotherus.
Description
Turtles in the genus Sternotherus are very similar to the American mud turtles in the genus Kinosternon, but tend to have a more domed carapace, with a distinctive keel down the center of it. Sternotherus odoratus typically grows to only in straight carapace length at full maturity, with females often being larger than males.
Distribution
The genus Sternotherus is endemic to North America. It occurs in the approximant eastern third of the USA and extreme southeast Ontario, Canada. The eastern musk turtle (S. odoratus), the most wide-ranging species of the genus, occurs in southern Maine, south to Florida, west into eastern Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, and north to southeast Wisconsin, southern Michigan, and the Great Lakes region of southern Ontario. It is generally absent from higher elevations in the Appalachian Mountains.
The other species in the genus largely occur within the southern regions of the eastern musk turtle's range. Two species have relatively limited distributions, the flattened musk turtle (S. depressus) is endemic to north-central Alabama in the Black Warrior River basin above the fall line, and the intermediate musk turtle (S. intermedius) is found in southeastern Alabama and adjacent areas of the Florida panhandle in the Choctawhatchee, Conecuh, Yellow, Pea, Blackwater, and Escambia rivers. The razor-backed musk turtle (S. carinatus) occurs throughout Louisiana, and neighboring areas of Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The loggerhead musk turtle (S. minor) is found in extreme southeast Alabama, Georgia, and northern Florida. The stripe-necked musk turtle (S. peltifer) predominantly occurs in Alabama and Mississippi with some peripheral records from Georgia, and Louisiana, and ranging into northern watersheds in eastern Tennessee with marginal records from North Carolina, and Virginia.
Ecology and natural history
Diet: Sternotherus are omnivorous. The loggerhead (S. minor) and stripe-necked musk turtle (S. peltifer) have been described as opportunistic generalist tending toward carnivory. Mollusk make up a significant portion of the diet in all species, particularly adults. Juveniles and sub-adults (under 5 cm.) feed on a higher percentage of aquatic insects, algae, and carrion. An ontogenetic change in diet occurs and adults shift to an omnivorous diet with a high percentage of mollusk. Food items include mollusks (gastropods and bivalves), insects (including larva, adults, aquatic and terrestrial), crustaceans (crayfish and crabs), worms (earthworms and leeches), amphibians (tadpoles and small frogs), carrion, filamantous green algae, parts of vascular plants and seeds (e.g. Prunus, Sambucus, Ulmus, Podostemum). Some novel and less common documented food items include spiders, millipedes, small fish and fish eggs, isopods, and small turtles. The flattened musk turtle (S. depressus) is known to feed on introduced Asian clams (Corbicula maniliensis).
The razor-backed (S. carinatus) and eastern musk turtles (S. odoratus) are known to be bottom feeders, often searching with the neck extended and probing the mud and sand with their heads. Olfaction is probably important in the location and selection of food items. However, musk turtles occasionally feed at the surface and are also known to eat out of the water. Eastern musk turtles (S. odoratus) have occasionally been observed leaving the water at dusk to feed on slugs on land. Some larger adults develop hypertrophied head musculature and expanded crushing surfaces on both the upper and lower jaws that aid in eating mollusk. One study concluded razor-backed (S. carinatus) and eastern musk turtles (S. odoratus) were "euryphagous with food preferences directly related to the availability of food." Another study found the diet of the eastern musk turtle (S. odoratus) varied seasonally and males ate more insects and females more snails. Digestive turnover rates, from ingestion to defecation, of 49 hours (S. odoratus) to 57 hours (S. minor, S. peltifer) have been reported, although temperatures may influence these times.
Habitat:Sternotherus are largely aquatic, but some species bask frequently, and may occasionally leave the water to forage and lay eggs. Fallen logs and deadwood submerged and emerging from the water are important for shelter and basking sites for all species of Sternotherus. Habitat preferences varies among some species. The eastern musk turtle (S. odoratus) tends to be generalist and may occur in almost any body of water, as are loggerheads (S. minor) to a lesser extent, although water with slow or no currents, soft bottoms, and shelter in the form of logs and rocks are usually preferred over very deep water and swift currents. Eastern musk turtles have been found at depths of 9 meters but, shallower water (ca. 1 meter), are more typical. Brackish water is usually avoided. Depths of 0.5–1.5 meters are typical for loggerheads (S. minor), but they have been found at 13 meters. The razor-backed musk turtle (S. carinatus) favors the relatively deeper waters of rivers, creeks, bayous, and associated oxbow lakes, backwater swamps, and floodplains where slower currents and soft substrates are found. The stripe-necked musk turtle (S. peltifer) are lotic, preferring the currents of rivers and streams although they can be abundant in lakes and impoundments along these waterways as well. The flattened musk turtle (S. depressus) is an inhabitant of clear, rocky to sandy bottom creeks and streams above the fall line, typically 1.5 meters or less in depth, taking shelter under logs and rocks, or burring in the sand. The intermediate musk turtle (S. intermedius) was regarded as a hybrid between S m. minor and S. m. peltifer as recently as 2017, and few if any studies specifically examining the ecology of the species have been published (as of 2022).
In one ecological study of kinosternid turtles conducted over five years in Oklahoma, permanent bodies of lotic (moving) water in wooded areas such as large rivers and creeks were the favored habitats of both razor-backed (S. carinatus) and eastern musk turtles (S. odoratus), however, S. carinatus was generally found in deeper water. No sexual, age, or seasonal differences were observed in habitat selection other than juveniles preferred shallower water than adults. The two species were strictly aquatic and terrestrial migrations occurred only during the breeding season. When inactive, both specie hid under rocks, logs, and overhanging banks, but did not show the burrowing proclivities that Kinosternon did. Turtles were found in abundance in quiet waters where submerged and floating vegetation such as algae, Nasturtium, Polygonum, Myriophyllum, Najas, and Potamogeton formed in mats and provided food and suitable shelter. Light intensity, pH levels, and transparency of water were examined, although it was concluded they were probably not directly limiting factors for the turtles, but did affect the distribution of vegetation and prey which provided food for the turtles..
Behavior: Sternotherus is a highly aquatic genus. But some species, like the common musk turtle, are known to bask on fallen trees and coarse woody debris on shorelines. The thermal activity range and annual activity period was longer for Sternothaerus than Kinosternon
Gallery
References
Further reading
Bell T (1821). In: Gray JE (1821). "A Synopsis of the Genera of Reptiles and Amphibia, with a Description of some new Species". Annals of Philosophy, New Series [Second Series] 10: 193-217. (Sternotherus, new genus, p. 211).
Goin CJ, Goin OB, Zug GR (1978). Introduction to Herpetology, Third Edition. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company. xi + 378 pp. . (Genus Sternotherus, pp. 136, 263-264).
Smith HM, Brodie ED Jr (1982). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. . (Genus Sternotherus, p.28).
External links
Walker, Matt (2010). "Turtle 'super tongue' lets reptile survive underwater". BBC Earth News. 20 May 2010.
Taxa named by Thomas Bell (zoologist)
Turtle genera |
4000769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahid%20%28name%29 | Shahid (name) | Shahid or Shahed ( ) is a given name translating to "Witness" in Arabic and "Beloved" in Persian, mostly found in South Asia.
Shahid, or Shaheed (Arabic: شهيد šahīd, plural: شُهَدَاء šuhadāʾ; female: šahīda), originates from the Quranic Arabic word meaning "witness" and is also used to denote a martyr in Islam. The word shahid in Arabic means "witness".
It is derived form the same root š-h-d (c.f. Shahadah). It is also used as a surname, Aš-šāhid "the witness"
Shahid is a Muslim boy name and it is Arabic in origin with multiple meanings. The name is most famous in Asian countries like Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Afghanistan.
The related term Shahid ( ), "martyr", is used as A martyr who is slain in the cause of God's religion; one who is slain by unbelievers in the field of battle; one who is slain fighting in the cause of God's religion, so called because the angels of mercy are present with him; because the angels are present at the washing of his corpse, or at the removal of his soul to Paradise; or because God and his angels are witnesses for him of his title to a place in Paradise; or because he is one of those who shall be required to bear witness on the day of resurrection.
People named Shahid
Given name
Shahid Khaqan Abbasi (born 1958), politician and Prime Minister of Pakistan
Shahid Afridi (born 1980), Pakistani cricketer
Shahid Ahmed (born 1988), Pakistani footballer
Shahid Ahmed (cricketer) (born 1975), cricket player
Shahid Azmi (1977-2010), Indian lawyer and human rights activist
Shaheed Kader, Indian film director
Shahid Kapoor (born 1981), Bollywood actor
Shahid Khan (born 1952), Pakistani-American billionaire
Shaheed Latif (1913–1967), Indian film producer
Shahid Parvez Khan (born 1955), Indian sitar player
Shaied Nazir (born 1980), convicted of the racially motivated murder of Ross Parker
Shahid Mahmood (1939–2020), Pakistani cricketer
Stage name
Shahid (actor), Pakistani actor active from 1971 to 1998
Surname
Abdulla Shahid Maldivian MP
Imran Shahid, ringleader of gang responsible for the racially motivated murder of Kriss Donald in Scotland
Leila Shahid, Palestinian diplomat
Mohammed Shahid (born 14 April 1960), Indian field hockey player
Munib Shahid, Chairman of Hematology and Oncology at the Faculty of Medicine of the American University of Beirut
Serene Husseini Shahid; writer, promoter of Palestinian costumes.
Zeeshan Shahid, convicted of the racially motivated murder of Kriss Donald in Scotland
Legendary figures
Shahid ibn Jarr (Shehid ibn Jerr), the name for Seth in Yazidism
References
See also
Shahid (disambiguation)
Shahidi (surname)
All pages beginning with Shaheed
All pages beginning with Shahid
Arabic-language surnames
Arabic masculine given names
Masculine given names
Bengali Muslim surnames |
5395132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime%20composer | Anime composer | An anime composer is a composer who mainly composes music for anime productions.
There have been many anime composers over the years, and while anime soundtracks are big business in Japan, there have been few notable, long-term composers of anime music before the 2000s.
Notable figures
Joe Hisaishi, best known for his collaboration with Hayao Miyazaki beginning in the mid-1980s. Since most of Hisaishi's anime music has been for Miyazaki, his influence has been somewhat muted compared to later composers.
Shigeaki Saegusa, composer for Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam in 1985, was a classical composer who produced a symphonic score for this series, which went on to be extremely popular (one of the foundation successes of the Gundam franchise). While Saegusa produced only a little more anime music, his Zeta Gundam soundtrack is still considered a classic among otaku. For many of them, Saegusa and Hisaishi were the first to inspire the idea that anime music could be of very high quality.
Kenji Kawai was producing scores for series such as Blue Seed, Patlabor, and Ranma ½. While few of these scores were groundbreaking, they were almost all solid works of music. Kawai was arguably the first composer to produce a number of anime soundtracks and achieve at least a modicum of popularity within the otaku community while doing so.
Yoko Kanno garnered some interest with her soundtracks for Escaflowne and Macross Plus during the 1990s, but it was her soundtrack for Cowboy Bebop in 1998 that made her extremely popular among anime fans.
Hiroyuki Sawano known by his works in famous anime series like Attack on Titan or Aldnoah.Zero, his style is notable by having epic orchestra and vocal songs. He started composing in 2006 and still is composing in soundtracks or in his vocal project SawanoHiroyuki.
Yuki Kajiura is a composer known by her works in anime series such as Sword Art Online, Fate/Zero, Fate/stay night: Heaven's Feel, Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba, and Kara no Kyōkai. She is also known for forming the vocal group Kalafina.
Taku Iwasaki (the Rurouni Kenshin OVAs, Witch Hunter Robin, Read or Die TV, Soul Eater) and Yuki Kajiura (Noir, .hack//SIGN, Kara no Kyoukai) have both produced several well-respected soundtracks in the late 1990s and 2000s.
Toshio Masuda (composer), has composed music for anime such as UFO Baby (2000) and Naruto, both of which are popular shows.
Shinji Miyazaki is mainly known writing and arranging music for the anime Pokémon.
Michiru Oshima composed the score for Fullmetal Alchemist. Music for the second series, Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood, was written by the notable composer Akira Senju.
Shiro Sagisu is best known for his collaborations with Gainax. His career has spanned nearly three decades and he's composed for a variety of anime including Kimagure Orange Road, Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water, Neon Genesis Evangelion, and Bleach, as well as Attack on Titan (film)
Yoshihisa Hirano is the acclaimed composer for Death Note'''', Hunter x Hunter (2011), Ouran High School Host Club, Hajime no Ippo, and Midori Days.
Yutaka Yamada, another popular anime composer, known for the scores of Tokyo Ghoul, Vinland Saga, Great Pretender, and Babylon
Satoru Kosaki is another popular composer mainly known writing and arranging music for the anime Lucky Star and The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya.
Goro Omi is another popular composer mainly known writing and arranging science-fiction anime, which is his specialty due to his dark electronic music. He is also best known for the background music in both the Ginga: Nagareboshi Gin and Tonde Buurin TV shows.
Motoyoshi Iwasaki's music style is also dark electronic music, although he is best known for his music from the Hamtaro TV show.
Mark Mancina is more well known for composing background music outside of anime, as well as the music for the Blood+ TV show.
Kohei Tanaka, a prolific anime and video game composer, is famous for being the music composer for One Piece and 21-emon.
Takanori Arisawa, Udi Harpaz, and Amotz Plessner are other popular composers mainly known writing and arranging music for the anime Digimon.
Toshihiko Sahashi is another popular composer mainly known writing and arranging music for the anime Steel Angel Kurumi.
Kow Otani is the music composer for Shakugan no Shana, Blade of the Immortal, Outlaw Star and Deltora Quest.
Shunsuke Kikuchi is the music composer for the Doraemon, Dr. Slump and Arale-chan, Dragon Ball and Dragon Ball Z anime.
Shinkichi Mitsumune, because of his cinematic scoring and orchestration with big Hollywood sound, is the Yu-Gi-Oh! TV show's music composer.
Kevin Penkin, an Australian-born composer known for his scores for Made in Abyss, Rising of the Shield Hero, Tower of God, Eden, and an episode of Star Wars: Visions.
Tsutchie, composer for the new anime adaptation of Gangsta., also composed scores for Cowboy Bebop and Samurai Champloo.
Kan Sawada is another popular composer mainly known writing and arranging music for the anime Doraemon.
Miki Matsubara (1959-2004) was a singer and composer mostly known for her compositions for anime such as Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory |
4000780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta%20Dawn%20%28album%29 | Delta Dawn (album) | Delta Dawn is the debut studio album by American country music singer Tanya Tucker. It was released on September 11, 1972, by Columbia Records. The album was produced by Billy Sherrill and includes two top ten singles, "Delta Dawn" and "Love's the Answer".
Critical reception
The review published in the September 23, 1972 issue of Cashbox said, "We've already seen Tanya Tucker breeze up the country and pop singles charts with "Delta Dawn", establishing herself as country music's first thirteen-year-old superstar. Now this album will establish her versatility, a talent necessary for longevity, since even thirteen-year-olds grow up someday. Tanya Tucker won't always be a child star, but if this album is an indication, she'll always be a star." The review also noted "Soul Song", "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry", and "Love's the Answer" as the best cuts on the album.
Commercial performance
The album peaked at No. 32 on the US Billboard Hot Country LP's chart.
The album's first single, "Delta Dawn", was released in April 1972 and peaked at No. 6 on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and No. 72 on the US Billboard Hot 100. In Canada, the single peaked at No. 3 on the RPM Country Singles chart. The album's second single, "Love's the Answer", was released in October 1972 and peaked at No. 5 on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles chart with its B-side, "The Jamestown Ferry". In Canada, the single peaked at No. 1 on the RPM Country Singles chart.
Track listing
Personnel
Adapted from the album liner notes.
Lou Bradley – engineer
The Jordanaires – background vocals
The Nashville Edition – background vocals
Billy Sherrill – producer
Tanya Tucker – lead vocals
Charts
Album
Singles
Charted B-sides
Release history
References
1972 debut albums
Tanya Tucker albums
Albums produced by Billy Sherrill
Columbia Records albums |
4000784 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabhi%20Aisa%20Lagta%20Hai | Kabhi Aisa Lagta Hai | Kabhi Aisa Lagta Hai (, ) is the fourth solo album by Indian singer Lucky Ali. After delivering hits like "O Sanam", "Dekha Hai Aise Bhi", and "Tere Mere Saath", the soulful singer tried something different in its title track. Quite unlike his usual style, this album is more experimental with different styles.
'Jabse Mili Tumse' is a refreshing composition which talks about the innocence and confusion of falling in love.
The song "Teri Yaad Jab Aati Hai" is an assurance that love does not die
Track listing
Teri Yaad Jab Aati Hai तेरी याद जब आती है تیری یاد جب آتی ہے
Jabse Mili Tumse जबसे मिली तुमसे جبسے ملی تمسے
Tanhaai Mein Basi तन्हाई में बसी تنہائی میں بسی
Ek Pal Mein Hai एक पल में है ایک پل میں ہے
Ye Dil Deewana Haiये दिल दीवाना है یہ دل دیوانہ ہے
Kabhi Aisa Lagta Hai(Instrumental) कभी ऐसा लगता है کبھی ایسا لگتا ہے
Thappa Thappi Chhuppa Chhuppi थाप्पा थप्पी छुपा छुपी تھپا تھپی چھپا چھپی
See also
Lucky Ali discography
References
2004 albums
Lucky Ali albums |
4000793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%27s%20Your%20Mama%27s%20Name | What's Your Mama's Name | What's Your Mama's Name is the second studio album by American country music singer Tanya Tucker. It was released on May 21, 1973, by Columbia Records. The album was produced by Billy Sherrill and includes Tucker's first two number one country singles, "What's Your Mama's Name" and "Blood Red and Goin' Down". It was certified Gold by the RIAA in 1995 for sales of more than 500,000 copies.
Critical reception
The review published in the June 2, 1973 issue of Cashbox said, "Blood Red and Goin' Down" opens this album's B-side on a powerful note. Hot mouth harp sizzles under Tanya's dramatic delivery and then the LP takes off, rockin' and sockin' through a list of tunes that draw on rock, blues, gospel and always—back to unmistakable country. Billy Sherrill production is the icing on this cake and, of course, the Jordanaires and the Nashville Edition add oomph. Hours and hours of listening pleasure here."
Commercial performance
The album peaked at No. 4 on the US Billboard Hot Country LP's chart.
The album's first single, "What's Your Mama's Name", was released in March 1973 and peaked at No. 1 on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and No. 86 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The single also peaked at No. 1 in Canada on the RPM Country Singles chart. The second single, "Blood Red and Goin' Down", was released in August 1973 and peaked at No. 1 on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and No. 74 on the US Billboard Hot 100. It also peaked at No. 1 in Canada on the RPM Country Singles chart.
Track listing
Personnel
Lou Bradley – engineer
The Jordanaires – background vocals
Bill McElhiney – string arrangements
Cam Mullins – string arrangements
The Nashville Edition – background vocals
Billy Sherrill – producer
Tanya Tucker – lead vocals
Charts
Album
Singles
Certifications
References
1973 albums
Tanya Tucker albums
Albums produced by Billy Sherrill
Columbia Records albums |
4000795 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic%20Church%20in%20Denmark | Catholic Church in Denmark | The Catholic Church in Denmark is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope in Rome.
The number of Catholics in Denmark, a predominantly Lutheran country, comprises 1.3% of the population.
History
The Catholic Church has been present in the area that now constitutes the Kingdom of Denmark since Saint Ansgar in the 9th century initiated a Danish mission. However, the Lutheran Reformation in 1536 meant an end to Catholicism in Denmark for nearly a century and a half. In 1682, it was re-recognized by the Danish state, along with the Reformed Church and Judaism, although conversion to Catholicism from Lutheranism remained illegal. The constitution of 1849 provided for religious freedom and the Catholic Church was again allowed to spread in Denmark, but it has never grown to become more than a small minority.
On 22 January 2021, Cardinal Jean-Claude Hollerich denounced a proposed Danish law that would require translation of all sermons into the Danish language. Though Catholics believe that the proposed regulation is aimed primarily at Muslims, the Danish bishops have said that its passage will chill religious freedom for all, and place a burden on the church, which celebrates Mass in at least 9 languages nationwide.
Organizations
The highest office in the Catholic Church in Denmark has since 1995 been held by bishop Czeslaw Kozon, who participates in the Scandinavian Bishops Conference. Bishop Czeslaw Kozon resides in St. Ansgar's Cathedral, Copenhagen, which is dedicated to the
patron saint of Denmark.
The Diocese of Copenhagen covers the whole of the country, together with the Faroe Islands and Greenland, and as such is one of the largest Catholic dioceses by area in the world.
See also
Knud den Hellige (1043–1086) – Danish king and saint.
Niels Steensen (1638–1686) – a Dane beatified by Pope John Paul II.
References
External links
Statistics relating to the Catholic Church in Denmark
Den Katolske Kirke i Danmark
Traditional Catholic Rite in Denmark
Denmark |
5395147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ship%20launches%20in%201953 | List of ship launches in 1953 | The list of ship launches in 1953 includes a chronological list of ships launched in 1953. In cases where no official launching ceremony was held, the date built or completed may be used instead.
References
See also
1953
Ship launches
Ship launches
Ship launches |
5395164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond%20the%20Down%20Low | Beyond the Down Low | Beyond the Down Low: Sex, Lies and Denial in Black America is a 2005 nonfiction book by Keith Boykin.
This book of essays analyzes the validity of the down low phenomenon, first publicized by J. L. King in his book On the Down Low. It covers multiple discussions about gay sexuality, the African-American community, homophobia, and the spread of HIV.
Boykin distances himself from King's conclusions, accusing him of making a name for himself by spreading misinformation. He also stresses that not only African-American men who have sex with men are "on the down low". He names two Caucasians, Jim McGreevey and Ed Schrock, as examples of non-blacks technically "on the down low".
He pinpoints how an article in The New York Times stating that a large number of black, gay men has been twisted to suggest that there are many men on the down low purposely infecting heterosexual, African-American women. Finally, he argues that only when more African-American men and women are openly gay in the media spotlight, this will diminish homophobia in black communities or disprove that homosexuality is a predominantly white (or at least non-black) phenomenon.
See also
On the Down Low: A Journey into the Lives of Straight Black Men Who Sleep with Men
General:
African-American culture and sexual orientation
References
2005 non-fiction books
LGBT African-American culture
African-American literature
Non-fiction books about same-sex sexuality
LGBT literature in the United States
2000s LGBT literature |
5395184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianjin%20Olympic%20Center | Tianjin Olympic Center | The Tianjin Olympic Center (), often colloquially referred to as the Water Drop (), is a sports complex with a multi-use stadium in Tianjin, China. Construction started in August 2003 and was completed in August 2007. It is the home stadium of Tianjin TEDA.
The stadium hosted games for the 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup and Football preliminaries at the 2008 Summer Olympics. It also hosted the Athletics competitions at the 2017 National Games of China.
It covers 78,000 square meters and has a capacity of 54,696 seats. It as a length of , a width of , and a height of 53 meters. The stadium is nicknamed "The Water Drop" because the outside of the venue was designed to resemble a drop of water. The stadium cost nearly 1.5 billion Yuan. The architects were AXS Satow.
In 2011, the venue hosted a football match between Tianjin TEDA F.C. and the Spanish side Real Madrid.
The stadium houses sports facilities, exhibition halls, conference rooms and gyms. It also has the capacity for entertainment and shopping complexes. American singer and recording artist Mariah Carey performed The Elusive Chanteuse Show in the stadium on 17 October 2014 and thus making her as the only international artist to have visited Tianjin.
References
Beijing2008.cn profile
Football venues in Tianjin
Athletics (track and field) venues in China
2007 FIFA Women's World Cup stadiums
Venues of the 2008 Summer Olympics
Olympic football venues
Sports venues in Tianjin
Tianjin Tianhai F.C.
Sports venues completed in 2007 |
5395210 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagmar%20Hase | Dagmar Hase | Dagmar Hase (born 22 December 1969 in Quedlinburg, Saxony-Anhalt, East Germany) is a former German swimmer, specialised in the freestyle and backstroke. She won seven Olympic medals in her career, including a gold medal in the 400 m freestyle at the 1992 Summer Olympics.
Her defeat of American swimmer Janet Evans in the 400 metre freestyle at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics was Evans's only loss in a 400 or 800 metre freestyle between 1986 and 1994. She also defeated the greatest backstroker ever, Hungary's Krisztina Egerszegi, in her strongest event the 200 metre backstroke at the 1989 European Aquatics Championships. This was Egerszegi's only defeat in a 200-metre backstroke from 1987 to her retirement in 1996, and her only defeat in any backstroke event from 1989 to 1994. Hase was a highly versatile swimmer, having won at least 1 Olympic and numerous other major event medals in each of the 200 freestyle, 400 freestyle, 800 freestyle, and 200 backstroke.
See also
List of German records in swimming
References
External links
Official website
1969 births
Living people
East German female swimmers
German female swimmers
German female backstroke swimmers
German female freestyle swimmers
Olympic swimmers of Germany
Swimmers at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Swimmers at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for Germany
Olympic silver medalists for Germany
Olympic bronze medalists for Germany
Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
People from Quedlinburg
Olympic bronze medalists in swimming
World Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming
Medalists at the FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m)
European Aquatics Championships medalists in swimming
Olympic gold medalists in swimming
Olympic silver medalists in swimming
Sportspeople from Saxony-Anhalt |
5395213 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lochaber%20High%20School | Lochaber High School | Lochaber High School is a six-year comprehensive secondary school located in the town of Fort William, Lochaber, in the Highland region of Scotland.
The current Head Teacher is Scott Steele.
Associated primary schools
There are eleven primary schools in the area:
Banavie, Caol, Invergarry, Inverlochy, St Columba, Spean Bridge. Fort William primary and Upper Achintore primary were merged in August 2015 and, along with Fort William RC, form Lundavra Primary. A new Gaelic school was opened at Caol. The High School operates a Transition week in the middle of June.
NB Arisaig, Lady Lovat and Mallaig primaries are all situated in the Mallaig and Morar area and pupils attend Mallaig High School.
Duror, St Brides (Onich/North Ballachulish) and Kinlochleven primaries attend Kinlochleven High School.
Kilchoan, Acharacle, Strontian, Lochaline, and Ardgour primaries attend Ardnamurchan High School in Strontian.
History
Lochaber High School was founded in 1960. It also served the fishing communities near Mallaig prior to the opening of its high school. As the only high school in the area, it is affiliated with primary schools and takes in pupils from villages and settlements around Fort William. Lochaber High is owned and operated by The Highland Council.
In September 2001 pupils appeared as extras in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets for scenes on a train (GWR 4900 Class 5972 Olton Hall with six coaches from The Jacobite on the Glenfinnan Viaduct).
In May and June 2003 90 pupils were extras in the film Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, the third Harry Potter film, but any fees paid to them on a school day went into Lochaber High School's account. This was around £2,500 in total. Filming took place in Glencoe.
Notable former pupils
Danny Alexander - Lib Dem MP 2005-2015 for Inverness, Nairn, Badenoch and Strathspey and former Chief Secretary to the Treasury and Secretary of State for Scotland
Tom Ballard, mountaineer, first solo winter ascent of the six major alpine north faces in a single season
Kate Bracken - actress, guest appearances in Inspector George Gently, New Tricks and playing female lead, Alex, in BBC3's Being Human
John Finnie, Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for the Highlands and Islands region
Barry Hutchison - Award-winning author and screenwriter
Gary Innes - Musician and shinty player
Charles Kennedy - Lib Dem MP 2005-2015 for Ross, Skye and Lochaber, from 1997-2005 for Ross, Skye and Inverness West, and from 1983-97 for Ross, Cromarty and Skye (SDP from 1983-8), and Leader of the Liberal Democrats from 1999 to 2006
Carol Kirkwood, BBC weather presenter
John McGinlay, footballer
Hugh Dan MacLennan - broadcaster, author and sporting academic
Jason MacIntyre – racing cyclist
Fiona O'Donnell - former Labour MP for East Lothian
Donald Park - football coach and former player
Justin Ryan, TV presenter and interior designer
Duncan Shearer, footballer
Finlay Wild, hill runner and ski mountaineer
Katie Dougan, rugby player
References
External links
Lochaber High School
Lochaber High School's page on Scottish Schools Online
Secondary schools in Highland (council area)
Fort William, Highland
Scottish Gaelic-language secondary schools
1960 establishments in Scotland
Educational institutions established in 1960 |
5395215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan%20Waters | Morgan Waters | Morgan Waters (born August 25, 1981) is a Canadian actor, comedian and musician.
Waters was first seen on the CBC's children's program The X, which was canceled in 2003. Born in Victoria, British Columbia, Waters moved to Toronto, Ontario to host The Morgan Waters Show, which aired on CBC Television in 2006. Waters competed in the 2000 Much VJ search but lost to Bradford Howe. He later worked for the Muchmusic show Screwed Over in October 2006.
He created and appeared on the show Cock'd Gunns, which aired in 2007–2008 on the IFC.
He has been writing, directing and starring in the comedy web series The Amazing Gayl Pile since it premiered on JASH in 2014. It is now on NBC's digital channel Seeso.
Waters formerly played bass guitar for the Toronto-based Sweet Thing. He now plays in Toronto-based band Weaves, formed in 2013.
References
External links
1981 births
Canadian male television actors
Canadian male web series actors
21st-century Canadian male actors
Canadian sketch comedians
Living people
Male actors from Victoria, British Columbia
Musicians from Victoria, British Columbia
Canadian indie rock musicians
21st-century Canadian bass guitarists |
5395218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotylorhiza%20tuberculata | Cotylorhiza tuberculata | Cotylorhiza tuberculata is a species of jellyfish, of the phylum Cnidaria, also known as the Mediterranean jellyfish, Mediterranean jelly or fried egg jellyfish. It is commonly found in the Mediterranean Sea, Aegean Sea, and Adriatic Sea.
Description
It can reach in diameter, but is usually less than wide. It seems that this jellyfish's sting has very little or no effect on humans. However it can cause allergies to more sensitive people, these allergies usually involve itching and scratching in the stung area. The cnidarian's smooth, elevated central dome is surrounded by a gutter-like ring. Its marginal lappets are elongated and subrectangular. Each moutharm bifurcates near its base and branches several times. In addition to some larger appendages, there are many short, club-shaped ones that bear disk-like ends.
Development
C. tuberculata are the most common jellyfish of their entire order in the Mediterranean Sea. They experience an annual life cycle marked by summer population blooms, which is likely an adaptive result of the strong seasonal changes in their Mediterranean environment. Their phases of development are quite similar to that of their other jellyfish counterparts. C. tuberculatas four main stages of growth include the swimming larvae known as planulae, younger, sessile polyps called scyphistomae, the undeveloped young adult intermediates known as ephyrae, and the adult jellyfish forms, called medusas. In a given year, planulae are present from August to November, scyphistomae are present perennially, ephyrae can be seen from May to August, and medusa are prominent from July to November.
Planulae use their small cilia to propel them through the water, eventually settling on a hard sediment on which they develop into their polyp form. The scyphistomae acquire their photosynthetic algae symbionts during their preliminary development phase, though the mechanism for this is still unclear. These microorganisms live primarily in the mesoglea and lining of the cnidarian's gastrovascular system, bolstering oxygen production, and remain with the jellyfish for the rest of their lifespans. The polyps also undergo asexual reproduction to create more polyps; parts of each polyp will eventually metamorphose into ephyrae, which range between 1.7 and 4.2 mm in diameter. Young medusa take 8–10 weeks to reach an initial diameter of 3 cm, and then will grow by approximately 3–4 cm per week until reaching their final adult size. Gradually, the medusa develop with an average final diameter of approximately 35 cm.
Sexual reproduction between adult medusa typically occurs between August and October. Female C. tuberculata are internally fertilized with sperm from the moutharm appendages of their male counterparts, and after a gestation period, eventually release large numbers of planulae into the water.
With age, the adult C. tuberculata become increasingly damaged, mainly in the central dome of their top umbrella area. While the leading cause of medusa damage is wave-driven and wind-driven abrasion, the next most prominent modes of injury are anthropogenic. Motor boats and fishing nets are prominent causes of injury for these cnidarians, often leading to severe damage. This harm is a mild setback for jellyfish that have not yet finished growing, and when they are able to regenerate the injured anatomy, it often grows back asymmetrically. Older fried egg jellyfish are distinguished by their physical deterioration; their mesoglea are often delicate with a visibly broken exumbrella, and their coloration fades significantly.
Relationships with microorganisms
Symbiosis
The endosymbiotic, photosynthetic algae which C. tuberculata hosts in its body are paramount to the jellyfish's prosperity. These mutualistic microorganisms are also known as zooxanthellae, originating from the dinoflagellate phylum, and they commonly engage in symbiotic relationships with many types of jellyfish. While the cnidarian hosts provide shelter for these symbionts, the dinoflagellates in return use their photosynthetic abilities to provide the C. tuberculata with energy for usage and storage. Fatty acids, for example, are the primary macromolecules for energy storage in cnidarians, and mainly are obtained from their carbon-fixing symbionts. This mutualistic relationship is so crucial to the Mediterranean jellyfish's growth and survival that the preliminary step of premature medusa formation will not initiate without the presence of zooxanthellae.
Feeding
C. tuberculata primarily consume minuscule aquatic organisms, often a mixture of phytoplankton and zooplankton. They do not demonstrate a very high feeding diversity on the taxonomic level; it has been recorded that anywhere between 69% and 82% of their diet consists of organisms associated with the genus Spiroplasma. These prokaryotes have also been found in the diets of several other jellyfish species. Furthermore, the C. tuberculatas diet likely consists of only three to four main taxa of microplankton. The jellyfish takes in these tiny organisms through its moutharms, from where they travel to its stomach. The interconnectedness of the Mediterranean jelly and its surrounding waters allows for an easy flow of plankton into its gastric cavity.
Effects on humans
One of the main issues created by annual blooms of C. tuberculata is an interference with human recreational and financial activities. The usual water-related activities of tourism, in addition to more commercial activities such as fishing, are often disrupted due to the sheer number of jellyfish in the waters. This often results in the removal of thousands of Mediterranean jellies from the waters by coastal officials in the summers by fishing boats or large nets.
Another possibility raised by the prevalence of jellyfish, however, is their usefulness to humankind. C. tuberculata have been studied due to their specified cytotoxicity in regards to certain breast cancer cells, which is made possible due to the organism's efficient intercellular gap junction communication. While further studies have been proposed to further research jellies' cytotoxicity in targeting breast cancer, there still is not much investigation on the topic. Since a main objective in cancer research is to create treatments that selectively kill malignant cells while leaving healthy ones intact, Cotylhoriza tuberculata may become a model organism for the treatment of those human ailments.
Footnotes
References
(2006): "Cotylorhiza tuberculata (Macri, 1778)". Retrieved June 7, 2006.
External links
Video of C. tuberculata, a jellyfish bloom in the Gulf of Corinth, Greece during summer 2012
Cepheidae
Fauna of the Mediterranean Sea
Cnidarians of the Atlantic Ocean
Animals described in 1778 |
5395220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courts%20Service | Courts Service | The Courts Service is the national council of the judiciary of Ireland. It is a statutory corporation which provides administration and support services to the Courts of the Republic of Ireland. It was established in 1999 by the Courts Service Act 1998. Its head office is at Phoenix House, Smithfield, Dublin.
Functions
The Courts Service Act 1998 assigns the Courts Service the following functions:
managing the courts,
providing support services for the judges,
providing information on the courts system to the public,
providing, managing and maintaining court buildings, and
providing facilities for users of the courts.
The Court Service has no function in relation to the actual administration of justice. Judges themselves are directly employed by the state and not by the Courts Service.
Corporate structure
The day-to-day management of the Courts Service is conducted by its Chief Executive who is appointed by the Board of the Courts Service. The Board of the Courts Service is made up of the following:
the presidents of the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Circuit Court and the District Court (or judges of those courts nominated by their presidents),
members of each of these five courts elected by their ordinary members,
the Chief Executive of the Courts service and a representative of its staff elected by them,
a practicing barrister and a practicing solicitor nominated by the Chairman of the Bar Council and the President of the Law Society of Ireland respectively,
a civil servant from the Department of Justice nominated by the Minister for Justice,
a person nominated by the Irish Congress of Trade Unions,
a person nominated by the Minister to represent the consumers of court services, and
a person nominated by the Minister for relevant knowledge and experience in commerce, finance or administration.
See also
Law of the Republic of Ireland
References
External links
Courts Service Website
Government agencies of the Republic of Ireland
National councils of the judiciary
Judiciary of the Republic of Ireland |
5395228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ship%20commissionings%20in%201954 | List of ship commissionings in 1954 | The list of ship commissionings in 1954 includes a chronological list of all ships commissioned in 1954.
See also
1954
Ship commissionings |
5395231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Sloboda | John Sloboda | John Anthony Sloboda OBE FBA (born 13 June 1950) is Research Professor at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama where he currently leads research on the Social Impact of Making Music. He is also one of the founders of the Iraq Body Count project.
Biography
Sloboda was educated at St Benedict's School, Ealing. He studied at Queen's College, Cambridge and University College, London, where he took his PhD.
His academic work has mainly been in music psychology, a subdiscipline which draws together psychologists, neuroscientists and academic musicians. His research interests have focused on the psychological aspects of the study of music performance, the emotional response to music, the functions of music in everyday life, learning and skill acquisition in music, and audience-performer relations in the live concert. He was Professor of Psychology at Keele University until 2008, where he now has emeritus status. He is a former Executive Director of the Oxford Research Group, an NGO that seeks to develop non-violent approaches to national and international security issues, from 2005-2009. Until 2020 he was co-director of Every Casualty Worldwide, which works towards ensuring that all lives lost to armed conflict, anywhere in the world, are properly recorded. In 2004 he was elected a Fellow of the British Academy to dual membership of both the Psychology and History of Music sections. In 2017 he became founding president of simm-platform.eu an international scholarly body for the study of the Social Impact of Making Music, and is editor of the book series Classic European Music Science Monographs.
From 1975 to 1995 he was the founding director of the Keele Bach Choir, a "town and gown" choir based on the Keele University campus. He is also patron of Spode Music Week, an annual residential music school that places particular emphasis on the music of the Roman Catholic liturgy. He currently collaborates with the singer Rafael Montero, founder of the early music group El Parnaso Hyspano.
Books
Acquisition of Symbolic Skills (Proceedings of a NATO Human Factors Programme Conference, Keele, July 1982). New York: Plenum Press, 1983. pp 623. (ed. with Don Rogers)
The Musical Mind: The Cognitive Psychology of Music. Oxford University Press, 1985. pp 291.
Cognitive Processes in Mathematics. (selected and edited papers from the first International Keele Cognition Seminar, March 1985.) Oxford University Press, 1987. (ed. with Don Rogers)
Generative Processes in Music: The Psychology of Composition, Performance, and Improvisation. London: Oxford University Press, 1988. (ed.)
Cognition and Social Worlds. (selected and edited papers from the second International Keele Cognition Seminar, March 1987) London: Oxford University Press, 1989. (ed. with Angus Gellatly and Don Rogers)
Musical Perceptions. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. pp 290 (with Rita Aiello)
The Origins and Development of Musical Competence. London: Oxford University Press/ Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1995. (ed. with Irène Deliège)
Perception and Cognition of Music. Psychologists Press, 1997. (ed. with Irène Deliège)
Music and Emotion: Theory and Research. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. pp 487. (ed. with Patrik N. Juslin)
Exploring the Musical Mind: Cognition, Emotion, Ability, Function. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Beyond Terror: The Truth About the Real Threats to Our World. London: Rider. (with Chris Abbott and Paul Rogers)
Psychology for Practicing Musicians: Understanding and Acquiring the Skills. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. (with Andreas C. Lehmann and Robert W. Woody)
Handbook of Music and Emotion: Theory, Research, Applications. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. pp. 975. (ed. with Patrik N. Juslin)
References
1950 births
Living people
British psychologists
Academics of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama
Music psychologists
Fellows of the British Academy
Academics of Keele University
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at St Benedict's School
Alumni of Queens' College, Cambridge
Alumni of University College London
British people of Polish descent |
5395235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotylorhiza | Cotylorhiza | Cotylorhiza is a genus of true jellyfish from the family Cepheidae. The genus is found in the central-east Atlantic, Mediterranean, and western Indian Ocean.
Description
The genus Cotylorhiza falls under the family Cepheidae, which includes jellyfish. Species in this genus include Cotylorhiza abulacrata, Cotylorhiza erythraea, and Cotylorhiza tuberculata, which is the most common species in the genus, as well as in the order Rhizostomeae. Characterized by eight short oral arms, this genus is pelagic and generally tinted white or yellow and include a sun shade at the top to protect arms and cnidoblasts.
First discovered in the Sea of Marmara in the 1700s, the Cotylorhiza genus had major impacts on species in surrounding areas as it invaded the area. Species reside in pelagic environments in southern European seas, where they impact ecological balances of ecosystem due to resource competitions and rapid reproduction patterns. Cotylorhiza are among the most abundant jellyfish in the Mediterranean sea, though they are not native to this area.
Lifestyle
Feeding
Organisms consume zooxanthellae and zooplankton through their eight moutharms, which transport consumed organisms to the stomach. Juvenile individuals in the Cotylorhiza genus were found to have higher feeding rates than other jellyfish of the Cepheidae family, such as Rhizostoma pulmo.
Reproduction and Life Cycle
Species begin as polyps attached to a substrate, and eventually grow into a medusa stage. The medusa are pelagic, swimming organisms in the jellyfish form. In the medusa stage, sperm and egg cells release into the water and fertilize to form polyps on benthic substrates. Jellyfish tend to be more abundant in spring seasons, as the temperature and resource concentrations are ideal for an increase in reproduction during this time.
Relationships
Cnidarian abundance in the Northwest Mediterranean Sea can have major impacts on fish populations, as they pose a major predatory threat to juvenile fish. The size and number of fish in this area was found to be directly correlated to the size and abundance of C. tuberculata.
Possible Human Impact
Jellyfish populations in the Mediterranean Sea, including those in the genus Cotylorhiza, may have hazardous effects on people in the area. Species in this area are becoming progressively more venomous as more invasive predators enter the waters they inhabit, therefore hospitalizations and serious injury has increased in children swimming in these areas. Stings by Cotylorhiza tuberculata cause the following effects: pain in 100% of patients stung, a whip-like rash in 87.8% of patients, a small percentage of patients are hospitalized annually for fevers, chills, muscle spasms, and serious burns.
Blooms of jellyfish may also impact economic stability in surrounding communities, due to overfishing which alters trophic processes. As jellyfish overpopulate ecosystems, they may wipe out large numbers of fish in their habitat. Blooms occur because of changes in temperature and phytoplankton abundance in the ecosystem.
References
Cepheidae
Scyphozoan genera |
5395247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cepheidae%20%28jellyfish%29 | Cepheidae (jellyfish) | Cepheidae is a family of jellyfish.
References
External links
Kolpophorae
Cnidarian families |
5395252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Morgan%20Waters%20Show | The Morgan Waters Show | The Morgan Waters Show is a six-minute sketch comedy show starring Morgan Waters, which ran as part of CBC Television's afternoon youth programming lineup in 2006. The series consists of short sketches in which Waters plays various characters, or appears as himself in various street pranks.
Guests appearing on the show include Canadian Idol hosts Ben Mulroney and Jon Dore, Rick Mercer, the cast of Degrassi: The Next Generation, Ashlee Simpson, Simple Plan, OK GO, Alexz Johnson, Ed the Sock, and Tyler Kyte among others.
The series won a Gemini Award for Best Children's or Youth Fiction Program or Series at the 21st Gemini Awards in 2006.
References
External links
2006 Canadian television series debuts
2006 Canadian television series endings
CBC Television original programming
2000s Canadian sketch comedy television series |
5395257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mason%20wasp | Mason wasp | Mason wasp is a common name that can refer to several different types of wasps:
Potter wasp, of the subfamily Eumeninae in the family Vespidae
Pison spinolae, in the family Sphecidae
Animal common name disambiguation pages |
5395272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisher%27s%20Tale | Fisher's Tale | Fisher's Tale were a Christian (Christadelphian) folk rock band, based in the West Midlands, United Kingdom. They released five studio albums.
Name
The band's name is captured in the title of the debut album: "Why didn't you tell me... the fisher's tale?". The "fisher" referred to the fisherman Peter, telling a tale of what happened in the early first century CE. The original band had an a cappella song called "The fisher's tale" which only existed as a demo version.
History
The group started in the early 1990s when a Music and Drama workshop was started in Ware (Hertfordshire UK), under the direction of Mark Gates. The workshop was intended to bring together young people's talents with the aim of expressing aspects of the Christian message in different art forms. After some time the workshop organisers decided that a fixed membership music group would have a greater opportunity to write and present music than a variable workshop attendance, some attendees having other commitments (Richard Gates, Becky Chambers, Adrian Burr).
From 1993 the group performed as 'Not yet band' until the name Fisher's Tale was chosen during a tea break at rehearsals in Barnet. Andrew De Witt and Tim Stephens, from the earlier band Six of One, were involved from the outset, contributing to the folk-rock influence of the music. De Witt played in the early live performances and was a significant source of songwriting talent, with his contributions appearing on several albums.
Original line-up
The original members of the band were:
Andrew Delin: Acoustic & electric guitar, bass, vocals
Coren Miles: Keyboard, bassoon, vocals
David Fenton: Vocals
Debby Fenton: Saxophone
Richard Downton: Percussion
Sarah Downton: Bass guitar, vocals
Tim Stephens: Drums
From the outset the band had a strong performance ethic, combining musical performance with audio-visual presentation and dramatic reading. Part of the original philosophy for Fisher's Tale was to operate as a music project (The Fisher's Tale Music Project, "FTMP"), allowing for changing membership and ongoing output through the life of the project (1996-2010).
Why Didn't You Tell Me?
The original group recorded the debut album, Why Didn't You Tell Me? which was released in 1996. The album was digitally mastered but produced to cassette only. Rumours of a digital release of the original album have not been confirmed.
Following the release of the first album, Delin and Miles, two founding members, left the band. Richard Downton moved to acoustic rhythm guitar and vocals.
Written in Rock
In 2000, original drummer Tim Stephens left the group and Richard Downton moved to drums in addition to guitar and vocals. Adrian Burr, from the original Ware music workshop, re-joined as lead guitarist, bringing more of a rock style to the band's sound. The band recorded Written in Rock in 1999. Following the album, Pete Howarth joined as rhythm guitarist.
Following Written in Rock, Richard & Sarah Downton left the group. David Fenton and Adrian Burr recruited Darren Cordial on drums, and Abbie Downer to share lead vocals with Nathanael Stock on rhythm guitar. The new talent allowed the group to progress in new directions. In 2001, Fisher's Tale became a six-piece with Peter Gaston on keyboard.
Boundless
In 2003, Fisher's Tale recorded their 3rd album, Boundless, with guest musician Anna Ryder on cello. Later that year Simeon Kay joined as bass guitarist, and founding member David Fenton resigned.
Different Horizon
In 2005, the band changed musical direction with the release of its 4th album, Different Horizon.
United Song
After a sabbatical in 2006, Fisher's Tale resumed playing to live audiences around the UK. An open-air concert in May 2009 introduced new songs to the set. The 5th album, United Song, was launched on 5 June 2010 at a concert in Knowle, England, with the band playing songs from previous albums, alongside all 12 songs from the new project.
Following the release of United Song in 2010, Simeon and Jo Kay resigned, and Peter and Julia Gaston emigrated to Australia.
Representation
Fisher's Tale maintains independent control of its content. Albums and tracks can be downloaded from iTunes and CDs are available through its website (http://fisherstale.co.uk/).
Discography
1996: Why Didn't You Tell Me?
1999: Written in Rock
2003: Boundless
2005: Different Horizon
2010: United Song
References
External links
Listen to tracks from 2003 album Boundless
Cross Rhythms listing of 2005 album Different Horizon
Christadelphianism
British Christian musical groups
Performers of contemporary Christian music
Musical groups established in the 1990s |
5395288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Education%2C%20Health%20and%20Allied%20Workers%27%20Union | National Education, Health and Allied Workers' Union | The National Education, Health and Allied Workers' Union (NEHAWU) is a trade union in South Africa. With a membership of 235,000 it is the largest public sector union in the country. It organizes State, Health, Education and Welfare workers.
History
The union was founded in 1987, when the Health and Allied Workers' Union merged with the General and Allied Workers' Union and the South African Allied Workers' Union.
The NEHAWU is affiliated with the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), and Public Services International and the Trade Union International Public Service and Allied employees.
Leadership
General Secretaries
1987: Yure Mdyogolo
1988: Phillip Dexter
1994: Neil Thobejane
1998: Fikile Majola
2013: Bereng Soke
2017: Zola Saphetha
Presidents
1987: Bheki Mkhize
1990: Vusi Nhlapo
2004: Noluthando Mayende-Sibiya
2010: Mzwandile Makwayiba
2022: Mike Shingange
References
Notes
Sources
External links
NEHAWU official site.
Organisations based in Johannesburg
Congress of South African Trade Unions
Public Services International
Healthcare trade unions in South Africa
Education trade unions
World Federation of Trade Unions
Trade unions established in 1987
Trade unions in South Africa |
5395310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetris%20%28Game%20Boy%20video%20game%29 | Tetris (Game Boy video game) | is a puzzle video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy in 1989. It is a portable version of Alexey Pajitnov's original Tetris and it was bundled with the North American and European releases of the Game Boy itself. It is the first game to have been compatible with the Game Link Cable, a pack-in accessory that allows two Game Boy consoles to link for multiplayer purposes. A colorized remake of the game was released on the Game Boy Color titled . A Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console version of Tetris was released in December 2011, lacking multiplayer functionality.
Gameplay
The Game Boy version of Tetris plays identically to versions on other platforms. A pseudorandom sequence of tetromino shapes, composed of four square blocks each, fall down the playing field, which is 10 blocks wide by 18 blocks high. The object of the game is to manipulate the tetrominoes by moving each one sideways and rotating it by 90-degree units with the aim of creating a horizontal line of blocks without gaps. When one or more such lines are created, they disappear, and the blocks above (if any) move down by the number of lines cleared. As in most standard versions of Tetris, blocks do not automatically fall into open gaps when lines are cleared.
As the game progresses, the tetrominoes fall faster. The game ends when at least part of a tetromino extends beyond the top of the playfield when setting in place. The player can normally see which block will appear next in a window off to the side of the playing field, but this feature can be toggled during the game. Points are awarded based on the current level and number of lines cleared. The level increases each time the player clears ten lines, as does the speed of falling tetrominoes. The player may adjust the difficulty before beginning a game by selecting a starting level or choosing to pre-fill the play area with a given number of lines of randomly placed blocks. After completing a particular height, the player is treated to a cutscene of a rocket of various types being launched, eventually capping off with Russians dancing and the Buran shuttle being launched.
This version of Tetris includes a two-player mode, in which each player's objective is to remain in play for longer than his or her opponent. Each player plays with a separate Game Boy and Tetris Game Pak, with the two consoles connected via the Game Link Cable. When a player scores a Double, Triple, or Tetris, incomplete rows of blocks are added to the bottom of the opponent's stack, causing it to rise.
Development
Tetris was first created in 1984 by Alexey Pajitnov. In 1988, Pajitnov teamed with fellow Soviet Academy of Sciences researchers Dmitry Pavlovsky, and Vadim Gerasimov to create a new two-player version of Tetris that ran on PCs. The game was soon licensed by Andromeda Software executive Robert Stein, who sublicensed the game to multiple publishers in different territories. In 1988, Henk Rogers of Bullet-Proof Software noticed the US home computer version at the Las Vegas Consumer Electronics Show in a Spectrum HoloByte booth. Finding himself hooked to the game, he pursued the rights to publish Tetris in Japan, and secured licenses from both Spectrum HoloByte, who held the North American computer license, and Atari Games, which had produced the American arcade version under a sublicense from Mirrorsoft, which had the rights for the European computer market. Knowing Nintendo was planning to release the Game Boy, Rogers approached Nintendo of America president Minoru Arakawa to suggest Tetris as the perfect bundled launch game. Arakawa questioned the idea, having planned to bundle Super Mario Land, but Rogers countered by stating that though a Mario game would promote the Game Boy to young boys, Tetris would promote it to everyone. Rogers was told to pursue the rights; he approached Stein to seek rights for it to be distributed with the Game Boy.
However, after several months passed, Stein had not signed to contract for the rights for the Game Boy, and Rogers learned that another person had approached Nintendo with the idea of a Game Boy Tetris. Requesting more time from Arakawa, he traveled to Moscow to speak with the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations's bureau for computer hardware and software export, called Elektronorgtechnica or ELORG, and Pajitnov. During this time, Nintendo approached Spectrum HoloByte on the prospect of a Game Boy Tetris, causing Mirrorsoft to send a representative, Kevin Maxwell, to Moscow to secure rights for the Game Boy version. Meanwhile, Rogers negotiated for the rights for Tetris on the Game Boy, noting in a later interview that the government officials did not understand the concept of intellectual property, and were looking for greater payment than Rogers or Nintendo could afford. However, it was revealed that the Tetris property had not actually been licensed to anyone because Stein had secured the rights from Pajitnov directly and not from the Russian authority. Russia sent a fax to Maxwell in England with 48 hours to respond, but due to being in Russia at the time Maxwell did not receive the fax, and the handheld rights were given to Rogers. Rogers licensed the handheld rights to Nintendo. During this time Rogers discovered that the home console rights were actually not properly licensed, and in March 1989, Arakawa, and Nintendo vice president Howard Lincoln, working with Rogers, secured exclusive rights for console distribution of Tetris. However, Tetriss production was delayed due to an ongoing legal battle with Atari Games over their home publishing subsidiary Tengen's version of Tetris for the NES and the game was released in Japan two months after the Game Boy's release there. Bullet-Proof Software is mentioned as a copyright holder and the sub-licensor of the Tetris handheld rights to Nintendo on the game's startup screen.
Music
The main soundtrack for Tetris was created by Nintendo's accomplished composer Hirokazu Tanaka. The player can select one of three types of background music during the game or play with sound effects only. Two of the songs are arrangements of works from other composers: "Type A" is based on the Russian folk song "Korobeiniki" (also known as "Korobushka"), and "Type C" is an arranged version of "French Suite No. 3 in B minor, BWV 814: Menuet" (transposed to F# minor) by Johann Sebastian Bach. In an early version that was only released in Japan with an estimated 25,000 copies sold, the "Type A" song is "Minuet". The compositions "Type A" and "Type B" can be unlocked in the Super Smash Bros. series.
The victory fanfares played after completing levels are different arrangements of "Trepak", from Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet The Nutcracker.
Re-release
Tetris DX
Tetris DX is a Game Boy Color game that is backward compatible with the original Game Boy. It was developed by Nintendo and released in Japan on October 21, 1998, in North America on November 18, 1998, and in Europe and Australia in 1999. Tetris DX features battery-saved high scores and three player profiles. It has a new single-player mode against the CPU and also features two new modes of play. In "Ultra Mode", players must accumulate as many points as possible within a three-minute time period. In "40 Lines", players are timed on how quickly they can clear 40 lines of play. New music themes were added.
Virtual Console
The Game Boy version of Tetris was released in North America and Europe as a Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console game on December 22, 2011 and on December 28 in Japan. In contrast to the original version, it is not possible to play multiplayer in the Virtual Console version. The Virtual Console version of Tetris was delisted in Europe from the Nintendo eShop after December 31, 2014 and in North America.
Reception
Tetris has been credited as the Game Boy's killer app. It topped the Japanese sales charts during AugustSeptember 1989 and from December 1989 to January 1990. It also topped the US sales charts during AugustSeptember 1989 and then December 1989.
Nintendo sold copies by early 1990, as its top seller. About copies had been sold in the United States by 1992. By 1997, units had been sold worldwide, including bundles. As of June 2009, more than copies had been sold worldwide.
Official Nintendo Magazine ranked Tetris fifth on its list of the "100 Best Nintendo Games". Game Informers Ben Reeves called it the best Game Boy game and a "legendary puzzle game". In 2019, PC Magazine included the game on their "The 10 Best Game Boy Games" commenting: "Tetris serves up addictive and challenging gameplay on the go for all ages".
In August 2008, Nintendo Power listed Tetris DX as the best Game Boy/Game Boy Color video game, stating that it meant more to handheld gaming than any other video game. They also described it as the best version of Tetris until Tetris DS was released. Alexey Pajitnov called the Game Boy version of Tetris his favorite and very close to his original version. In Japan, Famitsu gave it a score of 26 out of 40.
References
External links
1989 video games
1998 video games
Game Boy Color games
Game Boy games
Nintendo games
Pack-in video games
Tetris
Video games developed in Japan
Virtual Console games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Video games scored by Hirokazu Tanaka
Virtual Console games for Nintendo 3DS |
5395337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prizrachnyj%20Svet | Prizrachnyj Svet | Призрачный Свет (Prizrachnyj Svet - Eerie Light) is the third EP by the Russian power metal band Catharsis. It was released on April 20, 2004 by Irond.
Track listing
"Кто ты? (Kto ty?)" – 4:26 - Who Are You?
"Помни меня (Pomni menya)" – 4:30 - Remember Me
"Призрачный свет (Prizrachnyj svet)" – 4:08 - Eerie Light
"Сердце Мира - Stillife Remix (Serdtse mira)" – 4:30 - Heart of the World
"Dancing in the Fire - Necromancer Remix" – 4:38
"Eerie Light" – 4:06
Members
Oleg Zhilyakov - Vocals, Back Vocals
Igor 'Jeff' Polyakov - Rhythm Guitar, Acoustic Guitar
Julia Red - Keyboards
Oleg Mission - Lead guitar, Acoustic Guitar, Flute, Keyboards
Andrey Ischenko - Drums
Alexander Timonin - Bass
Olga Dzusova - Back Vocals
Catharsis (Russian band) albums
2004 EPs |
5395357 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline%20Alley%20%28disambiguation%29 | Gasoline Alley (disambiguation) | Gasoline Alley is a comic strip by Frank King, first published in 1918
Gasoline Alley may also refer to:
Places
Canada
Gasoline Alley, Alberta, a business park in Red Deer County, Alberta, Canada
Gasoline Alley, Alberta (hamlet), a hamlet in Red Deer County, Alberta, Canada
Gasoline Alley Museum, an antique car and memorabilia museum located within Heritage Park Historical Village in Calgary, Alberta
United States
Gasoline Alley (Indianapolis Motor Speedway), the garage area at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway
Arts, entertainment, and media
Gasoline Alley (1951 film), an American comedy film
Corky of Gasoline Alley, its sequel released the same year
Gasoline Alley (2022 film), an American action thriller film
Gasoline Alley (album), a 1970 album by Rod Stewart, or the title track
Gasoline Alley (radio), a 193149 radio series based on the eponymous comic strip
See also
The Talk of Gasoline Alley |
5395361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial%20officer | Judicial officer | A judicial officer is a person with the responsibilities and powers to facilitate, arbitrate, preside over, and make decisions and directions in regard to the application of the law.
Judicial officers are typically categorized as judges, magistrates, puisne judicial officers such as justices of the peace or officers of courts of limited jurisdiction; and notaries public and commissioners of oaths. The powers of judicial officers vary and are usually limited to a certain jurisdiction.
Judicial officials are also known as persons entitled to the enforcement of enforcement documents, the establishment of factual circumstances, the transfer of documents and any other functions provided for by law. In most countries, they are appointed and dismissed by the Minister of Justice. Their activities are strictly regulated by law and controlled by the state.
Kuwait
In Kuwait, Judicial Officers are sworn law enforcement agents with the capacity to enforce the law within their speciality, an example would be The Environment Public Authority's environmental Judicial Officers, which function, effectively, as an Environmental judicial police force that enforces the country's environmental law.
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, Judicial officers refer to District judges and Magistrates. They are appointed by the Judicial Service Commission.
United States
In the United States a judicial officer is a political appointee to the judicial branch of the United States who is commissioned by the President of the United States. Examples include judges, magistrates, foreclosure referees and arbitrators. A complete list of judicial officers is published after every election, along with every other officer of the United States, in the United States Government Policy and Supporting Positions, or more commonly called the Plum Book.
References
Legal professions |
5395376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergin | Ergin | Ergin is a Turkish name, and can be used as both a given name and surname. Notable people with the name include:
Given name
Ergin Ataman (born 1966), Turkish basketball coach
Ergin Keleş (born 1987), Turkish footballer
Surname
Ayşegül Ergin, Turkish female Taekwondo practitioner
Ertuğ Ergin, Turkish alternative pop-rock singer-songwriter
Kazım Ergin (1915–2002), Turkish geophysicist
Tarik Ergin (born 1961), Turkish-American actor
Yusuf Ergin (born 1984), Turkish athlete
Turkish-language surnames
Turkish masculine given names |
5395381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20O%27Neal%20%28sportscaster%29 | Patrick O'Neal (sportscaster) | Patrick O'Neal (born September 14, 1967) is an American actor and sports broadcaster who has been serving as a studio host/reporter for Bally Sports West/SoCal. He is also the secondary TV play-by-play announcer for the Los Angeles Angels whenever Matt Vasgersian is not available for telecasts.
Broadcast career
Most of his appearances come during pregame and postgame shows of the Los Angeles Angels and Los Angeles Kings. He also provides game breaks for Fox College Football.
He was a studio host for Fox College Football for FX and in game highlights for Fox NFL Sunday.
On August 21 and August 28 of 2005, he was the studio host of Fox Saturday Baseball when regular host Jeanne Zelasko was on maternity leave, and he was a sideline reporter for two NFL on Fox games during the 2005 NFL Season. He was also the dugout reporter for Games 3 and 5 of the 2005 National League Championship Series and Game 5 of the 2005 American League Championship Series. For one season he was the ingame highlights host for Fox NFL Sunday before being succeeded by Joel Klatt. Since 2021, O’Neal has been the secondary TV play-by-play commentator with the Los Angeles Angels alongside Mark Gubicza whenever Matt Vasgersian is not available. Whenever Vasgersian is broadcasting for the Angels, O’Neal would work as the sideline reporter during the Angels telecast or studio host for the team’s pre-game/post-game show.
Family
He is the son of actor Ryan O'Neal and actress Leigh Taylor-Young. He is the half-brother of Griffin O'Neal, Tatum O'Neal and Redmond O'Neal. His paternal ancestry is Irish, English, and Ashkenazi Jewish.
Personal life
He has two daughters from his relationship with actress Rebecca De Mornay. Sophia was born November 16, 1997 and Veronica was born March 31, 2001. He and De Mornay separated in 2002.
Filmography
China Beach (1989) - C.O.
Daughter of the Streets (1990, TV movie) - Alex
Die Hard 2 (1990) - Cpl. Telford (Blue Light Team)
Beverly Hills, 90210 (1990) - George Sudaris
Pensacola: Wings of Gold (1998) - Hondo
A Table for One (1999) - Brad
Just for the Time Being (2000) - Billy Fischer
Pacific Blue (2000) - Thomas J. Craiden
Lost in the Pershing Point Hotel (2000) - Angry Bartender
The Right Temptation (2000) - Carl
Wild Hogs (2007) - Family Dad
References
External links
Patrick O'Neal at Twitter
1967 births
American male film actors
American people of English descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Jewish descent
American television reporters and correspondents
College basketball announcers in the United States
College football announcers
Living people
Los Angeles Clippers announcers
Los Angeles Dodgers announcers
Los Angeles Lakers announcers
Major League Baseball broadcasters
National Basketball Association broadcasters
National Football League announcers
People from Greater Los Angeles |
4000799 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Transylvania | History of Transylvania | Transylvania is a historical region in central and northwestern Romania. It was under the rule Agathyrsi, part of the Dacian Kingdom (2nd century BC–2nd century AD), Roman Dacia (2nd–3rd centuries), the Hunnic Empire (4th–5th centuries), the Kingdom of the Gepids (5th–6th centuries), the Avar Khaganate (6th–9th centuries) and the 9th century First Bulgarian Empire. During the late 9th century, Transylvania was reached and conquered by the Hungarian conquerors, and Gyula's family from seven chieftains of the Hungarians ruled Transylvania in the 10th century. King Stephen I of Hungary asserted his claim to rule all lands dominated by Hungarian lords, he personally led his army against his maternal uncle Gyula III and Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1002. According to Gesta Hungarorum, a work written in the 12th century, alledegly based on an even older doccument that was lost to time, describing events from the 9th and 10th centuries, with mixed opinions from modern historians, Transylvania was ruled by "Gelou, duke of the Vlachs. Gelou, duke of Transylvania", who was killed in battle by one of the seven chieftains of the Magyars, Töhötöm, in 934, afterwards, Gelou's people surrendered to the Hungarians.
After the Battle of Mohács in 1526 it belonged to the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, from which the Principality of Transylvania emerged in 1570. During most of the 16th and 17th centuries, the principality was a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire; however, the principality had dual suzerainty (Ottoman and Habsburg).
In 1690, the Habsburg monarchy gained possession of Transylvania through the Hungarian crown. After 1711 Habsburg control of Transylvania was consolidated, and Transylvanian princes were replaced with Habsburg imperial governors. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the separate status of Transylvania ceased; it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania) as part of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. After World War I, Transylvania became part of Romania by the Treaty of Trianon in 1920. In 1940 Northern Transylvania reverted to Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award, but it was reclaimed by Romania after the end of World War II.
Due to its varied history the population of Transylvania is ethnically, linguistically, culturally and religiously diverse. From 1437 to 1848 political power in Transylvania was shared among the mostly Hungarian nobility, German burghers and the seats of the Székelys (a Hungarian ethnic group). The population consisted of Romanians, Hungarians (particularly Székelys) and Germans. The majority of the present population is Romanian, but large minorities (mainly Hungarian and Roma) preserve their traditions. However, as recently as the communist era ethnic-minority relations remained an issue of international contention. This has abated (but not disappeared) since the Revolution of 1989 restored democracy in Romania. Transylvania retains a significant Hungarian-speaking minority, slightly less than half of which identify themselves as Székely. Ethnic Germans in Transylvania (known as Saxons) comprise about one percent of the population; however, Austrian and German influences remain in the architecture and urban landscape of much of Transylvania.
The region's history may be traced through the religions of its inhabitants. Most Romanians in Transylvania belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church faith, but from the 18th to the 20th centuries the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church also had substantial influence. Hungarians primarily belong to the Roman Catholic or Reformed Churches; a smaller number are Unitarians. Of the ethnic Germans in Transylvania, the Saxons have primarily been Lutheran since the Reformation; however, the Danube Swabians are Catholic. The Baptist Union of Romania is the second-largest such body in Europe; Seventh-day Adventists are established, and other evangelical churches have been a growing presence since 1989. No Muslim communities remain from the era of the Ottoman invasions. As elsewhere, anti-Semitic 20th century politics saw Transylvania's once sizable Jewish population greatly reduced by the Holocaust and emigration.
Name of Transylvania
The earliest known reference to Transylvania appears in a Medieval Latin document of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1075 as "ultra silvam", in the Gesta Hungarorum as "terra ultrasilvana", meaning "land beyond the forest" ("terra" means land, "ultra" means "beyond" or "on the far side of" and the accusative case of "silva", "silvam" means "woods, forest"). Transylvania, with an alternative Latin prepositional prefix, means "on the other side of the woods". The Hungarian form Erdély was first mentioned in the Gesta Hungarorum as "Erdeuelu". Hungarian historians claim that the Medieval Latin form "Ultrasylvania", later Transylvania, was a direct translation from the Hungarian form "Erdőelve" ("erdő" means "forest" and "elve" means "beyond" in old Hungarian). That also was used as an alternative name in German "Überwald" ("über" means "beyond" and "wald" means forest) in the 13th–14th centuries. The earliest known written occurrence of the Romanian name Ardeal appeared in a document in 1432 as "Ardeliu". The Romanian Ardeal is derived from the Hungarian Erdély. Erdelj in Serbian and Croatian, Erdel in Turkish were borrowed from this form as well.
Ancient history
Dacian states
Herodotus gives an account of the Agathyrsi, who lived in Transylvania during the fifth century BCE. He described them as a luxurious people who enjoyed wearing gold ornaments. Herodotus also claimed that the Agathyrsi held their wives in common, so all men would be brothers.
A kingdom of Dacia existed at least as early as the early second century BCE under King Oroles. Under Burebista, the foremost king of Dacia and a contemporary of Julius Caesar, the kingdom reached its maximum extent. The area now constituting Transylvania was the political center of Dacia.
The Dacians are often mentioned by Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However, they were not subdued and in later times crossed the frozen Danube during winter and ravaging Roman cities in the recently acquired Roman province of Moesia.
The Dacians built several important fortified cities, among them Sarmizegetusa (near the present Hunedoara). They were divided into two classes: the aristocracy (tarabostes) and the common people (comati).
Roman-Dacian Wars
The Roman Empire expansion in the Balkans brought the Dacians into open conflict with Rome. During the reign of Decebalus, the Dacians were engaged in several wars with the Romans from 85 to 89 CE. After two reverses the Romans gained an advantage but were obliged to make peace due to the defeat of Domitian by the Marcomanni. Domitian agreed to pay large sums (eight million sesterces) in annual tribute to the Dacians for maintaining peace.
In 101 the emperor Trajan began a military campaign against the Dacians, which included a siege of Sarmizegetusa Regia and the occupation of part of the country. The Romans prevailed but Decebalus was left as a client king under a Roman protectorate. Three years later, the Dacians rebelled and destroyed the Roman troops in Dacia. As a result, Trajan quickly began a new campaign against them (105–106). The battle for Sarmizegetusa Regia took place in the early summer of 106 with the participation of the II Adiutrix and IV Flavia Felix legions and a detachment (vexillatio) from the Legio VI Ferrata. The Dacians repelled the first attack, but the water pipes from the Dacian capital were destroyed. The city was set on fire, the pillars of the sacred sanctuaries were cut down and the fortification system was destroyed; however, the war continued. Through the treason of Bacilis (a confidant of the Dacian king), the Romans found Decebalus' treasure in the Strei River (estimated by Jerome Carcopino as 165,500 kg of gold and 331,000 kg of silver). The last battle with the army of the Dacian king took place at Porolissum (Moigrad).
Dacian culture encouraged its soldiers to not fear death, and it was said that they left for war merrier than for any other journey. In his retreat to the mountains, Decebalus was followed by Roman cavalry led by Tiberius Claudius Maximus. The Dacian religion of Zalmoxis permitted suicide as a last resort by those in pain and misery, and the Dacians who heard Decebalus' last speech dispersed and committed suicide. Only the king tried to retreat from the Romans, hoping that he could find in the mountains and forests the means to resume battle, but the Roman cavalry followed him closely. After they almost caught him, Decebalus committed suicide by slashing his throat with his sword (falx).
The history of the Dacian Wars was written by Cassius Dio, and they are also depicted on Trajan's Column in Rome.
Following the war, several parts of Dacia including Transylvania were organized into the Roman province of Dacia Traiana.
Roman Dacia
The Romans brought most vestiges of the Roman culture into Dacia Traiana.
They sought to utilize the gold mines in the province and built access roads and forts (such as Abrud) to protect them. The region developed a strong infrastructure and an economy based on agriculture, cattle farming and mining. Colonists from Thracia, Moesia, Macedonia, Gaul, Syria and other Roman provinces were brought in to settle the land, developing cities like Apulum (now Alba Iulia) and Napoca (now Cluj Napoca) into and colonias.
During the third century, increasing pressure from the Free Dacians and Visigoths forced the Romans to abandon Dacia Traiana.
According to historian Eutropius in Liber IX of his Breviarum, in 271, Roman citizens from Dacia Traiana were resettled by the Roman emperor Aurelian across the Danube in the newly established Dacia Aureliana, inside former Moesia Superior:
Middle Ages
Early Middle Ages: the great migrations
Roman or romanized population
Historian Konrad Gündisch says that some findings from the 4th to the 7th centuriesespecially Roman coins, the Biertan Donarium and other objects with Latin inscription and early Christian artifactsprovide sufficient evidence that part of the Vulgar Latin-speaking, Christian Daco-Roman population remained in Dacia Traiana and flourished in smaller remote communities. This population was, however, decimated through the centuries. Their wooden tools and buildings rotted and became untraceable by archaeologists.
Historian Aurel Ioan Pop says that the romanization was especially intense in the Roman provinces of Moesia, Pannonia and Dacia. The people found in Pannonia and Dacia, namely the Illyrians, Celts and Dacians were strongly romanized following their conquest. Following the loss of these regions, over the now romanized population, various people: germans, huns, avars, slavs and magyars settled the regions. This succession of migratory tribes diminished the number of romance-speaking people in the region, especially the Hungarian conquest between 895-896 in Eastern Pannonia between the Danube and Tisza rivers, that will lead to the elimination or assimilation of non-Hungarian elements. The main occupation of the Daco-Romans and then of the Romanians was the cultivation of the land. The Romance people did not practice nomadism because their mechanism of formation and specific circumstances did not allow it.
Historian Fedinand Lot, skeptical to the Daco-Roman Continuity theory, argues that "Where should the Daco-Romans be placed? the Hungarians, Serbians, Bulgarians and Greeks believe that they didn't form in Transylvania, Serbia, Bulgaria or Macedonia respectively. And yet, these people didn't fall from the sky. This unanimity against the origin of the Romanians caused the development of the Daco-Roman Continuity theory".
Goths
Before their withdrawal the Romans negotiated an agreement with the Goths in which Dacia remained Roman territory, and a few Roman outposts remained north of the Danube. The Thervingi, a Visigothic tribe, settled in the southern part of Transylvania, and the Ostrogoths lived on the Pontic–Caspian steppe.
About 340, Ulfilas brought Acacian Arianism to the Goths in Guthiuda, and the Visigoths (and other Germanic tribes) became Arians.
The Goths were able to defend their territory for about a century against the Gepids, Vandals and Sarmatians; however, the Visigoths were unable to preserve the region's Roman infrastructure. Transylvania's gold mines were unused during the Early Middle Ages.
Huns
By 376 a new wave of migratory people, the Huns, reached Transylvania, triggering conflict with the Visigothic kingdom. Hoping to find refuge from the Huns, Fritigern (a Visigothic leader) appealed to the Roman emperor Valens in 376 to be allowed to settle with his people on the south bank of the Danube. However, a famine broke out and Rome was unable to supply them with food or land. As a result, the Goths rebelled against the Romans for several years. The Huns fought the Alans, Vandals, and Quadi, forcing them toward the Roman Empire. Pannonia became the centre during the peak of Attila's reign (435–453).
Gepids
After Attila's death, the Hunnic empire disintegrated. In 455 the Gepids (under king Ardarich) conquered Pannonia, allowing them to settle for two centuries in Transylvania. Their rule ended with attacks by the Lombards and Avars in 567. Very few Gepid sites (such as cemeteries in the Banat region) after 600 remain; they were apparently assimilated by the Avar empire.
Avars, Slavs, Bulgars
By 568 the Avars, under their khagan Bayan, established an empire in the Carpathian Basin that lasted for 250 years. During this period the Slavs were allowed to settle inside Transylvania. The Avars declined with the rise of Charlemagne's Frankish empire. After a war between the khagan and Yugurrus from 796 to 803, the Avars were defeated. The Transylvanian Avars were subjugated by the Bulgars under Khan Krum at the beginning of the ninth century; Transylvania and eastern Pannonia were incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire.
Hungarian Kingdom
In 862 Prince Rastislav of Moravia rebelled against the Franks and, after hiring Magyar troops, won his independence; this was the first time that Magyar expeditionary troops entered the Carpathian Basin.
After a Bulgar and Pecheneg attack, the Magyar tribes crossed the Carpathians around 896 and occupied the basin without significant resistance. According to eleventh-century tradition, the road taken by the Hungarians under Prince Álmos took them first to Transylvania in 895. This is supported by an eleventh-century Russian tradition that the Hungarians moved to the Carpathian Basin by way of Kiev. However, according to Florin Curta no evidence exists of Magyars crossing Eastern Carpathian Mountains into Transylvania.
According to supporters of the Daco-Roman continuity theory, Transylvania was populated by Romanians at the time of the Hungarian conquest. Opponents of this theory assert that Transylvania was sparsely inhabited by peoples of Slavic origin and Turkic people. The year of the conquest of Transylvania is unknown; the earliest Magyar artifacts found in the region date to the first half of the 10th century. A coin minted under Berthold, Duke of Bavaria (r. 938–947) found near Turda indicates that Transylvanian Magyars participated in western military campaigns. Although their defeat in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld ended Magyar raids against western Europe, raids on the Balkan Peninsula continued until 970. Linguistic evidence suggests that after their conquest, the Magyars inherited the local social structures of the conquered Pannonian Slavs; in Transylvania, there was intermarriage between the Magyar ruling class and the Slavic élite.
12th-century chronicle
Gelou is a figure in the Gesta Hungarorum (Latin for The Deeds of the Hungarians), а medieval work written by an author known as "Anonymus" probably at the end of the 12th century (about 300 years after the Hungarian conquest, which began in 894–895). In the Gesta Hungarorum Gelou is described as "a certain Vlach" and "prince of the Vlachs", indicating that the Vlachs were considered the dominant Transylvanian population. He was said to be defeated by one of the seven Hungarian dukes, Töhötöm (Tuhutum in the original Latin, also known as Tétény). Hungarian historians assert that Gelou was created by the author from the name of the village of Gelou () as the enemy of the Hungarian noble families about whose deeds he wrote.
Another leader in the broad region of Transylvania was Glad. He was, according to the Gesta Hungarorum, a voivod from Bundyn (Vidin) who ruled the territory of Banat in the Vidin region of southern Transylvania. Glad was said to have authority over the Slavs and Vlachs. The Hungarians sent an army against him, subduing the population between the Morisio (Mureș) and Temes (Timiș) rivers. When they tried to cross the Timiș, Glad attacked them with an army which included Cuman, Bulgarian and Vlach support. The next day, Glad was defeated by the Hungarians. Hungarian historiography regards him as fictitious, along with many other imaginary characters in the Gesta. Romanian historiography, on the other hand, identifies him as a real person and places the Hungarian attack against Glad into 934. His name might come from the same Hungarian word, meaning "perfidious, mean, atrocious".
Ahtum or Ajtony was a local duke in Banat, and the last ruler who resisted the establishment of the Kingdom of Hungary, in the early 11th century. He taxed salt on the Maros (Mureș) carried to King Stephen I of Hungary on the river. Ajtony's commander-in-chief was Csanád, and the king placed the latter at the head of a royal attack. Ajtony was defeated by the army of Stephen I of Hungary, with his stronghold being renamed Csanád afterwards. Ahtum's ethnicity (and that of his people) is controversial; his name is thought to translate to "gold" in Old Turkic.
Menumorut is described by Anonymus as duke of the Khazars between the River Tisza and the Ygfon Forest near Ultrasilvania (Transylvania), from the Mureș to the Someș Rivers. According to the deeds in Gesta Hungarorum, he declined the 907 request of the Magyar ruler Árpád to surrender his territory between the Someș and the Meses Mountains. In negotiations with ambassadors Usubuu and Veluc from Árpád he invoked the sovereignty of the Byzantine emperor Leo VI the Wise:
The Magyars besieged the citadel of Zotmar (in Romanian Sătmar, in Hungarian Szatmár) and Menumorut's castle in Bihar, defeating him.
The Gesta Hungarorum then retells the story of Menumorut. In this version, he married his daughter into the Árpád dynasty. Her son Taksony became ruler of the Magyars and father of Mihály and Géza (whose son Vajk became the first king of Hungary in 1001 under his baptismal name, Stephen).
Daco-Roman continuity theory
I.A. Pop confirmed battles between Romanians and Hungarian tribes in the Primary Chronicle. Conflicting theories exist concerning whether or not the Romanized Dacian population (the ancestors of the Romanians) remained in Transylvania after the withdrawal of the Romans (and whether or not Romanians were in Transylvania during the Migration Period, particularly during the Magyar migration). These theories are often used to back competing claims by Hungarian and Romanian nationalists.
Phases of the conquest
Historian Kurt Horedt dates the entering of the Hungarians in Transylvania in the period between the 10th century and the 13th century. In his theory, the Hungarians conquered Transylvania in five stages:
1st stage – around the year 900, until Someșul Mic river
2nd stage – around the year 1000, Someșul Mic valley and the middle and lower course of Mureș river
3rd stage – around the year 1100, until Târnava Mare river
4th stage – around the year 1150, until the Olt River line
5th stage – around the year 1200, until the Carpathian Mountains
As part of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary
High Middle Ages
In 1000 Stephen I of Hungary, grand prince of the Hungarian tribes, was recognised by the Pope and by his brother-in-law Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor as king of Hungary. Although Stephen was raised as a Roman Catholic and Christianization of the Hungarians was achieved mostly by Rome, he also recognized and supported orthodoxy. Attempts by Stephen to control all Hungarian tribal territories led to wars, including one with his maternal uncle Gyula (a chieftain in Transylvania; Gyula was the second-highest title in the Hungarian tribal confederation). In 1003, Stephen led an army into Transylvania and Gyula surrendered without a fight. This made possible the organization of the Transylvanian Catholic episcopacy (with Gyulafehérvár as its seat), which was finished in 1009 when the bishop of Ostia (as papal legate) visited Stephen and they approved diocesan divisions and boundaries.
Chronicles also mention King Stephen then won a battle against Ahtum, a local chief in the lower Mureș River area who pilfered the royal tax. According to the Chronicon Pictum, Stephen I also defeated the legendary Kean (a ruler in southern Transylvania of Bulgarians and Slavs).
Medieval Transylvania was an integral part of the Kingdom of Hungary, however, it was an administratively distinct unit.
Székelys
The Székelys have historically claimed descent from Attila's Huns. Ancient legends recount that a contingent of Huns remained in Transylvania, later allying with the main Hungarian army that conquered the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century. Several medieval Hungarian chronicles claimed that the Székely people descended from Huns:
In the Middle Ages, the Székelys played a role in the defense of the Kingdom of Hungary against the Ottomans in their posture as guards of the eastern border.
Saxons, Teutonic Knights
In the 12th and 13th centuries, the areas in the south and northeast were settled by German colonists known as Saxons. Tradition holds that Siebenbürgen, the German name for Transylvania, derives from the seven principal fortified towns founded by these Transylvanian Saxons.
The German influence became more marked when, in 1211, King Andrew II of Hungary called on the Teutonic Knights to protect Transylvania in the Burzenland from the Cumans. After the order strengthened its grip on the territory and expanded it beyond Transylvania without authorisation, Andrew expelled the Knights in 1225.
"Voivod" (end 12th-13th century)
Administration in Transylvania was at the hands of a voivod appointed by the king (the word voivod, or voievod, first appeared in 1193). Before then, the word ispán was used for the chief official of Alba County. Transylvania came under voivod rule after 1263, when the duties of the Counts of Szolnok (Doboka) and Alba were eliminated. The voivod controlled seven comitatus. According to the Chronica Pictum, Transylvania's first voivod was Zoltán Erdoelue, a relative of King Stephen.
Mongol invasions
In 1241, Transylvania suffered during the Mongol invasion of Europe. Güyük Khan invaded Transylvania from the Oituz (Ojtoz) Pass, while Subutai attacked in the south from the Mehedia Pass towards Orșova. While Subutai advanced northward to meet Batu Khan, Güyük attacked Hermannstadt/Nagyszeben (Sibiu) to prevent the Transylvanian nobility from aiding King Béla IV of Hungary. Beszterce, Kolozsvár and the Transylvanian Plain region were ravaged by the Mongols, in addition to the Hungarian king's silver mine at Óradna. A separate Mongol force destroyed the western Cumans near the Siret River in the Carpathians and annihilated the Cuman bishopric of Milcov. Estimates of population decline in Transylvania due to the Mongol invasion range from 15 to 50 percent.
The Cumans converted to Roman Catholicism and, after their defeat by the Mongols, sought refuge in central Hungary; Elizabeth the Cuman (1244-1290), known as Erzsébet in Hungarian, a Cuman princess, married Stephen V of Hungary in 1254.
In 1285, Nogai Khan led an invasion of Hungary, with Talabuga, and his army ravaged Transylvania; cities such as Reghin, Brașov and Bistrița were plundered. Still, the invaders suffered from lack of food, being also confronted with the resistance of the local people, Székelys, Romanians and Saxons. Talabuga led an army in northern Hungary but was stopped by heavy Carpathian snow; he was defeated near Pest by the royal army of Ladislaus IV and ambushed by the Székely in retreat.
Documented Romanian presence
The oldest extant documents from Transylvania, dating from the 12th and 13th centuries, make passing references to both Hungarians and Vlachs.
The first appearance of a Romanian name (Ola) in Hungary appears in a 1258 charter. The first written sources of Romanian settlements date to the 13th century; the first cited Romanian township was Olahteluk (1283) in Bihar County. The "land of Vlachs" (Terram Blacorum) appeared in Fogaras, and its area was mentioned under the name "Olachi" in 1285.
In 1288, the archbishop of Strigonius, Lodomerius, the most important Catholic church figure from Hungary, wrote an epistle "to the Hungarian, Saxon, Szeklely and Romanian nobles from the counties of Sibiu and Borsa in Transylvania", bringing serious charges against King Ladislaus IV and demanding them to no longer obey the sovereign and offer military aid against him.
In the spring of 1291, in Alba Iulia, King Andrew III ,the last from the Arpadian dynasty, convened and presided over an assembly consisting of the representatives of "all nobles, Saxons, Szeklers and Romanians" (cum universis Nobilibus, Saxonibus, Syculis et Olachis). This was the general congregation of all the privileged groups in Transylvania (the Hungarian nobles, the Saxons, the Szeklers and the Romanians), held about six months after the General Assembly of the Kingdom of Hungary, unfold at Buda.
Power system: the "estates" (12th-14th century)
The three most important 14th-century dignitaries were the voivod, the Bishop of Transylvania and the Abbot of Kolozsmonostor (on the outskirts of present-day Cluj-Napoca).
Transylvania was organized according to the estate system. Its estates were privileged groups, or universitates (the central power acknowledged some collective freedoms), with socio-economic and political power; they were also organized using ethnic criteria.
As in the rest of the Hungarian kingdom, the first estate was the aristocracy (lay and ecclesiastic): ethnically heterogeneous, but undergoing homogenization around its Hungarian nucleus. The document granting privileges to the aristocracy was the Golden Bull of 1222, issued by King Andrew II. The other estates were the Saxons, Szeklers and Romanians, all with an ethno-linguistic basis. The Saxons, who had settled in southern Transylvania in the 12th and 13th centuries, were granted privileges in 1224 by the Diploma Andreanum. The Szeklers and Romanians were granted partial privileges. While the Szeklers consolidated their privileges, extending them to the entire ethnic group, the Romanians had difficulty retaining their privileges in certain areas (terrae Vlachorum or districtus Valachicales) and lost their estate rank. Nevertheless, when the king (or the voivod) summoned the general assembly of Transylvania (congregatio) during the 13th and 14th centuries it was attended by the four estates: noblemen, Saxons, Szeklers and Romanians (Universis nobilibus, Saxonibus, Syculis et Olachis in partibus Transiluanis).
Ioan-Aurel Pop describes the political situation in Transylvania as following:
Later Middle Ages
Romanian loss of status (1366-19th century)
The Romanians, were excluded as a distinct group (recognized community) from the estates between 1350 - 1366. They didn't get to be officially named and declared a "nation" like the Hungarians, Saxons and Szekely and officially remained outside the "constitutional" regime of the Kingdom of Hungary. Becoming in the 16th century a "tolerated" people, as long as the benevolence of the princes and of the inhabitants of law lasted. From that historical moment, the Romanians have ceased to have a leadership position in Transylvania, an elite in the name of the Romanians, like the recognized elites of the Saxons, Szekely and the Hungarians.
The Romanians no longer had the right to participate in political power. Being gradually reduced to the state of the peasantry. The rich Romanians, Romanian nobility, Romanian knights and landowners, in order to maintain their rights and continue their hold on power, converted to the Catholicism and adopted the Hungarian customs (i.e Hunyadi family). From the 16th century, the nobility becomes synonymous with Hungarianness. The Romanian nobles who continued and participated in power broke away from their mass of their people, whom they ceased to represent.
After the Romanians lost their estate status (Universitas Valachorum), they were excluded from Transylvanian assemblies. The primary reason was religious; during Louis I's proselytization campaign, privileged status was deemed incompatible with schism in a state endowed with an "apostolic mission" by the Holy See. In his 1366 Decree of Turda the king redefined nobility as membership in the Roman Catholic Church, thus excluding the Eastern Orthodox, "schismatic" Romanians. After 1366, nobility was determined not only by ownership of land and people but also by the possession of a royal donation certificate. Since the Romanian social elite—chiefly made up of aldermen (iudices) or knezes (kenezii), who ruled their villages according to the law of the land (ius valachicum)—managed only somewhat to obtain writs of donation and were expropriated. Lacking property or an official status as owner and excluded from privileges as schismatics, the Romanian elite could no longer form an estate and participate in the country's assemblies.
In 1437 Hungarian and Romanian peasants, the petty nobility and burghers from Kolozsvár (Klausenburg, now Cluj), under Antal Nagy de Buda, rose against their feudal masters and proclaimed their own estate (universitas hungarorum et valachorum, "the estate of Hungarians and Romanians"). To suppress the revolt the Hungarian nobility in Transylvania, the Saxon burghers and the Székelys formed the Unio Trium Nationum (Union of the Three Nations): a mutual-aid alliance against the peasants, pledging to defend their privileges against any power except that of Hungary's king. By 1438, the rebellion was crushed. From 1438 onwards the political system was based on the Unio Trium Nationum, and society was regulated by these three estates: the nobility (mostly Hungarians), the Székely and Saxon burghers. These estates, however, were more social and religious than ethnic divisions. Directed against the peasants, the Union limited the number of estates (excluding the Orthodox from political and social life in Transylvania): "The privileges define the status of the three recognized nations - the Hungarians, the Siculi and the Saxons - and the four churches - Lutheran, Calvinist, Unitarian and Catholic. The exclusion concerns the Romanian community and its Orthodox Church, a community that accounts for at least 50% of the population in the mid-eighteenth century."
Although Eastern Orthodox Romanians were not permitted local self-government like the Székelys and Saxons in Transylvania and the Cumans and Iazyges in Hungary, the Romanian ruling class (nobilis kenezius) had the same rights as the Hungarian . Unlike Maramureș, after the Decree of Turda in Transylvania the only way to remain (or become) nobility was conversion to Roman Catholicism. To preserve their positions, some Romanian families converted to Catholicism and were Magyarized (such as the Hunyadi/Corvinus, Bedőházi, Bilkei, Ilosvai, Drágffy, Dánfi, Rékási, Dobozi, Mutnoki, Dési and Majláth families). Some reached the highest ranks of society; Nicolaus Olahus became Archbishop of Esztergom, John Hunyadi, a great military commander, governor and regent of Hungary, while the John Hunyadi's son Matthias Corvinus became king of Hungary.
Nevertheless, since the majority of Romanians did not convert to Roman Catholicism there was nowhere for them to be politically represented until the 19th century. They were deprived of their rights and subject to segregation (such as not being allowed to live in or purchase houses in the cities, build stone churches or receive justice. Several examples of legal decisions by the three nations a century after Unio Trium Nationum (1542–1555) are indicative. The Romanian could not appeal for justice against Hungarians and Saxons, but the latter could turn in the Romanian (1552); the Hungarian (Hungarus) accused of robbery could be defended by the oath of the village judge and three honest men, while the Romanian (Valachus) needed the oath of the village knez, four Romanians and three Hungarians (1542); the Hungarian peasant could be punished after being accused by seven trustworthy people, while the Romanian was punished after accusations by only three (1554).
Ottoman threat and John Hunyadi
After a diversionary manoeuvre led by Sultan Murad II it was clear that the goal of the Ottomans was not to consolidate their grip on the Balkans and intimidate the Hungarians, but to conquer Hungary.
A key figure in Transylvania at this time was John Hunyadi (c. 1387 or 1400–1456). Hunyadi was awarded a number of estates (becoming one of the foremost landowners in Hungarian history) and a seat on the royal council for his service to Sigismund of Luxemburg. After supporting the candidature of Ladislaus III of Poland for the Hungarian throne, he was rewarded in 1440 with the captaincy of the fortress of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) and the voivodship of Transylvania (with his fellow voivod Miklos Újlaki). His subsequent military exploits (he is considered one of the foremost generals of the Middle Ages) against the Ottoman Empire brought him further status as the regent of Hungary in 1446 and papal recognition as the Prince of Transylvania in 1448.
Early modern period
Early autonomous principality
When the main Hungarian army and King Louis II Jagiello were slain by the Ottomans in the 1526 Battle of Mohács, John Zápolya—voivod of Transylvania, who opposed the succession of Ferdinand of Austria (later Emperor Ferdinand I) to the Hungarian throne—took advantage of his military strength. When John I was elected king of Hungary, another party recognized Ferdinand. In the ensuing struggle Zápolya was supported by Sultan Suleiman I, who (after Zápolya's death in 1540) overran central Hungary to protect Zápolya's son John II. John Zápolya founded the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom (1538–1570), from which the Principality of Transylvania arose. The principality was created after the signing of the 1570 Treaty of Speyer by John Sigismund Zápolya and emperor Maximiliam II. According to the treaty, the Principality of Transylvania nominally remained part of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Habsburgs controlled Royal Hungary, which comprised counties along the Austrian border, Upper Hungary and some of northwestern Croatia. The Ottomans annexed central and southern Hungary.
Transylvania became a semi-independent state under the Ottoman Empire (the Principality of Transylvania), where Hungarian princes who paid the Turks tribute enjoyed relative autonomy, and Austrian and Turkish influences vied for supremacy for nearly two centuries. It was now beyond the reach of Catholic religious authority, allowing Lutheran and Calvinist preaching to flourish. In 1563 Giorgio Blandrata was appointed court physician; his radical religious ideas influenced young King John II and Calvinist bishop Francis David, eventually converting both to Unitarianism. Francis David prevailed over Calvinist Peter Melius in 1568 in a public debate, resulting in individual freedom of religious expression under the Edict of Turda (the first such legal guarantee of religious freedom in Christian Europe). Lutherans, Calvinists, Unitarians and Roman Catholics received protection, while the majority Eastern Orthodox Church was tolerated.
Transylvania was governed by princes and its Diet (parliament). The Transylvanian Diet consisted of three estates: the Hungarian elite (largely ethnic Hungarian nobility and clergy), Saxon leaders (German burghers) and the free Székely Hungarians.
The Báthory family, which assumed power at the death of John II in 1571, ruled Transylvania as princes under the Ottomans (and briefly under Habsburg suzerainty) until 1602. The younger Stephen Báthory, a Hungarian Catholic who later became King Stephen Báthory of Poland, tried to maintain the religious liberty granted by the Edict of Turda but interpreted this obligation in an increasingly restricted sense. Under Sigismund Báthory, Transylvania entered the Long War, which began as a Christian alliance against the Turks and became a four-sided conflict in Transylvania involving the Transylvanians, Habsburgs, Ottomans and the Romanian voivod of Wallachia led by Michael the Brave.
Michael gained control of Transylvania (supported by the Szeklers) in October 1599 after the Battle of Șelimbăr, in which he defeated Andrew Báthory's army. Báthory was killed by Szeklers who hoped to regain their old privileges with Michael's help. In May 1600 Michael gained control of Moldavia, thus he became the leader of the three principalities of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania (the three major regions of modern Romania). Michael installed Wallachian boyars in certain offices but did not interfere with the estates and sought support from the Hungarian nobility. In 1600 he was defeated by Giorgio Basta (Captain of Upper Hungary) and lost his Moldavian holdings to the Poles. After presenting his case to Rudolf II in Prague (capital of Germany), Michael was rewarded for his service. He returned, assisting Giorgio Basta in the Battle of Guruslău in 1601.
Michael's rule did not last long, however; he was assassinated by Walloon mercenaries under the command of Habsburg general Basta in August 1601. Michael's rule was marred by the pillaging of Wallachian and Serbian mercenaries and Székelys avenging the Szárhegy Bloody Carnival of 1596. When he entered Transylvania he did not grant rights to the Romanian inhabitants. Instead, Michael supported the Hungarian, Szekler, and Saxon nobles by reaffirming their rights and privileges.
After his defeat at Miriszló, the Transylvanian estates swore allegiance to the Habsburg emperor Rudolph. Basta subdued Transylvania in 1604, initiating a reign of terror in which he was authorised to appropriate land belonging to noblemen, Germanize the population and reclaim the principality for Catholicism in the Counter-Reformation. The period between 1601 (the assassination of Michael the Brave) and 1604 (the fall of Basta) was the most difficult for Transylvania since the Mongol invasion. "Misericordia dei quod non-consumti sumus" ("only God's mercy saves us from annihilation") characterised this period, according to an anonymous Saxon writer.
From 1604 to 1606, the Calvinist Bihar magnate István Bocskay led a successful rebellion against Habsburg rule. Bocskay was elected Prince of Transylvania April 5, 1603, and Prince of Hungary two months later. The two major achievements of Bocskay's brief reign (he died December 29, 1606) were the Peace of Vienna (June 23, 1606) and the Peace of Zsitvatorok (November 1606). With the Peace of Vienna Bocskay obtained religious liberty, the restoration of all confiscated estates, repeal of all "unrighteous" judgments, full retroactive amnesty for all Hungarians in Royal Hungary and recognition as independent sovereign prince of an enlarged Transylvania. Almost-equally important was the twenty-year Peace of Zsitvatorok, negotiated by Bocskay between Sultan Ahmed I and Rudolf II.
Gabriel Bethlen (who reigned from 1613 to 1629) thwarted all efforts of the emperor to oppress (or circumvent) his subjects, and won a reputation abroad by championing the Protestant cause. He waged war on the emperor three times, was proclaimed King of Hungary twice and obtained a confirmation of the Treaty of Vienna for the Protestants (and seven additional counties in northern Hungary for himself) in the Peace of Nikolsburg signed December 31, 1621. Bethlen's successor, George I Rákóczi, was equally successful. His principal achievement was the Peace of Linz (September 16, 1645), the last political triumph of Hungarian Protestantism, in which the emperor was forced to reconfirm the articles of the Peace of Vienna. Gabriel Bethlen and George I Rákóczi aided education and culture, and their reign has been called the golden era of Transylvania. They lavished money on their capital Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár or Weißenburg), which became the main bulwark of Protestantism in Central Europe. During their reign, Transylvania was one of the few European countries where Roman Catholics, Calvinists, Lutherans and Unitarians lived in mutual tolerance—all officially accepted religions (religiones recaepte). The Orthodox, however, still had inferior status.
This golden age (and relative independence) of Transylvania ended with the reign of George II Rákóczi. The prince, coveting the Polish crown, allied with Sweden and invaded Poland in 1657 despite the Ottoman Porte's prohibition of military action. Rákóczi was defeated in Poland and his army taken hostage by the Tatars. Chaotic years followed, with a quick succession of princes fighting one another and Rákóczi unwilling to resign, despite the Turkish threat of military attack. To resolve the political situation, the Turks resorted to military might; invasions of Transylvania with their Crimean Tatar allies, the ensuing loss of territory (particularly their primary Transylvanian stronghold, Várad, in 1660) and diminished manpower led to Prince John Kemény proclaiming the secession of Transylvania from the Ottomans in April 1661 and appealing for help to Vienna. A secret Habsburg-Ottoman agreement, however, prevented the Habsburgs from intervening; Kemény's defeat by the Turks (and the Turkish installation of the weak Mihály Apafi on the throne) marked the subordination of Transylvania, now a client state of the Ottoman Empire.
Habsburg rule
After the defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the Habsburgs began to impose their rule on Transylvania. In addition to strengthening the central government and administration, they promoted the Roman Catholic Church as a uniting force and to weaken the influence of Protestant nobility. By creating a conflict between Protestants and Catholics, the Habsburgs hoped to weaken the estates. They also attempted to persuade Orthodox clergymen to join the Uniate (Greek Catholic) Church, which accepted four key points of Catholic doctrine and acknowledged papal authority while retaining Orthodox rituals and traditions. Emperor Leopold I decreed Transylvania's Eastern Orthodox Church in union with the Roman Catholic Church by joining the newly created Romanian Greek-Catholic Church. Some priests converted, although the similarity between the two denominations was unclear to many. In response to the Habsburg policy of converting all Romanian Orthodox to Greek-Catholics, several peaceful movements within the Romanian Orthodox population advocated freedom of worship for all Transylvanians; notable leaders were Visarion Sarai, Nicolae Oprea Miclăuș and Sofronie of Cioara.
From 1711 onward, Habsburg control over Transylvania was consolidated and Transylvanian princes were replaced with Habsburg imperial governors. In 1765 the Grand Principality of Transylvania was proclaimed, consolidating the separate status of Transylvania within the Habsburg monarchy established by the 1691 Diploma Leopoldinum. Hungarian historiography sees this as a formality.
On November 2, 1784, a revolt led by Romanians Vasile Ursu Nicola Horea, Ion Oargă Cloșca and Marcu Giurgiu Crișan began in Hunyad County and spread throughout the Apuseni Mountains. The insurgents' main demands were related to feudal serfdom and the lack of political equality between Romanians and other Transylvanian ethnic groups. They fought at Topánfalva (Topesdorf/Câmpeni), Abrudbánya (Großschlatten/Abrud) and Verespatak (Goldbach/Roșia), defeating the Habsburg Imperial Army at Brád (Tannenhof/Brad) on November 27, 1784. The revolt was crushed on February 28, 1785, at Dealul Furcilor (Forks Hill), Alba-Iulia, when the leaders were apprehended. Horea and Cloșca were executed by breaking on the wheel; Crișan hanged himself the night before his execution.
In 1791 the Romanians petitioned Emperor Leopold II for religious equality and recognition as a fourth "nation" in Transylvania (Supplex Libellus Valachorum). The Transylvanian Diet rejected their demands, restoring the Romanians to their marginalised status.
Late modern period
Revolutions of 1848
In early 1848, the Hungarian Diet took the opportunity presented by revolution to enact a comprehensive program of legislative reform (the April laws), which included a provision for the union of Transylvania and Hungary. Transylvanian Romanians initially welcomed the revolution, believing they would benefit from the reforms. However, their position changed due to the opposition of Transylvanian nobles to the Hungarian reforms (such as emancipation of the serfs) and the failure of Hungarian revolutionary leaders to recognise Romanian national interests. In mid-May a Romanian diet at Balázsfalva produced its own revolutionary program, calling for proportional representation of Romanians in the Transylvanian Diet and an end to social and ethnic oppression. The Saxons were concerned about union with Hungary, fearing the loss of their traditional medieval origin privileges. When the Transylvanian Diet met on May 29, the vote for union was pushed through despite objections from many Saxon deputies. On June 10, the Emperor sanctioned the union vote of the Diet. Military executions and the arrest of revolutionary leaders after the union hardened the Saxons' position. In September 1848, another Romanian assembly in Balázsfalva (Blaj) denounced the union with Hungary and called for an armed uprising in Transylvania. War broke out in November, with Romanian and Saxon troops (under Austrian command) battling Hungarians led by Polish general Józef Bem. Within four months, Bem had ousted the Austrians from Transylvania. However, in June 1849 Tsar Nicholas I of Russia responded to an appeal from Emperor Franz Joseph to send Russian troops into Transylvania. After initial successes against the Russians, Bem's army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Temesvár (Timișoara) on August 9; the surrender of Hungary followed.
The Austrians clearly rejected the October demand that ethnic criteria become the basis for internal borders, with the goal of creating a province for Romanians (Transylvania, alongside Banat and Bukovina); they did not want to replace the threat of Hungarian nationalism with a potential one of Romanian separatism. However, they did not declare themselves hostile to the creation of Romanian administrative offices in Transylvania (which prevented Hungary from including the region in all but name). The territory was organized into (prefectures), with Avram Iancu and Buteanu two prefects in the Apuseni Mountains. Iancu's prefecture, the Auraria Gemina (a name charged with Latin symbolism), became important; it took over from bordering areas which were never fully organized.
Administrative efforts were then halted as Hungarians, under Józef Bem, carried out an offensive through Transylvania. With the covert assistance of Imperial Russian troops, the Austrian army (except for garrisons at Gyulafehérvár and Déva) and the Austrian-Romanian administration retreated to Wallachia and Wallachian Oltenia (both were under Russian occupation). The last remaining resistance force was that of Avram Iancu: he retreated to harsh terrain, mounting a guerrilla campaign on Bem's forces, causing severe damage and blocking the route to Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia). He was, however, challenged by severe shortages: the Romanians had few guns and very little gunpowder. The conflict dragged on for several months, with all Hungarian attempts to seize the mountain stronghold repulsed.
In April 1849, Iancu was approached by Hungarian envoy Ioan Dragoș (a Romanian deputy in the Hungarian Parliament). Dragoș was apparently acting from a desire for peace, and he worked to have Romanian leaders meet him in Abrudbánya (Abrud) and listen to the Hungarian demands. Iancu's adversary, Hungarian commander Imre Hatvany, seems to have exploited the provisional armistice to attack the Romanians in Abrudbánya (Abrud). However, Iancu and his men retreated and encircled him.
Hatvany angered the Romanians by having Buteanu captured and murdered. As his position became weaker, he was attacked by Iancu's men until his defeat on May 22. Hatvany and most of his armed group were massacred by their adversaries; Iancu captured their cannons, switching the tactical advantage for the next several months. Lajos Kossuth was angered by Hatvany's gesture (an inspection at the time dismissed all of Hatvany's close collaborators), since it made future negotiations unlikely.
However, the conflict became less harsh: Iancu's men concentrated on seizing local resources and supplies, opting to inflict losses only through skirmishes. The Russian intervention in June precipitated an escalation, since the Poles fighting in the Hungarian revolutionary contingents wanted to resist the Tsarist armies. Henryk Dembiński, a Polish general, negotiated for a truce between Kossuth and the Wallachian émigré revolutionaries. The latter, who were close to Iancu (especially Nicolae Bălcescu, Gheorghe Magheru, Alexandru G. Golescu, and Ion Ghica) wanted to defeat the Russian armies that had crushed their movement in September 1848.
Bălcescu and Kossuth met in May 1849 at Debrecen. The contact has long been celebrated by Romanian Marxist historians and politicians. Karl Marx's condemnation of everything opposing Kossuth led to any Romanian initiative being automatically considered "reactionary". The agreement was not a pact: Kossuth flattered the Wallachians, encouraging them to persuade Iancu's armies leaving Transylvania to help Bălcescu in Bucharest. While agreeing to mediate for peace, Bălcescu never presented these terms to the fighters in the Apuseni Mountains. All Iancu agreed to was the neutrality of his forces in the conflict between Russia and Hungary. Thus, he secured his position as the Hungarian armies suffered defeats in July (culminating in the Battle of Segesvár) and capitulated on August 13.
After quashing the revolution, Austria imposed a repressive regime on Hungary and ruled Transylvania directly through a military governor, with German as the official language. Austria abolished the Union of Three Nations and acknowledged the Romanians. Although the former serfs were given land by the Austrian authorities, it was often barely sufficient for subsistence living. These poor conditions caused many Romanian families to cross into Wallachia and Moldavia in search for better lives.
Austro-Hungarian Empire
Due to external and internal problems, reforms seemed inevitable to secure the integrity of the Habsburg Empire. Major Austrian military defeats (such as the 1866 Battle of Königgrätz) forced Austrian emperor Franz Joseph to concede internal reforms. To appease Hungarian separatism, the emperor made a deal with Hungary (the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, negotiated by Ferenc Deák) by which the dual monarchy of Austria–Hungary came into existence. The two realms were governed separately by two parliaments from two capitals, with a common monarch and common external and military policies. Economically, the empire was a customs union. The first prime minister of Hungary after the Compromise was Count Gyula Andrássy. The old Hungarian Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned as King of Hungary. Romanian intellectuals issued the Blaj Pronouncement in protest of the Compromise.
The era saw considerable economic development, with the GNP per capita growing roughly 1.45 percent annually from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared favorably with that of other European nations, such as Britain (1.00 percent), France (1.06 percent), and Germany (1.51 percent). Technological growth accelerated industrialization and urbanization. Many state institutions and the modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. However, as a result of the Compromise the special status of Transylvania ended; it became a province under the Hungarian diet. While part of Austria-Hungary, Transylvania's Romanians were oppressed by the Hungarian administration through Magyarization; German Saxons were also subject to this policy.
During this time, Hungarian-administered Transylvania consisted of a 15-county () region, covering 54,400 km2 in the southeast of the former Kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarian counties at the time were Alsó-Fehér, Beszterce-Naszód, Brassó, Csík, Fogaras, Háromszék, Hunyad, Kis-Küküllő, Kolozs, Maros-Torda, Nagy-Küküllő, Szeben, Szolnok-Doboka, Torda-Aranyos, and Udvarhely.
First World War
At the outbreak of World War I, the Kingdom of Romania refused to join the Central Powers and remained neutral, although Kings Carol I and Ferdinand I were from the German Hohenzollern dynasty.
On 17 August 1916, Romania signed a secret treaty (the Treaty of Bucharest, 1916) with the Entente Powers (United Kingdom, France, Italy and Russia), according to which the Allies agreed that Transylvania, Banat, and Partium would become part of Romania after the War if it entered the war. Romania joined the Triple Entente after signing the treaty and declared war against the Central Powers on 27 August 1916. It crossed the Carpathian mountains into Transylvania, forcing the Central Powers to fight on another front. A German-Bulgarian counter-offensive began the following month in Dobruja and in the Carpathians, driving the Romanian army back into Romania by mid-October and eventually leading to the capture of Bucharest. The exit of Russia from the war in March 1918 with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk left Romania alone in Eastern Europe, and a peace treaty between Romania and Germany was negotiated in May (the Treaty of Bucharest, 1918). By mid-1918 the Central Powers were losing the war on the Western Front, and the Austro-Hungarian empire had begun to disintegrate. Austria-Hungary signed a general armistice in Padua on 3 November 1918, and the nations inside Austria-Hungary proclaimed their independence from the empire during September and October of that year.
King Ferdinand's wife, Marie (who had British and Russian parentage) was highly influential during these years.
Interbellum
In 1918, as a result of the German defeat in World War I the Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed. On October 31, the successful Aster Revolution in Budapest brought the left liberal, pro-Entente count Mihály Károlyi to power as prime minister of Hungary. Influenced by Woodrow Wilson's pacifism, Károlyi ordered the disarmament of Hungarian Army. The Károlyi government outlawed all Hungarian armed associations and proposals intending to defend the country.
The resulting Treaty of Bucharest, 1918 was denounced in October 1918 by the Romanian government, which then re-entered the war on the Allied side and advanced to the Mureș (Maros) river in Transylvania.
The leaders of Transylvania's Romanian National Party met and drafted a resolution invoking the right of self-determination (influenced by Woodrow Wilson's 14 points) for Transylvania's Romanian people, and proclaimed the unification of Transylvania with Romania. In November the Romanian National Central Council, representing all Romanians in Transylvania, notified the Budapest government that it would take control of twenty-three Transylvanian counties (and parts of three others) and requested a Hungarian response by November 2. The Hungarian government (after negotiations with the council) rejected the proposal, claiming that it failed to secure the rights of the ethnic Hungarian and German populations. In Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia) on December 1, the National Assembly of Romanians of Transylvania and Hungary passed a resolution calling for the unification of all Romanians in a single state. The National Council of Transylvanian Germans and the Council of the Danube Swabians from the Banat approved the proclamation on 8 January 1919. In response, the Hungarian General Assembly of Kolozsvár (Cluj) reaffirmed the loyalty of Hungarians from Transylvania to Hungary on December 22, 1918.
The Romanian Army, representing the Entente powers, entered Transylvania from the east on November 12, 1918. In December they entered southern Transylvania, crossed the demarcation line on the Maros (Mureș) river by mid-December and advanced to Kolozsvár (Cluj) and Máramarossziget (Sighet) after making a request to the Powers of Versailles to protect the Romanians in Transylvania. In February 1919, to prevent armed clashes between Romanian and withdrawing Hungarian troops, a neutral zone was created.
The prime minister of the newly proclaimed Republic of Hungary resigned in March 1919, refusing the territorial concessions (including Transylvania) demanded by the Entente. When the Communist Party of Hungary (led by Béla Kun) came to power in March 1919, it proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic; after promising that Hungary would regain the lands under its control during the Austro-Hungarian Empire it attacked Czechoslovakia and Romania, leading to the Hungarian-Romanian War of 1919. The Hungarian army began an April 1919 offensive in Transylvania along the Someș (Szamos) and Maros rivers. A Romanian counter-offensive pushed forward to reach the Tisza River in May. Another Hungarian offensive in July penetrated 60 km into Romanian lines before a further Romanian counter-offensive led to the end of Hungarian Soviet Republic and after the occupation of Budapest. The Romanian army withdrew from Hungary between October 1919 and March 1920.
România Mare ("Great Romania") refers to the Romanian state between the First and Second World Wars. Romania reached its greatest territorial extent, uniting almost all historical Romanian lands (except Northern Maramureș, Western Banat and small areas of Partium and Crișana). Great Romania was an ideal of Romanian nationalism.
At the end of World War I the Deputies of Transylvanian Romanians declared the union of Transylvania with Romania in Alba Iulia on 1. December 1918.; Bessarabia, having declared independence from Russia in 1917 at the Conference of the Country (Sfatul Țării) which proclaimed the union with Romania and called in Romanian troops to protect the province from the Bolsheviks. The union of Bukovina and Bessarabia with Romania was ratified in 1920 by the Treaty of Versailles. Romania had also acquired Southern Dobrudja from Bulgaria as a result of its victory in the Second Balkan War in 1913. The Treaty of Trianon (4 June 1920) defined the new borders with Hungary, assigning Transylvania and parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș to the Kingdom of Romania. King Ferdinand I of Romania and Queen Maria of Romania were crowned at Alba Iulia in 1922.
Contemporary history
Second World War and Communist period
In August 1940, during the Second World War, the northern half of Transylvania (Northern Transylvania) was annexed to Hungary by the second Second Vienna Award, leaving Southern Transylvania to Romania. On March 19, 1944, following the occupation of Hungary by the Nazi German army through Operation Margarethe, Northern Transylvania came under German military occupation. After King Michael's Coup, Romania left the Axis and joined the Allies, and, as such, fought together with the Soviet Union's Red Army against Nazi Germany, regaining Northern Transylvania. The Second Vienna Award was voided by the Allied Commission through the Armistice Agreement with Romania (September 12, 1944) whose Article 19 stipulated the following:
The 1947 Treaty of Paris reaffirmed the borders between Romania and Hungary, as originally defined in Treaty of Trianon, 27 years earlier, thus confirming the return of Northern Transylvania to Romania.
From 1947 to 1989, Transylvania, as the rest of Romania, was under a communist regime.
Post-Communist period
Today, "Transylvania proper" is included within the Romanian counties (județe) of Alba, Bistrița-Năsăud, Brașov, Cluj, Covasna, Harghita, Hunedoara, Mureș, Sălaj and Sibiu. In addition to Transylvania proper, modern Transylvania includes parts of the Banat, Crișana and Maramureș; these regions are in the counties of Arad, Bihor, Caraș-Severin, Maramureș, Sălaj, Satu Mare and Timiș.
Demographics and historical research
According to Jean W. Sedlar, the Vlachs may have comprised two-thirds of Transylvania's population in 1241 on the eve of the Mongol invasion.
According to an investigation based on the decima list from the Kingdom of Hungary made by Ștefan Pascu, Constantin Cihodaru, M.D. Matei and P.I. Panait, there were less than 1000 Catholic parishes in Transylvania and the number of total settlements was about 2600. This led the reasearchers to believe that the 1600 villages without Catholic parishes were Orthodox. They estimated the number of romanians to surpass 65% of total population.
According to Ioan-Aurel Pop's estimations, Transylvania must have had a Romanian majority in 1356 as Pope Innocent IV preached a crusade in the name of the Catholic Church against all the inhabitants of Transylvania, Bosnia and Slavonia whom he regarded as heretics for having the Orthodox faith. The Hungarians being Catholic and Transylvania already part of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Also according to Ioan-Aurel Pop, Magyar histography estimations are exaggerated and unlikely to be correct, starting from the Magyar estimations during the 9th century, as their rationale that 4-5 families of about 5 people (meaning 20-25 people in total) were needed to financially support 1 Hungarian steppe warrior is greatly exaggerated.
According to an investigation based on place-names made by István Kniezsa, 511 villages of Transylvania and Banat appear in documents at the end of the 13th century, however, only 3 of them bore Romanian names. Around 1400 AD, 1757 villages are mentioned in doccuments, though only 76 (4.3%) of them had names of Romanian origin.
Historians Ioan Bolovan and Sorina-Paula Bolovan made multiple estimations about the population of Transylvania prior to the first census of 1869. Arguing that the Romanians were the majority of the population in 1288 at the first national assembly in Transylvania, in 1536 during the life of Nicolaus Olahus and Anton Verantius based on their works, in 1690 an absolute Romanian majority, that no significant demographic change happened between the Middle Ages and 1750 based on the Austrian fiscal conscription and that Romanians were still the majority in 1773 based on the words of Emperor Joseph II. Moreover, he disagrees with the Hungarian histography about a massive migration of Romanians from Wallachia and Moldavia in Transylvania because such a massive demographic change cannot be found in the Austrian fiscal conscription of 1750, who tracked newcomers over the previous decades, and that the Austrian administration explained concerns about Transylvanian Romanians leaving for Wallachia and Moldavia, including Emperor Joseph II. :
Pope Pius II affirmed in the 15th century that Transylvania was populated by three races: the Germans, Székelys, and Vlachs.
According to Vlad Georgescu, the Romanians were the majority of the population in 1437 during the Bobâlna revolt.
Based on Antun Vrančić's work (Expeditionis Solymani in Moldaviam et Transsylvaniam libri duo. De situ Transsylvaniae, Moldaviae et Transalpinae liber tertius), more estimations exist as the original text is translated/interpreted in a different way, especially by Romanian and Hungarian scholars.
According to Ioan-Aurel Pop's interpretations, Antun Vrančić wrote that Transylvania "is inhabited by three nations – Székelys, Hungarians and Saxons; I should also add the Romanians who – even though they easily equal the others in number – have no liberties, no nobility and no rights of their own, except for a small number living in the District of Hátszeg, where it is believed that the capital of Decebalus lay, and who were made nobles during the time of John Hunyadi, a native of that place, because they always took part tirelessly in the battles against the Turks", while according to Nyárády R. Károly, the translation of the first part of the sentence would be: "...I should also add the Romanians who – even though they easily equal any of the others in number...".
In 1574, Pierre Lescalopier, relating his voyage from Venice to Constantinople, notes that those inhabiting Wallachia, Moldavia and the most part of Transylvania say to be descendants of the Romans, calling their language "romanechte".
According to George W. White, in 1600 the Romanian inhabitants were primarily peasants, comprising more than 60 percent of the population.
In Letopisețul Țării Moldovei (1642 - 1647), the Moldavian chronicler Grigore Ureche notices that in Transylvania Romanians are more numerous than Hungarians.
Around 1650, Vasile Lupu in a letter written to the Sultan attests that the number of Romanians are more than the one-third of the population.
Evliya Çelebi (1611 – 1682) was an Ottoman explorer who traveled through the territory of the Ottoman Empire and neighboring lands over a period of forty years, recording his commentary in a travelogue called the Seyahatnâme "Book of Travel". His trip to Hungary was between 1660-1666. The Transylvanian's state of development in the 17th century was so good, that it was an attraction to strangers longing for its territory. Evliya Çelebi writes this in his book that the Romanian serfs move en masse to Transylvania because of the extreme ruthlessness of the rulers of Romanian lands. The Romanians say there is justice, legal order, and low taxes in Transylvania.
According to Andreas Freyberger's writings in 1702, the Romanians are the most numerous people in Transylvania and "are spread in all of Transylvania and even in this Szekelyland, even on the lands of the Saxons. There is no village, no city, no suburb that doesn't have Romanians".
In Benedek Jancsó's estimation there were 150,000 Hungarians (~30%), 100,000 Saxons (~20%) and 250,000 Romanians (~50%) out of 500,000 people in Transylvania at the beginning of the 18th century. Official censuses with information on Transylvania's ethnic composition have been conducted since the 18th century. On May 1, 1784, Joseph II called for a census of the empire, including Transylvania. The data were published in 1787; however, this census showed only the overall population.
According to Saxon pastor Stephan Ludwig Roth in 1842, "There is no need to declare a language as the official language of the country. For we already have a language of the land. It is not German, but neither is Hungarian, it is Romanian. No matter how much we, the nations represented in the Diet, twist and spin, we cannot change anything. This is the reality. This reality cannot be disputed. As soon as two citizens of different nationalities meet and neither knows the other's language, the Romanian language immediately serves them as interpreters. When you go on a trip, when you go to the marketplace, everyone knows the Romanian language. Before testing whether someone speaks German or the other Hungarian, the conversation begins in Romanian. You can't talk to the Romanian anyway, because he usually only speaks in his own language. It is explicable: in order to learn Hungarian or German, you need school courses; while you can learn the Romanian language on your own, on the street, in daily contact with people. The ease of her learning is not limited to the large number of Latin words, which this people adopted with the merger or with the Roman settlers and which we, the Transylvanians, are known for, due to our education in the Latin spirit of so far, but also by the fact that life itself puts us in daily contact with this numerous people. Today one word catches you, tomorrow another and after a while you notice that you can speak Romanian, without actually having learned it. Even if it is not so easy for someone to learn it, it is recommended to do it for a thousand different reasons. You want to talk to a Romanian, you have to use his language, if you do not want to hear an 'I do not know!' shrugged."
The first official census in Transylvania in which a distinction was made between nationalities (distinction made on the basis of mother tongue) was made by the Austro-Hungarian authorities in 1869, counting 59,0% Romanians, 24,9% Hungarians and 11,9% Germans out of a total population of 4.224.436 people.
For the period before this year there are only estimates of the proportions of various ethnic groups in Transylvania. Thus, Fényes Elek, a Hungarian statistician from the 19th century, estimated in 1842 that the population of Transylvania in the years 1830-1840 was composed of 62.3% Romanians and 23.3% Hungarians.
Between 1880 and 1910, the census system in Austria-Hungary was based on first language used for communication. Before 1880, Jews were counted as an ethnic group; later, they were counted according to their first language, and the majority (75.7%) of the Jewish population reported Hungarian as their primary language, so they were counted as ethnically Hungarian in the censuses.
Several demographers (David W. Paul, Peter Hanak, László Katus) state that the outcome of the 1910 census is reasonably accurate, while others (Teich Mikuláš, Dušan Kováč, Martin D. Brown, Seton-Watson, Robert William, Owen Johnson, Kirk Dudley) believe that the 1910 census was manipulated by exaggerating the percentage of the speakers of Hungarian, pointing to the discrepancy between an improbably high growth of the Hungarian-speaking population and the decrease of percentual participation of speakers of other languages due to Magyarization in the Kingdom of Hungary in the late 19th century. For example, the 1921 census in Czechoslovakia (only one year after the Treaty of Trianon) shows 21% Hungarians in Slovakia, compared to 30% based on 1910 census. While the Romanian statistics (only one year before the Treaty of Trianon) shows 25% Hungarians in Transylvania.
The data recorded in all estimates and censuses is presented in the table below.
Coat of arms
The Transylvanian coat of arms depicts:
An eagle on a blue background. Possibly representing medieval nobility (primarily Magyar). Alternatively present on Wallachian coats of arms.
Sun and crescent moon. Possibly representing the Szeklers. Alternatively also present on Wallachian and Moldavian coats of arms.
Seven red towers on a yellow background, representing the seven castles of the Transylvanian Saxons
These symbols (representing the three Transylvanian estates) had been in use (usually with the Hungarian coat of arms) since the 16th century because Transylvanian princes maintained their claims to the throne of the Kingdom of Hungary. The Diet of 1659 codified the coat of arms. While the Hungarians, Saxons and Szeklers are represented the Romanians are not, despite their proposal to include a representation of Dacia.
Regions are not legal administrative units in Romania; consequently, the coat of arms is only used within the coat of arms of Romania. This officially recognised image is based on the 1659 symbols, and includes the traditional Transylvania estates.
Another, short-lived heraldic representation of Transylvania is found on the coat of arms of Michael the Brave. Besides the Wallachian eagle and the Moldavian aurochs, Transylvania is represented by two lions holding a sword (referring to the Dacian Kingdom) standing on seven hills.
The 1848 revolutionary movement proposed a revision to the Transylvanian coat of arms, with representation of the Romanian majority. To the 1659 representation it introduced a central section, portraying a Dacian woman (symbolizing the Romanian nation) holding in her right hand a sickle and in her left a Roman legion's flag with the initials "D.F." (Dacia Felix). On the woman's right there was an eagle with a laurel crown in its beak, and on its left side a lion. This representation of the Romanian nation was inspired by a coin issued by the Roman emperor Marcus Julius Philippus at Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa to honor the province of Dacia.
Historiography
The history of Transylvania has been subject to disagreement between national narratives, especially those of Romania and Hungary. In November 2006, a Romanian newspaper reported on a project for a book on the history of Transylvania under the joint auspices of the Romanian Academy and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
See also
Prehistory of Transylvania
The Ancient History of Transylvania
History of Romania
History of Cluj-Napoca
History of Hungary
Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages
List of Transylvanian rulers
History of the Székely people
Aftermath of World War I
Austria-Hungary
Celts in Transylvania
Dacia
Origin of the Romanians
Transylvanian School
Avram Iancu
References
Further reading
Jókai, Mór. The golden age in Transylvania (1898) online
Oțetea, Andrei and Andrew MacKenzie. A Concise history of Romania (1985) online
ro:Transilvania#Istoria Transilvaniei |
5395384 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar%E1%B8%ABunta%C5%A1%C5%A1a | Tarḫuntašša | ''Tarḫuntašša ( dIM-ta-aš-ša "City of Tarhunt"; Hieroglyphic Luwian: (DEUS)TONITRUS-hu-ta-sá) was a Hittite Bronze Age city in south-central Anatolia mentioned in Hittite documents. Its location is unknown. In 2019, a previously little-researched site at Türkmen-Karahöyük, near Çumra on the Konya Plain, was investigated and put forward as the site of Tarḫuntassa by Michele Massa, James Osborne and Christoph Bachhuber. Previously proposed locations include Konya, Sirkeli Höyük in Cilicia, the Göksu valley, the vicinity of Kayseri, Kilise Tepe (near Mut, formerly known as Maltepe), and Kızıldağ (north of Karaman).
New Hittite capital
In the early 13th century BC, Muwatalli II moved the Hittite capital from Hattusa to Tarhuntassa. The reasons for this move remain unclear. Official records postdating Muwatalli II's death state that he moved the capital as the result of an omen. Generally, archaeologists explain the move as a military strategy, in order to be closer to the Syrian region in preparation for battle with Ramses II at Kadesh. However, Itamar Singer has proposed instead that Muwatalli II moved the capital as part of a religious reform, attempting to elevate his personal god, pihassassi, the Storm-God of Lightning to a more powerful position in Hittite religious observance. A third explanation is that at this point in time, Tarhuntassa was more centrally located within the network of overland and sea routes connecting the Hittite empire and beyond, making it an ideal capital for managing trade and communication throughout the territory.
Muwatalli II's son Mursili III later moved the capital back to Hattusa. After Hattusili III deposed Mursili, the new king appointed Muwatalli's son Kurunta as king in Tarhuntassa. The treaty which survives mostly refers to the appointed king as "Ulmi-Tessup", and so some scholars believe that Ulmi-Tessup and Kurunta are two different rulers of Tarhuntassa.
Kurunta of Tarhuntassa
Tudhaliya IV re-ratified Kurunta as king in a treaty inscribed in bronze. At this time, Kurunta was leading his forces to war with Parha. This treaty, unlike previous treaties involving Tarhuntassa, calls to witness the Hittites' vassal kings of Mira and the Seha River Land on the Aegean coast. This implies that Tarhuntassa's stature was now a matter of importance for all western Anatolia.
Kurunta later claimed the title of Great King for himself. Whether or not this claim extended to the whole domain of Hatti, the court in Hattusa contested it (and buried the treaty).
Fall of the Hittite Empire
Toward the end of the Hittite empire, Suppiluliuma II recorded in a Hieroglyphic Luwian inscription that Hatti had attacked and sacked the city of Tarhuntassa. Other Hieroglyphic Luwian inscriptions from the late 13th century BC also mention a certain great king Hartapu, son of the great king Mursili (III), who likely ruled Tarhuntassa. It may be possible that Suppiluliuma II's campaign was directed against Hartapu.
Excavations
Oriental Institute archaeologists unearthed a lost ancient kingdom dating to 1400 B.C to 600 B.C near the Türkmen-Karahöyük site in 2020 which might be connected to Tarḫuntašša, and its king Hartapu. The script written in Luwian Hieroglyphs about Hartapu's victory over Phrygia translated by OI scholars was discovered in 2019 by University of Chicago and Konya Regional Archaeological Survey Project.
References
Sources
O. R. Gurney (1993), "The Treaty with Ulmi-Tešub", Anatolian Studies 43''':13-28.
Hittite cities
Luwians
Former populated places in Turkey
Late Bronze Age collapse
Lost cities and towns |
4000800 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamlet%20%281964%20film%29 | Hamlet (1964 film) | Hamlet () is a 1964 film adaptation in Russian of William Shakespeare's play of the same title, based on a translation by Boris Pasternak. It was directed by Grigori Kozintsev and , and stars Innokenty Smoktunovsky as Prince Hamlet.
Background
Grigori Kozintsev had been a founder member of the Russian avant-garde artist group the Factory of the Eccentric Actor (FEKS), whose ideas were closely related to Dadaism and Futurism. In 1923 he had been planning to perform Hamlet as a pantomime in the experimental manner of FEKS, but the plan was not put into effect, and Kozintsev's energies shifted into the cinema. However, he returned to the theatre in 1941 with a Leningrad production of King Lear. Then, in 1954 Kozintsev directed a stage production of Hamlet at the Pushkin Theatre in Leningrad, using Boris Pasternak's translation; this was one of the first Soviet productions of the play in the post-Joseph Stalin era.
Kozintsev also wrote extensively about Shakespeare and a major chapter in his book Shakespeare: Time and Conscience is devoted to his thoughts on Hamlet together with a historical survey of earlier interpretations. In an appendix entitled "Ten Years with Hamlet", he includes extracts from his diaries dealing with his experiences of the 1954 stage production and his 1964 film.
Adaptation
Kozintsev's film is faithful to the architecture of the play, but the text (based on Pasternak's translation) is heavily truncated, achieving a total running time of 2 hours 20 minutes (from a play which can last as long as four hours in full performance). The opening scene of the play is cut entirely, along with scenes 1 and 6 of Act IV, but other scenes are represented in sequence, even though some are drastically shortened. (Hamlet's final speech is reduced simply to "The rest is silence.") There is some resequencing of material in Act IV to illustrate the outwitting of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern on the voyage to England. Kozintsev seeks constantly to represent the content of the play in visual terms, and there are notable sequences which are constructed without the use of dialogue (e.g. the opening scene in which Hamlet arrives at Elsinore to join the court's mourning, and the vigil awaiting the appearance of the ghost).
Unlike Laurence Olivier's 1948 film, which removed most of the play's political dimension to focus on Hamlet's inner turmoil, Kozintsev's Hamlet is as political and public as it is personal. Kozintsev observed of his predecessor: "Olivier cut the theme of government, which I find extremely interesting. I will not yield a single point from this line." Where Olivier had narrow winding stairwells, Kozintsev has broad avenues, peopled with ambassadors and courtiers. The castle's role as a prison is emphasised. The camera frequently looks through bars and grates, and one critic has suggested that the image of Ophelia in an iron farthingale symbolises the fate of the sensitive and intelligent in the film's tough political environment. The film also shows the presence of ordinary people in ragged clothes, who are like the grave digger: good-hearted and only wishing to live peacefully.
Style
The camera is continually mobile and extended shots (average length 24 seconds) enable the physical exploration of the spaces of the court and castle.
Of the castle itself, Kozintsev said: "The general view of the castle must not be filmed. The image will appear only in the unity of the sensations of Elsinore's various aspects. And its external appearance, in the montage of the sequences filmed in a variety of places". Many of the exteriors were filmed at the fortress of Ivangorod, on the border of Russia and Estonia.
Much of the film takes place out of doors. Apart from the backdrop of the castle, the imagery of the film is dominated by elements of nature. Kozintsev saw this as a vital way in which he could give visual form to the text: "Strangely enough they have always sought to film Hamlet in studios, but it seems to me that the key to reincarnating Shakespeare's words in visual imagery can only be found in nature". "It seems that the basic elements of the plastic arts are formed against a background of nature. In decisive places, they should oust period stylization (of the Tudor era, and of English affectation) and express the essentials. I have in mind stone, iron, fire, earth, and sea". These elements are present throughout, including the opening shot in which the cliff-top castle is represented by its shadow falling across the surging waters of the sea, and the final scene in which Hamlet walks out of the dark palace to sit against the rock facing the sea as he dies.
Technical specifications
Although shot in black-and-white, this was the first film version of the play in a widescreen format (Sovscope, an anamorphic system similar to CinemaScope) and stereophonic sound (4-track stereo).
Critical reception
When the film appeared in 1964, it received a number of prizes both in the Soviet Union and abroad (see below). Its reception among British and American reviewers was generally favourable, despite the fact that this version of a prized work of English literature was not made in English. The New York Times reviewer took up this point: "But the lack of this aural stimulation - of Shakespeare's eloquent words - is recompensed in some measure by a splendid and stirring musical score by Dmitri Shostakovich. This has great dignity and depth, and at times an appropriate wildness or becoming levity". The author noted the strengths of the film: [Kozintsev] "is concerned with engrossing the eye. And this he does with a fine achievement of pictorial plasticity and power.... Landscape and architecture, climate and atmosphere play roles in this black-and-white picture that are almost as important as those the actors play".
In academic literature, the film has continued to receive prominent attention in studies of the methods of filming Shakespeare, especially in a play which consists so much of internal thought.
The British director Peter Brook regarded the film as being of special interest, even though he had reservations about its ultimate success: "The Russian Hamlet has been criticized for being academic, and it is: however, it has one gigantic merit - everything in it is related to the director's search for the sense of the play - his structure is inseparable from his meaning. The strength of the film is in Kozintsev's ability to realise his own conception with clarity.... But the limitation lies in its style; when all is said and done, the Soviet Hamlet is post-Eisenstein realistic - thus super-romantic - thus, a far cry from essential Shakespeare - which is neither epic, nor barbaric, nor colorful, nor abstract nor realistic in any of our uses of the words."
The film was released twice in the USA (1964, 1966), though
only excerpts from the film have been shown on U.S. television. In the UK the film was nominated for BAFTA awards in 1965, for Best Film and for Best Actor, and it was shown for many years in repertory at London's Academy Cinema, in its annual Shakespeare season.
Awards
1964 Special Jury Prize of Venice Film Festival (Won) - Grigori Kozintsev.
1964 Golden Lion of Venice Film Festival (Nominated) - Grigori Kozintsev.
1964 Best film on the Wiesbaden Shakespeare Film Festival.
1964 On the All-Union Film Festival
Special Jury Prize for The outstanding realization of the Shakespeare's tragedy and best music - Dmitri Shostakovich.
Prizes of the Soviet Union of Painters - E. Yeney, S. Virsaladze.
Prize of the Soviet Union of Cinematographers - Innokenty Smoktunovsky.
1965 USSR State Prize (Won) - Grigori Kozintsev, Innokenty Smoktunovsky.
1966 BAFTA Award for Best Film (Nominated) - Grigori Kozintsev.
1966 BAFTA Film Award for Best Foreign Actor (Nominated) - Innokenty Smoktunovsky.
1966 Special Jury Prize of San Sebastian Film Festival (Won) and Prize of the Nation Federation of film societies of Spain.
1967 Golden Globe for Best Foreign-Language Foreign Film (Nominated).
Cast
Kozintsev cast some actors whose first language was not Russian (the Latvian Elza Radziņa as Gertrude, and Estonians Rein Aren, Ants Lauter and Aadu Krevald) so as to bring shades of other traditions into his film. But for the central role, he chose the Russian actor Innokenty Smoktunovsky who had extensive experience in the theatre. Traditional in appearance, he nevertheless had an individual manner of acting, characterised by reserve as well as nervous intensity, which distinguished the film from other versions.
Prince Hamlet — Innokenty Smoktunovsky
Claudius — Mikhail Nazvanov
Gertrude — Elza Radziņa
Polonius — Yuri Tolubeyev
Laertes — Stepan Oleksenko
Ophelia — Anastasiya Vertinskaya
Horatio — Vladimir Erenberg
Rosencrantz — Igor Dmitriev
Guildenstern — Vadim Medvedev
Fortinbras — Aadu Krevald
Notes and references
Notes
Sources
External links
Full information from Kino Rossii
1964 films
Soviet films
Films based on Hamlet
1964 drama films
1960s Russian-language films
Lenfilm films
Films directed by Grigori Kozintsev
Venice Grand Jury Prize winners
Films scored by Dmitri Shostakovich
Films set in castles
Soviet black-and-white films
Fratricide in fiction
Soviet drama films |
4000805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanya%20Tucker%20%28album%29 | Tanya Tucker (album) | Tanya Tucker is the fourth studio album by American country music singer Tanya Tucker. It was released on April 21, 1975, by MCA Records. The album was produced by Snuff Garrett and includes two No. 1 singles, "Lizzie and the Rainman" and "San Antonio Stroll".
Critical reception
The review published in the May 3, 1975 issue of Billboard said, "Tanya's first MCA effort is kind of a long shot as far as the top half of the charts are concerned, but if her single hits she could do it. Producer Snuff Garrett has wisely chosen a mix of country, country oriented pop and straight pop for the set, with the intent obviously to keep her country but break her pop. Tanya still has one of the finest voices in music, pop, country or otherwise, and the new material simply offers her the chance to show off that voice in more directions. Strongest cuts are the ones leaning more toward country, though the pop oriented tunes are commercial enough. Expect pop play here. Only complaint is that from time to time the phrasing sounds a bit like Cher's. Still, it seems impossible this lady could ever make a bad album and she hasn't here." The review also noted "Lizzie and the Rainman", "Love of a Rolling Stone", "The King of Country Music", "When Will I Be Loved", "Son of a Preacher Man", "Someday Soon", and "Traveling Salesman" as the best cuts on the album.
Cashbox published a review in the May 10, 1975 issue which said, "Tanya's first LP for MCA Records was produced by Snuff Garrett and contains her current hot single "Lizzie and the Rainman". Each selection is treated to superb vocals using her untouchable style of demanding emotion from each and every selection. Some of our personal favorites are: "San Antonio Stroll", "When Will I Be Loved", "Someday Soon", and "Traveling Salesman"."
Commercial performance
The album peaked at No. 8 on the US Billboard Hot Country LPs chart and No. 113 on the US Billboard Top LPs & Tape chart.
The album's first single, "Lizzie and the Rainman", was released in April 1975 and peaked at No. 1 on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles chart, No. 37 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, and No. 7 on the US Billboard Easy Listening chart. It also peaked at No. 1 in Canada on the RPM Country Singles chart, No. 66 on the RPM Top Singles chart, and No. 2 on the RPM Adult Contemporary Singles chart. The second single, "San Antonio Stroll", was released in August 1975 and peaked at No. 1 on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles chart No. 2 in Canada on the RPM Country Singles chart. "Traveling Salesman" was released as the second single in the UK in October 1975 and failed to chart.
Track listing
Personnel
Adapted from the album liner notes.
Tanya Tucker – lead vocals
Al Capps – arrangements
Phil Everly — harmony vocals on "When Will I Be Loved"
Snuff Garrett – producer
Lenny Roberts – engineer
Hal Blaine – percussion
Charts
Album
Singles
References
1975 albums
Tanya Tucker albums
Albums produced by Snuff Garrett
MCA Records albums |
4000811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Cadd | Brian Cadd | Brian George Cadd AM (born 29 November 1946) is an Australian singer-songwriter, keyboardist, producer and record label founder, a staple of Australian entertainment for over 50 years. As well as working internationally throughout Europe and the United States, he has performed as a member of numerous bands including The Groop, Axiom, The Bootleg Family Band and in America with Flying Burrito Brothers before carving out a solo career in 1972. He briefly went under the pseudonym of Brian Caine in late 1966, when first joining The Groop.
Cadd produced fellow Australian acts Robin Jolley, Ronnie Burns, Broderick Smith, Tina Arena and Glenn Shorrock; and established his own record label called Bootleg Records. He also composed or performed music for films, Alvin Purple, Alvin Purple Rides Again, Fatal Vision, The Return of the Living Dead, Vampires on Bikini Beach, Morning of the Earth and The Heartbreak Kid and for television Class of 74, The Midnight Special and Don Kirshner's Rock Concert. His songwriting for other acts includes The Masters Apprentices, The Bootleg Family Band, Ronnie Burns, The Pointer Sisters, Little River Band and John Farnham.
In 2007, Cadd was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame. He was awarded in the Queens Birthday Honours in 2018, along with late musician Phil Emmanuel for his 50-year service to the music industry as a singer, songwriter, instrumentalist, mentor and producer and his work in production.
Early years
Cadd was born and raised in Perth, Western Australia, and was a child prodigy: winning a TV talent quest when 12 and being offered his first professional job as a pianist for a children's TV program. His family relocated to Tasmania and then Melbourne, where Cadd became involved in jazz music of the early 1960s, playing with the Beale Street Jazz Band [Rick Mabin, tpt; Frank Turner, d.] and The Castaways. He was also widely renowned for his zany hats. By 1965 The Castaways became The Jackson Kings playing R&B, with Cadd on piano and Ronnie Charles on vocals they recorded two singles "Watch Your Step" and "Watermelon Man" by April 1966.
Career
1966–1969: The Groop
The Groop formed in Melbourne in 1964 and 1965 and had recorded singles, an EP and an LP, before Cadd and Charles were asked to join in October 1966 along with guitarist Don Mudie. On advice from pop magazine Go-Set writer Ian "Molly" Meldrum Cadd changed his surname to Caine, before changing it back after his family protested. The new line-up was: Cadd, Charles, Mudie and Max Ross on bass and Richard Wright on drums.
The first single for this line-up was "Woman You're Breaking Me" (written by Cadd and Wright) which reached No. 6 in Melbourne and No. 12 in Sydney in July 1967.It was also a hit in parts of the US. Melbourne singer Ronnie Burns had a local hit with "When I Was Six Years Old" written by Cadd (who also produced) and Ross. The band won a trip to UK from the 1967 Hoadley's National Battle of the Sounds; publishers sent "When I Was Six Years Old" to England where it was recorded by Manfred Mann's lead vocalist Paul Jones.
The Groop arrived in UK as the single was released and managed to get a deal with CBS, then they toured there and in Germany. Band members had written most of their hits in Australia, but CBS decided they would cover an Italian ballad, "What's the Good of Goodbye", which failed to chart. The Groop returned to Australia by October 1968 and Ross left, they released two more singles, including "Such A Lovely Way" before disbanding in May 1969. Their last recorded work was an uncredited appearance as instrumental support on Russell Morris' No. 1 single "The Real Thing".
1969–1971: Axiom
Following the break-up of The Groop, Cadd and Mudie formed Axiom in May 1969 with Glenn Shorrock (ex-The Twilights) on vocals, Doug Lavery (ex-The Valentines) on drums and Chris Stockley (ex-Cam-Pact) on guitar. Cadd and Mudie were the primary songwriters for Axiom including their three hit singles. They signed with EMI and released their debut single "Arkansas Grass" which reached No. 7 in December 1969, followed by "A Little Ray of Sunshine" (although Cadd did not write 'A Little Ray of Sunshine' this song was written by The Groop following the birth of a members daughter, pre Axiom, however the deemed it to be "not rock and roll enough" and allowed Cadd to record) at No. 5 in April 1970. Axiom travelled to England and attempted to enter the UK market but had no chart success. Then, relocating to the US, they released their single "My Baby's Gone" in January 1971, this was followed by their second album If Only... in September. However, Axiom had already disbanded by March and Cadd returned to Australia. Shorrock later became the lead singer for Little River Band and Stockley joined The Dingoes.
1972–1975: The Bootleg Family Band and Brian Cadd, Parabrahm and Moonshine
Cadd and Mudie, as a duet, released "Show Me the Way" which reached No. 15 in early 1972. Cadd turned to producing other acts and recording solo material on his own Bootleg Records label which was set up under Ron Tudor's Fable Records. "Ginger Man" was the first single from Cadd's self-titled debut album, released in November 1972 on Bootleg Records. Bootleg was based along similar lines to US pianist Leon Russell's Shelter Records – signed artists recorded and toured together as a The Bootleg Family Band. Studio musicians used by Cadd became the Bootleg Family Band and had their own hit single by covering Loggins and Messina's "Your Mama Don't Dance", where Cadd provided lead vocals. Cadd also won the composer's section of Hoadley's Battle of the Sounds for 1972 with his song, "Don't You Know It's Magic", this became a top 20 hit for John Farnham (known then as "Johnny" Farnham). The song also won the 'Most Outstanding Composition' award at the Tokyo World Popular Song Festival, with Cadd performing there live. Cadd released a second album, Parabrahm, in 1973, and followed with the theme song and score for the 1973 movie Alvin Purple (Australia's first R-rated comedy) and its sequel Alvin Purple Rides Again in 1975. After releasing his third solo album, Moonshine in 1974, Cadd left Australia for the US. Moonshine was certified gold in Australia by November 1974.
1975–1979: America
Cadd arrived in Los Angeles in 1975 and began working on a record with Chelsea Records. The recorded label was forced into bankruptcy and ultimately ceased, and Cadd signed with Capitol Records. He released his fourth studio album in 1976 titled, White On White. The album was mixed and produced to have a 'pop sound' along the lines of Elton John and Billy Joel, but performed poorly in the US. In 1978, Cadd released Yesterdaydreams, but also performed poorly and the contract with Capitol Records ceased. The track "Yesterdaydreams" was covered by Bonnie Tyler.
1980 - 1993: The Flying Burrito Brothers and Graffiti Records
Early in 1980, Cadd toured France with the "French Elvis", Johnny Hallyday. He recorded solo albums for Interfusion, his songs were also recorded by Gene Pitney, Glen Campbell, Dobie Gray, Cilla Black, Wayne Newton, Bonnie Tyler, Joe Cocker and Ringo Starr. His biggest success occurred when the Pointer Sisters covered "Love is Like a Rolling Stone" as a B-side for their version of "Fire" which reached No. 2 on the US pop singles charts. In the mid 1980s, Cadd ran a small label called Graffiti Records and worked with Daryl Somers and was the first person to sign Tina Arena.
He released a 1985 album titled No Stone Unturned. The Charlie Daniels Band covered his song "Still Hurting Me" from that album on their October 1985 album, Me and the Boys.
Cadd travelled to Nashville in 1989, joined the Flying Burrito Brothers in 1991 and toured with them for two years, returning to Australia in 1993.
1993–2015 Return to Australia, The Blazing Salads, ARIA Hall of Fame and autobiography
In 1993, Cadd teamed up with fellow Axiom member, Shorrock and released an album under the title The Blazing Salads and completed a two-year tour. On tour Cadd played his hit songs, along with those of Axiom accompanied by Shorrock. Veteran rocker Max Merritt had also toured Australia with Cadd. In 1997, he built a recording studio Ginger Man Sound. In March 1998 he took over as CEO of The Streetwise Music Group in Brisbane, eventually becoming a co-owner. The company, which is distributed through Warner Music, now has some 20 acts spread over three labels (Streetwise, Stallion and Belly Laugh).
Cadd is the chairman of the Music Industry Advisory Council (Australia), President of the Australian Music Foundation and on the board of the musicians' benevolent organisation, Support Act. Cadd lectures at universities as well as continuing to record and perform, he independently released an album of new material Quietly Rusting in 2005 featuring musicians like Mark Meyer, Tony Naylor, Wilbur Wilde and Ross Hannaford together with some of Australia's hottest new players including Paul White, Damien Steele-Scott and James Meston.
In 2007 Cadd was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame, his acceptance speech included:
2007 also saw Cadd inducted into the Australian Songwriters Association (ASA) Songwriters Hall of Fame in recognition of his lifetime of songwriting achievements.
In November 2010 Cadd released his Autobiography "From This Side of Things". In the book Cadd tells the stories of his upbringing in Western Australia where he won an TV talent quest at the age of 12 and worked on a Children's TV program as a pianist, Tasmania and Melbourne where he played jazz with the Beale Street Jazz Band and the Castaways who would become the Jackson Kings. Having success with both The Groop and Axiom as well as his solo success in Australia, working in the United States and Europe for over 20 years and being inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame in 2007 by Jimmy Barnes.
In 2011 Cadd released a country album with lifelong friend, Russell Morris, titled, Wild Bulls and Horses.
2016-present: Bulletproof & Silver City
In November 2016 Cadd released a new studio album with The Bootleg Family Band, titled Bulletproof, which was credited to Cadd and The Bootleg Family Band.
In January 2019, Cadd will release a new solo studio album titled Silver City.
Personal life
Cadd, his then partner, and her daughter, were caught in the flash flood of the Mudgeeraba River (Gold Coast, Queensland) in February 1999, when their car was washed off a causeway. All three escaped the sinking car through its windows, but Cadd and his wife were swept away before they could get ashore. They were subsequently rescued by a local resident.
During the 2002 Long Way to the Top Tour, Cadd developed a relationship with one of the promoters, Amanda Pelman, and they are still happily together. Pelman was a judge on It Takes Two between 2006 and 2008, and is a producer, director and TV personality.
Discography
Albums
Brian Cadd (1972)
Parabrahm (1973)
Moonshine (1974)
The Magic of Brian Cadd (1975)
White on White (1976)
Yesterdaydreams – (1978)
No Stone Unturned (1985)
Cleanskin (2003)
Quietly Rusting (2005)
Wild Bulls and Horses (with Russell Morris) (2011)
The Story of Sharky and the Caddman (with Glenn Shorrock) (2013)
Bulletproof (with The Bootleg Family Band) (2016)
Silver City (2019)
See also
The Groop
Axiom (Australian band)
The Bootleg Family Band
The Flying Burrito Brothers
Awards and nominations
ARIA Music Awards
The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987
|-
| 2007
| himself
| ARIA Hall of Fame
|
|-
Australian Radio Records Awards
Cadd won Best Male Vocal Album three years in a row between 1972 and 1974.
|-
| 1972
| Brian Cadd
| Best Male Vocal Album
|
|-
| 1973
| Parabrahm
| Best Male Vocal Album
|
|-
| 1974
| Moonshine
| Best Male Vocal Album
|
|}
Australian Songwriter's Hall of Fame
The Australian Songwriters Hall of Fame was established in 2004 to honour the lifetime achievements of some of Australia's greatest songwriters.
|-
| 2007
| himself
| Australian Songwriter's Hall of Fame
|
|}
Go-Set Pop Poll
The Go-Set Pop Poll was coordinated by teen-oriented pop music newspaper, Go-Set and was established in February 1966 and conducted an annual poll during 1966 to 1972 of its readers to determine the most popular personalities.
|-
| 1972
| himself
| Songwriter
| style="background:gold;"| 1st
King and Queen of Pop Awards
The King and Queen of Pop Awards were voted by the readers of TV Week. The King of Pop award started in 1967 and ran through to 1978.
|-
| rowspan="3"| 1973
| rowspan="3"| himself
| Best Songwriter
|
|-
| Most Popular Australian Musician
|
|-
| Contribution to Australian Pop Industry
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1974
| rowspan="2"| himself
| Most Popular Australian Musician
|
|-
| Contribution to Australian Pop Industry
|
|-
Mo Awards
The Australian Entertainment Mo Awards (commonly known informally as the Mo Awards), were annual Australian entertainment industry awards. They recognise achievements in live entertainment in Australia from 1975 to 2016. Brian Cadd won one award in that time.
(wins only)
|-
| 2009
| Brian Cadd
| Rock Performer of the Year
|
|-
External links
Brian Cadd at Australian Rock Database
Brian Cadd at Miles Ago
Listen to WITH EYES CLOSED at the National Film and Sound Archive
References
1946 births
ARIA Award winners
ARIA Hall of Fame inductees
Australian pop singers
Living people
The Flying Burrito Brothers members
Musicians from Perth, Western Australia
Australian multi-instrumentalists
Australian singer-songwriters
Australian pianists
Australian keyboardists
Australian expatriates in the United States
Australian record producers
Male pianists
21st-century pianists
21st-century Australian male musicians
21st-century Australian musicians
Australian male singer-songwriters |
5395420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Turnesa | Joe Turnesa | Joseph R. Turnesa (January 31, 1901 – July 15, 1991) was one of seven famous golfing brothers; Phil (1896–1987), Frank (1898–1949), Joe (1901–1991), Mike (1907–2000), Doug (1909–1972), Jim (1912–1971), and Willie (1914–2001). All but Willie turned professional and Joe won the most times (14) on the PGA Tour. The family was referred to as a "golf dynasty" in a 2000 New York Times article.
Turnesa finished second to Bobby Jones in the 1926 U.S. Open and second to Walter Hagen in the 1927 PGA Championship. He was a member of the U.S. Ryder Cup teams in 1927 and 1929. He was born in New York, New York and died in Florida.
Professional wins
PGA Tour wins (14)
1924 (1) Augusta Open
1925 (2) Texas Open, Pennsylvania Open Championship
1926 (2) Metropolitan PGA, Sacramento Open
1927 (3) Shreveport Open, Ridgewood Country Club Open, Sacramento Open
1930 (2) Metropolitan PGA, Massachusetts Open
1931 (1) Miami Open
1932 (2) Metropolitan PGA, Grassy Spain Course Tournament
1933 (1) Mid-South Open (tie with Willie Macfarlane and Paul Runyan)
Other wins (8)
Note: This list may be incomplete.
1929 Yorkshire Evening News Tournament, Lannin Memorial Tournament
1931 Florida Open (tie with Wiffy Cox)
1934 Long Island Open
1935 Connecticut PGA Championship
1936 Connecticut PGA Championship
1938 Long Island Open
1940 Long Island Open
Results in major championships
NYF = tournament not yet founded
NT = no tournament
WD = withdrew
CUT = missed the half-way cut
R64, R32, R16, QF, SF = round in which player lost in PGA Championship match play
"T" indicates a tie for a place
Summary
Most consecutive cuts made – 8 (1923 U.S. Open – 1928 U.S. Open)
Longest streak of top-10s – 2 (1927 PGA – 1928 U.S. Open)
See also
List of golfers with most PGA Tour wins
References
American male golfers
PGA Tour golfers
Ryder Cup competitors for the United States
Golfers from New York (state)
Sportspeople from New York City
1901 births
1991 deaths |
5395427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru%20Sambar | Subaru Sambar | The Subaru Sambar is a cabover truck and microvan manufactured and marketed by Subaru as Japan's first truck compliant with the country's strict Keitora (軽トラ) or Kei vehicle tax class. Introduced in 1961 in microvan and Kei pickup configurations, the Sambar remains in production, now in its eighth generation — beginning with the sixth generation as a rebadged Daihatsu Hijet.
Since its introduction, the Sambar has used a rear engine, rear wheel drive layout with body-on-frame rather than unibody construction. The first two generations used the air-cooled engine from the Subaru 360 and later generations used the water-cooled engine from the Subaru Rex, Vivio and the Pleo. Four-wheel drive became optional in 1980. Sambar models were manufactured in China as the [三八] as well as in Finland in a joint venture with Elcat Automotive. Passenger variants of the Sambar were later marketed as the Subaru Dias Wagon.
With the Sambar, Subaru borrowed from the Type 2 (1951-1967) van — using a marketing name very similar to the Volkswagen's upper trim level, the Samba, and using a similar rear-drive, rear air-cooled engine, passenger-cab-over-front-axle (cabover), configuration. The Sambar was the first Kei truck using a cabover design — and was the last Kei-compliant vehicle using a rear-engine, rear-drive layout.
First generation (1961–1966)
Introduced at the 1960 Tokyo Motor Show in passenger and commercial versions, the Sambar featured 4-wheel independent suspension, a rear engine, rear drive layout — and a one-box body configuration based on the Subaru 360 platform and inspired by the 1957 Fiat 600 Multipla. The chassis uses a ladder frame construction, with a rear torsion bar trailing arm suspension. The reverse gearshift position was a left-pattern selection, instead of a right-pattern selection, and the EK series engine could be accessed via a hatch inside the vehicle. Maximum power from the two-stroke twin was . As with the Subaru 360, front doors were rear-hinged. Rear doors were front-hinged, with a rear cargo hatch. Provisional camping bunk beds were available.
Commercial variants of the Sambar was marketed for delivery use, nicknamed the "kuchibiru ([lower] lip)" Sambar, inspired by a competior, the 1960-1960 Kurogane Baby. Other competiros included the front-engined Suzulight Carry which placed the engine in front of the driver but also adopted the cabover approach in 1966, and the 1964 Daihatsu Hijet cabover.
The Subaru cabover configuration followed the 1950 Volkswagen Type 2, and was introduced the same year as the 1961 Ford Econoline, and the 1961 Chevrolet Greenbrier.
Second generation (1966–1973)
The redesigned Sambar debuted in January 1966 with revised styling and a truck variant. The second generation is nicknamed the "baban" Sambar.
The Sambar continued to use the 356 cc EK31 engine, but now in the iteration used in the Subaru 360 since July 1964.
A raised roof for extended headroom was added to the options list in 1968. Starting with the 1970 model year, the engine was accessed from outside the vehicle, and the front doors were conventionally hinged. To enhance safety a full padded dash pad was introduced, sharing the dashboard panel from the new R–2. Along with the facelift, the engine was also updated (EK33) and now produced .
The styling was also revised, adding a faux front grille to create a more modern appearance as well as bringing the corporate look of the all new compact Subaru Leone.
The Sambar saw new competitors, the Mazda Porter in 1968, and the Honda Vamos in 1970.
Third generation (1973–1982)
The third generation appeared 10 February 1973, this one nicknamed the "Gōriki (Herculean strength)" Sambar due to an advertising campaign at the time. The first series still carried a two-stroke two-cylinder 356 cc engine but by now water-cooled. Maximum power is at 5500 rpm. The engine code was EK34, the truck received the K71 model code while the van was called K81.
As of February 1976, the engine was upgraded to the EK21 four-stroke water-cooled version introduced in the Rex to reduce emissions. Claimed maximum power remained the same, but at a much higher engine speed (7500 rpm) and with considerably lower torque figures than the earlier two-stroke type. This model saw the introduction of an electric window washer pump to improve driver visibility. Because of regulations changes, only three months later the engine was again upgraded with a 490 cc displacement (EK22) engine of a similar layout for the Sambar 5 (K75 truck, K76 panel van, K85 van). This was naturally sold as the Subaru 500 in export markets. This was in turn soon replaced by a full 550 cc (EK23) model, the K77/87 of March 1977. In export, the Sambar 550 was known as the Subaru 600.
This model saw the introduction of a sliding side door added on both sides (although a version without the driver's side door remained available), with a full "B" pillar to enhance body stiffness instead of the approach used by the Nissan Prairie which had the front and rear doors interlock. Minor horsepower improvements were introduced in 1977 along with an increase in the width of the vehicle. A sunroof was added to the options list in 1979. 4WD was introduced as an option in 1980, on both the van and truck bodystyles, coinciding with the same feature being offered on the Subaru Rex.
Fourth generation (1982–1990)
May 9, 1982 is when the fourth generation model appeared (KR), with one-box van models marketed as "Sambar Try." The Try was available as a Van with a high or a regular roof, and as a high-roofed passenger model (model code KR). The suspension was upgraded to a four-wheel independent layout with MacPherson struts for the front wheels. The wheel size increased from 10 inches to 12 inches, thereby accommodating larger drum brakes used at all four wheels. The 4WD was available with a dual-range transmission. An automatic clutch was offered in the Sambar Try FL and FX.
While the home market Sambar came equipped with the 544 cc, 2-cylinder EK23 engine, export versions (known as Subaru 700) received an enlarged 665 cc version of the same, producing . LHD versions were available. In May 1986 retracting seat belts became standard fitment and the TG version of the Sambar Try replaced the earlier TX-G.
January 9, 1987 saw the commercial one-box versions renamed Sambar Van, while the high roofed passenger version retained the Sambar Try name. Front disc brakes were added to the options list. Full-time 4WD was available towards the end of this generations product cycle. In April 1989, a six-valve engine producing joined the regular engine in high-end versions of the Try and the Sambar truck. The EN05 four-cylinder engine later used in the Rex was never fitted to the KR/KT Sambar, as it would require re-engineering to be a replacement platform. The enlarged Domingo was available with the 3-cylinder EF10 1000 cc engine starting in 1983.
This bigger version of the Sambar was available in Europe from 1983 and went by several names, such as the Subaru Sumo, Libero, Domingo, and Columbuss. The small-bodied version went by the name of Subaru 700 in the few markets where it was available.
The primary difference between the Sambar and the larger-engined variants is the extension of both the front and rear bumpers to aid in occupant protection. The larger Domingo (and its various iterations) isn't considered "kei class" because the dimensions exceed the requirements and the engine displacement is larger than regulations allow.
Fifth generation (1990–1999)
The fifth generation Sambar was introduced in 1990. Engine regulations for displacement size were increased and the Sambar's engine was upgraded to 660 cc. For the 4WD version it sold as Subaru Dias Wagon as a permanent trim model. Commercials in Japan used Kuniko Yamada, a Japanese comedian.
The tradition of using the engine in Subaru's kei car offering was continued, with the Subaru Vivio sharing its EN07 engine with this version of the Sambar. The engine now had four cylinders and in the carburetted standard model; was on tap in the optional supercharged model, coupled with fuel injection. An automatic transmission was offered in the form of Subaru's ECVT system in tandem with full-time 4WD and a viscous coupling differential.
1994 saw a full model change for the Domingo, using the new Sambar design coupled to the Subaru Justy's EF12 SOHC three-cylinder engine displacing 1200 cc. A maximum seating capacity of seven was possible. October 1995 saw the elimination of the ECVT transmission due to drivability issues and a 3-speed automatic was made available instead. A new option for naturally aspirated versions was the EMPi engine, producing .
Special edition appearance packages were offered including a retro "Dias Classic", later available on the Sambar truck, influenced by the Subaru Vivio Bistro. A Sambar Dias Classic appears in Love Hina as Seta's van.
Sixth generation (1999-2012)
The sixth generation was available for purchase May 2, 1999, and in 1998 kei class vehicle size regulations allowed for an increase in body size. The 4WD Dias is now only offered with a 3-speed automatic transmission, with the supercharger optioned engine power output increased to . Carburetors are no longer used on the current version of the Subaru EN engine for the entire product line, and the EF engine is no longer manufactured.
To address safety concerns with side impact resistance, on 1 October 1998 the width restriction for kei vehicles was increased to and the sixth generation Sambar was widened accordingly.
July 18, 2008, items that were included were dual front passenger airbags, power sliding rear doors, power windows, and leather interior on upper trim level models.
Seventh generation (2009-2014)
On June 26 2007 an article appeared in the Japanese newspaper Nikkan Kogyo Shimbun, claiming that due to the investment by Toyota in Fuji Heavy Industries, the parent company of Subaru, all production of kei class vehicles made by Subaru would end and be replaced by Toyota-owned Daihatsu models rebadged as Subarus. This would allow Subaru to focus on their core business of four-wheel-drive family cars with horizontally opposed engines; kei car sales are almost entirely limited to the domestic Japanese market and were not cost effective for such a small manufacturer.
In September 2009, the passenger version of the Sambar introduced as the Subaru Dias Wagon, a rebadged version of the Daihatsu Atrai van. The seventh generation of the Sambar truck was later introduced to Japan on April 2, 2012 as a badge engineered Daihatsu Hijet Van/Truck, but the passenger variant (Dias Wagon) had already been produced since 2009. This is the first time the Sambar is a semi-cabover vehicle, the engine was installed in the front of the vehicle, between the front passengers, and driven by the rear wheels, and continuing to offer on demand four-wheel-drive. In 2014, the Sambar truck was discontinued and updated to S500 Hijet generation, while the Sambar van/Dias Wagon stayed on the S321 platform.
Eighth generation (2014-present)
The eighth-generation Sambar Truck was introduced in Japan on September 2, 2014 as a rebadged tenth-generation Daihatsu Hijet Truck.
The eighth-generation Sambar Van was introduced in Japan in January 2022 as a rebadged eleventh-generation Daihatsu Hijet Cargo, which is built on the DNGA platform. The Dias Wagon passenger van was renamed to Sambar Dias.
Gallery
References
External links
Samber Truck｜SUBARU(Japanese)
Samber Van｜SUBARU(Japanese)
All Subaru Sambar models since 1961 (German language)
Subaru Sambar Discussion Forum
SUBARU-SAMBAR (Subaru Official Site in Japanese)
Subaru Sambar Van Specifications from Kei Cars Canada
Subaru Sambar Mini Truck Features
subaru Mini trucks Maintenance and custom from japan
Sambar
Microvans
Pickup trucks
Cab over vehicles
Kei trucks
Vehicles with CVT transmission
All-wheel-drive vehicles
Rear-engined vehicles
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Vehicles introduced in 1961 |
5395439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave%20survey | Cave survey | A cave survey is a map of all or part of a cave system, which may be produced to meet differing standards of accuracy depending on the cave conditions and equipment available underground. Cave surveying and cartography, i.e. the creation of an accurate, detailed map, is one of the most common technical activities undertaken within a cave and is a fundamental part of speleology. Surveys can be used to compare caves to each other by length, depth and volume, may reveal clues on speleogenesis, provide a spatial reference for other areas of scientific study and assist visitors with route-finding.
Traditionally, cave surveys are produced in two-dimensional form due to the confines of print, but given the three-dimensional environment inside a cave, modern techniques using computer aided design are increasingly used to allow a more realistic representation of a cave system.
History
The first known plan of a cave dates from 1546, and was of a man-made cavern in tufa called the Stufe di Nerone (Nero's Oven) in Pozzuoli near Naples in Italy. The first natural cave to be mapped was the Baumannshöhle in Germany, of which a sketch from 1656 survives.
Another early survey dates from before 1680, and was made by John Aubrey of Long Hole in the Cheddar Gorge. It consists of an elevational section of the cave. Numerous other surveys of caves were made in the following years, though most are sketches and are limited in accuracy. The first cave that is likely to have been accurately surveyed with instruments is the Grotte de Miremont in France. This was surveyed by a civil engineer in 1765 and includes numerous cross-sections. Édouard-Alfred Martel was the first person to describe surveying techniques. His surveys were made by having an assistant walk down the passage until they were almost out of sight. Martel would then take a compass bearing to the assistant's light, and measure the distance by pacing up to the assistant. This would equate to a modern-day BCRA Grade 2 survey.
The first cave to have its centreline calculated by a computer is the Fergus River Cave in Ireland, which was plotted by members of the UBSS in 1964. The software was programmed onto a large university mainframe computer and a paper plot was produced.
Methodology
There are many variations to surveying methodology, but most are based on a similar set of steps which haven't changed fundamentally in 250 years, although the instruments (compass and tape) have become smaller and more accurate. Since the late 1990s, digital instruments such as distometers have started to change the process, leading to the advent of fully paperless surveying around 2007. The main variation on the normal methodology detailed below have been devices such as LIDAR and SONAR surveyors that produce a point cloud rather than a series of linked stations. Video-based surveying also exists in prototype form.
Surveying
A survey team begins at a fixed point (such as the cave entrance) and measures a series of consecutive line-of-sight measurements between stations. The stations are temporary fixed locations chosen chiefly for their ease of access and clear sight along the cave passage. In some cases, survey stations may be permanently marked to create a fixed reference point to which to return at a later date.
The measurements taken between the stations include:
direction (azimuth or bearing) taken with a compass
inclination from horizontal (dip) taken with a clinometer
distance measured with a low-stretch tape or laser rangefinder
optionally, distance to surrounding walls – left, right, up, down (LRUD)
Coincident with recording straight-line data, details of passage dimensions, shape, gradual or sudden changes in elevation, the presence or absence of still or flowing water, the location of notable features and the material on the floor are recorded, often by means of a sketch map.
Drawing a line-plot
Later, the cartographer analyzes the recorded data, converting them into two-dimensional measurements by way of geometrical calculations. From them he/she creates a line-plot; a scaled geometrical representation of the path through the cave.
Finalising
The cartographer then draws details around the line-plot, using the additional data of passage dimensions, water flow and floor/wall topography recorded at the time, to produce a completed cave survey. Cave surveys drawn on paper are often presented in two-dimensional plan and/or profile views, while computer surveys may simulate three dimensions. Although primarily designed to be functional, some cavers consider cave surveys as an art form.
Hydrolevelling
Hydrolevelling is an alternative to measuring depth with clinometer and tape that has a long history of use in Russia. The technique is regularly used in building construction for finding two points with the same height, as in levelling a floor. In the simplest case, a tube with both ends open is used, attached to a strip of wood, and the tube is filled with water and the depth at each end marked. In Russia, measuring the depth of caves by hydrolevelling began in the 1970s, and was considered to be the most accurate means of measuring depth despite the difficulties in using the cumbersome equipment of the time. Interest in the method has been revived following the discovery of Voronja on the Arabica Massif in the Caucasus – currently the world's deepest cave.
The hydrolevel device used in recent Voronja expeditions comprises a transparent tube filled with water, which is coiled or placed on a reel. A rubber glove which acts as a reservoir is placed on one end of the tube, and a metal box with a transparent window is placed on the other. A diver's digital wristwatch with a depth gauge function is submerged in the box. If the rubber glove is placed on one station and the box with the depth gauge is placed on a lower one, then the hydrostatic pressure between the two points depends only on the difference in heights and the density of the water, i.e. the route of the tube does not affect the pressure in the box. Reading the depth gauge gives the apparent depth change between the higher and lower station. Depth changes are 'apparent' because depth gauges are calibrated for sea water, and the hydrolevel is filled with fresh water. Therefore, a coefficient must be determined to convert apparent depth changes to true depth changes. Adding the readings for consecutive pairs of stations gives the total depth of the cave.
Accuracy
The accuracy, or grade, of a cave survey is dependent on the methodology of measurement. A common survey grading system is that created by the British Cave Research Association in the 1960s, which uses a scale of six grades.
BCRA grading system
BCRA gradings for a cave line survey
Grade 1
Sketch of low accuracy where no measurements have been made
Grade 2 (use only if necessary, see note 7)
May be used, if necessary, to describe a sketch that is intermediate in accuracy between Grade 1 & 3
Grade 3
A rough magnetic survey. Horizontal & vertical angles measured to ±2.5 °; distances measured to ±50 cm; station position error less than 50 cm.
Grade 4 (use only if necessary, see note 7)
May be used, if necessary, to describe a survey that fails to attain all the requirements of Grade 5 but is more accurate than a Grade 3 survey.
Grade 5
A Magnetic survey. Horizontal and vertical angles measured to ±1 °; distances should be observed and recorded to the nearest centimetre and station positions identified to less than 10 cm.
Grade 6
A magnetic survey that is more accurate than grade 5, (see note 5).
Grade X
A survey that is based primarily on the use of a theodolite or total station instead of a compass, (see notes 6 and 10 below).
Notes
The above table is a summary, omitting some technical details and definitions; the definitions of the survey grades given above must be read in conjunction with these notes.
In all cases it is necessary to follow the spirit of the definition and not just the letter.
To attain Grade 3 it is necessary to use a clinometer in passages having appreciable slope.
To attain Grade 5 it is essential for instruments to be properly calibrated, and all measurements must be taken from a point within a 10 cm diameter sphere centred on the survey station.
A Grade 6 survey requires the compass to be used at the limit of possible accuracy, i.e. accurate to ±0.5 °; clinometer readings must be to the same accuracy. Station position error must be less than ±2.5 cm, which will require the use of tripods at all stations or other fixed station markers ('roofhooks').
A Grade X survey must include on the drawing notes descriptions of the instruments and techniques used, together with an estimate of the probable accuracy of the survey compared with Grade 3, 5 or 6 surveys.
Grades 2 and 4 are for use only when, at some stage of the survey, physical conditions have prevented the survey from attaining all the requirements for the next higher grade and it is not practical to re-survey.
Caving organisations, etc., are encouraged to reproduce Table 1 and Table 2 in their own publications; permission is not required from BCRA to do so, but the tables must not be reprinted without these notes.
Grade X is only potentially more accurate than Grade 6. It should never be forgotten that the theodolite/Total Station is a complex precision instrument that requires considerable training and regular practice if serious errors are not to be made through its use!
In drawing up, the survey co-ordinates must be calculated and not hand-drawn with scale rule and protractor to obtain Grade 5.
BCRA gradings for recording cave passage detail
Class A
All passage details based on memory.
Class B
Passage details estimated and recorded in the cave.
Class C
Measurements of detail made at survey stations only.
Class D
Measurements of detail made at survey stations and wherever else needed to show significant changes in passage dimensions.
Notes
The accuracy of the detail should be similar to the accuracy of the line.
Normally only one of the following combinations of survey grades should be used:
1A
3B or 3C
5C or 5D
6D
XA, XB, XC or XD
Survey error detection
The equipment used to undertake a cave survey continues to improve. The use of computers, inertia systems, and electronic distance finders has been proposed, but few practical underground applications have evolved at present.
Despite these advances, faulty instruments, imprecise measurements, recording errors or other factors may still result in an inaccurate survey, and these errors are often difficult to detect. Some cave surveyors measure each station twice, recording a back-sight to the previous station in the opposite direction. A back-sight compass reading that is different by 180 degrees and a clinometer reading that is the same value but with the reverse direction (positive rather than negative, for example) indicates that the original measurement was accurate.
When a loop within a cave is surveyed back to its starting point, the resulting line-plot should also form a closed loop. Any gap between the first and last stations is called a loop-closure error. If no single error is apparent, one may assume the loop-closure error is due to cumulative inaccuracies, and cave survey software can 'close the loop' by averaging possible errors throughout the loop stations. Loops to test survey accuracy may also be made by surveying across the surface between multiple entrances to the same cave.
The use of a low-frequency cave radio can also verify survey accuracy. A receiving unit on the surface can pinpoint the depth and location of a transmitter in a cave passage by measurement of the geometry of its radio waves. A survey over the surface from the receiver back to the cave entrance forms an artificial loop with the underground survey, whose loop-closure error can then be determined.
In the past, cavers were reluctant to redraw complex cave maps after detecting survey errors. Today, computer cartography can automatically redraw cave maps after data has been corrected.
Surveying software
There are a large number of surveying packages available on various computer platforms, most of which have been developed by cavers with a basis in computer programming. Many of the packages perform particularly well for specific tasks, and as such many cave surveyors will not solely choose one product over another for all cartographic tasks.
A popular program for producing a centerline survey is Survex, which was originally developed by members of the Cambridge University Caving Club for processing survey data from club expeditions to Austria. It was released to the public in 1992. The centerline data can then be exported in various formats and the cave detail drawn in with various other programmes such as AutoCAD, Adobe Illustrator and Inkscape. Other programmes such as 'Tunnel' and Therion have full centerline and map editing capabilities. Therion notably, when it closes survey loops, warps the passages to fit over their length, meaning that entire passages do not have to be redrawn. Unlike Therion's 2D warping capabilities, CaveWhere warps passages in 3D. This includes warping plan and profile sketches. CaveWhere also supports loop closure (using Survex) and provides a user friendly interface for entering and visualizing cave survey data.
Terrestrial LiDAR units are increasing significantly in accuracy and decreasing in price. Several Caves have been "scanned" using both "time of flight" and "phase shift" LiDAR units. The differences are in the relative accuracies available to each. The Oregon Caves National Park, was LiDAR scanned in August 2011, as were the Paisley Caves Archaeological dig site in SE Oregon. Both were scanned with a FARO Focus Phase shift scanner with +/-2mm accuracy. The Oregon Caves were scanned from the main public entrance to the 110 exit and were loop surveyed to the point of beginning. The data is not yet available for public use, but copies are retained by both the US Park Service and i-TEN Associates in Portland, Oregon.
Automated methods
In recent years an underground geographic positioning technology called HORTA has been utilized in the mining industry. The technology utilizes a gyroscope and an accelerometer to aid in 3D-position determination.
Such automated methods have provided a more than fifty-fold increase in underground surveying productivity with more accurate and finer detail maps as well.
See also
Caving
List of longest caves
References
External links
Laser Scanning History: Paisley Caves
Compass Points, the official journal of the BCRA Cave Surveying Group
CaveMaps.org Surveys, A collection of Surveys of British Caves
Surveying
Map types |
5395446 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal%20branch%20of%20vagus%20nerve | Pharyngeal branch of vagus nerve | The pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve, the principal motor nerve of the pharynx, arises from the upper part of the ganglion nodosum, and consists principally of filaments from the cranial portion of the accessory nerve.
It passes across the internal carotid artery to the upper border of the Constrictor pharyngis medius, where it divides into numerous filaments, which join with branches from the glossopharyngeal, sympathetic, and external laryngeal to form the pharyngeal plexus.
From the plexus, branches are distributed to the muscles and mucous membrane of the pharynx (except the stylopharyngeus, which is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)) and the muscles of the soft palate, except the Tensor veli palatini, which is supplied by the nerve to tensor veli palatini, a branch of the nerve to medial pterygoid (which itself is a branch of the mandibular nerve - CNV/3). A minute filament descends and joins the hypoglossal nerve as it winds around the occipital artery.
See also
Pharyngeal nerve
References
External links
()
Vagus nerve
Human throat
Nerves of the head and neck |
5395452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal%20branch | Pharyngeal branch | Pharyngeal branch can refer to any one of several different structures near the pharynx:
Nerves
Pharyngeal branch of vagus nerve - "ramus pharyngeus nervi vagi"
Pharyngeal branches of recurrent laryngeal nerve - "rami pharyngei nervi laryngei recurrentis"
Pharyngeal branches of glossopharyngeal nerve - "rami pharyngei nervi glossopharyngei"
Pharyngeal nerve of pterygopalatine ganglion
Arteries
Pharyngeal branches of ascending pharyngeal artery - "rami pharyngeales arteriae pharyngeae ascendentis"
Pharyngeal branch of artery of pterygoid canal - "ramus pharyngeus arteriae canalis pterygoidei"
Pharyngeal branch of maxillary artery
Pharyngeal branches of inferior thyroid artery - "rami pharyngeales arteriae thyroideae inferioris" |
5395456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariko%20Takahashi%27s%20Fitness%20Video%20for%20Being%20Appraised%20as%20an%20%22Ex-fat%20Girl%22 | Mariko Takahashi's Fitness Video for Being Appraised as an "Ex-fat Girl" | Mariko Takahashi's Fitness Video for Being Appraised as an "Ex-fat Girl" (often referred to as Doggy Fitness or Poodle Fitness) is a short film by renowned art director and commercial film director Nagi Noda who created spots for Nike and Coca-Cola and starring Mariko Takahashi, a California born model. The film was created for Panasonic's Ten Short Movies – Capture the Motion series for the 2004 Summer Olympics. The film is a word-for-word parody of Susan Powter's first workout video. Also, exercising with her in the video are six actors dressed in dog costumes, with actual live dogs' heads superimposed over their real heads. Nagi Noda, in her artist's statement, explained that she arrived at the poodle concept after noticing that the dogs' hair cuts resembled muscles. She believed that this concept would help her video appeal to people of all ages.
The video circulated throughout the Internet since it was posted on the Panasonic website along with the other nine short films in 2004. Possibly contributing to its popularity, Noda never explains in the video why people in the video are wearing dog costumes, leaving viewers to speculate.
References
2004 films |
5395463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bel%C3%A9n%2C%20Catamarca | Belén, Catamarca | Belén is a small town in the province of Catamarca, Argentina. It has about 12,000 inhabitants according to the , and it is the head town of the department of the same name. Belén is the birthplace of Luis Franco.
References
Departamento Belén - Provincia de Catamarca — Official website.
Populated places in Catamarca Province |
4000814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovin%27%20and%20Learnin%27 | Lovin' and Learnin' | Lovin' and Learnin' is the fifth studio album by American country music singer Tanya Tucker. It was released on January 5, 1976, by MCA Records. The album was produced by Jerry Crutchfield and includes two top ten singles, "Don't Believe My Heart Can Stand Another You" and "You've Got Me to Hold On To".
Critical reception
The review published in the February 14, 1976 issue of Billboard said, "Tucker still does not appear to be singing quite as strongly as she could be, but the effort is a creditable one. Stronger country orientation than rock, which is to be expected. Best part of the LP are the expressive, interpretive vocals on the best of the cuts and some fine new songs from Billy Ray Reynolds, Barbara Keith and Doug Tibbles. Best cuts: "Don't Believe My Heart Can Stand Another You" (easily the best song on the album), "Pride of Franklin Country", and "Leave Him Alone". LP is first produced by Jerry Crutchfield."
The review published by Cashbox in the January 17, 1976 issue said, "Tanya says, "I’m 15, and you’re gonna hear from me", and we absolutely take her at her word as she expresses herself incomparably on this album. Produced by Jerry Crutchfield, it’s terrific Tanya throughout."
Commercial performance
The album peaked at No. 3 on the US Billboard Hot Country LPs chart and No. 91 in Canada on the RPM Top Albums chart.
The album's first single, "Don't Believe My Heart Can Stand Another You", was released in December 1975 and peaked at No. 4 on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and No. 1 in Canada on the RPM Country Singles chart. The second single, "Ain't That a Shame", was released in March 1976 only in the UK. The second North American single and third overall, "You've Got Me to Hold On To", was released in April 1976 and peaked at No. 3 on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and No. 3 in Canada on the RPM Country Singles chart. The fourth and final single, "Pride of Franklin County", was released exclusively in Japan in May 1976.
Track listing
Personnel
Adapted from the album liner notes.
Jerry Carrigan – drums
Jerry Crutchfield – background vocals
Charlie Daniels – violin
Pete Drake – steel guitar
Janie Fricke – background vocals
Larry Gatlin – background vocals
Steve Gibson – guitar
Glenn Keener – guitar
Charlie McCoy – harmonica
Nashville's Famous Strings – strings
Hargus "Pig" Robbins – keyboards
Billy Sanford – guitar
Tanya Tucker – lead and background vocals
Bergen White – background vocals
Jack Williams – bass guitar
Charts
Album
Singles
References
1976 albums
Tanya Tucker albums
MCA Records albums
Albums produced by Jerry Crutchfield |
5395471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift%20House%3A%20The%20First%20Voyage | Drift House: The First Voyage | Drift House: The First Voyage is a 2005 children's novel written by Dale Peck. This was Peck's first children's book; he is best known as a polemicist reviewer, and adult novelist.
In 2007 and 2008, Chicago Public Schools placed the novel on their recommended reading list for School Grades 6–8.
Influences
Dale Peck wrote the book after a friend living in Cape Cod described a dream he had had about his house floating out to sea. He cites The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe by C.S. Lewis as a strong influence on the book.
Plot
After the 9/11 attack on New York City, the three Oakenfeld children, Susan, Charles, and Murray, are sent to live with their Uncle Farley in Canada.
Farley has recently bought a strange ship-like home named Drift House on The Bay of Eternity. The home resembles a bizarre old-time ship, washed ashore. The children immediately find the home very odd. When they question their uncle about the strange house, he becomes nervous and distracted. The children later explore the house, where they meet a talkative parrot named President Wilson.
One morning, they wake to discover the house has been raised up by a flood, carried out of the bay, and has drifted into the Sea of Time – a place where past, present, and future converge. Susan, Charles and Murray, along with Uncle Farley and President Wilson embark on an adventure where they discover evil mermaids, comical pirates, a wise whale, predictions of things to come, and a secret plot that could stop time itself.
Main Characters
Susan Oakenfeld- Susan Oakenfeld is the eldest child in the family being twelve-years-old and in the eighth grade. She aspires to become a lawyer like her father, and is in her school's debating club. She is portrayed as a straight-A student with a perfectionist streak. She regularly watches the BBC World News and has a strong attachment to England, where she was born. In The First Voyage, the mermaids team with Susan to rescue their sister, and later to lock The Great Drain. Throughout the book she develops a strong friendship with a young mermaid, Diaphone, who later sacrifices herself to save Susan. Although Susan fights with her younger brother Charles frequently, she cares for both him and Murray dearly. Susan is described as having short, dark hair and being very tall and thin. She has a habit of sticking her tongue in her cheek, especially when thinking.
Charles Oakenfeld- Charles is the middle child, a fact that he detests. Smart and scientifically minded for his age, he even takes special classes. He is also very shy and quiet though, and likes to think things through. Charles constantly argues with his older sister, Susan, mainly about her "affected" way of speaking. He has a keen interest in antiquated technology, such as old radios and televisions. He wears glasses, has brown hair, and is small for his age.
Murray Oakenfeld- At age five, Murray is the youngest of the three Oakenfeld children. He starts out as innocent and fun-loving, but after he gets angry at Susan and hides in the dumbwaiter he comes out acting and speaking like an adult. He wears a mysterious golden locket, and has an alter ego named Mario – who is him, only five years older.
Reception
Sarah Sawtelle of Kidsreads found the book a "well-crafted adventure series that is sure to be another children's classic".
Releases and sequel
The book was first released in the United States and the United Kingdom in a hardcopy edition on September 17, 2005, by Bloomsbury Publishing (). It was subsequently released as a paperback version by Scholastic Books on October 31, 2006 (). A sequel titled The Lost Cities: A Drift House Voyage was released in 2007.
References
External links
Bloomsbury Publishing's Drift House page
2005 American novels
2005 fantasy novels
Children's fantasy novels
American fantasy novels |
5395474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hower | Hower | Hower is a surname. Notable people with the name include:
Ralph M. Hower (1903–1973), American historian
Jim Hower (1931–2008), Australian rules footballer
Nancy Hower (born 1966), American actress, director, screenwriter and producer
See also
Hower-Slote House, located at Lewis Township, Northumberland County, Pennsylvania
Hauer, surname |
5395490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wik-Ngatharr%20dialect | Wik-Ngatharr dialect | Wik-Ngatharr, or Wik-Alken (Wik-Elken), is a Paman language spoken on the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland, Australia, by the Wik-Ngatharr people. It is a co-dialect with Wik-Ngathan, and more distantly related to the other Wik languages. In 1981 there were 86 speakers.
References
Wik languages |
5395493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20films%20made%20with%20Autodesk%203ds%20Max | List of films made with Autodesk 3ds Max | The following is a list of major films which used Autodesk 3ds Max software, or one of its previous versions, in some of the visual effects shots:
References
3ds Max
Films made with Autodesk 3ds Max
Films made with Autodesk 3ds Max |
5395536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrous%20portion | Petrous portion | Petrous portion (From Latin petrous 'rocky') may refer to:
Petrous portion of the temporal bone
Petrous portion of the internal carotid artery
Human anatomy |
5395537 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figawi | Figawi | The Figawi or Figawi Race Weekend is an annual charity event and regatta from Hyannis to Nantucket on the Memorial Day weekend hosted by Figawi, Inc.
History
The Figawi originated in 1972 as an informal race between friends Bob Luby, Joe Horan, and Bob Horan that quickly organized into an annual event. The 1978 addition of a lay day and race back to Hyannis turned the race into a three-day event. By the 1980s, the Figawi was drawing entrants from throughout the New England region. In 1987, Figawi organizers established a black tie charity ball to raise money for local charities.
The Race
The 2012 race expected over 240 boats and 3,000 participants in 13 classes. The race began in Hyannisport, and the use of the Performance Handicap Racing Fleet system staggered starting times between 10 a.m. and noon. The race ended at the entrance to Nantucket Harbor and proceeded as a parade into Nantucket Boat Basin. The race totaled approximately 25 miles.
Charity Ball
The Charity Ball is a Saturday night event that raises money exclusively for charities local to Hyannis, such as 2012's beneficiary, the Hyannis Youth and Community Center. Events include dinner provided by local restaurants, charity casino, silent auction, and raffle. 1,200 attendees are expected to generate $200,000.
Other events
Besides the regatta and the charity ball, Figawi, Inc hosts several other events:
Competitor party on Saturday night and traditional clambake on Sunday.
The Figawi Invitational, an invitational regatta for high school sailing teams from Cape Cod and the Islands.
Awards ceremony, which awards 97 trophies, including formal and informal categories ranging from race winners to spirit awards.
"Redux" Monday race, beginning on Nantucket and ending at a neutral point so that participants can sail north or south easily to return home.
References
External links
Official Website
WhereTheFigawi.com - Merchandise & Apparel
1972 establishments in Massachusetts
Annual sporting events in the United States
Barnstable, Massachusetts
Charity events in the United States
Recurring sporting events established in 1972
Sailing competitions in the United States
Sailing in Massachusetts
Tourist attractions in Barnstable County, Massachusetts
Tourist attractions in Nantucket, Massachusetts |
5395540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytolaccaceae | Phytolaccaceae | Phytolaccaceae is a family of flowering plants. Though almost universally recognized by taxonomists, its circumscription has varied. It is also known as the Pokeweed family.
The APG II system, of 2003 (unchanged from the APG system, of 1998), also recognizes this family and assigns it to the order Caryophyllales in the clade core eudicots. The family comprises five genera, totalling 33 known species. It is divided into the subfamilies Agdestioideae and Phytolaccoideae, with the former Rivinioideae in the Takhtajan system, now placed in its own family Petiveriaceae
Genera and species
The Phytolaccaceae includes the following genera:
Agdestis Moc. & Sessé ex DC. — 1 species
Anisomeria D.Don — 3 species
Ercilla A.Juss. — 2 species
Nowickea J.Martínez & J.A.McDonald — 2 species
Phytolacca L. — ca 25 species
Former genera
The following genera were previously included in the Phytolaccaceae:
Achatocarpus Triana → Achatocarpaceae
Barbeuia Thouars → Barbeuiaceae
Gallesia Casar. → Petiveriaceae
Gisekia L. → Gisekiaceae
Hilleria Vell. → Petiveriaceae
Gyrostemon Desf. → Gyrostemonaceae
Ledenbergia Klotzsch ex Moq. → Petiveriaceae
Lophiocarpus Turcz. → Lophiocarpaceae
Microtea Sw. → Microteaceae
Monococcus F.Muell. → Petiveriaceae
Petiveria L. → Petiveriaceae
Phaulothamnus A.Gray → Achatocarpaceae
Rivina L. → Petiveriaceae
Schindleria H.Walter → Petiveriaceae
Seguieria Loefl. → Petiveriaceae
Stegnosperma Benth. → Stegnospermataceae
Trichostigma A.Rich. → Petiveriaceae
References
External links
Phytolaccaceae in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. Version: 30 May 2006. http://delta-intkey.com
Phytolaccaeae in the Flora of North America
Phytolaccaeae in the Flora of China
NCBI Taxonomy Browser
Pictures of representative species
Caryophyllales families |
4000817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania%20at%20the%202006%20Winter%20Olympics | Romania at the 2006 Winter Olympics | Romania competed at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy.
Alpine skiing
Note: In the men's combined, run 1 is the downhill, and runs 2 and 3 are the slalom. In the women's combined, run 1 and 2 are the slalom, and run 3 the downhill.
Biathlon
Bobsleigh
Cross-country skiing
Distance
Sprint
Figure skating
Key: CD = Compulsory Dance, FD = Free Dance, FS = Free Skate, OD = Original Dance, SP = Short Program
Luge
Short track speed skating
Speed skating
References
Nations at the 2006 Winter Olympics
2006
Winter Olympics |
4000822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Gilpin%20%28dancer%29 | John Gilpin (dancer) | John Brian Gilpin (10 February 1930 – 5 September 1983) was a leading English ballet dancer and actor.
Life and career
John Brian Gilpin was the son of William John Gilpin (1903–1967) and Lilian May née Lendon (1902–1986). He had a twin brother, Anthony.
Gilpin started dance lessons at the age of seven, studying at the Arts Educational and Ballet Rambert schools.
As a child he appeared in several West End stage successes and in films, such as They Were Sisters and The Years Between, opposite Michael Redgrave.
He won the Adeline Genée Gold Medal in 1943, the youngest winner to do so.
Gilpin joined Ballet Rambert in 1945, becoming a principal. He went with the company on their tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1947–49.
He danced the 1949 season with Roland Petit's company, and the 1950 season with Le Grand Ballet du Marquis de Cuevas in Monte Carlo.
Gilpin was Principal Dancer of the London Festival Ballet for over twenty years from its inauguration in 1950 until leg injuries forced his retirement. His performances in ''Le Spectre de la Rose'' and ''Giselle" were particularly acclaimed.were particularly acclaimed. Gilpin also guested with the Royal Ballet and American Ballet Theatre. He created multiple roles, including The Sailor's Return in 1947, Le Rêve de Léonor in 1949, Esmeralda in 1954, and Variations for Four in 1957.
Between 1965 and 1967 Gilpin served London Festival Ballet as its artistic director.
Gilpin appeared in the play Invitation to the Dance by Maxim Mazumdar's which was based on his life. In 1981 he starred in Italy as Oberon in Lindsay Kemp's Midsummer Night's Dream. In 1957, Gilpin won the Nijinsky Prize in Paris. His partners included Danilova, Fonteyn, Markova, Sibley, Park, Seymour and Shearer.
Gilpin was the recipient of several prizes: the Vaslav Nijinsky (1958), the Etoile d'Or (1964) and the Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Award for services to British Ballet (1963).
In 1982 Gilpin published an autobiography, A Dance With Life.
He was twice married:
The ballet dancer and choreographer Sally Judd (London, 27 August 1960 – 1970); one daughter, Tracy (born 1962).
Princess Antoinette, Baroness of Massy (Monaco, 28 July 1983 – 5 September 1983).
Death
He died from a heart attack, six weeks after marrying his second wife, Princess Antoinette, Baroness of Massy.
References
See his autobiography A Dance with Life published by William Kimber, London, in 1982.
External links
1930 births
1983 deaths
House of Grimaldi
English male ballet dancers
English male film actors
English male child actors
People from Southsea
Dancers of The Royal Ballet
English National Ballet principal dancers
People educated at Tring Park School for the Performing Arts
20th-century English male actors |
5395573 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobsled%20roller%20coaster | Bobsled roller coaster | A bobsled roller coaster is a roller coaster that uses a track design that is essentially a "pipe" with the top half removed and has cars that are sent down this pipe in a freewheeling mode. The name derives from the great similarity to the track design used for the winter sport of bobsleigh.
Most modern bobsled roller coasters are made of steel; however, the first bobsled coasters, known as Flying Turns, were made of wood. On October 4, 2013, after seven years of construction, Knoebels in Pennsylvania opened the world's only modern wooden Flying Turns coaster, Flying Turns. The ride was scheduled to open in 2007, but had been delayed due to dysfunctional wheels and other issues. As there were no historic plans available, the new coaster was designed entirely from scratch.
Both the bobsled coaster and the Flying Turns coaster are buildable in the RollerCoaster Tycoon and Thrillville series of video games.
Installations
As of 2012, 21 bobsled roller coasters have been built. The roller coasters are listed in order of opening dates.
* Denotes that exact closing date is not known.
† The Screamin' Delta Demon was transported to Old Indiana Fun Park following Opryland's closure in 1998, but was never reassembled and eventually scrapped.
References
External links
Types of roller coaster
Roller coasters manufactured by Intamin
Roller coasters manufactured by Mack Rides |
4000824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Here%27s%20Some%20Love | Here's Some Love | Here's Some Love is the sixth studio album by American country music singer Tanya Tucker. It was released on September 6, 1976, by MCA Records. The album was produced by Jerry Crutchfield and contains Tucker's sixth No. 1 single, "Here's Some Love".
Critical reception
The review published in the September 18, 1976 issue of Billboard said, "Excellent offering from Tucker who continues to broaden her appeal beyond the boundaries of country. Titled after her present hot single, the LP displays Tucker at her best, giving a good ride to several strong songs. Jerry Crutchfield's production is on the mark and he has combined an unusual assemblage of musicians—from Johnny Christopher to Mylon LeFevre—to provide an impressive instrumental and vocal background. Material varies from Tony Joe White's "The Gospel Singer" to David Gates' "I Use the Soap". Well balanced in material and talent, the album should move the young Tucker another giant step forward in her career. "Short Cut" indicates an almost jazzy side of Tucker with her warbling and the flute work." The review noted "Here's Some Love", "Comin' Home Alone", "Holding On", "The Gospel Singer", "I Use the Soap", and "Take Me to Heaven" as the best tracks on the album. It also included a note to record dealers which called the album "Tucker's closest approach to a crossover LP" and said that it "might generate some pop action as well as strong country sales."
The review in the September 18, 1976 issue of Cashbox said, "Reflecting a maturity of delivery, Tanya offers this slice of life with a definite feel for the so-called pop audience. Opening with the title song, which is Tanya's current hit single, each selection is tailored as a separate entity. Some are familiar, done in Tanya’s own style, others are newcomers, but the total is a superb package for anyone’s taste."
Commercial performance
The album peaked at No. 1 on the US Billboard Hot Country LPs chart.
The album's first single, "Here's Some Love", was released in July 1976 and peaked at No. 1 on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles chart, No. 82 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, and No. 25 on the US Billboard Easy Listening chart. It peaked at No. 2 in Canada on the RPM Country Singles chart, No. 91 on the RPM Top Singles chart, and No. 33 on the RPM Adult Contemporary Singles chart. The second single, "Short Cut", was released in November 1976 and failed to chart. However, its B-side, "Ridin' Rainbows", a non-album track, received enough airplay that the label switched it to the A-side in December 1976 and it became the title track of Tucker's next album.
Track listing
Standard edition
Japan edition
Charts
Album
Singles
References
1976 albums
Tanya Tucker albums
MCA Records albums
Albums produced by Jerry Crutchfield |
5395575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20N.%20Martin | Robert N. Martin | Robert Nicols Martin (January 14, 1798 – July 20, 1870) was an American politician from Maryland.
Martin was born in Cambridge, Maryland, where he attended the public schools. He studied law, was admitted to the bar, and practised at Princess Anne from 1819 to 1827. He was elected to the Nineteenth Congress, where he served from March 4, 1825 to March 3, 1827.
After his term, Martin settled in Baltimore and resumed the practice of law. He was appointed by Governor Thomas Pratt as judge of the Maryland Court of Appeals and as chief justice of the western judicial district in 1845, in which capacity he served until the office was vacated by the Maryland Constitution of 1851. He again engaged in the practice of his profession in Baltimore. He later served as judge of the superior court of Baltimore from 1859 to 1867, and as professor of international law at the University of Maryland, Baltimore from 1867 to 1870. He died at Saratoga Springs, New York, and is interred in the Christ Protestant Episcopal Church Cemetery in Cambridge.
References
1798 births
1870 deaths
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Maryland
Judges of the Maryland Court of Appeals
People from Cambridge, Maryland
University of Maryland, Baltimore faculty
Maryland National Republicans
National Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
People from Princess Anne, Maryland
19th-century American judges |
5395602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Guistina | David Guistina | David Guistina is the host of the Public, educational, and government access (PEG) cable TV quiz show Masterminds, aired on Time Warner Cable across New York State, and a producer and host at WAMC/Northeast Public Radio in Albany, New York.
He graduated from Utica College in 1991 with a dual major in public relations and communications after switching after approximately one year from a dual major in public relations and journalism. His minor was in radio/TV.
Guistina currently works as a producer and on-air personality for WAMC/Northeast Public Radio in Albany, New York. He produces several radio shows, documentaries and special programs. Guistina serves as the current host/newscaster of the locally produced segments of National Public Radio's Morning Edition, aired on WAMC from 5 A.M. to 9 A.M. on weekday mornings (previous hosts include Brian Shields and Alan Doane). In the local WAMC Morning Edition segments, Guistina reads local news stories and interviews reporters. He also serves as substitute co-host of The Roundtable, WAMC's local 9 A.M. to 12 P.M. morning program, when Joe Donahue or Sarah LaDuke is on vacation. In addition, he is the Internship Coordinator for the station. He has taught Interpersonal communication classes at Utica College for more than ten years as well as a journalism class at the SUNY University at Albany.
References
"David Guistina Alumni Profile", Utica College, June 6, 2005, retrieved June 2, 2006.
External links
WAMC Northeast Public Radio
TW3 Local Programming
Year of birth missing (living people)
People from Albany, New York
Living people
Utica College alumni
American television personalities |
5395607 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarbell%20Brook | Tarbell Brook | Tarbell Brook is a stream located in southwestern New Hampshire and northern Massachusetts in the United States. It is a tributary of the Millers River, itself a tributary of the Connecticut River, which flows to Long Island Sound.
Tarbell Brook rises in the western part of Rindge, New Hampshire, at the outlet of Pearly Lake, and flows south to the Damon Reservoirs. The brook then passes into Winchendon, Massachusetts, reaching the Millers River approximately west of the town center.
History
It bears the name of Lieutenant Samuel Tarbell (1744-1828), a Revolutionary War Minuteman who settled in Rindge with his wife Beatrice Carter in 1773, soon thereafter building a watermill at the outflow of Pearly Lake (formerly known as Tarbell Pond). Although the mill is long gone, Tarbell's Cape Cod style house nearby still presides over Route 119.
See also
List of rivers of Massachusetts
List of rivers of New Hampshire
References
Rivers of New Hampshire
Rivers of Worcester County, Massachusetts
Tributaries of the Connecticut River
Rivers of Massachusetts
Rivers of Cheshire County, New Hampshire |
5395624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirates%20of%20the%20Caribbean%20Trading%20Card%20Game | Pirates of the Caribbean Trading Card Game | The Pirates of the Caribbean Trading Card Game is an out-of-print collectible card game based on the two Disney films Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl and Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest. Upper Deck Entertainment launched this title in June 2006 to roughly correspond to the release of the second film but canceled due to lack of interest.
Game overview
Players fight in one-on-one battles between characters from the movies. For example, one player might take on the role of Will Turner, while another might play as Jack Sparrow. Although there is relatively little explanation given for why any two given characters might be fighting, it can be assumed that the contest is over women, riches, or ships of the sea.
The objective of the game is to be the first to score three points. A point can be earned when opponents are unable to stop an incoming attack after it has penetrated through all three of their colored zones.
Game system
Pirates of the Caribbean is the third game title to make use of the QuickStrike system. Hence, this game follows the same rules as other games using the same game system, and the cards can effectively be used interchangeably. The Shaman King Trading Card Game was the first game to make use of the QuickStrike system, with Avatar: The Last Airbender Trading Card Game being the second.
Further details about the gaming system and mechanics are described in the QuickStrike article.
Products
The 235-card set, titled Dead Man's Chest, features both starter sets and booster packs. The two-player starter set includes 62 cards (60 random normal cards and 2 Chamber cards), a rule book, a pair of playmats, and a plastic carrying case. The cards are split up into two 30 card decks so that two people can play, but can be combined to form one sixty card deck. However, because the cards are random, it is almost certain that such a deck would not be "tournament legal," as described in the rulebook's deck-building rules.
Booster packs contain 10 cards, typically distributed as 5 commons, 3 uncommons, 1 rare, and 1 Chamber card. Special foil "gold doubloon" cards appear in some boosters.
All Dead Man's Chest cards can be identified by the code PDC (Pirates Dead Man's Chest), which appears immediately before the number on each card.
External links
Pirates of the Caribbean Trading Card Game Website
Pojo's PotC TCG Forum
Card games introduced in 2006
Collectible card games
Pirates of the Caribbean
Upper Deck Company games |
5395631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newmill | Newmill | Newmill is a planned village north of the town of Keith in the Moray council area of north-east Scotland. The resident population at the 2001 census was recorded as 452.
History
The current street-plan of the village was laid out in about 1759 by the Earls of Fife, but there are records of much earlier settlement dating back to 1535 when a meal mill was built by Bishop Crystall. The Castle of Glengerrick once stood at the site of the village church, now a private dwelling.
Slate from the local quarry was used in the renovation of Pluscarden Abbey and the Convent of Greyfriars in Elgin.
In 1905 the Newmill Literary Society, supported by the philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, built the Newmill Institute, now the Village Hall.
In the centre of the village square is a war memorial, a 4-stage clock tower, built 1922–23 and designed by F. A. Robertson.
Services
Services in Newmill include the village post office.
Education
The village is served by Newmill Primary School, whilst secondary pupils travel to Keith Grammar School.
Notable people
James Gordon Bennett, Sr., founder and publisher of the New York Herald, grew up in Newmill.
References
External links
Newmill at Ordnance Survey GetOutside
Villages in Moray |
5395635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridian%20%28Star%20Trek%3A%20Deep%20Space%20Nine%29 | Meridian (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine) | "Meridian" is the 54th episode of the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, the eighth episode of the third season and the last episode to air before the release of Star Trek Generations.
Dax falls in love with a man whose world is in a state of flux; Quark tries to create a holographic pleasure program "starring" Major Kira.
Plot
While aboard the Defiant in the Gamma Quadrant, the DS9 crew is surprised to see a planet suddenly materialize right in front of them. The inhabitants of the planet invite the crew down for a visit.
The planet is called Meridian, and it spends most of its time in another phase of existence, where its people exist only as consciousness, with no physical being. The planet is in this dimension for a very short time. In twelve days it will disappear for sixty years. Each time it returns, the planet will have less time in this universe, and eventually will stop appearing.
The crew offer to help stabilize the planet so that it will not disappear forever. Jadzia Dax is distracted from her analysis of the problem by one of the Meridian people, a man named Deral (played by Brett Cullen). They have begun to fall in love. He tells her he will leave the planet and come with her instead of returning to the other phase. His people are not happy to hear this, because they have a very small population and cannot lose a member. To help them, Dax decides to stay on Meridian. She works quickly to find a way to alter her molecular structure so that she can slip into the other dimension along with the planet and its people. She is also able to help the crew stabilize the planet enough so that although it will still shift phases, next time it will stay in this universe for 30 years.
Time runs out, and Dax bids a tearful goodbye to her crewmates aboard the Defiant. She returns to Deral and waits with him for the phase shift. As the planet begins to shimmer out of the universe, she is wrenched by a force. Her body is not pulled out of phase with Deral's. She is stuck between dimensions, and, worse, is holding the entire planet there with her.
The crew beams her back to the ship, saving her life. Meridian slips safely into its other dimension. Dax returns to her bunk to be alone and begin the 60-year wait before she can again be with Deral.
Meanwhile a DS9 visitor called Tiron, employs Quark to make him a custom holosuite program featuring a holographic Kira. Quark tries multiple times to get enough data on Kira to make the hologram, and eventually breaks into secure files to accomplish this. Odo and Kira discover the security break, and have a little fun at Quark's expense, by altering the holographic Kira's head to that of Quark's.
Production
This episode features Jeffrey Combs as Tiron, in the first of many Star Trek appearances.
Legacy
In 2016, "Meridian" was remarked to be notable as a Star Trek episode that did not have a traditional villain by Bustle. In this case, the crew of Deep Space Nine is trying to save a group of people from a natural phenomenon.
In 2018, SyFy noted this episode was remembered for featuring a one and done romance for Jadzia Dax, noting that although she develops feelings for the alien, their physiology and world events keep them apart.
In 2019, ScreenRant ranked this episode one of the ten worst episodes of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. They note that at that time it had a rating of 5.7/10 based on user rankings on the site IMDB.
Release
The episode was released on June 3, 2003 in North America as part of the season 3 DVD box set. "Meridian" was released in 2017 on DVD with the complete series box set, which had 176 episodes on 48 discs.
References
External links
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (season 3) episodes
1994 American television episodes
Television episodes directed by Jonathan Frakes |
5395673 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groenlandaspis | Groenlandaspis | Groenlandaspis ("Greenland Shield") is an extinct genus of arthrodire from the Late Devonian. Fossils of the different species are found in late Devonian strata in all continents except eastern Asia. The generic name commemorates the fact that the first specimens of the type species (G.mirabilis) were found in Greenland.
Description
As with all other arthrodires, Groenlandaspis had a joint in the back of its head with its thoracic armor, allowing for its head to be thrown back, increasing its gape. However, as its head is somewhat compressed in comparison with many other arthrodires, and as the dorsal side came to a low, pyramid-like peak, it is believed that Groenlandaspis could not crane its head back very far. It was a relatively small fish, only in length on average, though one unusually large species, G. riniensis, reached almost a metre in length It lived in coastal and fluvial waters, where it is thought to have fed on either very small prey, or detritus; the small dental plates in its mouth strongly suggest that it was incapable of tackling large prey. The possibility that the plates may have been used to, at times, feed on bivalves has also been muted.
The body shape of the largest species G. riniensis’ suggests that it was most likely a benthic fish. The presence of crushing tooth plates in the form of flat, noded infragnathals and superagnathals suggest that the species' diet may have included prey with hard external shells such as molluscs, crustaceans or arthropods.
The armor length of G. riniensis, according to the original description, was approximately , with the head shield having a very broad marginal plate and narrow pineal plate, with the nuchal relatively narrow, being approximately half as broad as it is long. The trunk shield of this species was characterized as having an anterior lateral plate which is almost as broad as long with a relatively straight anterior margin; the median dorsal plate is low with an apex that is posteriorly directed; its posterior dorsolateral plate is very narrow with inflexion of the main lateral line canal situated very close to posterior margin. This species has ornamentation of widely spaced, coarse tubercles.
Groenlandaspis is unusual among placoderms in that it is known what color it was; preserved pigment cells in its fossils indicate that its posterior was red and its anterior was silvery-white in a countershaded pattern, camouflaging it in the murky, silty waters of the rivers in which it dwelled.
Species
†G. mirabilis Heintz, 1932
†G. antarctica Ritchie, 1975
†G. riniensis Gess and Hiller, 1995
†G. disjectus Woodward, 1891(originally Coccosteus disjectus)
†G. pennsylvanica Daeschler et al., 2003
†G. potyi Olive et al., 2015
†G. seni Janvier and Ritchie, 1977
†G. thorezi Heintz, 1932
Groenlandaspis riniensis is one of two arthrodire placoderms described in 1999 from the Waterloo Farm lagerstätte in South Africa, with a third species having been subsequently described. The species name ‘riniensis’ derived from Rini or Rhini, the traditional isiXhosa name for Makhanda/Grahamstown, making it the first ever vertebrate fossil to have an isiXhosa derived scientific name. G. riniensis appears to have spent its entire life cycle within the Waterloo Farm estuary as it is represented by a full ontogenetic series. Evidence from other Late Devonian localities with similar placoderm taxa which suggest that while many larvae or small juveniles stayed in the littoral zone close to adult habitats, others may have moved upriver to avoid predation.
G. riniensis represents the most frequently preserved fish taxon from the Waterloo Farm site, and may have been the most common vertebrate within the palaeoenvironment, though its frequent preservation may be influenced by preservational bias.
References
Arthrodire genera
Placoderms of Antarctica
Placoderms of Asia
Placoderms of Africa
Placoderms of Australia
Placoderms of Europe
Placoderms of North America
Late Devonian animals |
5395680 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashtown%2C%20Dublin | Ashtown, Dublin | Ashtown () is a suburb of Dublin, Ireland. It is also a townland in the civil parish of Castleknock and falls largely into the postal districts of Dublin 15, with some addresses falling into the Dublin 7 postal district.
Ashtown is bounded roughly by the townlands of Castleknock to the west. It is situated by the Royal Canal, near the Navan Road, which some addresses being named off Navan Road. The Phoenix Park is also nearby, its Ashtown Gate entrance about 500 metres south of the railway station. The townland's 278 acres are within Dublin City whereas Castleknock is in Fingal. The suburb had a population of 13,209 inhabitants as reported in the 2016 census.
Teagasc has a food research centre at Ashtown.
Transport
The Dublin-Sligo railway passes through the area and it is served by Ashtown railway station, which opened on 1 August 1902. Stopping at Ashtown is the Western Commuter service, which runs frequently between Maynooth and Pearse Station in the city centre. The area is also served by the 120 Dublin Bus route, which terminates at the railway station, and by the 37, 38, 39 and 70 routes, which pass nearby on the Navan Road.
The Broombridge LUAS Green Line station (adjacent to the railway station) opened in December 2017. A new railway station, called Pelletstown, was opened in September 2021, lying between Broombridge and Ashtown stations.
Sport
The grounds of St Oliver Plunketts/Eoghan Ruadh GAA are located in Martin Savage Park, which is just to the south of the railway line and runs along it. Phoenix FC, formerly known as Kinvara Ards, also use this park for their youth teams, but have used a football complex in Scribblestown for their senior team since their merger with Ashtown Villa in 2006.
Political
Ashtown is in the Dublin West (Dáil constituency) and the Cabra-Glasnevin Local Electoral Area of Dublin City Council.
References
Towns and villages in Fingal
Townlands of County Dublin
Townlands of the barony of Castleknock |
5395683 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrosal%20process | Petrosal process | The petrosal process is a sharp process below the notch for the passage of the abducent nerve on either side of the dorsum sellae of the sphenoid bone. It articulates with the apex of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and forms the medial boundary of the foramen lacerum.
References
Bones of the head and neck |
5395703 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1893%3A%20A%20World%27s%20Fair%20Mystery | 1893: A World's Fair Mystery | 1893: A World's Fair Mystery is an educational work of interactive fiction by American author Peter Nepstad, written in the TADS programming language. It takes place during the Chicago World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. The exposition is recreated in detail, with archival photographs from the fair and in-depth descriptions detailing each of the few hundred locations.
An early text-only version won the 2002 XYZZY Award for Best Setting, and 1893 was declared runner-up for Games' Best RPG/Adventure 2004.
Plot
During the 1893 World's Colombian Exposition, eight diamonds have been stolen from the exhibition pavilion of the fictional Kimberly Diamond Mining Company. Among them is one of the largest diamonds in the world that the mining company had bestowed to Queen Victoria, who then gave it to the exposition as a loan. The player assumes the role of a detective who investigates the case. The theft soon develops into a kidnapping case, and the player even has to investigate a murder.
Reception
Specialist magazine Adventure Gamers pointed out that among all game genres only adventures enabled the player to retrospectively participate in historic events. Editor Evan Dickens praised an entertaining and well-written narrative and an authentic reconstruction of the exposition, but criticized that the open world game world that is accessible to the player from the beginning on might overexcert inexperienced players. As a whole Dickens rated 1893 as "one of the most phantastic adventure games" he had ever played. Just Adventure noted a "solid story" that Nepstad had weaved across his reconstruction of the exhibition. Editor Ricardo Pautassi praised the interface and the characters of the game but criticized thet the large open game world makes the player lose the overview over where to find certain items to solve the puzzles.
References
External links
Official page
2000s interactive fiction
2003 video games
Single-player video games
Video games set in Chicago
Video games set in the 19th century
World's fairs in fiction
World's Columbian Exposition |
5395705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cribriform | Cribriform | Cribriform (Latin for "perforated") can refer to:
Cribriform plate
Fascia cribrosa
Cribriform mesenchyme |
5395739 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Club%20Comunicaciones | Club Comunicaciones | Club Comunicaciones is an Argentine sports club based in the Agronomía district of Buenos Aires. The football team currently plays in Primera B Metropolitana, the regionalised third division of the Argentine football league system
History
The club was founded for a group of employees of the Argentine Post office company. The name chosen was Club Atlético Correos y Telégrafos, referring to the name of the State mail company they worked for. In 1953 the club changed to its current name.
At a sporting level, Comunicaciones offers a large variety of activities, such as gymnasiums, basketball courts, roller hockey, handball, tennis courts, extra football pitches and the main stadium.
The club also is famous for having hosted the carnival celebrations during the 1950s and 1960s.
The colors that identify the club (yellow and black) were adopted because of those were the distinctive colors used by mail companies worldwide.
The football squad has never played in the top category in Argentina.
Financial problems
By 2011 the club has a debt of $ 6,700 million and had been declared in bankruptcy. Many offerent showed their interest in buying Comunicaciones: the Government of the City of Buenos Aires was one of them.
Players
Titles
Primera C (2): 1969, 2004–05
References
External links
Official site
Football clubs in Buenos Aires
Association football clubs established in 1931
1931 establishments in Argentina |
5395742 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiranthes%20spiralis | Spiranthes spiralis | Spiranthes spiralis, commonly known as autumn lady's-tresses, is an orchid that grows in Europe and adjacent North Africa and Asia. It is a small grey-green plant. It forms a rosette of four to five pointed, sessile, ovate leaves about in length. In late summer an unbranched stem of about tall is produced with approximately four sheath-shaped leaves. The white flowers are about long and have a green spot on the lower lip. They are arranged in a helix around the upper half of the stalk. The species is listed in Appendix II of CITES as a species that is not currently threatened with extinction but that may become so. Autumn lady's-tresses are legally protected in Belgium and the Netherlands.
Description
Autumn lady's tresses is a polycarp, perennial, herbaceous plant that remains underground during its dormancy in summer with tubers. The species has thirty chromosomes (2n=30).
Root
Underground there are two to four (or exceptionally six), egg-shaped or ovate-oblong, hard tubers which are usually long and ¾–1½ cm (0.3–0.59 in) in diameter, slightly tapering towards the tip. They are pale brown and smooth with short transparent hairs on the outside. These tubers, as in many orchids, have an earthy musty smell, originating from the mycorrhiza. There are no thick filamentous secondary roots as in many other orchids.
Stem
The plant needs many years to grow large enough (eight years) to produce above-ground parts, and to produce a flowering stalk (another three years). Even then, it mostly flowers once every few years, and will during hard times not surface at all. The stem is greyish green, usually (in Southern Europe exceptionally 40 cm) high, unbranched, erect, and terete. Especially further up, the stem is covered with short transparent glandular hairs. Below the flowers stand three to seven grayish green, acute leaves that envelop the stem, with membranous edges and three to five veins. Sometimes the withered leaf remains of the rosette of the previous year are still visible at the base of the stem.
Leaf
The new leaves, which appear at the same time or after the flower stem, stand with four to five together in a rosette beside the stem. They are (exceptionally 5½ cm) long and ¾-1¾ cm (0.3-0.69 in) wide, blue-green, very glossy, sessile, oval and have a pointed tip and translucent entire edges. They have three to five keeled veins. Plants in the Mediterranean can be considerably more robust than those in Western and Central Europe.
Inflorescence
The inflorescence is a slender spike of (exceptionally 20 cm) long, with usually ten to twenty-five (rarely as few as six or as many as thirty) flowers. They are set in a single row, usually in a clockwise or counterclockwise spiral winding around the axis, or rarely all to one side.
Flower
Each flower is subtended by a pale green, lanceolate bract. This shelters the base of the flower, tapers, bends toward the tip, has white edges and scattered glandular hairs at the base. They are usually long and wide. The flowers are very small, ± ½ cm (0.2 in), white, and spread a fragrance that is said to by reminiscent of lily of the valley, vanilla or almonds. The flowers produce nectar unlike in many other orchids. The flower has no spur.
Perianth
Outer tepals are oblong-ovate, slightly tapering to a blunt tip, long, white with a light green vein, have a ciliate or very finely serrated edge, and on the outside with little glandular hairs. Inner perianth leaves are white, elongate with a blunt tip, a vein and adhere with the slightly longer upper outer perianth leaf, thereby forming an upward decurved upper lip. The lower lip is pale green with a wide irregular jagged edge of crystal-like transparent white growths, oblong, approximately long and 2½–3 mm (0.10–0.12 in) wide, trough-shaped, rounded and without lobes and at its top bending down. Both lips give the flower as a whole a trumpet shape. The lower lip encloses the column (merger of the stamen and style) at the base, and there are also two white, glossy, round, nectar-secreting glands, each with a ring of papillae around their base. The small column is green.
Fruit and seed
The capsule is 5½-7 mm (0.22-0.27 in) long, or occasionally up to thick, oval shaped, and filled with countless tiny and very lightweight seeds of long at thick.
Growth cycle
Around the end of August a rosette of leaves appears, which stays green over the winter and dies back in July at the latest. During the following weeks, a flower stalk emerges from the centre of the dead leaf rosette, and during flowering, one or two new rosettes are formed. Autumn lady's tresses blossoms after the summer (August–October). The species is not self-pollinating. The pollination is done by bees and bumblebees. In nature, less than half of the fruit capsules produce seeds. The very fine seeds are dispersed by the wind in October or November. Nevertheless, most seeds will not disperse more than a few dm from the mother plant since the vast majority of new plants are in close vicinity to an adult plant. Autumn lady's tresses spreads primarily through sexual reproduction. However, the plants to a limited extent also propagate vegetatively by the formation of side buds on the underground stem. The new plant forms its own tuber and leaf rosette, and if the old root dies, the connection between the two daughter plants is broken. The plants therefore often occur in small dense groups. An individual plant does not usually flower every year, apparently because the production of seeds takes a lot of effort. Plants do not necessarily appear above ground each year, so that after an absence mature plants suddenly seem to appear out of nowhere.
Differences from other species
The genus Spiranthes contains about forty species, most of which are from North America. Some species are found in Central and South America, in temperate and tropical Asia southward to Australia and New Zealand. In Europe, three species occur in the wild. Besides the autumn lady's tresses, these are the summer lady's tresses S. aestivalis, and the Irish lady's tresses S. romanzoffiana, a mainly North American species that also occurs in Ireland and western Scotland. The autumn lady's tresses is easily distinguished because the two other species have inflorescences that occur earlier during the year (May–July) from a living rosette, with lanceolate leaves rising at an angle and having cream-colored instead of greenish or greyish white flowers. The autumn lady's tresses also resembles the evergreen Goodyera repens (creeping lady's-tresses or dwarf rattlesnake plantain), which has a creeping rhizome rather than tubers. In G. repens the inflorescence emerges from the centre of a rosette of ovate leaves with a pointed tip, and has striking perpendicular connective veins. The flowers are covered in long hairs that are often tipped with tiny droplets.
Taxonomy
In 1753, Carl Linnaeus was the first to correctly describe the species in his Species Plantarum, naming it Ophrys spiralis. In 1827, François Fulgis Chevallier moved it to the genus Spiranthes that had been erected by Louis Claude Richard in 1817. Synonyms include O. autumnalis, Epipactis spiralis, Serapias spiralis, Neottia spiralis, N. autumnalis, Ibidium spirale, Gyrostachys autumnalis, Spiranthes autumnalis and S. glauca. Autumn lady's threshes belongs to a genus with many species in North-America, but only three species occur in Europe.
Phylogeny
Recent DNA-analysis showed that three Eurasian species of Spiranthes are most related to each other, with a clade consisting of S. sinensis and S. aestivalis being the sister group of S. spiralis.
Etymology
The botanical name is derived from the ancient Greek σπεῖρα (speira) "spiral" and ἄνθος (anthos) "flower". The species name spiralis also refers to the placement of the flowers in a spiral.
Distribution and habitat
Range
Autumn lady's tresses occurs in Europe and small adjacent parts of North Africa and Asia. In the west, it occurs from Ireland to Portugal, in the south from Spain including the Balearic Islands, the coastal mountains of Algeria, Italy including Sicily, Greece including Crete, the Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Sea Coasts of Turkey and the Caucasus Mountains, North Iran eastwards to the Western Himalayas. To the North its limit is from northern England, the Netherlands, Denmark and the southern Baltic, Poland to western Ukraine. In Switzerland the most recent locations are around Lake Lucerne, the Rhine Valley near Chur, in the area of Lake Walen and in Ticino. In Italy it is found in the north-east near the sea. In Great Britain and Ireland its northernmost occurrence is on the Isle of Man. It has never been found in Scotland. In Ireland it has a scattered southern distribution north to County Sligo. In Germany, the plant is endangered in Bavaria (Franconian Heights and Franconian Jura) and Hesse, very endangered in Baden-Württemberg (Swabian Jura and foothills of the Alps) and Rhineland-Palatinate, and near extinction in Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia and Lower Saxony. In France, it occurs across the country, except for the regions of Champagne-Ardenne and Lorraine, and the departments of Nord, Aisne, Eure, Bas-Rhin, Val d'Oise and Seine-et-Marne. It is relatively common on the coasts of Brittany and the Provence, and in the valley of the Orne.<ref></ref>
The original range of S. spiralis is probably Mediterranean. Only when man created the habitat for this orchid by settling and converting forests to agriculture and animal husbandry, the species could spread to the north (7000 to 4000 BC).
Habitat
It grows in dry grassy places such as meadows, garigue, heaths, and pine woodland, generally on calcareous soils.
Ecology
Autumn lady's tresses may be found on quite different substrates, from weathered chalk and limestone to sand and gravel in dunes and slightly acidic heathlands. Occasionally, it has also been found on clay on sloping sites. It sometimes occurs in lawns, and was reported from the top of a wall in Sicily. Soils need to be low in nitrogen and phosphorus and neither dry nor wet.
The species occurs in different plant communities, most commonly in highly diverse Festuca ovina–Avenula pratensis grasslands that exist because of intense grazing by sheep or rabbits. These grasslands contain grasses, dicots, and mosses in different mixtures. The turf is short, continuous and consist of very small individual plants. Characteristic species that may be abundant in these grasslands in the UK include the grasses Sheep's fescue Festuca ovina, red fescue F. rubra, Quaking-grass Briza media, crested hair-grass Koeleria macrantha and Crested dog's-tail Cynosurus cristatus, the dicots ribwort plantain Plantago lanceolata, Small burnet Poterium sanguisorba ssp. sanguisorba, Common Bird's-foot Trefoil Lotus corniculatus, Common Cat's-ear Hypochaeris radicata, Mouse-ear hawkweed Pilosella officinarum, Rough hawkbit Leontodon hispidus and Dwarf thistle Cirsium acaule, and the moss Pseudoscleropodium purum.
In the Netherlands, the remaining population in an old dune grassland occurs in a community akin to the Botrychio-Polygaletum, where it occurs with Briza media, Glaucous sedge Carex flacca, Broad-leaved thyme Thymus pulegioides, Common milkwort Polygala vulgaris and Fairy flax Linum catharticum.
Root symbiosis
Like most other species of orchids, autumn lady's tresses needs a root fungus (or mycorrhiza) for its seed to germinate under field conditions. The seeds contain no endosperm or other food reserves. After germination, the lower part of the seedling (or protocorm) is colonized by mycorrhiza. The seedlings parasitize actually on the mycorrhiza, which provides both water, minerals and organic compounds. Since it takes about eight years before the plant produces green parts, this part of the lifecycle of this orchid is very long. Mature plants also contain mycorrhiza most of the year, but the amount of hyphae fluctuates with a maximum during the fall and winter. Most deeply infiltrated hyphae are digested at the beginning of flowering time, though the outer cell layer of the tuber may still contain living hyphae. New tubers are colonized when they have reached their maximum size. Infiltrated cells contain coils of hyphae of Rhizoctonia-type. Autumn lady's tresses can accommodate several types of fungus in its roots. Some of these mycorrhizal fungi are from genera that also occur in other orchids, such as Ceratobasidium and Rhizoctonia. But there are also fungi present in the tubers that were not known to enter into an endophytic relationship, such as the ascomycete genera Davidiella, Leptosphaeria and Alternaria and the basidiomycete Malassezia. Even fungi that are known to be pathogenic in other plants, such as Fusarium oxysporum and Bionectria ochroleuca can be found in healthy specimens of this orchid, suggesting that it is able to keep such fungi in check.
Pollination
Pollination of autumn lady's tresses is little observed. In the Netherlands the common carder bee (Bombus pascuorum) and red-tailed bumblebee (Bombus lapidarius) are regular visitors. In southern France (Rhône Department) the honeybee also pollinates. The silver Y (Autographa gamma) is also seen to visits the flowers, but attached pollinia have not been observed.
The pollinators land on the lower lip. On the rear part of the lip are two glands that secrete nectar which is collected in small cavities immediately below them. The access to the nectar is very narrow to by the protruding edge of the column and the glands, and will cause the tongue of the bumblebee or bee to tear a membrane that covers the base of the two pollinia. As a result, the bees tongue comes into contact with an adhesive which hardens directly when exposed to the air. When the tongue is retracted the pollinia cling to it. The lip of flowers that is a few day more matured has opened further making access to the nectar gland wider and making the tongue brush past the stigma and deliver the pollen. Such a flower which develops first to release the pollen, and is later adapted to be pollinated is called protandrous.
In 52% of the plants the flowers are arranged counterclockwise, in 39% clockwise and in 9% of the plants the flowers are to one side of the inflorescence. The pollinators always land at bottom of the inflorescence and visit the flowers ever higher up. Most bumblebees have a strong preference for counterclockwise arrangement, fewer for clockwise. It seems that autumn lady's tresses responds to this preference by offering different inflorescence types and thus increases the chances of fertilization.
Diseases
The rust Uredo oncidii is known to infect the leaves and stems of Spiranthes spiralis.
Conservation
To conserve S. spiralis'' and improve the establishment of new habitats the hydrology must be just right: not too dry nor too moist. Because the species has little competitive strength, the soil must be moderate poor in nutrients and eutrophication, for example from adjacent farmland, should be avoided. Autumn lady's tresses grow best in a soil that is not acid. Therefore, acidification must be halted, on loamy soils for example by raising the ground watertable slightly, or by removing the acid humus layer. On sandy soil, it is important to retain or restore the small scale relief so that the optimal moisture is present both in dry and in wet years in the field. During flowering should not be mowed or grazed, but mowing and grazing by sheep or cattle outside this period is beneficial to keep the vegetation sufficiently short. Damaging the soil should be avoided. New locations can be created in the vicinity of existing habitats, possibly aided by scattering cuttings from existing locations to encourage establishment.
References
spiralis
Orchids of Europe
Orchids of Asia
Flora of North Africa
Flora of Western Asia
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus |
5395743 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric%20Head | Electric Head | Electric Head is the debut album by English electronic artists The Grid, released in 1990. An extended, double-CD version of the album is released on Cherry Red Records in August 2013. The second CD includes remixes of the singles from Andrew Weatherall, Robert Gordon and Farley and Heller.
Alternative mixes of "Floatation" and "A Beat Called Love" were released as singles. Mixes were prepared for a single release of "This Must Be Heaven" but remained unreleased until included on the 2013 reissue of the album.
Track listing
All tracks written by Grid members Richard Norris and Dave Ball.
Side one
"One Giant Step" – 6:11
"Interference" – 0:34
"Are You Receiving" – 4:32
"Islamatron" – 3:33
"The Traffic" – 0:14
"Driving Instructor" – 4:40
"A Beat Called Love" – 4:01
"The First Stroke" – 0:13
Side two
"Central Locking" – 0:41
"Intergalactica" – 6:10
"Beautiful and Profound" – 0:10
"This Must Be Heaven" – 4:15
"Machine Delay" – 0:09
"Doctor Celine" – 3:45
"Typical Waterloo Sunset" – 0:14
"Strange Electric Sun" – 4:19
"Floatation" – 5:06
"Virtual" (only on the CD) – 2:36
Personnel
Dave Ball - sampler, synthesizer, drum machine, computer, toy, grand piano
Richard Norris - vocals, vocoder, tape, effects, drum machine, electric guitar, electric piano, computer
with:
Sasha Rebecca Souter - vocals on "A Beat Called Love"
Cobalt Stargazer (Geoff Bird) - guitar
Andy Murray - slide guitar
Polo - percussion
Guy Barker - trumpet
Julian Stringle - clarinet
Beate Schulz, Di Wright, Gini Ball, Gloria Robakowski, Jaq Robinson, Kim Schillinglaw, Michele Oldland, Sasha Rebecca Souter, Sylvia Mason-James - backing vocals
Paul Davis - cover artwork
References
External links
Electric Head at Discogs
1990 debut albums
The Grid albums
East West Records albums |
5395749 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W.%20R.%20P.%20George | W. R. P. George | William Richard Philip George (20 October 1912 – 20 November 2006) was a Welsh solicitor, poet, and Archdruid of Wales. He was the nephew of the Prime Minister, David Lloyd George.
George was born in Criccieth in North Wales. His father, William George, was the younger brother of David Lloyd George. While David Lloyd George pursued a political career, his brother took care of the family firm of solicitors.
George was educated at Friars School, Bangor, where he initially joined the Officers Training Corps, but later applied to leave it. He went on to Wrekin College, Wellington, Shropshire. He studied law in the late 1920s at the private tutorial school, Gibson & Weldon, at 27 Chancery Lane. (One of his tutors was John Widgery, later Lord Chief Justice.) He took his articles in the early 1930s with the Clerk of Justices in Caernarfon, and he qualified as a solicitor in November 1934, when he joined his father's practice, William George & Son, in Porthmadog, Caernarvonshire. He continued to practise with the same firm until his death. At 94 years old, he was the fifth oldest practising solicitor in England and Wales, according to Law Society records (his father had continued to practise until he was 101). He served as Clerk to the Justices at Barmouth from 1948 to 1975, and as a deputy circuit judge in the Crown Court from 1975 to 1980. He was also solicitor to the National Eisteddfod.
Outside the law, he turned away from the family's Liberal leanings, to support Plaid Cymru. He was a conscientious objector in the Second World War, working on the land, and an independent councillor on Carnarvonshire County Council and then Gwynedd County Council from 1967 to 1996, serving as Chairman in 1982. He was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1996 for his services to local government.
He was also a Welsh language poet of some distinction, and was crowned at the National Eisteddfod in 1974 for his free metre poem Tân ("Fire"). He received an honorary doctorate from the University of Wales in 1988, and was Archdruid of Wales from 1990 to 1993, taking the bardic name "Ap Llysor" (meaning "son of Solicitor"). He was also Chairman of the Assembly of Welsh Counties, and Secretary of the Baptist chapel at Criccieth.
He published five volumes of Welsh poems, Dwyfor (1948), Cerddi'r Neraig ("Neraig Poems", 1968), Grawn Medi ("September Grapes", 1974), Tân ("Fire", 1979) and Dringo'r Ysgol ("Climbing the Ladder", 1989), and a collection Mydylau ("Haycocks") in 2004. He also wrote three biographies (including two of his uncle, Lloyd George, The Making of Lloyd George in 1976 and Lloyd George: backbencher in 1983, based on the archive that he inherited on his father's death in 1967) and his own autobiography, 88 Not Out (), published in May 2001.
He was married twice. He first married Dora Harley in 1943, but they were divorced. He married Greta Bogner in 1953, having four children (three of them solicitors).
References
"Lloyd George nephew dies, aged 94", BBC Wales, 30 November 2006
Obituary, The Independent, 22 November 2006
Obituary, The Daily Telegraph, 5 December 2006
1912 births
2006 deaths
Welsh conscientious objectors
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Welsh solicitors
Welsh-language poets
People educated at Wrekin College
People from Caernarfonshire
People educated at Friars School, Bangor
20th-century Welsh lawyers
Welsh Eisteddfod archdruids
Councillors in Wales |
5395766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobropillia%20Raion | Dobropillia Raion | Dobropillia Raion (, translit.: Dobropil's'kyi raion; , translit.: Dobropol'skiy raion) was a raion (district) within the southwestern part of Donetsk Oblast in eastern Ukraine. Its administrative center was Dobropillia, which was incorporated separately as the town of oblast significance and did not belong to the raion. Its area was . The raion was abolished on 18 July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Donetsk Oblast to eight, of which only five were controlled by the government. The last estimate of the raion population was {.
Within Dobropillia Raion there were one urban-type settlement (Sviatohorivka - 2,100 inhabitants), 9 selsoviets, and 66 settlements. Also included within the raion were: 17 kolhozy, and 3 sovhozy, 4 industrial organizations, 4 construction organizations, 2 railroad stations, 44 Meduchredzheniy, and 47 libraries.
An architectural monument in the raion was a palace (1887-1914-selo Zelyenoe).
In May 2014, due to the deteriorating situation in the Donetsk Oblast, the raion requested a referendum pertaining to the transfer of Dobropillia Raion into the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, where the situation was more stable. Dnipropetrovsk Governor Ihor Kolomoisky announced that the oblast would be willing to do so assuming that is what the citizens want.
Settlements
Vodianske
Volodymyrivka
Virovka
Hannivka
Zolotyi Kolodiaz
Krasnoiarske
Kryvorizhia
Novyi Donbas
Novovodiane
Novodonetske
Novotoretske
Novotroitske
Novofedorivka
Oktiabrske
Rozy Liuksemburh
Sviatohorivka
Svitle
Shevchenko
Shylivka
Demographics
As of the 2001 Ukrainian census:
Ethnicity
Ukrainians: 89.4%
Russians: 8.9%
See also
Administrative divisions of Donetsk Oblast
References
External links
Verkhovna Rada website - Administrative divisions of the Dobropillia Raion
Former raions of Donetsk Oblast
1966 establishments in Ukraine
Ukrainian raions abolished during the 2020 administrative reform |
5395767 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashtown%20railway%20station | Ashtown railway station | Ashtown is a commuter railway station in Fingal, Ireland on the Dublin Connolly to Maynooth and Docklands to M3 Parkway commuter services.
It serves Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland and is near the Ashtown roundabout on the Navan Road (R147).
(formerly Phoenix Park) opened nearby in 2008 but does not replace Ashtown. A major grade-separated junction was built on the R147 to provide access to .
The ticket office is open from 06:30 to 16:00, Monday to Friday. It is closed on Saturday and Sunday.
History
The station was opened by the Midland Great Western Railway in 1847 for race specials at the now-demolished Phoenix Park Racecourse. It opened fully on 1 August 1902. Absorbed into the Great Southern Railways by way of the Railways (Great Southern) Preliminary Amalgamation Scheme of 12 November 1924 (SI no. 31 of that year), the station closed in 1934.
The line through the station was then nationalised, passing on to Córas Iompair Éireann as a result of the Transport Act 1944 which took effect from 1 January 1945. Under this management, it reopened briefly in 1979 for the visit of Pope John Paul II to Ireland in order to facilitate the large numbers who attended the open-air mass in the Phoenix Park and reopened permanently on 11 January 1982. It passed on to Iarnród Éireann in 1987.
The footbridge came from Midleton on the Youghal line.
See also
List of railway stations in Ireland
References
External links
Iarnród Éireann stations in Fingal
Railway stations opened in 1847
Railway stations closed in 1934
Railway stations opened in 1979
Railway stations closed in 1979
Railway stations opened in 1982
1847 establishments in Ireland
Railway stations in Fingal
1934 disestablishments in Ireland
1982 establishments in Ireland
Railway stations in Ireland opened in 1847 |
5395794 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20of%20the%20Family%20Division | President of the Family Division | The President of the Family Division is the head of the Family Division of the High Court of Justice in England and Wales and Head of Family Justice. The Family Division was created in 1971 when Admiralty and contentious probate cases were removed from its predecessor, the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division.
The current President of the Family Division is Sir Andrew McFarlane. Sir James Munby retired as president on 27 July 2018.
Presidents of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division
1 November 1875: Sir James Hannen
29 January 1891: Sir Charles Butt
2 June 1892: Sir Francis Jeune
30 January 1905: Sir Gorell Barnes
10 February 1909: Sir John Bigham
9 March 1910: Sir Samuel Evans
18 October 1918: Sir William Pickford (The Lord Sterndale from November 1918)
31 October 1919: Sir Henry Duke (The Lord Merrivale from 1925)
2 October 1933: Sir Boyd Merriman (The Lord Merriman from 1941)
8 February 1962: Sir Jocelyn Simon (The Lord Simon of Glaisdale from February 1971)
20 April 1971: Sir George Baker (President of the Family Division after the relevant provisions of the Administration of Justice Act 1970 came into force on 1 October 1971)
Presidents of the Family Division
1 October 1971: Sir George Baker (President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division before the relevant provisions of the Administration of Justice Act 1970 came into force on 1 October 1971)
28 September 1979: Sir John Arnold
11 January 1988: Sir Stephen Brown
1 October 1999: Dame Elizabeth Butler-Sloss
7 April 2005: Sir Mark Potter
13 April 2010: Sir Nicholas Wall (Retired 1 December 2012)
11 January 2013: Sir James Munby
28 July 2018: Sir Andrew McFarlane
Legal Significance
Upon an intestate death, the property of the deceased formerly legally vested in the President of the Family Division until such a time that the Probate Registry made a grant of grant of administration to the deceased's personal representatives. The property now vests in the Public Trustee until a grant is made.
See also
Lord Chief Justice
Master of the Rolls
President of the Queen's Bench Division
Chancellor of the High Court
Notes
References
David Butler and Gareth Butler, Twentieth Century British Political Facts 1900–2000, Macmillan, 2000
Chris Cook and Brendan Keith, British Historical Facts 1830–1900, Macmillan, 1975
High Court of Justice
English family law |
5395798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen%20Storm | Bergen Storm | The Bergen Storm is an American football team based in Bergen, Norway. Bergen Storm is the 3rd oldest existing team in Norwegian American Football. They are members of the Norges Amerikanske Idretters Forbund (NAIF) - Amerikansk Fotball Norge (AFN). The team plays its home games at Varden Kunstgress field in Bergen.
Facts
Founded: 1992 (as Bergen Blackhawks) when Bergen Bulldogs and Bergen Flyers merged.
Team colors: Cardinal red and white
President: Jesper Haug Karsrud.
Best results: Senior: 3rd place 1st division (1993), U-19: Runner-up champions (1999, 2000, 2001), U-16: National Champion (2004, 2005).
Noted rivalries: Nidaros Domers (Bergen Vs Trondheim), VIF Trolls (junior championship games), Åsane Seahawks (Best in town games)
Teams
Senior
Players of age 18 and up. Have participated every official season since 1993 with the exception of 1998. The team pulled out of league play midway through the season in 1995 and 1997. Best standing is currently 3rd place 1st division (1993) and winner 2nd division (1996 and 2009).
U-19
Players in the age group 16–19. Participated in the Norwegian U-19 championship since 1995, with the exception of 1998. Best standing is Norwegian vice-champions in 1999, 2000 and 2001, each year losing the championship final to the VIF Trolls.
U-17
Players in the age group 14–16. Participated in the Norwegian U-16 championship since 2003. Best standing is Norwegian Champions in 2005 when the Bergen team beat VIF Trolls 8–7.
Storm Cheerleaders
Participated in the Norwegian Championship for Cheerleaders in 2005 finishing last. Program got canceled after this season.
New program is currently starting up.
Bergen Storm Thunder
One of the Bergen Storm teams during the 'split' in 2005 as an effort to create local league play in Norwegian 2nd division versus Bergen Storm Blizzard and Åsane Seahawks. Thunder became the only winner of the Bergen Bowl by beating Bergen Storm Blizzard in the final. The team was officially coached by Eirik Talhaug.
Bergen Storm Blizzard
One of the Bergen Storm teams during the 'split' in 2005 as an effort to create Bergen league play in the Norwegian 2nd division versus Bergen Storm Thunder and Åsane Seahawks. Blizzards were runners-up in the only Bergen Bowl final. The team was coached by Bård Strøm, Thomas Midtun and Arild Hauge.
Associated clubs or teams
Os Wolverines
Bergen Storm had tight connections with Os Wolverines. Os is an independent club based in Os Kommune south of Bergen. The Wolverines participated in the Norwegian 2nd division once in 2010 under the name Hordaland Storm. Since then they have been active in the regional 8-man league in the fall. The two clubs shared some coaching and resource personnel. Amongst others, Christian Detjen, head coach for the Os Wolverines was a board member and U-19 head coach with Bergen Storm, while Bjarte Eide Aase who was assistant coach with Storm in 2013.
Navy Valkyries
The Naval Academy in Bergen fielded their own 8-man football team. However, the academy is not a registered club within the Federation of American Sports in Norway, thus all players are licensed through Bergen Storm. Notable Bergen Storm player Markus Johannessen is one of the Valkyries key players. Long time Bergen Storm player, coach and president Atle Mølholm was at a time hired by the Naval Academy as a coach for the Valkyries as well.
NHHI Capitalists
The Norwegian School of Economics has their own team registered with the Federation of American Sports. So far, NHHI has only participated in the local 8-man league as well as the interstudent athletic competition (2013). NHHI is thus an independent club but Bergen Storm and NHHI has allowed for players to play for both clubs. Long time Bergen Storm player Robert Fredriksen is served as a coach and resource person for the NHHI Capitalists.
8-man league
The 8-man league (2008 - 2014) was a regional low-cost league for American football in Hordaland which was tremendously popular with more than 100 licensed players during a season, fielding more than 100 players total in a single season. The 8-man has been a Bergen Storm initially driven by then club president Thomas Midtun. The league consists of different teams mainly associated with the four clubs in the region: Bergen Storm, Åsane Seahawks, Kvernbit Knights and Os Wolverines. The Bergen Storm organized teams have been:
Bergen Replacements
A team participating in the Bergen 8-man football league. Mainly consisting of retired Bergen Storm players. Bergen Bowl winner of 2008 going undefeated through the season. Runner-up in 2009 going undefeated through regular season. Led by Eirik Talhaug, Thomas Midtun and Hallvard Hollevik
Bergen Gators / Bergen Sackademics / Bergen Beavers
A team participating in the Bergen 8-man football league. Mainly consisting of current or new members of Bergen Storm. Bergen Bowl 2009 champions and Bergen Bowl 2008 runner-up. Moved forth to Bergen Sharks, thus leaving the Bergen Storm organization in favor of Åsane Seahawks. Led by Sondre Johan Haugsdal Riisøen.
Bergen Leftovers
A team that participated in the Bergen 8-man football league in 2008. Led by Finn Olsen.
8-man league winners
2014: Åsane Seahawks
2013: Os Wolverines
2012: Replacements
2011: Replacements
2010: Bergen Sackademics
2009: Bergen Gators
2008: Replacements
History line
pre 1992: A merge between Bergen Bulldogs and Bergen Flyers in 1992. The team became Bergen Blackhawks and performed well landing the team as no. 3 in Norwegian 1st division.
1992 - 1994: Coach Joe Spinella Took over the team as a head coach. The team had their so far best record in this era. :no:Jon Torstein Bakken was president of the club.
1995-1998: Bergen Storm failed to perform very well and was tormented by instability and changes of presidents and coaches. With the exception of 1996, Bergen Storm did not manage to complete a single season. On the brighter side, the era saw the birth of Storm U-19 and the 2nd division championship winner for seniors.
1999 - 2001: Kaj Hopland, Rolf Endresen and Atle Mølholm created stability for the club as coaches and an efficient board. Bergen Storm competed in the 2nd division in 1999 - 2001. During this time Bergen Storm U-19 noted their best records as vice-champions three years in a row.
2002-2004: Bergen Storm senior made a three-year run into the 1st division but was clearly seen to small to compete against the better Norwegian teams Eidsvoll 1814s, Oslo Vikings, and VIF Trolls. Bergen Storm launched their first U-16 program and Bergen Storm Cheerleading became active.
2005 - 2009: Bergen Storm decided to move back into the 2nd division for the 2005 season. An experiment was made to split the Bergen team into two teams: Blizzard and Thunder, to compete in a 3-team conference along with Åsane Seahawks. Only one formal game got played and a joint Storm team traveled to Hamar Ruins to take on the 2nd division championship game, which the Ruins won. 2006 saw the first paid coach for Bergen Storm when Timo Sorri was brought in to help out Bergen Storm. 2007 and 2008 has been played in 2nd division with local coaching and personnel. In 2009 former NFL draft pick and South Carolina standout Ryan Bethea took charge of the team going 4–0 in the second division. Bergen Storm won their first Championship on any level when Storm won the U-16 championship in '05. 2008 also saw the first season of the 8-man regional football league in Bergen, with five teams participating: Bergen Replacements, Bergen Gators, Bergen Leftovers, Åsane Seahawks and Kvernbit Knights.
2010–2013: The Bergen Storm side decided to move back up into the 1st division in 2010 under the leadership of 2nd year HC Ryan Bethea. Bergen Storm assembled a team consisting of players from Storm, the Kvernbit Knights and Os Wolverines. The club fielded Norwegian players only playing the local quarterback Øyvind Haugland as starter. The team went 1–5 through the season after an 8–6 upset win over the VIF Trolls in Oslo. Peter Holmberg succeeded as HC for Bergen Storm in 2011 and 2012. In addition, Bergen Storm brought in American import players for the first time in team history. The team went 2–4 through 2011 season with a double win over the Nidaros Domers which qualified for the last spot in play-offs.. Further, Bergen Storm went 3–3 in 2012 after beating the Nidaros Domers, VIF Trolls and AFC Show but did not qualify for playoffs due to the increased number of participating teams in the league. In 2013, the team saw much reorganizing and finished the season 0–7. Despite beating championship runners-up Kristiansand Gladiators 14–9 Storm were ruled to lose all first three games of the season 0–30 due to an administrative penalty for fielding an illegal transferred player. However, the team saw a reduction in the junior program in this period of time. The U-16 program folded after 2010 campaign and the U-19 program did not manage to field a team for the 2012 campaign after reaching playoffs in 2011 under the leadership of Christian Detjen. Bergen Storm Cheerleading increased both in size and quality during this time and won the national championship in cheerleading for one category in 2012.
2014, 2015: Bergen Storm sat out from organized football in 2014, except for fielding Bergen Storm for the first time as a united team in the regional 8-man league. In 2015, Storm participated once again in national league play at 2nd division, finishing the season in 4th place after a 3–3 record.
Notable people
Atle Mølholm - Club president 2002–2005. coach and player. NoAF All-star team safety. Bergen Storm All Star '93-'03 WR.
Eskild Risnes - Head coach '96, NoAF All-Star team DE, Bergen Storm All-Star '93-'03 DE. Retired Jersey #99.
Kaj Hopland - Club president '98-'00, Head Coach sr '98-'02, Head Coach U-19 '03, Bergen Storm All-Star '93-'03 QB. Bergen Storm Honor Award '03 for longest playing record.
Bård Strøm - Club President '05 and 2014, head coach sr '03-'05 and 2013, head coach U-19 '99-'00 and '02, Norway U-19 offensive coordinator '00 and '02. Cal Poly Mustangs football assistant coach '01, World Team assistant coach 2011. Norway National Team assistant coach 2015–2016. AFN coaches instructor.
Thomas Midtun - Club president '01, '06,08 and 09'. Head Coach Sr '06-'08, Head Coach U-19 '01, Norway U-19 offensive coordinator '04
Stig Schjerpen - Bergen Storm All-Star '93-'03 tight end, head coach U-16 '04-'06
Erik Nødtvedt - Bergen Storm wide receiver and wide receiver coach. Member of Norwegian Flag football national team participating in the 2012 flag football world championship. Oslo Vikings wide receiver 2009.
Joseph Spinella - Head coach Sr '92-'94.
:no:Jon Torstein Bakken - Club president '93 - '95, Head Coach U-19 '96
Tor-Arne Torsvik - Bergen Storm All-Star '93-'03 LB, MVP Defense Nordic Championship '02
Timo Sorri - Head coach Sr '06
Ronny Nilsen - Bergen Storm All-Star '93 - '03 DT, Bergen Storm Honor Award '03 for longest playing record.
Ryan Bethea - Head coach Bergen Storm sr 2009–2010. Head Coach Bergen Storm U-19 2009. #138 overall draft pick of the 1988 NFL Draft by the Minnesota Vikings. Former South Carolina University wide receiver.
Peter Holmberg -, Head coach Bergen Storm senior 2011 and 2012.
Sigbjørn Tveiterås - Club president from 2013. Norwegian Champion with Oslo Vikings.
Jannice Hope - Long time board member and club president in 2012.
Head coaches Bergen Storm Senior
Amund Klem rønning (2015)
Bård Strøm (2013)
Peter Holmberg (2011, 2012)
Ryan Bethea (2009, 2010)
Thomas Midtun (2007, 2008)
Timo Sorri (2006)
Bård Strøm (2003–2005)
Kaj Hopland (1999 - 2002)
Rolf Endresen (1997)
Eskild Risnes (1996)
:no:Jon Torstein Bakken (1995)
Joseph Spinella (1993, 1994)
Import history of Bergen Storm
2013 Nate Poppell QB/OC, Texas A&M Kingsville (NCAA DIV-II)
2013 Pat O'Neill LB/DC, University of Rhode Island (NCAA DIV-1AA)
2012 Dan McClellan DB/WR, Millersville University (NCAA DIV-II)
2012 Clifford Harris QB/RB, Duke University (FBS: NCAA DIV-I)
2012 Brandon Jordan OL/DL, Missouri S&T (NCAA DIV-II)
2011 Jordan Green QB/WR, Webber International University (NCAA DIV-II)
2011 Jeremy Vannice LB/DL, Friends University (NAIA)
External links
Bergen Storm Official Website
NoAFF Official Website
American football teams in Norway
1992 establishments in Norway
American football teams established in 1992 |
5395819 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter%20cake | Filter cake | A filter cake is formed by the substances that are retained on a filter. Filter aids, such as diatomaceous earth or activated carbon are usually used to form the filter cake. The purpose is to increase flow rate or achieve a smaller micron filtration. The filter cake grows in the course of filtration, becoming "thicker" as particulate matter and filter aid is retained on the filter.
With increasing layer thickness, the flow resistance of the filter cake increases. After a time, the filter cake has to be removed from the filter, e.g. by backflushing. If this is not accomplished, the filtration is disrupted because the viscosity of the filter cake gets too high; hence, too little of the mixture to be filtered can pass through the filter cake and the filter plugs. The specifications of the filter cake dictate the filtration method of choice.
See also
Filter press
Tilting pan filter
References
Filters
Water treatment
Water technology |
5395826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%20Purgatory%27s%20Shadow | In Purgatory's Shadow | "In Purgatory's Shadow" is the 112th episode of the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, the 14th episode of the fifth season. The episode premiered on February 10, 1997 to a Nielsen rating of 6.7 points. It is the first half of a two-part episode, with the second half, "By Inferno's Light", first airing a week later.
Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the crew of the space station Deep Space Nine near the planet Bajor, as the Bajorans recover from a decades-long occupation by the imperialistic Cardassians. The station is adjacent to a wormhole connecting the Alpha and Gamma Quadrants of the galaxy; the Gamma Quadrant is home to an expansionist empire known as the Dominion, ruled by the shape-shifting Changelings. This episode begins the Dominion's invasion of the Alpha Quadrant, a plot arc which continues until the final episode of the series. It features the return of several characters, drawing on plot lines previously established in the third, fourth and fifth seasons.
This episode is dedicated "In memory of Derek Garth", a grip for the series who died in an automobile accident in December, eight weeks before the episode aired.
Plot
When Deep Space Nine picks up a mysterious coded message from inside the Gamma Quadrant that appears to be Cardassian, exiled Cardassian spy Garak is asked to analyze it. He determines that the message is a distress call from his mentor Enabran Tain, who was believed to have been killed in an ill-fated Cardassian attack on the Dominion two years prior. Garak convinces Captain Sisko to allow him to travel to the Gamma Quadrant, accompanied by Lt. Cmdr. Worf, to search for Tain and other possible survivors from Dominion attacks.
Soon after entering Dominion space, they wind up in the midst of the Dominion fleet. Worf realizes that the fleet must be assembled to invade the Alpha Quadrant. He sends a warning message to DS9 just before Jem'Hadar soldiers take him and Garak prisoner. Back on DS9, the crew receives Worf's message and realize the Dominion is coming. With reinforcements at least two days away and only disgraced Cardassian officer Dukat on hand to help out, Sisko sees only one choice—sealing the wormhole, trapping Worf and Garak on the other side if they cannot return before the operation is completed.
Worf and Garak are taken to a Dominion detention center. Tain is there, on his deathbed; instead of being thankful to Garak for coming, Tain chastises him for allowing himself to be taken prisoner. Also among the fellow prisoners are the Klingon general Martok, and, to Garak and Worf's surprise, Dr. Julian Bashir—meaning that the Bashir back at DS9 is a Changeling impostor.
As his last request, Tain makes Garak promise to escape. Desperate for a kind word from his mentor before the old man passes on, Garak makes a request in return: that Tain acknowledge him as his son. Tain does so, and father and son share a memory before Tain dies peacefully. His mission complete, Garak is ready to find a way out.
On Deep Space Nine, the crew shoots a particle beam at the wormhole, intending to close it. However, something goes wrong. The emitter array has been sabotaged, and the wormhole remains open, allowing a fleet of Dominion warships to begin pouring through.
Reception
Zach Handlen of The A.V. Club said this was a good cliffhanger but that "it's hard to really say how any of this fits together before we get to next week’s second half." He found some of the setup and character scenes dragged and were a little frustrating at times, but appreciated how the episode brought things into greater focus.
In 2015, Geek.com recommended this episode as "essential watching" for their abbreviated Star Trek: Deep Space Nine binge-watching guide.
In 2018, CBR rated "In Purgatory's Shadow" paired with "By Inferno's Light", as the 9th best multi-episode story arc of all of Star Trek. Nerdist included this episode in their binge-watching guide for the Dominion War saga of this series.
In 2020, Doux Reviews said "In Purgatory's Shadow" was "one of the best-written episodes of Deep Space Nine" and had a great cliffhanger ending.
In 2020, The Digital Fix ranked "In Purgatory's Shadow" and "By Inferno's Light" as the fourth best episode(s) of Deep Space Nine. They call the episodes an "epic two-parter" that took the show's "long-running narrative to another level" and praised the various plot lines and reveals.
Continuity
In 2019, Nerdist recommended starting with this episode as part of a story arc that covers the start of the Dominion War. They named a selection of episodes concluding with "Sacrifice of Angels", the 6th episode of season six.
The episodes they recommended for this story arc included:
"In Purgatory's Shadow"
"By Inferno’s Light"
"Call to Arms"
"A Time to Stand"
"Rocks and Shoals"
"Sons and Daughters"
"Behind the Lines"
"Favor the Bold"
"Sacrifice of Angels"
References
External links
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (season 5) episodes
1997 American television episodes
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episodes in multiple parts |
5395834 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Elton | David Elton | David Elton is Professor Emeritus of political science at the University of Lethbridge, and past President of Max Bell Foundation.
Elton taught at the University of Lethbridge for over thirty years. In 1980 Dr. Elton began working as President of the Canada West Foundation (CWF), and served as President until 1997. During Elton's tenure, CWF research topics included institutional reform and citizens' engagement. In 1997 Elton was appointed as President of the Max Bell Foundation, a charitable granting philanthropic organization.
Elton was the keynote speaker at the 2006 Mel Smith Lecture at Trinity Western University.
In June 2014, Elton was named a Member of the Order of Canada for dedicating his academic life to political reform, most especially senate reform.
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
University of Lethbridge faculty
Canadian political scientists
Members of the Order of Canada |
5395835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Vogler | Christopher Vogler | Christopher Vogler (born 1949) is a Hollywood development executive, screenwriter, author and educator, best known for working with Disney and his screenwriting guide, The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure For Writers, from 2007.
Early life and education
Born in Missouri, Vogler studied filmmaking at the USC School of Cinema-Television, the alma mater of George Lucas.
Career
Vogler has worked for Disney studios, Fox 2000 pictures, and Warner Bros. in the development department. He contributed story material to the Disney animated feature The Lion King.
He has also taught in the USC School of Cinema-Television, Division of Animation and Digital Arts as well as at UCLA extension. He is President of the company Storytech Literary Consulting. It was founded in 1999 and its Vice President, Brad Schreiber, consults on scripts and books, utilizing Vogler's approach.
Campbell and Writer's Journey
Vogler, like Lucas, was inspired by the writings of mythologist Joseph Campbell, particularly The Hero with a Thousand Faces, which detailed the Hero's Journey archetype in classical mythology.
Vogler used Campbell's work to create a 7-page company memo for Hollywood screenwriters, A Practical Guide to The Hero with a Thousand Faces, which Vogler later developed into The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure for Storytellers and Screenwriters in 1992, and then The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure For Writers (). Vogler has since spun off his techniques into worldwide masterclasses.
References
External links
American film studio executives
Living people
USC School of Cinematic Arts alumni
1949 births
American male screenwriters
Screenwriting instructors
American male non-fiction writers
Warner Bros. people
Writers of books about writing fiction |
5395837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%20phraseology | Soviet phraseology | Soviet phraseology, or Sovietisms, i.e., the neologisms and cliches in Russian language of the epoch of the Soviet Union, has a number of distinct traits that reflect the Soviet way of life and Soviet culture and politics. Most of these distinctions are ultimately traced (directly or indirectly, as a cause-effect chain) to the utopic goal of creating a new society, the ways of the implementation of this goal and what was actually implemented.
The topic of this article is not limited to the Russian language, since this phraseology permeated all national languages in the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, Russian was the language of inter-nationality communication in the Soviet Union, and was declared official language of the state in 1990, therefore it was the major source of Soviet phraseology.
Taxonomy
The following main types of Sovietism coinage may be recognized:
Semantic shift: for example, "to throw out" acquired the colloquial meaning of "to put goods for sale". In the circumstances of total consumer goods shortage, putting some goods on shelves had a character of certain suddenness, captured in the expression. "Ivan, grab your avoska, oranges have been thrown out down on the corner!" — it was not that someone jettisoned oranges; rather a makeshift stall was set up in the street to sell oranges.
Intentional word coinage for new elements arisen in the Soviet/Socialist world, often as abbreviations and acronyms: Gosplan, KGB, gulag, kombed, agitprop, etc.
Colloquial word coinage: khrushchovka, psikhushka
Stylistic cliches: "forever alive" (about Vladimir Lenin), "laboring intelligentsia", to distinguish "good" intelligentsia from "bad" intelligentsia of the past, etc.
Political and ideological slogans Soviet people saw everyday everywhere. Often they were exploited in Russian political jokes. For example, the formula "The Party is Intellect, Honor, and Conscience of our Epoch" was mathematically transformed into "Intellect is party minus honor minus conscience of our epoch."
Quite a few pejorative terms were standardized for numerous enemies of the people and other anti-Soviet subjects: "sharks of imperialism", "rootless cosmopolitans". "The whore of capitalism" was an epithet for genetics.
Beginnings
An initial surge of intentional word coinage appeared immediately after the October Revolution. The declared goal of Bolshevik was "to abolish the capitalist state with all its means of oppression". At the same time, the instruments of the state were objectively, necessary, and they did exist, only under new names. The most notable example is People's Commissar/People's Commissariat which corresponded to minister/ministry (and in fact the latter terms were restored in 1946).
Soviet political humor
Ben Lewis wrote in his essay, book, and film (all titled Hammer & Tickle) that "Communism was a humour-producing machine. Its economic theories and system of repression created inherently funny situations. There were jokes under fascism and the Nazis too, but those systems did not create an absurd, laugh-a-minute reality like communism."
Soviet people coined irreverent definitions for their leaders. "Mineralny sekretar" was a nickname for President Mikhail Gorbachev (due to his anti-alcohol campaign). "Kukuruznik" (from kukuruza, maize) referred to Nikita Khrushchev.
See also
New Soviet names
Thought reform in the People's Republic of China
LTI – Lingua Tertii Imperii, a book that studies the way that Nazi propaganda altered the German language
References
Further reading
"Soviet Language", BBC Russian Service, October 11, 2005
Soviet culture
Historical linguistics |
5395841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stained%20Glass%20Arts%20and%20Fine%20Arts%20College | Stained Glass Arts and Fine Arts College | Stained Glass Arts and Fine Arts College (French: L'Ecole de Vitrail et de Création) is a school in Monthey, Switzerland offering instruction leading to a Glass Craftsman diploma.
External links
Stained Glass Arts and Fine Arts College Website
Art schools in Switzerland
Organisations based in Monthey
Stained glass |
5395844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tittleshall | Tittleshall | Tittleshall is a village and civil parish in the English county of Norfolk.
Location
The village and parish of Tittleshall has an area of 1376 hectares or . The parish is bordered to the north with the parishes of Raynham and Colkirk, to the west with Wellingham All Saints, to the south with the parishes of Litcham and Mileham and to the east with the parishes Whissonsett. The western edge of the parish also marks the border between the local government districts of Breckland, of which Tittleshall is part, and the district of King's Lynn and West Norfolk.
The Village is situated approximately south-west of the town of Fakenham, north-east of the town of Swaffham, and north-west of the city of Norwich.
Population
In the 2011 census had a population of 406 in 161 households. For the purposes of local government, the parish falls within the district of Breckland.
History
The village name of Tittleshall is thought to derive from the Old English for Tyttel’s nook. The earliest evidence of human activity within the parish are a number of Neolithic pits and ditches as well as a prehistoric pit. At least three ring ditches have also been discovered, along with a double ring ditch containing cremation pits.
The Domesday Book
Tillleshall has an entry in the Domesday Book of 1086 where its population, land ownership and productive resources were extensively detailed. In the survey Tittleshall is recorded by the name of Titeshala. The main tenants were Wymer from William de Warenne,
and Ralph Sturmy from Ralph Baynard. The survey also lists that for the Wymer tenancy, there had always been 7 smallholders on this land. Meadow , always 3½ ploughs, woodland, 40 pigs and 1 fishery. Value then 20s, now 30. For Ralph Sturmy’s tenancy there were 12 villagers, now 8. Then and later 4 smallholders, now 14. Then and later 6 slaves, now 2. Meadow , always 2 ploughs in lordship. Then and later 4 men’s ploughs, now 2. Woodland, 100 pigs; always 1 mill. Then 6 head of cattle. Then 30 pigs, now 19. Then 100 sheep, now 80. Then 40 goats, now 73. 4 beehives. Also 1 Freeman, acres . Value then 70s, now the same. Also 1 church, acres , value 5d. The whole has 9 furlongs in length and ½ league in width, tax 5d.
Tittleshall Murder
In 1853 the village was he scene of the murder of Lorenz Beha by William Thomson.
Notable buildings
Parish church of Saint Mary
The parish church of Saint Mary has a nave built in the perpendicular style which is illuminated with transomed windows. There is a canonical sundial on the south wall. The chancel and west tower are in the decorated style. The chancel has a large Decorated five-light window with reticulated tracery, and there is an elaborately moulded tower arch on the west tower. The church has a Kingpost roof.
The church was used over many years by members of the Coke family who had bought the Tittleshall manor following the reformation, as part of their expansion of the Holkham Estate. Saint Mary’s was chosen as the final resting place for many of the Coke family during the post medieval period. There are a number of Coke family monuments at Saint Mary’s dating from 1598 up unto the building of the family mausoleum at Holkham in the 1870s, including memorials to Edward Coke and to his first wife Bridget Paston.
On the west wall of the nave there is an old Tittleshall School honours board which bears the names of eighteen children who passed scholarships to grammar school during the first sixty years of the twentieth century. Several of these names also appear on the war memorial.
Notable residents
Edward Coke, English jurist and Member of Parliament whose writings on the common law were the definitive legal texts for nearly 150 years
William Hoste, Royal Navy captain during the Napoleonic Wars
E. W. Bullinger, noted and controversial Anglican scholar, served as parish curate in Tittleshall from 1863–1866.
Reginald Digby (1867–1927), cricketer; born at Tittleshall
Benjamin Whatley, Lance Corporal of 42 Commando Royal Marines, who was killed in Afghanistan on 24 December 2008.
Notes
External links
http://www.tittleshall.com
Information from Genuki Norfolk on Tittleshall.
Villages in Norfolk
Civil parishes in Norfolk
Breckland District |
5395851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%20Hill%20%28golfer%29 | Dave Hill (golfer) | James David Hill (May 20, 1937 – September 27, 2011) was an American professional golfer. He was the brother of Mike Hill who was also a professional golfer.
Professional career
Hill was born in Jackson, Michigan. He attended the University of Detroit, where he played on the golf team. Hill won 13 times on the PGA Tour, three of which came during his career year of 1969, when he also won the Vardon Trophy for lowest scoring average. He was a member of the United States Ryder Cup team in 1969, 1973, and 1977.
Hill was known for his quick wit and biting sarcasm, and was sometimes referred to as "the Don Rickles of the golf tour". He frequently led the tour in fines and was once suspended for two months after he deliberately broke his putter on national television. At the 1966 Thunderbird Classic, Hill signed his second round scorecard that included a score of 108 on the 18th hole. Hill played in the acrimonious 1969 Ryder Cup that ended in a 16-16 tie when Jack Nicklaus made his famous "concession" of a short but missable putt to Tony Jacklin on the 18th green in the final match.
In 1970, Hill had his best finish in a major championship. He finished in solo second place at the 1970 U.S. Open played at Hazeltine National Golf Club in Minnesota.
In 1987, Hill joined the Senior PGA Tour (now the Champions Tour). He won six tournaments on that tour. Hill had a cameo appearance in the movie, Now You See Him, Now You Don't.
Controversies
Hill finished runner-up at the 1970 U.S. Open. What gained him the most notoriety, though, was not his excellent play but his criticisms of the golf course. In the middle of the championship, before the third round, Hill was fined $150 by Joe Dey Jr., commissioner of the Tournament Players Division of the PGA of America, for "criticism that tends to ridicule and demean the club".
When first asked what he thought of the golf course, he said "I'm still looking for it". When asked what Hazeltine needed, he retorted, "Hazeltine really did lack only 80 acres of corn and a few cows. They ruined a good farm when they built this course". Hill was far from alone among the pros in his criticism of Hazeltine, which had to be extensively redesigned before getting a chance to host another men's major, again the U.S. Open, in 1991. Afterward, Hill claimed to have paid a farmer cash to borrow his tractor. If he had won the 1970 U.S. Open, Hill planned to ride the tractor out onto the golf course as he hoisted the trophy.
Another controversy involving Hill started in 1971. At the 1971 Colonial National Invitation, Hill shot rounds of 77-85 to miss the cut. On his last hole, Hill threw a ball out of a sand trap. Hill was disqualified but it was for his signing a scorecard with an incorrect score on it. When Hill went to play in his next tournament, the Danny Thomas Memphis Classic, Hill was told he was being fined $500 for conduct unbecoming a professional golfer. Hill was required to pay the fine before teeing it up in the tournament. He did so but less than a week later, Hill filed a one-million dollar anti-trust suit against the PGA Tour. In response, the tour put Hill on probation for one year. Hill then increased the amount of damages he was seeking to three-million dollars. The litigation was resolved out of court in less than a year and Hill was taken off probation.
Late in 1971 Hill played some events in Australia. He had a "series of verbal clashes" with Australian golfer Peter Thomson at the Wills Masters. The following week Hill and Thomson played the Australian Open and were paired together in the first round. The "cold war" between the two players continued as neither offered to shake the other man's hand at the beginning of the round. Through the round both did not communicate much to each other but did occasionally congratulate the other golfer when he hit a good shot.
At the 1991 Transamerica Senior Golf Championship, Hill got into a fight on the driving range with J. C. Snead. Snead was hitting shots across the range, the balls rolling near a spot where Hill was practicing. Hill yelled at Snead, then grabbed a club and came after his much bigger adversary. After punching and wrestling their way to the ground, they were separated by other players and caddies.
Personal life
Hill died on September 27, 2011 in Jackson, Michigan after spending the last few years of his life battling emphysema.
Professional wins (24)
PGA Tour wins (13)
PGA Tour playoff record (4–2)
Other wins (5)
this list may be incomplete
1959 Michigan Open
1971 Colorado Open
1976 Colorado Open
1977 Colorado Open
1981 Colorado Open
Senior PGA Tour wins (6)
*Note: The 1988 MONY Senior Tournament of Champions was shortened to 54 holes due to weather.
Senior PGA Tour playoff record (1–1)
Other senior wins (1)
1988 Mazda Champions (with Colleen Walker)
Results in major championships
CUT = missed the half-way cut (3rd round cut in 1964 PGA Championship)
WD = withdrew
"T" indicates a tie for a place
Summary
Most consecutive cuts made – 1 (1966 U.S. Open – 1971 Masters)
Longest streak of top-10s – 3 (1974 PGA – 1975 PGA)
Team appearances
Ryder Cup: 1969 (tied, cup retained), 1973 (winners), 1977 (winners)
References
External links
American male golfers
PGA Tour golfers
PGA Tour Champions golfers
Ryder Cup competitors for the United States
Golfers from Michigan
University of Detroit Mercy alumni
American memoirists
Sportspeople from Jackson, Michigan
1937 births
2011 deaths |
5395853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic%20Four%202099 | Fantastic Four 2099 | Fantastic Four 2099 was a comic book series published by Marvel Comics, featuring the adventures of the Fantastic Four in the alternate future of Marvel 2099 (Earth-928). It ran for eight issues in 1996.
Plot
In the year 2099, Mister Fantastic, the Invisible Woman, the Human Torch, and the Thing find themselves in new uniforms and transported to a very different Negative Zone than the one they knew. Returning home, they find the world changed and S.H.I.E.L.D. soldiers chasing after them as laboratory copies of the original Fantastic Four.
During a fight with a repo-man crew named Total Recall, a church dedicated to the worship of the 22nd century’s Thor is destroyed and the FF escape with an injured Human Torch to an abandoned S.H.I.E.L.D. hideout. They discover, through the repo-men, that the corporation Stark-Fujikawa is claiming them as "experimental subjects". They head to an Alchemax facility to prove their originality. The four encounter the new century's Spider-Man. He helps Reed study the group's DNA. Unfortunately, due to the nature of the 2099 technology, the results were inconclusive, leaving their legitimacy in question.
They then break into their old headquarters at Four Freedoms Plaza with the help of their friend, Chimera, who came back with them from the Negative Zone. Before they can return to the Negative Zone to find a way home, they are attacked by a man named River Styx, the demon brother of Chimera, as well as a group of S.H.I.E.L.D. soldiers. In the course of the battle the Negative Zone door is damaged, causing a dimensional 'meltdown'. Rampaging beasts called the Mindless Ones attack, until they are destroyed by the 22nd century Doctor Strange. Strange then leaps into the future to warn the denizens of Earth of the approaching end of the world.
A planetoid is headed to Earth, causing the polar ice caps to melt. This is caused by the Phalanx, an act which covers most of the Earth in water. The Fantastic Four set up headquarters in their old building to help the Earth’s future inhabitants. The Human Torch heads out to investigate the flooding, but is ambushed and captured by the Atlanteans and their leader, Attuma. The Invisible Woman and the Thing rush to his rescue, getting themselves captured as well. They find themselves caught in the middle of a fight between Attuma and the rightful ruler of Atlantis, the mutant Whisper, a former guardian of X-Nation. Despite chemical brainwashing, the three heroes help Whisper take her rightful place on the throne.
Back in the city, Reed and the future Doctor Doom work with the remaining survivors. While fleeing the city towards the Savage Land, the only place on Earth free from flooding, a fleet of Atlantean ships attacks the remaining humans. The human fleet is saved from destruction by the interference of Doom’s Latverian Luftwaffe, and finally by Whisper, as she asserts her newfound control.
Savage Land
The Fantastic Four, along with the last refugees of Earth, finally settle in the Savage Land to rebuild humanity. Their next step is to send out a ship piloted by the Thing, and crewed by Father Jennifer and the mutants December, Twilight and Smith. The goal is to rendezvous with the human colony on Mars, in order to establish relations and ask for help. Cosmic rays cause the ship to crash.
Back on Earth, Johnny and Susan despair as Reed drives himself to exhaustion to establish a technological infrastructure for the remaining humans. All three grieve for Ben's presumed loss, but Reed takes it the worst, actually hallucinating at one point that Metalhead is Ben.
Sue and Johnny confront Reed, who states his intention to stay in the 2099 era. They leave him behind. Reed accomplishes his goal, creating a repository of knowledge for the last of humanity. Shocked back to sanity by the databank's physical resemblance to his son Franklin, Reed races back to Four Freedoms Plaza just in time to join Johnny and Sue. They vanish into the Negative Zone, destination uncertain.
The mutants later return to Earth with Martian aliens and resources in an attempt to help the survivors.
Later is shown this team was copies made by the powerful Watcher to help 2099 humanity which is in danger of extinction. The Watcher is persuaded to keep the current Fantastic Four around and they prove invaluable to rebuilding Earth. Some of the highlights of their careers including becoming official Avengers, removing a barrier to space exploration and establishing a peace treaty with Atlanteans.
References
1996 comics debuts
Marvel 2099 characters |
4000830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20African%20Border%20War | South African Border War | The South African Border War, also known as the Namibian War of Independence, and sometimes denoted in South Africa as the Angolan Bush War, was a largely asymmetric conflict that occurred in Namibia (then South West Africa), Zambia, and Angola from 26 August 1966 to 21 March 1990. It was fought between the South African Defence Force (SADF) and the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), an armed wing of the South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO). The South African Border War resulted in some of the largest battles on the African continent since World War II and was closely intertwined with the Angolan Civil War.
Following several years of unsuccessful petitioning through the United Nations and the International Court of Justice for Namibian independence from South Africa, SWAPO formed the PLAN in 1962 with material assistance from the Soviet Union, China, and sympathetic African states such as Tanzania, Ghana, and Algeria. Fighting broke out between PLAN and the South African authorities in August 1966. Between 1975 and 1988 the SADF staged massive conventional raids into Angola and Zambia to eliminate PLAN's forward operating bases. It also deployed specialist counter-insurgency units such as Koevoet and 32 Battalion trained to carry out external reconnaissance and track guerrilla movements.
South African tactics became increasingly aggressive as the conflict progressed. The SADF's incursions produced Angolan casualties and occasionally resulted in severe collateral damage to economic installations regarded as vital to the Angolan economy. Ostensibly to stop these raids, but also to disrupt the growing alliance between the SADF and the National Union for the Total Independence for Angola (UNITA), which the former was arming with captured PLAN equipment, the Soviet Union backed the People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) through a large contingent of military advisers and up to four billion dollars' worth of modern defence technology in the 1980s. Beginning in 1984, regular Angolan units under Soviet command were confident enough to confront the SADF. Their positions were also bolstered by thousands of Cuban troops. The state of war between South Africa and Angola briefly ended with the short-lived Lusaka Accords, but resumed in August 1985 as both PLAN and UNITA took advantage of the ceasefire to intensify their own guerrilla activity, leading to a renewed phase of FAPLA combat operations culminating in the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale. The South African Border War was virtually ended by the Tripartite Accord, mediated by the United States, which committed to a withdrawal of Cuban and South African military personnel from Angola and South West Africa, respectively. PLAN launched its final guerrilla campaign in April 1989. South West Africa received formal independence as the Republic of Namibia a year later, on 21 March 1990.
Despite being largely fought in neighbouring states, the South African Border War had a phenomenal cultural and political impact on South African society. The country's apartheid government devoted considerable effort towards presenting the war as part of a containment programme against regional Soviet expansionism and used it to stoke public anti-communist sentiment. It remains an integral theme in contemporary South African literature at large and Afrikaans-language works in particular, having given rise to a unique genre known as grensliteratuur (directly translated "border literature").
Nomenclature
Various names have been applied to the undeclared conflict waged by South Africa in Angola and Namibia (then South West Africa) from the mid 1960s to the late 1980s. The term "South African Border War" has typically denoted the military campaign launched by the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), which took the form of sabotage and rural insurgency, as well as the external raids launched by South African troops on suspected PLAN bases inside Angola or Zambia, sometimes involving major conventional warfare against the People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola (FAPLA) and its Cuban allies. The strategic situation was further complicated by the fact that South Africa occupied large swathes of Angola for extended periods in support of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), making the "Border War" an increasingly inseparable conflict from the parallel Angolan Civil War.
"Border War" entered public discourse in South Africa during the late 1970s, and was adopted thereafter by the country's ruling National Party. Due to the covert nature of most South African Defence Force (SADF) operations inside Angola, the term was favoured as a means of omitting any reference to clashes on foreign soil. Where tactical aspects of various engagements were discussed, military historians simply identified the conflict as the "bush war".
The South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO) has described the South African Border War as the Namibian War of National Liberation and the Namibian Liberation Struggle. In the Namibian context it is also commonly referred to as the Namibian War of Independence. However, these terms have been criticised for ignoring the wider regional implications of the war and the fact that PLAN was based in, and did most of its fighting from, countries other than Namibia.
Background
Namibia was governed as German South West Africa, a colony of the German Empire, until World War I, when it was invaded and occupied by Allied forces under General Louis Botha. Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918, a mandate system was imposed by the League of Nations to govern African and Asian territories held by Germany and the Ottoman Empire prior to the war. The mandate system was formed as a compromise between those who advocated an Allied annexation of former German and Turkish territories, and another proposition put forward by those who wished to grant them to an international trusteeship until they could govern themselves.
All former German and Turkish territories were classified into three types of mandates – Class "A" mandates, predominantly in the Middle East, Class "B" mandates, which encompassed central Africa, and Class "C" mandates, which were reserved for the most sparsely populated or least developed German colonies: South West Africa, German New Guinea, and the Pacific islands.
Owing to their small size, geographic remoteness, low population density, or physical contiguity to the mandatory itself, Class "C" mandates could be administered as integral provinces of the countries to which they were entrusted. Nevertheless, the bestowal of a mandate by the League of Nations did not confer full sovereignty, only the responsibility of administering it. In principle mandating countries were only supposed to hold these former colonies "in trust" for their inhabitants, until they were sufficiently prepared for their own self-determination. Under these terms, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand were granted the German Pacific islands, and the Union of South Africa received South West Africa.
It soon became apparent the South African government had interpreted the mandate as a veiled annexation. In September 1922, South African Prime Minister Jan Smuts testified before the League of Nations Mandate Commission that South West Africa was being fully incorporated into the Union and should be regarded, for all practical purposes, as a fifth province of South Africa. According to Smuts, this constituted "annexation in all but in name".
Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the League of Nations complained that of all the mandatory powers South Africa was the most delinquent with regards to observing the terms of its mandate. The Mandate Commission vetoed a number of ambitious South African policy decisions, such as proposals to nationalise South West African railways or alter the preexisting borders. Sharp criticism was also leveled at South Africa's disproportionate spending on the local white population, which the former defended as obligatory since white South West Africans were taxed the heaviest. The League adopted the argument that no one segment of any mandate's population was entitled to favourable treatment over another, and the terms under which the mandate had been granted made no provision for special obligation towards whites. It pointed out that there was little evidence of progress being made towards political self-determination; just prior to World War II South Africa and the League remained at an impasse over this dispute.
Legality of South West Africa, 1946–1960
After World War II, Jan Smuts headed the South African delegation to the United Nations Conference on International Organization. As a result of this conference, the League of Nations was formally superseded by the United Nations (UN) and former League mandates by a trusteeship system. Article 77 of the United Nations Charter stated that UN trusteeship "shall apply...to territories now held under mandate"; furthermore, it would "be a matter of subsequent agreement as to which territories in the foregoing territories will be brought under the trusteeship system and under what terms". Smuts was suspicious of the proposed trusteeship, largely because of the vague terminology in Article 77.
Heaton Nicholls, the South African high commissioner in the United Kingdom and a member of the Smuts delegation to the UN, addressed the newly formed UN General Assembly on 17 January 1946. Nicholls stated that the legal uncertainty of South West Africa's situation was retarding development and discouraging foreign investment; however, self-determination for the time being was impossible since the territory was too undeveloped and underpopulated to function as a strong independent state. In the second part of the first session of the General Assembly, the floor was handed to Smuts, who declared that the mandate was essentially a part of the South African territory and people. Smuts informed the General Assembly that it had already been so thoroughly incorporated with South Africa a UN-sanctioned annexation was no more than a necessary formality.
The Smuts delegation's request for the termination of the mandate and permission to annex South West Africa was not well received by the General Assembly. Five other countries, including three major colonial powers, had agreed to place their mandates under the trusteeship of the UN, at least in principle; South Africa alone refused. Most delegates insisted it was undesirable to endorse the annexation of a mandated territory, especially when all of the others had entered trusteeship. Thirty-seven member states voted to block a South African annexation of South West Africa; nine abstained.
In Pretoria, right-wing politicians reacted with outrage at what they perceived as unwarranted UN interference in the South West Africa affair. The National Party dismissed the UN as unfit to meddle with South Africa's policies or discuss its administration of the mandate. One National Party speaker, Eric Louw, demanded that South West Africa be annexed unilaterally. During the South African general election, 1948, the National Party was swept into power, newly appointed Prime Minister Daniel Malan prepared to adopt a more aggressive stance concerning annexation, and Louw was named ambassador to the UN. During an address in Windhoek, Malan reiterated his party's position that South Africa would annex the mandate before surrendering it to an international trusteeship. The following year a formal statement was issued to the General Assembly which proclaimed that South Africa had no intention of complying with trusteeship, nor was it obligated to release new information or reports pertaining to its administration. Simultaneously, the South West Africa Affairs Administration Act, 1949, was passed by South African parliament. The new legislation gave white South West Africans parliamentary representation and the same political rights as white South Africans.
The UN General Assembly responded by deferring to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), which was to issue an advisory opinion on the international status of South West Africa. The ICJ ruled that South West Africa was still being governed as a mandate; hence, South Africa was not legally obligated to surrender it to the UN trusteeship system if it did not recognise the mandate system had lapsed, conversely, however, it was still bound by the provisions of the original mandate. Adherence to these provisions meant South Africa was not empowered to unilaterally modify the international status of South West Africa. Malan and his government rejected the court's opinion as irrelevant. The UN formed a Committee on South West Africa, which issued its own independent reports regarding the administration and development of that territory. The Committee's reports became increasingly scathing of South African officials when the National Party imposed its harsh system of racial segregation and stratification—apartheid—on South West Africa.
In 1958, the UN established a Good Offices Committee which continued to invite South Africa to bring South West Africa under trusteeship. The Good Offices Committee proposed a partition of the mandate, allowing South Africa to annex the southern portion while either granting independence to the north, including the densely populated Ovamboland region, or administering it as an international trust territory. The proposal met with overwhelming opposition in the General Assembly; fifty-six nations voted against it. Any further partition of South West Africa was rejected out of hand.
Internal opposition to South African rule
Mounting internal opposition to apartheid played an instrumental role in the development and militancy of a South West African nationalist movement throughout the mid to late 1950s. The 1952 Defiance Campaign, a series of nonviolent protests launched by the African National Congress against pass laws, inspired the formation of South West African student unions opposed to apartheid. In 1955, their members organised the South West African Progressive Association (SWAPA), chaired by Uatja Kaukuetu, to campaign for South West African independence. Although SWAPA did not garner widespread support beyond intellectual circles, it was the first nationalist body claiming to support the interests of all black South West Africans, irrespective of tribe or language. SWAPA's activists were predominantly Herero students, schoolteachers, and other members of the emerging black intelligentsia in Windhoek. Meanwhile, the Ovamboland People's Congress (later the Ovamboland People's Organisation, or OPO) was formed by nationalists among partly urbanised migrant Ovambo labourers in Cape Town. The OPO's constitution cited the achievement of a UN trusteeship and ultimate South West African independence as its primary goals. A unified movement was proposed that would include the politicisation of Ovambo contract workers from northern South West Africa as well as the Herero students, which resulted in the unification of SWAPA and the OPO as the South West African National Union (SWANU) on 27 September 1959.
In December 1959, the South African government announced that it would forcibly relocate all residents of Old Location, a black neighbourhood located near Windhoek's city center, in accordance with apartheid legislation. SWANU responded by organising mass demonstrations and a bus boycott on 10 December, and in the ensuing confrontation South African police opened fire, killing eleven protestors. In the wake of the Old Location incident, the OPO split from SWANU, citing differences with the organisation's Herero leadership, then petitioning UN delegates in New York City. As the UN and potential foreign supporters reacted sensitively to any implications of tribalism and had favoured SWANU for its claim to represent the South West African people as a whole, the OPO was likewise rebranded the South West African People's Organisation. It later opened its ranks to all South West Africans sympathetic to its aims.
SWAPO leaders soon went abroad to mobilise support for their goals within the international community and newly independent African states in particular. The movement scored a major diplomatic success when it was recognised by Tanzania and allowed to open an office in Dar es Salaam. SWAPO's first manifesto, released in July 1960, was remarkably similar to SWANU's. Both advocated the abolition of colonialism and all forms of racialism, the promotion of Pan-Africanism, and called for the "economic, social, and cultural advancement" of South West Africans. However, SWAPO went a step further by demanding immediate independence under black majority rule, to be granted at a date no later than 1963. The SWAPO manifesto also promised universal suffrage, sweeping welfare programmes, free healthcare, free public education, the nationalisation of all major industry, and the forcible redistribution of foreign-owned land "in accordance with African communal ownership principles".
Compared to SWANU, SWAPO's potential for wielding political influence within South West Africa was limited, and it was likelier to accept armed insurrection as the primary means of achieving its goals accordingly. SWAPO leaders also argued that a decision to take up arms against the South Africans would demonstrate their superior commitment to the nationalist cause. This would also distinguish SWAPO from SWANU in the eyes of international supporters as the genuine vanguard of the Namibian independence struggle, and the legitimate recipient of any material assistance that was forthcoming. Modelled after Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the African National Congress, the South West African Liberation Army (SWALA) was formed by SWAPO in 1962. The first seven SWALA recruits were sent from Dar es Salaam to Egypt and the Soviet Union, where they received military instruction. Upon their return they began training guerrillas at a makeshift camp established for housing South West African refugees in Kongwa, Tanzania.
Cold War tensions and the border militarisation
The increasing likelihood of armed conflict in South West Africa had strong international foreign policy implications, for both Western Europe and the Soviet bloc. Prior to the late 1950s, South Africa's defence policy had been influenced by international Cold War politics, including the domino theory and fears of a conventional Soviet military threat to the strategic Cape trade route between the south Atlantic and Indian oceans. Noting that the country had become the world's principal source of uranium, the South African Department of External Affairs reasoned that "on this account alone, therefore, South Africa is bound to be implicated in any war between East and West". Prime Minister Malan took the position that colonial Africa was being directly threatened by the Soviets, or at least by Soviet-backed communist agitation, and this was only likely to increase whatever the result of another European war. Malan promoted an African Pact, similar to NATO, headed by South Africa and the Western colonial powers accordingly. The concept failed due to international opposition to apartheid and suspicion of South African military overtures in the British Commonwealth.
South Africa's involvement in the Korean War produced a significant warming of relations between Malan and the United States, despite American criticism of apartheid. Until the early 1960s, South African strategic and military support was considered an integral component of U.S. foreign policy in Africa's southern subcontinent, and there was a steady flow of defence technology from Washington to Pretoria. American and Western European interest in the defence of Africa from a hypothetical, external communist invasion dissipated after it became clear that the nuclear arms race was making global conventional war increasingly less likely. Emphasis shifted towards preventing communist subversion and infiltration via proxy rather than overt Soviet aggression.
The advent of global decolonisation and the subsequent rise in prominence of the Soviet Union among several newly independent African states was viewed with wariness by the South African government. National Party politicians began warning it would only be a matter of time before they were faced with a Soviet-directed insurgency on their borders. Outlying regions in South West Africa, namely the Caprivi Strip, became the focus of massive SADF air and ground training manoeuvres, as well as heightened border patrols. A year before SWAPO made the decision to send its first SWALA recruits abroad for guerrilla training, South Africa established fortified police outposts along the Caprivi Strip for the express purpose of deterring insurgents. When SWALA cadres armed with Soviet weapons and training began to make their appearance in South West Africa, the National Party believed its fears of a local Soviet proxy force had finally been realised.
The Soviet Union took a keen interest in Africa's independence movements and initially hoped that the cultivation of socialist client states on the continent would deny their economic and strategic resources to the West. Soviet training of SWALA was thus not confined to tactical matters but extended to Marxist–Leninist political theory, and the procedures for establishing an effective political-military infrastructure. In addition to training, the Soviets quickly became SWALA's leading supplier of arms and money. Weapons supplied to SWALA between 1962 and 1966 included PPSh-41 submachine guns, SKS carbines, and TT-33 pistols, which were well-suited to the insurgents' unconventional warfare strategy.
Despite its burgeoning relationship with SWAPO, the Soviet Union did not regard Southern Africa as a major strategic priority in the mid 1960s, due to its preoccupation elsewhere on the continent and in the Middle East. Nevertheless, the perception of South Africa as a regional Western ally and a bastion of neocolonialism helped fuel Soviet backing for the nationalist movement. Moscow also approved of SWAPO's decision to adopt guerrilla warfare because it was not optimistic about any solution to the South West Africa problem short of revolutionary struggle. This was in marked contrast to the Western governments, which opposed the formation of SWALA and turned down the latter's requests for military aid.
The insurgency begins, 1964–1974
Early guerrilla incursions
In November 1960, Ethiopia and Liberia had formally petitioned the ICJ for a binding judgement, rather than an advisory opinion, on whether South Africa remained fit to govern South West Africa. Both nations made it clear that they considered the implementation of apartheid to be a violation of Pretoria's obligations as a mandatory power. The National Party government rejected the claim on the grounds that Ethiopia and Liberia lacked sufficient legal interest to present a case concerning South West Africa. This argument suffered a major setback on 21 December 1962 when the ICJ ruled that as former League of Nations member states, both parties had a right to institute the proceedings.
Around March 1962 SWAPO President Sam Nujoma visited the party's refugee camps across Tanzania, describing his recent petitions for South West African independence at the Non-Aligned Movement and the UN. He pointed out that independence was unlikely in the foreseeable future, predicting a "long and bitter struggle". Nujoma personally directed two exiles in Dar es Salaam, Lucas Pohamba and Elia Muatale, to return to South West Africa, infiltrate Ovamboland and send back more potential recruits for SWALA. Over the next few years Pohamba and Muatale successfully recruited hundreds of volunteers from the Ovamboland countryside, most of whom were shipped to Eastern Europe for guerrilla training. Between July 1962 and October 1963 SWAPO negotiated military alliances with other anti-colonial movements, namely in Angola. It also absorbed the separatist Caprivi African National Union (CANU), which was formed to combat South African rule in the Caprivi Strip. Outside the Soviet bloc, Egypt continued training SWALA personnel. By 1964 others were also being sent to Ghana, Algeria, the People's Republic of China, and North Korea for military instruction. In June of that year, SWAPO confirmed that it was irrevocably committed to the course of armed revolution.
The formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)'s Liberation Committee further strengthened SWAPO's international standing and ushered in an era of unprecedented political decline for SWANU. The Liberation Committee had obtained approximately £20,000 in obligatory contributions from OAU member states; these funds were offered to both South West African nationalist movements. However, as SWANU was unwilling to guarantee its share of the £20,000 would be used for armed struggle, this grant was awarded to SWAPO instead. The OAU then withdrew recognition from SWANU, leaving SWAPO as the sole beneficiary of pan-African legitimacy. With OAU assistance, SWAPO opened diplomatic offices in Lusaka, Cairo, and London. SWANU belatedly embarked on a ten-year programme to raise its own guerrilla army.
In September 1965, the first unit of six SWALA guerrillas, identified simply as "Group 1", departed the Kongwa refugee camp to infiltrate South West Africa. Group 1 trekked first into Angola, before crossing the border into the Caprivi Strip. Encouraged by South Africa's apparent failure to detect the initial incursion, larger insurgent groups made their own infiltration attempts in February and March 1966. The second unit, "Group 2", was led by Leonard Philemon Shuuya, also known by the nom de guerre "Castro" or "Leonard Nangolo". Group 2 apparently become lost in Angola before it was able to cross the border, and the guerrillas dispersed after an incident in which they killed two shopkeepers and a vagrant. Three were arrested by the Portuguese colonial authorities in Angola, working off tips received from local civilians. Another eight, including Shuuya, had been captured between March and May by the South African police, apparently in Kavangoland. Shuuya later resurfaced at Kongwa, claiming to have escaped his captors after his arrest. He helped plan two further incursions: a third SWALA group entered Ovamboland that July, while a fourth was scheduled to follow in September.
On 18 July 1966, the ICJ ruled that it had no authority to decide on the South West African affair. Furthermore, the court found that while Ethiopia and Liberia had locus standi to institute proceedings on the matter, neither had enough vested legal interest in South West Africa to entitle them to a judgement of merits. This ruling was met with great indignation by SWAPO and the OAU. SWAPO officials immediately issued a statement from Dar es Salaam declaring that they now had "no alternative but to rise in arms" and "cross rivers of blood" in their march towards freedom. Upon receiving the news SWALA escalated its insurgency. Its third group, which had infiltrated Ovamboland in July, attacked white-owned farms, traditional Ovambo leaders perceived as South African agents, and a border post. The guerrillas set up camp at Omugulugwombashe, one of five potential bases identified by SWALA's initial reconnaissance team as appropriate sites to train future recruits. Here, they drilled up to thirty local volunteers between September 1965 and August 1966. South African intelligence became aware of the camp by mid 1966 and identified its general location. On 26 August 1966, the first major clash of the conflict took place when South African paratroops and paramilitary police units executed Operation Blouwildebees to capture or kill the insurgents. SWALA had dug trenches around Omugulugwombashe for defensive purposes, but was taken by surprise and most of the insurgents quickly overpowered. SWALA suffered 2 dead, 1 wounded, and 8 captured; the South Africans suffered no casualties. This engagement is widely regarded in South Africa as the start of the Border War, and according to SWAPO, officially marked the beginning of its revolutionary armed struggle.
Operation Blouwildebees triggered accusations of treachery within SWALA's senior ranks. According to SADF accounts, an unidentified informant had accompanied the security forces during the attack. Sam Nujoma asserted that one of the eight guerrillas from the second group who were captured in Kavangoland was a South African mole. Suspicion immediately fell on Leonard "Castro" Shuuya. SWALA suffered a second major reversal on 18 May 1967, when Tobias Hainyeko, its commander, was killed by the South African police. Heinyeko and his men had been attempting to cross the Zambezi River, as part of a general survey aimed at opening new lines of communication between the front lines in South West Africa and SWAPO's political leadership in Tanzania. They were intercepted by a South African patrol, and the ensuing firefight left Heinyeko dead and two policemen seriously wounded. Rumours again abounded that Shuuya was responsible, resulting in his dismissal and subsequent imprisonment.
In the weeks following the raid on Omugulugwombashe, South Africa had detained thirty-seven SWAPO politicians, namely Andimba Toivo ya Toivo, Johnny Otto, Nathaniel Maxuilili, and Jason Mutumbulua. Together with the captured SWALA guerrillas they were jailed in Pretoria and held there until July 1967, when all were charged retroactively under the Terrorism Act. The state prosecuted the accused as Marxist revolutionaries seeking to establish a Soviet-backed regime in South West Africa. In what became known as the "1967 Terrorist Trial", six of the accused were found guilty of committing violence in the act of insurrection, with the remainder being convicted for armed intimidation, or receiving military training for the purpose of insurrection. During the trial, the defendants unsuccessfully argued against allegations that they were privy to an external communist plot. All but three received sentences ranging from five years to life imprisonment on Robben Island.
Expansion of the war effort and mine warfare
The defeat at Omugulugwombashe and subsequent loss of Tobias Hainyeko forced SWALA to reevaluate its tactics. Guerrillas began operating in larger groups to increase their chances of surviving encounters with the security forces, and refocused their efforts on infiltrating the civilian population. Disguised as peasants, SWALA cadres could acquaint themselves with the terrain and observe South African patrols without arousing suspicion. This was also a logistical advantage because they could only take what supplies they could carry while in the field; otherwise, the guerrillas remained dependent on sympathetic civilians for food, water, and other necessities. On 29 July 1967, the SADF received intelligence that a large number of SWALA forces were congregated at Sacatxai, a settlement almost a hundred and thirty kilometres north of the border inside Angola. South African T-6 Harvard warplanes bombed Sacatxai on 1 August. Most of their intended targets were able to escape, and in October 1968 two SWALA units crossed the border into Ovamboland. This incursion was no more productive than the others and by the end of the year 178 insurgents had been either killed or apprehended by the police.
Throughout the 1950s and much of the 1960s, a limited military service system by lottery was implemented in South Africa to comply with the needs of national defence. Around mid 1967 the National Party government established universal conscription for all white South African men as the SADF expanded to meet the growing insurgent threat. From January 1968 onward there would be two yearly intakes of national servicemen undergoing nine months of military training. The air strike on Sacatxai also marked a fundamental shift in South African tactics, as the SADF had for the first time indicated a willingness to strike at SWALA on foreign soil. Although Angola was then an overseas province of Portugal, Lisbon granted the SADF's request to mount punitive campaigns across the border. In May 1967 South Africa established a new facility at Rundu to coordinate joint air operations between the SADF and the Portuguese Armed Forces, and posted two permanent liaison officers at Menongue and Cuito Cuanavale.
As the war intensified, South Africa's case for annexation in the international community continued to decline, coinciding with an unparalleled wave of sympathy for SWAPO. Despite the ICJ's advisory opinions to the contrary, as well as the dismissal of the case presented by Ethiopia and Liberia, the UN declared that South Africa had failed in its obligations to ensure the moral and material well-being of the indigenous inhabitants of South West Africa, and had thus disavowed its own mandate. The UN thereby assumed that the mandate was terminated, which meant South Africa had no further right to administer the territory, and that henceforth South West Africa would come under the direct responsibility of the General Assembly. The post of United Nations Commissioner for South West Africa was created, as well as an ad hoc council, to recommend practical means for local administration. South Africa maintained it did not recognise the jurisdiction of the UN with regards to the mandate and refused visas to the commissioner or the council. On 12 June 1968, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution which proclaimed that, in accordance with the desires of its people, South West Africa be renamed Namibia. United Nations Security Council Resolution 269, adopted in August 1969, declared South Africa's continued occupation of "Namibia" illegal. In recognition of the UN's decision, SWALA was renamed the People's Liberation Army of Namibia.
To regain the military initiative, the adoption of mine warfare as an integral strategy of PLAN was discussed at a 1969–70 SWAPO consultative congress held in Tanzania. PLAN's leadership backed the initiative to deploy land mines as a means of compensating for its inferiority in most conventional aspects to the South African security forces. Shortly afterwards, PLAN began acquiring TM-46 mines from the Soviet Union, which were designed for anti-tank purposes, and produced some homemade "box mines" with TNT for anti-personnel use. The mines were strategically placed along roads to hamper police convoys or throw them into disarray prior to an ambush; guerrillas also laid others along their infiltration routes on the long border with Angola. The proliferation of mines in South West Africa initially resulted in heavy police casualties and would become one of the most defining features of PLAN's war effort for the next two decades.
On 2 May 1971 a police van struck a mine, most likely a TM-46, in the Caprivi Strip. The resulting explosion blew a crater in the road about two metres in diameter and sent the vehicle airborne, killing two senior police officers and injuring nine others. This was the first mine-related incident recorded on South West African soil. In October 1971 another police vehicle detonated a mine outside Katima Mulilo, wounding four constables. The following day, a fifth constable was mortally injured when he stepped on a second mine laid directly alongside the first. This reflected a new PLAN tactic of laying anti-personnel mines parallel to their anti-tank mines to kill policemen or soldiers either engaging in preliminary mine detection or inspecting the scene of a previous blast. In 1972 South Africa acknowledged that two more policemen had died and another three had been injured as a result of mines.
The proliferation of mines in the Caprivi and other rural areas posed a serious concern to the South African government, as they were relatively easy for a PLAN cadre to conceal and plant with minimal chance of detection. Sweeping the roads for mines with hand held mine detectors was possible, but too slow and tedious to be a practical means of ensuring swift police movement or keeping routes open for civilian use. The SADF possessed some mine clearance equipment, including flails and ploughs mounted on tanks, but these were not considered practical either. The sheer distances of road vulnerable to PLAN sappers every day was simply too vast for daily detection and clearance efforts. For the SADF and the police, the only other viable option was the adoption of armoured personnel carriers with mine-proof hulls that could move quickly on roads with little risk to their passengers even if a mine was encountered. This would evolve into a new class of military vehicle, the mine resistant and ambush protected vehicle (MRAP). By the end of 1972, the South African police were carrying out most of their patrols in the Caprivi Strip with mineproofed vehicles.
Political unrest in Ovamboland
United Nations Security Council Resolution 283 was passed in June 1970 calling for all UN member states to close, or refrain from establishing, diplomatic or consular offices in South West Africa. The resolution also recommended disinvestment, boycotts, and voluntary sanctions of that territory as long as it remained under South African rule. In light of these developments, the Security Council sought the advisory opinion of the ICJ on the "legal consequences for states of the continued presence of South Africa in Namibia". There was initial opposition to this course of action from SWAPO and the OAU, because their delegates feared another inconclusive ruling like the one in 1966 would strengthen South Africa's case for annexation. Nevertheless, the prevailing opinion at the Security Council was that since the composition of judges had been changed since 1966, a ruling in favour of the nationalist movement was more likely. At the UN's request, SWAPO was permitted to lobby informally at the court and was even offered an observer presence in the courtroom itself.
On 21 June 1971, the ICJ reversed its earlier decision not to rule on the legality of South Africa's mandate, and expressed the opinion that any continued perpetuation of said mandate was illegal. Furthermore, the court found that Pretoria was under obligation to withdraw its administration immediately and that if it failed to do so, UN member states would be compelled to refrain from any political or business dealings which might imply recognition of the South African government's presence there. On the same day the ICJ's ruling was made public, South African prime minister B. J. Vorster rejected it as "politically motivated", with no foundation in fact. However, the decision inspired the bishops of the Evangelical Lutheran Ovambo-Kavango Church to draw up an open letter to Vorster denouncing apartheid and South Africa's continued rule. This letter was read in every black Lutheran congregation in the territory, and in a number of Catholic and Anglican parishes elsewhere. The consequence of the letter's contents was increased militancy on the part of the black population, especially among the Ovambo people, who made up the bulk of SWAPO's supporters. Throughout the year there were mass demonstrations against the South African government held in many Ovamboland schools.
In December 1971, Jannie de Wet, Commissioner for the Indigenous Peoples of South West Africa, sparked off a general strike by 15,000 Ovambo workers in Walvis Bay when he made a public statement defending the territory's controversial contract labour regulations. The strike quickly spread to municipal workers in Windhoek, and from there to the diamond, copper and tin mines, especially those at Tsumeb, Grootfontein, and Oranjemund. Later in the month, 25,000 Ovambo farm labourers joined what had become a nationwide strike affecting half the total workforce. The South African police responded by arresting some of the striking workers and forcibly deporting the others to Ovamboland. On 10 January 1972, an ad hoc strike committee led by Johannes Nangutuuala, was formed to negotiate with the South African government; the strikers demanded an end to contract labour, freedom to apply for jobs according to skill and interest and to quit a job if so desired, freedom to have a worker bring his family with him from Ovamboland while taking a job elsewhere, and for equal pay with white workers.
The strike was later brought to an end after the South African government agreed to several concessions which were endorsed by Nangutuuala, including the implementation of uniform working hours and allowing workers to change jobs. Responsibility for labour recruitment was also transferred to the tribal authorities in Ovamboland. Thousands of the sacked Ovambo workers remained dissatisfied with these terms and refused to return to work. They attacked tribal headmen, vandalised stock control posts and government offices, and tore down about a hundred kilometres of fencing along the border, which they claimed obstructed itinerant Ovambos from grazing their cattle freely. The unrest also fueled discontent among Kwanyama-speaking Ovambos in Angola, who destroyed cattle vaccination stations and schools and attacked four border posts, killing and injuring some SADF personnel as well as members of a Portuguese militia unit. South Africa responded by declaring a state of emergency in Ovamboland on 4 February. A media blackout was imposed, white civilians evacuated further south, public assembly rights revoked, and the security forces empowered to detain suspicious persons indefinitely. Police reinforcements were sent to the border, and in the ensuing crackdown they arrested 213 Ovambos. South Africa was sufficiently alarmed at the violence to deploy a large SADF contingent as well. They were joined by Portuguese troops who moved south from across the border to assist them. By the end of March order had been largely restored and most of the remaining strikers returned to work.
South Africa blamed SWAPO for instigating the strike and subsequent unrest. While acknowledging that a significant percentage of the strikers were SWAPO members and supporters, the party's acting president Nathaniel Maxuilili noted that reform of South West African labour laws had been a longstanding aspiration of the Ovambo workforce, and suggested the strike had been organised shortly after the crucial ICJ ruling because they hoped to take advantage of its publicity to draw greater attention to their grievances. The strike also had a politicising effect on much of the Ovambo population, as the workers involved later turned to wider political activity and joined SWAPO. Around 20,000 strikers did not return to work but fled to other countries, mostly Zambia, where some were recruited as guerrillas by PLAN. Support for PLAN also increased among the rural Ovamboland peasantry, who were for the most part sympathetic with the strikers and resentful of their traditional chiefs' active collaboration with the police.
The following year, South Africa transferred self-governing authority to Chief Fillemon Elifas Shuumbwa and the Ovambo legislature, effectively granting Ovamboland a limited form of home rule. Voter turnout at the legislative elections was exceedingly poor, due in part to antipathy towards the local Ovamboland government and a SWAPO boycott of the polls.
The police withdrawal
Swelled by thousands of new recruits and an increasingly sophisticated arsenal of heavy weapons, PLAN undertook more direct confrontations with the security forces in 1973. Insurgent activity took the form of ambushes and selective target attacks, particularly in the Caprivi near the Zambian border. On the evening of 26 January 1973 a heavily armed group of about 50 PLAN insurgents attacked a police base at Singalamwe, Caprivi with mortars, machine guns, and a single tube, man portable rocket launcher. The police were ill-equipped to repel the attack and the base soon caught fire due to the initial rocket bombardment, which incapacitated both the senior officer and his second in command. This marked the beginning of a new phase of the South African Border War in which the scope and intensity of PLAN raids were greatly increased. By the end of 1973, PLAN's insurgency had engulfed six regions: Caprivi, Ovamboland, Kaokoland, and Kavangoland. It also had successfully recruited another 2,400 Ovambo and 600 Caprivian guerrillas. PLAN reports from late 1973 indicate that the militants planned to open up two new fronts in central South West Africa and carry out acts of urban insurrection in Windhoek, Walvis Bay, and other major urban centres.
Until 1973, the South African Border War was perceived as a matter of law enforcement rather than a military conflict, reflecting a trend among Anglophone Commonwealth states to regard police as the principal force in the suppression of insurgencies. The South African police did have paramilitary capabilities, and had previously seen action during the Rhodesian Bush War. However, the failure of the police to prevent the escalation of the war in South West Africa led to the SADF assuming responsibility for all counter-insurgency campaigns on 1 April 1974. The last regular South African police units were withdrawn from South West Africa's borders three months later, in June. At this time there were about 15,000 SADF personnel being deployed to take their place. The SADF's budget was increased by nearly 150% between 1973 and 1974 accordingly. In August 1974, the SADF cleared a buffer strip about five kilometres wide which ran parallel to the Angolan border and was intensely patrolled and monitored for signs of PLAN infiltration. This would become known as "the Cutline".
The Angolan front, 1975–1977
On 24 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution ousted Marcelo Caetano and Portugal's right-wing Estado Novo government, sounding the death knell for the Portuguese Empire. The Carnation Revolution was followed by a period of instability in Angola, which threatened to erupt into civil war, and South Africa was forced to consider the unpalatable likelihood that a Soviet-backed regime there allied with SWAPO would in turn create increased military pressure on South West Africa. PLAN incursions from Angola were already beginning to spike due to the cessation of patrols and active operations there by the Portuguese.
In the last months of 1974 Portugal announced its intention to grant Angola independence and embarked on a series of hasty efforts to negotiate a power-sharing accord, the Alvor Agreement, between rival Angolan nationalists. There were three disparate nationalist movements then active in Angola, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), and the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). The three movements had all participated in the Angolan War of Independence and shared a common goal of liberating the country from colonial rule, but also claimed unique ethnic support bases, different ideological inclinations, and their own conflicting ties to foreign parties and governments. Although each possessed vaguely socialist leanings, the MPLA was the only party which enjoyed close ties to the Soviet Union and was openly committed to Marxist policies. Its adherence to the concept of an exclusive one-party state alienated it from the FNLA and UNITA, which began portraying themselves as anti-communist and pro-Western in orientation.
South Africa believed that if the MPLA succeeded in seizing power it would support PLAN militarily and lead to an unprecedented escalation of the fighting in South West Africa. While the collapse of the Portuguese colonial state was inevitable, Pretoria hoped to install a moderate anti-communist government in its place, which in turn would continue cooperating with the SADF and work to deny PLAN bases on Angolan soil. This led Prime Minister Vorster and South African intelligence chief Hendrik van den Bergh to embark on a major covert action programme in Angola, Operation Savannah. Arms and money were secretly funnelled to the FNLA and UNITA, in exchange for their promised support against PLAN. Jonas Savimbi, UNITA's president, claimed he knew where PLAN's camps in southern Angola were located and was prepared to "attack, detain, or expel" PLAN fighters. FNLA President Holden Roberto made similar assurances and promised that he would grant the SADF freedom of movement in Angola to pursue PLAN.
Operation Savannah
Within days of the Alvor Agreement, the Central Intelligence Agency launched its own programme, Operation IA Feature, to arm the FNLA, with the stated objective of "prevent[ing] an easy victory by Soviet-backed forces in Angola". The United States was searching for regional allies to take part in Operation IA Feature and perceived South Africa as the "ideal solution" in defeating the pro-Soviet MPLA. With tacit American encouragement, the FNLA and UNITA began massing large numbers of troops in northern and southern Angola, respectively, in an attempt to gain tactical superiority. The transitional government installed by the Alvor Agreement disintegrated and the MPLA requested support from its communist allies. Between February and April 1975 the MPLA's armed wing, the People's Armed Forces of Liberation of Angola (FAPLA), received shipments of Soviet arms, mostly channelled through Cuba or the People's Republic of the Congo. At the end of May FAPLA personnel were being instructed in their use by a contingent of about 200 Cuban military advisers. Over the next two months they proceeded to inflict a series of crippling defeats on the FNLA and UNITA, which were driven out of the Angolan capital, Luanda.
To South African Minister of Defence P.W. Botha it was evident that the MPLA had gained the upper hand; in a memo dated late June 1975 he observed that the MPLA could "for all intents and purposes be considered the presumptive ultimate rulers of Angola...only drastic and unforeseeable developments could alter such an income." Skirmishes at the Calueque hydroelectric dam, which supplied electricity to South West Africa, gave Botha the opportunity to escalate the SADF's involvement in Angola. On 9 August, a thousand South African troops crossed into Angola and occupied Calueque. While their public objective was to protect the hydroelectric installation and the lives of the civilian engineers employed there, the SADF was also intent on searching out PLAN cadres and weakening FAPLA.
A watershed in the Angolan conflict was the South African decision on 25 October to commit 2,500 of its own troops to battle. Larger quantities of more sophisticated arms had been delivered to FAPLA by this point, such as T-34-85 tanks, wheeled armoured personnel carriers, towed rocket launchers and field guns. While most of this hardware was antiquated, it proved extremely effective, given the fact that most of FAPLA's opponents consisted of disorganised, under-equipped militias. In early October, FAPLA launched a major combined arms offensive on UNITA's national headquarters at Nova Lisboa, which was only repelled with considerable difficulty and assistance from a small team of SADF advisers. It became evident to the SADF that neither UNITA or the FNLA possessed armies capable of taking and holding territory, as their fighting strength depended on militias which excelled only in guerrilla warfare. South Africa would need its own combat troops to not only defend its allies, but carry out a decisive counter-offensive against FAPLA. This proposal was approved by the South African government on the condition that only a small, covert task force would be permitted. SADF personnel participating in offensive operations were told to pose as mercenaries. They were stripped of any identifiable equipment, including their dog tags, and re-issued with nondescript uniforms and weapons impossible to trace.
On 22 October the SADF airlifted more personnel and a squadron of Eland armoured cars to bolster UNITA positions at Silva Porto. Within days they had overrun considerable territory and captured several strategic settlements. The SADF's advance was so rapid that it often succeeding in driving FAPLA out of two or three towns in a single day. Eventually the South African expeditionary force split into three separate columns of motorised infantry and armoured cars to cover more ground. Pretoria intended for the SADF to help the FNLA and UNITA win the civil war before Angola's formal independence date, which the Portuguese had set for 11 November, then withdraw quietly. By early November the three SADF columns had captured eighteen major towns and cities, including several provincial capitals, and penetrated over five hundred kilometres into Angola. Upon receiving intelligence reports that the SADF had openly intervened on the side of the FNLA and UNITA, the Soviet Union began preparations for a massive airlift of arms to FAPLA.
Cuba responds with Operation Carlota
On 3 November, a South African unit advancing towards Benguela, Angola paused to attack a FAPLA base which housed a substantial training contingent of Cuban advisers. When reports reached Cuban President Fidel Castro that the advisers had been engaged by what appeared to be SADF regulars, he decided to approve a request from the MPLA leadership for direct military assistance. Castro declared that he would send all "the men and weapons necessary to win that struggle", in the spirit of proletarian internationalism and solidarity with the MPLA. Castro named this mission Operation Carlota after an African woman who had organised a slave revolt on Cuba.
The first Cuban combat troops began departing for Angola on 7 November, and were drawn from a special paramilitary battalion of the Cuban Ministry of Interior. These were followed closely by one mechanised and one artillery battalion of the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, which set off by ship and would not reach Luanda until 27 November. They were kept supplied by a massive airlift carried out with Soviet aircraft. The Soviet Union also deployed a small naval contingent and about 400 military advisers to Luanda. Heavy weapons were flown and transported by sea directly from various Warsaw Pact member states to Angola for the arriving Cubans, including tanks, helicopters, armoured cars, and even 10 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 fighter aircraft, which were assembled by Cuban and Soviet technicians in Luanda. By the end of the year there were 12,000 Cuban soldiers inside Angola, nearly the size of the entire SADF presence in South West Africa. The FNLA suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Quifangondo when it attempted to take Luanda on 10 November, and the capital remained in FAPLA hands by independence.
Throughout late November and early December the Cubans focused on fighting the FNLA in the north, and stopping an abortive incursion by Zaire on behalf of that movement. Thereafter they refocused on putting an end to the SADF advances in the south. The South African and Cuban forces engaged in a series of bloody, but inconclusive skirmishes and battles throughout late December. However, by this point word of the SADF's involvement had been leaked to the international press, and photographs of SADF armour behind UNITA lines were appearing in several European newspapers. This proved to be a major political setback for the South African government, which was almost universally condemned for its interference in a black African country. Moreover, it spurred influential African states such as Nigeria and Tanzania to recognise the MPLA as the sole legitimate government of Angola, as that movement's struggle against an apparent act of South African aggression gave it legitimacy at the OAU.
South Africa appealed to the United States for more direct support, but when the CIA's role in arming the FNLA also became public the US Congress terminated and disavowed the programme. In the face of regional and international condemnation, the SADF made the decision around Christmas of 1975 to begin withdrawing from Angola. The withdrawal commenced in February 1976 and formally ended a month later. As the FNLA and UNITA lost their logistical backing from the CIA and the direct military support of the SADF, they were forced to abandon much of their territory to a renewed FAPLA offensive. The FNLA was almost completely wiped out, but UNITA succeeded in retreating deep into the country's wooded highlands, where it continued to mount a determined insurgency. Operation Savannah was widely regarded as a strategic failure. South Africa and the US had committed resources and manpower to the initial objective of preventing a FAPLA victory prior to Angolan independence, which was achieved. But the early successes of Savannah provided the MPLA politburo with a reason to increase the deployment of Cuban troops and Soviet advisers exponentially.
The CIA correctly predicted that Cuba and the Soviet Union would continue to support FAPLA at whatever level was necessary to prevail, while South Africa was inclined to withdraw its forces rather than risk incurring heavy casualties. The SADF had suffered between 28 and 35 killed in action. An additional 100 were wounded. Seven South Africans were captured and displayed at Angolan press briefings as living proof of the SADF's involvement. Cuban casualties were known to be much higher; several hundred were killed in engagements with the SADF or UNITA. Twenty Cubans were taken prisoner: 17 by UNITA, and 3 by the South Africans. South Africa's National Party suffered some domestic fallout as a result of Savannah, as Prime Minister Vorster had concealed the operation from the public for fear of alarming the families of national servicemen deployed on Angolan soil. The South African public was shocked to learn of the details, and attempts by the government to cover up the debacle were slated in the local press.
The Shipanga Affair and PLAN's exit to Angola
In the aftermath of the MPLA's political and military victory, it was recognised as the official government of the new People's Republic of Angola by the European Economic Community and the UN General Assembly. Around May 1976 the MPLA concluded several new agreements with Moscow for broad Soviet-Angolan cooperation in the diplomatic, economic, and military spheres; simultaneously both countries also issued a joint expression of solidarity with the Namibian struggle for independence.
Cuba, the Soviet Union, and other Warsaw Pact member states specifically justified their involvement with the Angolan Civil War as a form of proletarian internationalism. This theory placed an emphasis on socialist solidarity between all left-wing revolutionary struggles, and suggested that one purpose of a successful revolution was to likewise ensure the success of another elsewhere. Cuba in particular had thoroughly embraced the concept of internationalism, and one of its foreign policy objectives in Angola was to further the process of national liberation in southern Africa by overthrowing colonial or white minority regimes. Cuban policies with regards to Angola and the conflict in South West Africa thus became inexorably linked. As Cuban military personnel had begun to make their appearance in Angola in increasing numbers, they also arrived in Zambia to help train PLAN. South Africa's defence establishment perceived this aspect of Cuban and to a lesser extent Soviet policy through the prism of the domino theory: if Havana and Moscow succeeded in installing a communist regime in Angola, it was only a matter of time before they attempted the same in South West Africa.
Operation Savannah accelerated the shift of SWAPO's alliances among the Angolan nationalist movements. Until August 1975, SWAPO was theoretically aligned with the MPLA, but in reality PLAN had enjoyed a close working relationship with UNITA during the Angolan War of Independence. In September 1975, SWAPO issued a public statement declaring its intention to remain neutral in the Angolan Civil War and refrain from supporting any single political faction or party. With the South African withdrawal in March, Sam Nujoma retracted his movement's earlier position and endorsed the MPLA as the "authentic representative of the Angolan people". During the same month, Cuba began flying in small numbers of PLAN recruits from Zambia to Angola to commence guerrilla training. PLAN shared intelligence with the Cubans and FAPLA, and from April 1976 even fought alongside them against UNITA. FAPLA often used PLAN cadres to garrison strategic sites while freeing up more of its own personnel for deployments elsewhere.
The emerging MPLA-SWAPO alliance took on special significance after the latter movement was wracked by factionalism and a series of PLAN mutinies in Western Province, Zambia between March and April 1976, known as the Shipanga Affair. Relations between SWAPO and the Zambian government were already troubled due to the fact that the growing intensity of PLAN attacks on the Caprivi often provoked South African retaliation against Zambia. When SWAPO's executive committee proved unable to suppress the PLAN revolt, the Zambian National Defence Force (ZNDF) mobilised several army battalions and drove the dissidents out of their bases in South West African refugee camps, capturing an estimated 1,800. SWAPO's Secretary for Information, Andreas Shipanga, was later held responsible for the revolt. Zambian president Kenneth Kaunda deported Shipanga and several other high-ranking dissidents to Tanzania, while incarcerating the others at remote army facilities. Sam Nujoma accused them of being South African agents and carried out a purge of the surviving political leadership and PLAN ranks. Forty mutineers were sentenced to death by a PLAN tribunal in Lusaka, while hundreds of others disappeared. The heightened tension between Kaunda's government and PLAN began to have repercussions in the ZNDF. Zambian officers and enlisted men confiscated PLAN arms and harassed loyal insurgents, straining relations and eroding morale.
The crisis in Zambia prompted PLAN to relocate its headquarters from Lusaka to Lubango, Angola, at the invitation of the MPLA. It was joined shortly afterwards by SWAPO's political wing, which relocated to Luanda. SWAPO's closer affiliation and proximity to the MPLA may have influenced its concurrent slide to the left; the party adopted a more overtly Marxist discourse, such as a commitment to a classless society based on the ideals and principles of scientific socialism. From 1976 onward SWAPO considered itself the ideological as well as the military ally of the MPLA.
In 1977 Cuba and the Soviet Union established dozens of new training camps in Angola to accommodate PLAN and two other guerrilla movements in the region, the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) and Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK). The Cubans provided instructors and specialist officers, while the Soviets provided more hardware for the guerrillas. This convergence of interests between the Cuban and Soviet military missions in Angola proved successful as it drew on each partner's comparative strengths. The Soviet Union's strength lay in its vast military industry, which furbished the raw material for bolstering FAPLA and its allies. Cuba's strength lay in its manpower and troop commitment to Angola, which included technical advisers who were familiar with the sophisticated weaponry supplied by the Soviets and possessed combat experience. In order to reduce the likelihood of a South African attack, the training camps were sited near Cuban or FAPLA military installations, with the added advantage of being able to rely on the logistical and communications infrastructure of PLAN's allies.
External South African operations, 1978–1984
Access to Angola provided PLAN with limitless opportunities to train its forces in secure sanctuaries and infiltrate insurgents and supplies across South West Africa's northern border. The guerrillas gained a great deal of leeway to manage their logistical operations through Angola's Moçâmedes District, using the ports, roads, and railways from the sea to supply their forward operating bases. Soviet vessels offloaded arms at the port of Moçâmedes, which were then transshipped by rail to Lubango and from there through a chain of PLAN supply routes snaking their way south towards the border. "Our geographic isolation was over," Nujoma commented in his memoirs. "It was as if a locked door had suddenly swung open...we could at last make direct attacks across our northern frontier and send in our forces and weapons on a large scale."
In the territories of Ovamboland, Kaokoland, Kavangoland and East Caprivi after 1976, the SADF installed fixed defences against infiltration, employing two parallel electrified fences and motion sensors. The system was backed by roving patrols drawn from Eland armoured car squadrons, motorised infantry, canine units, horsemen and scrambler motorcycles for mobility and speed over rough terrain; local San trackers, Ovambo paramilitaries, and South African special forces. PLAN attempted hit-and-run raids across the border but, in what was characterised as the "corporal's war", SADF sections largely intercepted them in the Cutline before they could get any further into South West Africa itself. The brunt of the fighting was shouldered by small, mobile rapid reaction forces, whose role was to track and eliminate the insurgents after a PLAN presence was detected. These reaction forces were attached on the battalion level and maintained at maximum readiness on individual bases.
The SADF carried out mostly reconnaissance operations inside Angola, although its forces in South West Africa could fire and manoeuvre across the border in self-defence if attacked from the Angolan side. Once they reached the Cutline, a reaction force sought permission either to enter Angola or abort the pursuit. South Africa also set up a specialist unit, 32 Battalion, which concerned itself with reconnoitring infiltration routes from Angola. 32 Battalion regularly sent teams recruited from ex-FNLA militants and led by white South African personnel into an authorised zone up to fifty kilometres deep in Angola; it could also dispatch platoon-sized reaction forces of similar composition to attack vulnerable PLAN targets. As their operations had to be clandestine and covert, with no link to South African forces, 32 Battalion teams wore FAPLA or PLAN uniforms and carried Soviet weapons.
Climate shaped the activities of both sides. Seasonal variations during the summer passage of the Intertropical Convergence Zone resulted in an annual period of heavy rains over northern South West Africa between February and April. The rainy season made military operations difficult. Thickening foliage provided the insurgents with concealment from South African patrols, and their tracks were obliterated by the rain. At the end of April or early May, PLAN cadres returned to Angola to escape renewed SADF search and destroy efforts and retrain for the following year.
Another significant factor of the physical environment was South West Africa's limited road network. The main arteries for SADF bases on the border were two highways leading west to Ruacana and north to Oshikango, and a third which stretched from Grootfontein through Kavangoland to Rundu. Much of this vital road infrastructure was vulnerable to guerrilla sabotage: innumerable road culverts and bridges were blown up and rebuilt multiple times over the course of the war. After their destruction PLAN saboteurs sowed the surrounding area with land mines to catch the South African engineers sent to repair them. One of the most routine tasks for local sector troops was a morning patrol along their assigned stretch of highway to check for mines or overnight sabotage. Despite their efforts it was nearly impossible to guard or patrol the almost limitless number of vulnerable points on the road network, and losses from mines mounted steadily; for instance, in 1977 the SADF suffered 16 deaths due to mined roads. Aside from road sabotage, the SADF was also forced to contend with regular ambushes of both military and civilian traffic throughout Ovamboland. Movement between towns was by escorted convoy, and the roads in the north were closed to civilian traffic between six in the evening and half past seven in the morning. White civilians and administrators from Oshakati, Ondangwa, and Rundu began routinely carrying arms, and never ventured far from their fortified neighbourhoods.
Unharried by major South African offensives, PLAN was free to consolidate its military organisation in Angola. PLAN's leadership under Dimo Hamaambo concentrated on improving its communications and control throughout that country, demarcating the Angolan front into three military zones, in which guerrilla activities were coordinated by a single operational headquarters. The Western Command was headquartered in western Huíla Province and responsible for PLAN operations in Kaokoland and western Ovamboland. The Central Command was headquartered in central Huíla Province and responsible for PLAN operations in central Ovamboland. The Eastern Command was headquartered in northern Huíla Province and responsible for PLAN operations in eastern Ovamboland and Kavangoland.
The three PLAN regional headquarters each developed their own forces which resembled standing armies with regard to the division of military labour, incorporating various specialties such as counter-intelligence, air defence, reconnaissance, combat engineering, sabotage, and artillery. The Eastern Command also created an elite force in 1978, known as "Volcano" and subsequently, "Typhoon", which carried out unconventional operations south of Ovamboland.
South Africa's defence chiefs requested an end to restrictions on air and ground operations north of the Cutline. Citing the accelerated pace of PLAN infiltration, P.W. Botha recommended that the SADF be permitted, as it had been prior to March 1976, to send large numbers of troops into southern Angola. Vorster, unwilling to risk incurring the same international and domestic political fallout associated with Operation Savannah, repeatedly rejected Botha's proposals. Nevertheless, the Ministry of Defence and the SADF continued advocating air and ground attacks on PLAN's Angolan sanctuaries.
Operation Reindeer
On 27 October 1977 a group of insurgents attacked a SADF patrol in the Cutline, killing 5 South African soldiers and mortally wounding a sixth. As military historian Willem Steenkamp records, "while not a large clash by World War II or Vietnam standards, it was a milestone in what was then...a low intensity conflict". Three months later, insurgents fired on patrols in the Cutline again, killing 6 more soldiers. The growing number of ambushes and infiltrations were timed to coincide with assassination attempts on prominent South West African tribal officials. Perhaps the most high-profile assassination of a tribal leader during this time was that of Herero chief Clemens Kapuuo, which South Africa blamed on PLAN. Vorster finally acquiesced to Botha's requests for retaliatory strikes against PLAN in Angola, and the SADF launched Operation Reindeer in May 1978.
One controversial development of Operation Reindeer helped sour the international community on the South African Border War. On 4 May 1978, a battalion-sized task force of the 44 Parachute Brigade conducted a sweep through the Angolan mining town of Cassinga, searching for what it believed was a PLAN administrative centre. Lieutenant General Constand Viljoen, the chief of the South African Army, had told the task force commanders and his immediate superior General Johannes Geldenhuys that Cassinga was a PLAN "planning headquarters" which also functioned as the "principal medical centre for the treatment of seriously injured guerrillas, as well as the concentration point for guerrilla recruits being dispatched to training centres in Lubango and Luanda and to operational bases in east and west Cunene." The task force was made up of older Citizen Force reservists, many of whom had already served tours on the border, led by experienced professional officers.
The task force of about 370 paratroops entered Cassinga, which was known as Objective Moscow to the SADF, in the wake of an intense aerial bombardment. From this point onward, there are two differing accounts of the Cassinga incident. While both concur that an airborne South African unit entered Cassinga on 4 May and that the paratroopers destroyed a large camp complex, they diverge on the characteristics of the site and the casualties inflicted. The SWAPO and Cuban narrative presented Cassinga as a refugee camp, and the South African government's narrative presented Cassinga as a guerrilla base. The first account claimed that Cassinga was housing a large population of civilians who had fled the escalating violence in northern South West Africa and were merely dependent on PLAN for their sustenance and protection. According to this narrative, South African paratroopers opened fire on the refugees, mostly women and children; those not immediately killed were systematically rounded up into groups and bayoneted or shot. The alleged result was the massacre of at least 612 South West African civilians, almost all elderly men, women, and children. The SADF narrative concurred with a death toll of approximately 600 but claimed that most of the dead were insurgents killed defending a series of trenches around the camp. South African sources identified Cassinga as a PLAN installation on the basis of aerial reconnaissance photographs, which depicted a network of trenches as well as a military parade ground. Additionally, photographs of the parade ground taken by a Swedish reporter just prior to the raid depicted children and women in civilian clothing, but also uniformed PLAN guerrillas and large numbers of young men of military age. SWAPO maintained that it ordered the trenches around Cassinga dug to shelter the otherwise defenceless refugees in the event of a SADF raid, and only after camp staff had noted spotter planes overhead several weeks prior. It justified the construction of a parade ground as part of a programme to instill a sense of discipline and unity.
Western journalists and Angolan officials counted 582 corpses on site a few hours after the SADF's departure. The SADF suffered 3 dead and 1 missing in action.
An adjacent Cuban mechanised infantry battalion stationed sixteen kilometres to the south advanced to confront the paratroops during the attack, but suffered several delays due to strafing runs by South African Dassault Mirage III and Blackburn Buccaneer strike aircraft. In the first known engagement between South African and Cuban forces since the termination of Operation Savannah, five Cuban tanks and some infantry in BTR-152 armoured personnel carriers reached Cassinga while the paratroopers were being airlifted out by helicopter. This led to a protracted firefight in which Cuba acknowledged 16 dead and over 80 wounded. The Cassinga event was given special significance by Cuban historians such as Jorge Risquet, who noted that it marked the first time that "Cubans and Namibians shed their blood together fighting the South African [military]."
While Cassinga was in the process of being destroyed, a South African armoured column attacked a network of guerrilla transit camps at Chetequera, code named "Objective Vietnam", which was only about thirty kilometres from the Cutline. Chetequera was much more heavily fortified than Cassinga and the SADF encountered fierce resistance. Unlike the latter, it had also been scouted thoroughly by South African reconnaissance assets on the ground, and they were able to verify the absence of civilians with ample photographic and documentary evidence. The SADF suffered another 3 dead at Chetequera, in addition to 30 wounded. PLAN lost 248 dead and 200 taken prisoner.
On 6 May 1978, Operation Reindeer was condemned by United Nations Security Council Resolution 428, which described it as a violation of Angola's territorial integrity and threatened punitive measures should the SADF attempt another incursion on Angolan soil. The resolution attracted almost unanimous support worldwide, and was endorsed not only by the Soviet Union, but by major Western powers such as the US, the UK, France, Canada, and West Germany. As the Cassinga incident received publicity, American and European attitudes became one of intense criticism of South African purpose as well as the process by which it carried out the war. Notably, Western pressure at the UN to recognise South Africa as an equal partner in any future Namibian peace settlement evaporated.
Cassinga was a major political breakthrough for SWAPO, which had portrayed the casualties there as martyrs of a Namibian nation in the making. The movement received unprecedented support in the form of humanitarian aid sent to its remaining refugee camps and offers from foreign governments to educate refugees in their countries.
Botha's escalation
Vorster's failing health and his preoccupation with domestic issues such as the looming Muldergate Scandal diverted his attention from South West Africa from May to September 1978, and no more major operations were undertaken by the SADF during that period. However, his absence from military affairs meant he was no longer in a position to counter the hawkish position of P.W. Botha and the defence establishment. When Vorster voluntarily stepped down late that year, he was succeeded by Botha as prime minister. His final act in office was to reject a proposal drafted by UN Secretary General Kurt Waldheim for a ceasefire and transition to Namibian independence.
Defence chiefs such as General Magnus Malan welcomed Botha's ascension, blaming previous battlefield reversals—namely, Operation Savannah—on Vorster's indecisive and "lackluster" leadership. Botha had generated a reputation for being a tenacious, uncompromising leader who would use South Africa's position of military strength to strike hard at its foreign enemies, particularly to retaliate against any form of armed provocation. He criticised the West and the US in particular as being unwilling to stand up to Soviet expansionism, and declared that if South Africa could no longer look to the "free world" for support, then it would prevent further communist inroads into the region itself. Within the first three months of his premiership, the length of military service for white conscripts was doubled, and construction began on several new SADF bases near the border. Although little in the tactical situation had changed when Botha assumed office, patrols now crossed into Angola much more frequently to intercept and destroy PLAN cadres along their known infiltration routes.
PLAN was attempting to rebuild its forward operating bases after the loss of Chetequera. The insurgents had also been incensed by the Cassinga raid and publicly threatened retribution. "Strike a hard blow which Pretoria will not forget in a long time," deputy PLAN commander Solomon Huwala stated in a written directive to his staff. "We have been concentrating on attacking military targets and their forces, but they have decided to kill women and children. Cassinga must be revenged." It was from this communique that the name of the next major PLAN offensive was derived: Operation Revenge. After some deliberation, Huwala chose Katima Mulilo as his target and dispatched several PLAN reconnaissance teams to obtain data on firing positions and potential artillery observation posts. On 23 August 1978, PLAN bombarded Katima Mulilo with mortars and rocket fire, killing 10 SADF personnel. The next day, General Viljoen, General Geldenhuys and the Administrator-General of South West Africa flew out to Katima Mulilo to inspect the damage. All three narrowly escaped death when their SA.321 Super Frelon helicopter took ground fire from PLAN anti-aircraft positions at Sesheke. The SADF responded by bombarding Sesheke with its own artillery and making a sweep for PLAN insurgents up to a hundred kilometers north of the Cutline.
On 6 March 1979 Prime Minister Botha ordered retaliatory strikes on selected targets in Angola and Zambia. The respective code names for the operations were Rekstok and Saffraan. Heliborne South African troops landed in the vicinity of four Angolan settlements: Heque, Mongua, Oncocua, Henhombe, and Muongo, which they canvassed for guerrillas. The SADF remained in Zambia for a significantly longer period, carrying out a series of uneventful combat patrols and ambushes for five weeks. While Operations Rekstok and Saffraan were unsuccessful in terms of tactical results, they did interrupt PLAN's attempts to rebuild its base camps near the border. Most of the insurgents apparently concealed their arms and vanished into the local population. This proved less successful in Zambia, where the civilians in Sesheke District were irritated by the constant presence of South African patrols and reconnaissance aircraft; they demanded their government remove the remaining PLAN fighters. President Kaunda subsequently bowed to pressure and ordered PLAN to close its rear base facilities in Zambia, resulting in the collapse of its Caprivian insurgency.
On March 16, Angola lodged a formal complaint with the UN Security Council concerning the violation of its borders and airspace as a result of Operation Rekstok. United Nations Security Council Resolution 447 was passed in response. The resolution "condemned strongly the racist regime of South Africa for its premeditated, persistent, and sustained armed invasions of the People's Republic of Angola, which constitute a flagrant violation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country as well as a serious threat to international peace and security". A UN commission of inquiry logged 415 border violations by the SADF in 1979, an increase of 419% since the previous year. It also made note of 89 other incidents, which were mostly airspace violations or artillery bombardments that struck targets on Angolan soil.
US–South African relations took an unexpected turn with Ronald Reagan's electoral victory in the 1980 US presidential elections. Reagan's tough anti-communist record and rhetoric was greeted with cautious optimism by Pretoria; during his election campaign he'd described the geopolitical situation in southern Africa as "a Russian weapon" aimed at the US. President Reagan and his Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs Chester Crocker adopted a policy of constructive engagement with the Botha government, restored military attachés to the US embassy in South Africa, and permitted SADF officers to receive technical training in the US. They believed that pressure tactics against South Africa would be contrary to US regional goals, namely countering Soviet and Cuban influence. In a private memo addressed to the South African foreign minister, Crocker and his supervisor Alexander Haig declared that "we [the US] share your view that Namibia must not be turned over to the Soviets and their allies. A Russian flag in Windhoek is as unacceptable to us as it is to you". Washington also ended its condemnation of SADF cross-border raids, which was perceived as tacit support for the latter's actions in Angola and elsewhere. This had the effect of encouraging Botha to proceed with larger and increasingly more ambitious operations against PLAN. Between 1980 and 1982 South African ground forces invaded Angola three times to destroy the well-entrenched PLAN logistical infrastructure near the border region. The incursions were designated Operation Sceptic, Operation Protea, and Operation Daisy, respectively.
While Operation Rekstok was underway in March 1979, PLAN cadres retreated further into Angola and regrouped. Upon the SADF's departure, they had returned to their border sanctuaries, resuming raids, ambushes, and infiltration attempts. South African outposts in Ovamboland were subjected to constant mortar and rocket attacks. A year after Rekstok's conclusion, PLAN attacked the South African Air Force base at Ondangwa, destroying several aircraft and inflicting casualties. FAPLA continued to open its arsenals and training camps to Nujoma's army, and with Cuban assistance PLAN established its first conventional heavy weapons units, including a mechanised brigade. The insurgents also reorganised a segment of eastern Ovamboland into "semi-liberated" zones, where PLAN's political and military authorities effectively controlled the countryside. Ovambo peasants in the semi-liberated zones received impromptu weapons instruction before being smuggled back to Angola for more specialised training.
Operation Protea
Between 1979 and 1980 the pace of infiltration had accelerated so greatly that the SADF was forced to mobilise its reserves and deploy another 8,000 troops to South West Africa. The deeper South African raids struck into Angola, the more the war spread, and by mid-1980 the fighting had extended to a much larger geographic area than before. Operation Sceptic, then the largest combined arms offensive undertaken by South Africa since World War II, was launched in June against a PLAN base at Chifufua, over a hundred and eighty kilometres inside Angola. Chifufua, codenamed Objective Smokeshell, was divided into a dozen well fortified complexes ringed with trenches, defensive bunkers, and anti-aircraft positions. The SADF killed over 200 insurgents and captured several hundred tonnes of PLAN munitions and weaponry at the cost of 17 dead. Operation Protea was mounted on an even larger scale and inflicted heavier PLAN casualties; unlike Sceptic it was to involve significant FAPLA losses as well as the seizure of substantial amounts of Angolan military hardware and supplies. Protea was planned when the SADF first became aware of PLAN's evolving conventional capabilities in August 1981. Its targets were suspected PLAN bases sited outside major FAPLA installations at Ondjiva and Xangongo. Attacking either settlement was considered especially risky due to the presence of Soviet advisers and a comprehensive local FAPLA air defence network.
Since the first formal cooperation treaties between Angola and the Soviet Union in 1976, the military sphere had constituted the pivot of Angolan-Soviet relations. The Soviet Navy benefited from its use of Angolan ports to stage exercises throughout the southern Atlantic and even negotiated with FAPLA for the construction of permanent bases. Luanda was named the regional headquarters for the 30th Operation Squadron of the Soviet Navy's Northern Fleet, which comprised eleven warships, three of which were in the port at any given time. From January 1976 onward it also replaced Conakry as the primary base for Soviet Tupolev Tu-95 reconnaissance flights along Africa's western coast. Article 16 of the Angolan constitution banned the construction of foreign military bases, but exceptions could be made if base rights were considered essential to the country's national defence. The Soviet Union justified its continued air and naval presence as necessary measures to protect Angola from a South African invasion. One senior Soviet military official, General Valery Belyaev, remarked that the 30th Operational Squadron was, "by the very fact of its presence...restraining the South African aggression against Angola."
In exchange for granting base rights, FAPLA became the beneficiary of more sophisticated Soviet arms. After Operation Sceptic the Soviet Union transferred over five hundred million dollars' worth of military equipment to FAPLA, the bulk of it apparently concentrated on air defence. This made South African raids costlier in terms of the need to provide heavier air cover and likely casualties. With the adoption of more advanced weaponry, the contribution by Soviet technical and advisory support to FAPLA's operational capabilities also became increasingly crucial. Totalling between 1,600 and 1,850 advisers by 1981, the Soviet military mission to Angola was deployed within all branches of the Angolan armed forces.
A few weeks prior to Operation Protea, SADF General Charles Lloyd warned Botha that the introduction of early-warning radar and 2K12 Kub "SA-6" missiles in southern Angola was making it difficult to provide air support to ground operations there. Lloyd mentioned that FAPLA's buildup of modern Soviet arms was making a conventional war more likely. The objectives of Operation Protea shifted accordingly: aside from the PLAN camps, the SADF was ordered to neutralise several Angolan radar and missile sites and command posts. Eight days of bloody fighting occurred before two South African armoured columns were able to overrun Ondjiva and Xangongo. The SADF destroyed all of FAPLA's 2K12 missile sites and captured an estimated 3,000 tonnes of Soviet-manufactured equipment, including a dozen T-34-85 and PT-76 tanks, 200 trucks and other wheeled vehicles, and 110 9K32 Strela-2 missile launchers. The SADF acknowledged 14 dead. Combined FAPLA and PLAN losses were over 1,000 dead and 38 taken prisoner. The Soviet military mission suffered 2 dead and 1 taken prisoner.
Operation Protea led to the effective occupation of forty thousand square kilometres of Cunene Province by the SADF. On 31 August, the US vetoed a UN Security Council resolution condemning the incursion and demanding the immediate and unconditional withdrawal of the SADF from Angola. Intelligence gained during Protea led to Operation Daisy in November 1981, the deepest SADF incursion into Angola since Operation Savannah. This time, South African ground forces struck three hundred kilometres north of the border to eliminate PLAN training camps at Bambi and Cheraquera. On that occasion the SADF killed 70 PLAN insurgents and destroyed several small caches of arms. PLAN learned of the attack in advance and had nearly completed its withdrawal when the SADF arrived; the insurgents fought a brief delaying action rather than attempt to defend their bases.
The air war over Angola expanded with the ground fighting. FAPLA's modest air force, consisting of a handful of transports and a few MiG-21s, maintained a large base at Menongue. During Protea and Daisy the SADF scrambled its own fighters to overfly the base during ground operations and prevent the FAPLA aircraft from taking off. The Soviets had begun training Angolan MiG pilots, but in the meantime Cubans shouldered the burden of the air war in Angola, flying in support of both FAPLA and PLAN. In November 1981 a MiG-21MF with a Cuban pilot was shot down by South African Mirage F1CZs over the Cunene River. The Mirages downed a second MiG in October 1982.
The expulsion of FAPLA from most of Cunene Province marked a revival of fortunes for Jonas Savimbi and his rump UNITA movement, which was able to seize undefended towns and settlements abandoned in the wake of Operations Protea and Daisy. Savimbi focused on rebuilding his power base throughout southeastern Angola while FAPLA and its Cuban allies were otherwise preoccupied fighting the SADF. For its part, the SADF allowed UNITA's armed wing to operate freely behind its lines; by early 1983 Savimbi's insurgents controlled most of the country south of Benguela Province.
Cuban linkage and "Namibianisation"
During his final years in office, Vorster had recognised that growing international pressure would eventually force South Africa to grant some form of autonomy or independence to South West Africa. He made token acknowledgements of the UN's role in deciding the territory's future and his administration had publicly renounced the notion of annexation. As Vorster's successor, Botha felt bound by this commitment—at least in principle—to an autonomous South West Africa. His strategy was to cultivate a viable political alternative to SWAPO, preferably moderate and anti-communist in nature, which was committed to close military and security links with South Africa. In the meantime, Botha forestalled further discussions on an internal settlement by demanding the withdrawal of the Cuban armed forces from Angola as a precondition of Namibian independence. Botha argued that the Cuban presence in Angola constituted a legitimate security concern for South West Africa, so it was not unreasonable that independence be contingent on a prior Cuban withdrawal. This initiative was supported by the US, which wanted a Namibian settlement consistent with Western interests, namely a region free of what Chester Crocker termed "Soviet-Cuban military adventurism". Crocker endorsed the linkage since it was related to South West Africa's security situation, which needed to be stabilised prior to independence. Botha's precondition was denounced by SWAPO for arbitrarily tying South West Africa's fate to the resolution of another regional conflict. Some Western powers also disapproved of Cuban linkage; for example, the French government issued the statement that it was inappropriate "the Namibian people should serve as hostages" to broader US foreign policy goals. The Cuban government interpreted linkage as further proof that South Africa was a foreign policy pawn of the US, and believed it to be part of a wider diplomatic and military offensive by the Reagan administration against Cuban interests worldwide.
Botha called on other African states and Western nations to back his demands: "say to the Cubans 'go home' and say to the Russians 'go home', and the minute this happens I will be prepared to settle all our military forces inside South Africa". Botha also assured the UN that he would take steps to prepare South West Africa for independence "as long as there are realistic prospects of bringing about the genuine withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola". The linkage of Namibian independence to the Cuban presence in Angola proved controversial, but it did involve the two Cold War superpowers—the US and the Soviet Union— in a joint mediation process for resolving the South African Border War at the highest level. In September 1982 Crocker met with Soviet Deputy Foreign Minister Leonid Ilichev for talks on the issue of Cuban-Namibian linkage. His deputy, Frank G. Wisner, held a series of parallel discussions with the Angolan government. Wisner promised that the US would normalise diplomatic and economic relations with Angola in the event of a Cuban withdrawal.
To demonstrate South African commitment to Namibian independence, Botha permitted a moderate, multi-party coalition to create a South West African interim government in August 1983, known as the Multi-Party Conference and subsequently as the Transitional Government of National Unity. Provision was made for an executive and legislative assembly, and the new government was bestowed with all the powers formerly held by the territory's Administrator-General. The rise of an interim government was accompanied by a defence policy dubbed "Namibianisation", a reference to the Vietnamization programme the US had pursued during the Vietnam War. Increasingly the South African war effort rested on what limited white manpower could be raised in South West Africa itself, and local black units drawn from the San, Ovambo, Kavango, and East Caprivian (Lozi) ethnic groups. The main objectives of Namibianisation were to establish a self-sufficient military infrastructure in South West Africa, reduce casualty rates among South African personnel, and reinforce the perception of a domestic civil conflict rather than an independence struggle.
The SADF had started recruiting black South West Africans in 1974 and established segregated military and paramilitary units for semi-autonomous tribal entities such as Ovamboland two years later. PLAN had previously benefited from the deployment of white South African conscripts, reservists, and policemen unfamiliar with the terrain or environment; indigenous recruits were perceived as a means of mitigating this disadvantage. In April 1980, Administrator-General Gerrit Viljoen announced that transfer of some control over military and police forces to South West Africans would occur once the necessary structures were implemented. Through its defence headquarters in Windhoek, the SADF had exercised final authority on all military resources and counter-insurgency efforts. In theory, these arrangements were modified by the establishment of the South West African Territorial Force (SWATF) and the South West African Police (SWAPOL), since both of these forces were placed under the control of the interim government; the latter was also empowered to implement and oversee conscription as it saw fit. However, the SADF retained functional command of all military units; the senior general officer of the SADF in South West Africa also doubled as commander of the SWATF. By the mid 1980s the SWATF numbered about 21,000 personnel and accounted for 61% of all combat troops deployed along the Cutline. Both the SWATF and the Government of National Unity remained dependent on massive SADF military support.
Operation Askari
Operation Protea had exposed a glaring lack of professionalism on the part of FAPLA units, which had relied too heavily on their Soviet advisers and were almost immediately routed once they had to leave their fortified bases. In terms of training, morale, organisation, and professional competence—including the ability to operate its own equipment with effectiveness—the Angolan army had proved decidedly vulnerable. Protea indicated that it was in no condition to repel or even inflict serious losses on the South African expeditionary troops, resulting in a ratio of casualties almost overwhelmingly in the SADF's favour. That debacle led to a greater FAPLA dependency on augmented Cuban forces and another large arms deal, valued in excess of one billion dollars, being signed with the Soviet Union. Defence expenditures increased to consume 50% of Angola's state budget by the end of 1982. FAPLA embarked on a massive recruiting drive, purchased new T-54/55 and T-62 tanks from the Soviet Union, and took delivery of about thirty new combat aircraft, including twelve Sukhoi Su-20 strike fighters. It also ordered more air search radars and surface-to-air missiles to replace those destroyed in Protea.
While Namibianisation altered the tactical realities of the war on the Cutline, the SADF was planning a fourth operation modelled after Sceptic, Protea, and Daisy. In April 1982, PLAN insurgents killed 9 South African soldiers near Tsumeb, over 200 kilometres south of the border. South Africa claimed 152 security-related incidents involving PLAN occurred in South West Africa that year, and acknowledged the combat deaths of 77 SADF and SWATF personnel. In July 1983 PLAN carried out its first major act of urban sabotage, detonating a bomb in the centre of Windhoek, which caused extensive property damage but no civilian injuries. Infiltration of Ovamboland and Kavangoland increased dramatically at around the same time, with 700 insurgents entering both regions. The SADF claimed to have killed or captured just under half the insurgents by May, but was unable to prevent the others from making their way further south. These developments indicated that PLAN had not lost its will to persevere despite the enormous materiel losses sustained during Protea, and the infiltration of men and supplies into South West Africa continued apace.
Their confidence buoyed by the previous successful incursions into FAPLA-held territory, which had achieved marked success at only minimal cost in lives and materiel, Botha and his defence chiefs scheduled Operation Askari for December 1983. Like Protea, Askari was a major combined arms assault on PLAN base areas and supply lines in Angola; it also targeted nearby FAPLA air-defence installations and brigade headquarters. According to General Georg Meiring, commander of the SADF in South West Africa, Askari would serve the purpose of a preemptive strike aimed at eliminating the large numbers of PLAN insurgents and stockpiles of weapons being amassed for the annual rainy season infiltration.
The buildup of South African armour and artillery on the border did not go unnoticed; by late November the Soviet Union had enough satellite reconnaissance photographs and other intelligence to deduce that the SADF was preparing for another major incursion into Angola. During a private meeting arranged at the Algonquin Hotel by UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar at Moscow's request, Soviet diplomats informed their South African counterparts that further aggression towards FAPLA would not be tolerated. The Soviets threatened unspecified retaliation if FAPLA's grip on Angola disintegrated further as a result of Askari. Simultaneously, in a direct show of force, a Soviet aircraft carrier and three surface ships called at Luanda before rounding the Cape of Good Hope. This constituted the most powerful Soviet naval detachment which had ever approached within striking distance of South African waters. Botha was unmoved, and Askari proceeded as scheduled on 9 December. Its targets were several large PLAN training camps, all of which were located no more than five kilometres from an adjacent FAPLA brigade headquarters. The four local FAPLA brigades represented one-seventh of the entire Angolan army, and three had substantial Soviet advisory contingents. Soviet General Valentin Varennikov, who was instrumental in directing the Angolan defence, was confident that "given their numerical strength and armament, the brigades...[would] be able to repel any South African attack". FAPLA's Cuban allies were less optimistic: they noted that the brigades were isolated, incapable of reinforcing each other quickly, and possessed insufficient mobile anti-aircraft weapons to protect them outside their bases. The Soviets recommended a static defence, appealing directly to Angolan President José Eduardo dos Santos, while the Cubans urged a withdrawal. Caught between two conflicting recommendations, dos Santos hesitated, and the brigades were ultimately annihilated piecemeal by the advancing South African armoured columns. Amid the confusion, a number of Angolan troops managed to break out of the South African encirclement and move north to link up with Cuban units, but a total of 471 FAPLA/PLAN personnel were killed or captured.
Despite achieving their objectives during Operation Askari, the South African forces had encountered unexpectedly determined resistance from PLAN and FAPLA. The SADF acknowledged 25 killed in action and 94 wounded, the highest number of casualties suffered in any single operation since Operation Savannah. FAPLA also claimed to have shot down 4 South African aircraft.
Lusaka Accords
On 6 January 1984, United Nations Security Council Resolution 546 was adopted with thirteen votes in favour and two abstentions, by the US and UK. The resolution condemned Operation Askari and demanded South Africa's immediate and unconditional withdrawal from Angola. An earlier draft of the same text imposing mandatory trade sanctions on South Africa until it ceased cross-border raids was abandoned under American pressure. The Soviet Union announced that it had reached yet another, more comprehensive agreement with Angola to bolster FAPLA's defence capabilities, and delivered the public warning to South Africa that "further aggression cannot be left unpunished".
Askari had shaken the South African government's confidence in its ability to retain the military advantage indefinitely in Angola. Heavier and more sophisticated weapons were being used, the rate of casualties had increased, and the air superiority that had accounted for many of the SADF's previous successes was diminishing. Nor was Botha and his cabinet certain of continued political and diplomatic support from the US, which had chosen to abstain rather than exercise its veto with regard to UN Security Council Resolution 546. The Reagan administration perceived that both Angola and South Africa had grown weary of the war and were more susceptible to pressure for a ceasefire and mutual disengagement. American diplomats offered to mediate peace talks accordingly, and on 13 February South African and Angolan officials met for the first time in Lusaka. Three days later, South Africa announced that it would withdraw its expeditionary forces from Cunene Province by the end of March, provided the Angolans agreed to prevent PLAN from taking advantage of the situation to infiltrate South West Africa. The Angolan government pledged to restrain PLAN and MK, and to prohibit any movement of Cuban troops southward towards the border. These respective commitments were formalised as the Lusaka Accords. FAPLA and the SADF agreed to set up a Joint Monitoring Commission (JMC) to police the disengagement. Under the JMC, joint South African and Angolan patrols were carried out along six hundred kilometres of the border.
Cuba and the Soviet Union were not consulted on the Lusaka Accords until after they had been signed. In a heated exchange with President dos Santos, Fidel Castro complained, "the final decision was yours, not ours, but at least we could have talked beforehand, and we, as well as the Soviets, could have expressed our disagreement beforehand...both the Soviets and us, your two main allies, the two who support Angola, who have been making immense efforts on your behalf, we were faced with a fait accompli".
UNITA denounced the Lusaka Accords, insisting that any peace effort which excluded it would fail. PLAN also routinely violated the disengagement area, prompting the SADF to delay and later cancel its withdrawal. In July 1984 South Africa formally announced that it would not withdraw from Angola, citing widespread PLAN activity in the border region.
Operation Argon
The truce between South Africa and Angola survived only about fifteen months. Negotiations for completing the SADF withdrawal were stalled due to intransigence on both sides concerning the linkage policy, with the two governments clashing over timetables for the withdrawal of Cuban troops and Namibian independence, respectively. While the Soviet Union and Cuba did nothing to impede the dialogue, they feared that Luanda might sacrifice PLAN and MK by agreeing to expel them from the country. Castro confided to Soviet officials that he had no intention of authorising a withdrawal of Cuban forces if the Angolan government signed a non-aggression pact with South Africa similar to the Nkomati Accord. As a last resort, the Cuban presence in Angola would be maintained unilaterally for the purpose of aiding PLAN, with or without Luanda's approval.
In October 1984, dos Santos blamed South Africa for stalling the implementation of the Lusaka Accords and called for the US to resolve the impasse by exerting pressure on Botha. On 17 November, dos Santos proposed a five-point peace plan on the following terms: a complete SADF withdrawal from Angola, a renewed ceasefire agreement, a formal pledge by the South African government to begin implementing Namibian independence under the terms of United Nations Security Council Resolution 435, a formal pledge by the Angolan government to begin implementing a three year phased withdrawal of all but 5,000 Cuban troops, and recognition of SWAPO and Cuba as an equal party in negotiations. Botha wanted all the Cuban military personnel to be withdrawn, and over a period of twelve months rather than three years. He also countered that the Namibian independence process could only take place once the Cuban withdrawal was initiated.
The Lusaka Accords were abandoned in the wake of Operation Argon, a failed sabotage mission carried out by South African special forces in Angola's oil-rich Cabinda exclave. Four years of military escalation and massive defence expenditures had a drastic impact on Angola's state finances, which were only being balanced by petroleum revenue. The largest oil refinery in the country was located on the Cabindan coast and operated by a US firm, Gulf Oil, under the auspices of the Cabina-Gulf Oil National Petroleum Company of Angola (SONAGOL). By 1984 Gulf had invested over 1.3 billion dollars in its Cabinda operation, which was exporting 165,495 barrels of oil per day. At the time, the revenue from the Gulf refinery generated 90% of Angola's foreign exchange. The Reagan administration separated its political positions on Angola from its position on SONAGOL, with Crocker hoping that American multinational companies in general, and Gulf in particular, would be a moderating force on the Marxist government. South Africa had noted the critical importance of the refinery's contribution to the FAPLA war effort and had begun investigating ways to disrupt it without incurring the ire of the US, which would have to react if American commercial interests were threatened. The SADF believed that a covert sabotage operation was possible, as long as the destruction was not attributable to South Africa and a credible cover story could be used to link the attack to a domestic Angolan movement such as UNITA or the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC). An attack on the oil platforms was ruled out, as this was beyond the capabilities of either UNITA or FLEC, so the SADF opted to infiltrate the refinery's oil storage facilities and mine the fuel tanks. The damage incurred would cripple Angola's ability to finance its military operations and give it greater economic incentive to accede to South African demands in the ongoing negotiations rather than risk returning to war.
The sabotage mission received the code name Operation Argon, and 15 South African special forces operators deployed to Cabinda by sea in May 1985. They were discovered by a FAPLA patrol during the infiltration attempt, and two of the raiders were shot dead with a third, Captain Wynand Petrus du Toit, being captured. Under interrogation, du Toit confessed that the objective of Argon was to sabotage the storage tanks at Cabinda Gulf. The South African government disavowed du Toit and denied responsibility, but General Viljoen later confirmed the SADF's role in the operation. Consequently, the ceasefire imposed as a result of the Lusaka Accords collapsed, and further peace talks were abandoned.
The diplomatic repercussions of Operation Argon's failure were immense. Castro believed the failed raid indicated that the US and South Africa were not truly committed to peace, and had been dishonest during the ceasefire negotiations. Angola announced it was no longer willing to consider a line of dialogue with South Africa on the Cuban withdrawal. The US condemned Operation Argon as an "unfriendly act by a supposedly friendly government".
Drawdown in Angola, 1985–1988
In early 1984, just after South Africa and Angola had agreed to the principles of a peace settlement, UNITA had seized the opportunity to issue its own demanding conditions under which it would also accept the terms of a ceasefire. Savimbi requested a government of national unity with the MPLA in which he was granted a part, and threatened to begin attacking major cities if he was ignored. In this manner Savimbi sought to interlace conditionality over an SADF and FAPLA disengagement with his own conflict of interests with the Angolan regime. Although Botha approved of UNITA as an ostensibly anti-communist movement, he did nothing to impress Savimbi's demands on dos Santos. UNITA responded by raiding Sumbe, a settlement two hundred and sixty kilometres to the south of Luanda. That June, UNITA sabotaged the oil pipeline in Cabinda, kidnapping 16 British expatriate workers and a Portuguese technician. Six months later the insurgents raided Cafunfo, killing 100 FAPLA personnel. Most of these attacks were planned and executed from Jamba, a town in Cuando Cubango Province, which Savimbi had proclaimed UNITA's new national headquarters. Jamba had no prior strategic significance, possessed no agricultural base, and had limited access to fresh water, but it was located as far away from FAPLA bases as possible and within easy reach of SADF bases in Ovamboland and the Caprivi Strip. FAPLA had deserted the region for precisely this reason, withdrawing north after Operation Protea, but in the process left behind a power vacuum which Savimbi was quick to exploit. Savimbi used Jamba to augment UNITA's public image, investing heavily in local infrastructure. He opened the settlement to American and South African journalists, honed his public relations skills in frequent press conferences denouncing the MPLA, and lobbied for Western aid. Under the Reagan Doctrine, the US government opened covert channels to provide military assistance to UNITA. It repealed the Clark Amendment, which explicitly barred further CIA support for the UNITA and the FNLA, allowing the agency to resume Angolan operations. The Angolan government asserted this was "proof of the complicity there has always been between the US executive and the retrograde racist Pretoria regime" and it had "no alternative but to suspend the contacts it has had with US government envoys".
In 1986, Savimbi visited Washington, where he met with American officials and was promised military hardware valued at about ten million dollars, including FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles and BGM-71 TOW anti-tank missiles. The US also pledged to continue its support for UNITA even if it lost the umbrella of protection conferred by the SADF presence in southern Angola.
At the US government's request, South Africa began lending UNITA a greater degree of material assistance, and aided the CIA in the acquisition of untraceable arms for the Angolan insurgents. The CIA was interested in acquiring Soviet and Eastern European arms for UNITA, as they could be easily passed off as weapons individual partisans had captured from FAPLA. South Africa possessed a vast stockpile of Soviet arms seized during Operations Sceptic, Protea, and Askari, and was persuaded to transfer some of it to UNITA.
The regional arms race
After Operation Savannah had failed to prevent the ascension of the MPLA in Angola, the South African political leadership generally accepted that reversing that verdict by force was unrealistic. At the same time, Vorster and Botha had recognised that a total military defeat of PLAN was elusive without the impossible corollary of a victory over the combined FAPLA-PLAN alliance in Angola. Some hardliners in their respective administrations wanted South Africa's full military weight behind Savimbi to help him extinguish the MPLA government, while others favoured simply using it to wage a limited containment exercise against PLAN. An offensive strategy which offered the chance to aggressively attack Angola by land, sea, and air and focus directly on the MPLA's centres of power was never discussed and became more remote as time went on. In its place, therefore, the other popular option was promulgated, which was to focus chiefly on fighting PLAN, the primary threat within the geographical limits of South West Africa proper, and attempting to intimidate Angola in the form of punitive cross-border raids, thus assuming an essentially defensive posture.
While Botha never seriously considered the overthrow of the MPLA as a viable objective, he endorsed increasing aid to UNITA for several reasons: it would mend diplomatic relations with the US, especially after the debacle of Operation Argon, UNITA could be molded into a proxy to harass PLAN, and donating captured weapons to Savimbi was cost-effective and deniable.
US and South African justification for arming UNITA lay partly in the increased supply by the Soviet Union of more sophisticated weapons to FAPLA, as well as the increased number of Cuban troops in Angola, which had rapidly swelled from 25,000 to 31,000 by the end of 1985. While the Lusaka Accords were still in force, the Cuban and Soviet military delegations had urged dos Santos to take advantage of the ceasefire with the SADF to eliminate UNITA. There was a considerable increase in Soviet military assistance to Angola during this period, with the transfer of another billion dollars' worth of arms to FAPLA, including about 200 new T-55 and T-62 tanks. Moscow trained more Angolan pilots and delivered more advanced fighter aircraft to Luanda, particularly Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23s. Over a three year period Angola had become the second largest importer of arms on the African continent. FAPLA's arsenal expanded so exponentially that the SADF became convinced that the Soviet-sponsored arms buildup was intended for deployment elsewhere. General Malan gave a speech in which he expressed alarm at the "flood" of Soviet military equipment and its sophisticated nature, claiming that it was much more than needed to cope with the SADF's limited expeditionary forces and UNITA. Malan theorised that "the Russians want to develop a strong, stabilised base in Angola and then use the equipment and personnel positioned there wherever necessary in the subcontinent". South Africa gradually became locked in a conventional arms race with Angola; each side argued that it had to match the increased force available to the other. To counter the appearance of advanced MiG-23 and Sukhoi fighters in Angola, for instance, South Africa began development on two sophisticated fighter aircraft of its own, the Atlas Cheetah and the Atlas Carver. Both programmes would consume billions of rand.
Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
Lomba River campaign
Intending to wrest back the initiative, sever UNITA's logistics lifelines to South West Africa and Zaire, and forestall any future insurgent offensives, FAPLA launched Operation Saluting October in mid-1987. The impetus for Saluting October likely originated with the Soviet military mission, which pressed the idea of a major conventional thrust to destroy UNITA's southeastern front as early as 1983. It had received a new commander that year, Lieutenant General Petr Gusev, former deputy commander of the Carpathian Military District. In light of the war's length, its cost, the rising death toll, and looming cuts in the Soviet military expenditure which would limit future efforts to support FAPLA's war effort, Gusev wanted a decisive multi-divisional offensive to crush UNITA once and for all. Operation Saluting October was a two-pronged offensive aimed at retaking three major settlements from UNITA, Cangamba, Cassamba, and Mavinga. The FAPLA command staff intended the attack on Cangamba and Cassamba as a feint, hoping to draw UNITA forces there and away from Mavinga. Once Mavinga was in government hands, FAPLA could expel the remaining insurgents from Moxico Province and pave the way for a final assault on Savimbi's headquarters at Jamba. Between 4 and 9 Soviet advisers were to be attached on the battalion level, albeit with strict orders not to participate in the fighting and withdraw from the front as necessary to avoid contact with UNITA. They were accompanied by a small number of Cuban advisers and East German technical personnel serving in a variety of support roles.
Gusev and his staff appealed to Moscow for more aid to FAPLA, particularly strike aircraft, for another offensive; this request was granted. In what had become an annual practice, an estimated billion dollars' worth of arms was flown into Luanda by Soviet Antonov An-24 flights, as many as 12 per day for a six-month period. The equipment was offloaded in the capital and transferred to Angolan Ilyushin Il-76s, which in turn flew them directly to the front.
To FAPLA, the experience of planning and executing an operation of such massive proportions was relatively new, but the Soviet military mission was convinced that a decade of exhaustive training on its part had created an army capable of undertaking a complex multi-divisional offensive. The Angolan brigade commanders had repeatedly expressed reservations about splitting the force and fighting on two fronts, arguing that a single assault on Mavinga would be more linear and sufficient. FAPLA's Cuban advisers objected on the grounds that South Africa might intervene on behalf of its erstwhile ally. "Don't get into such wasting, costly, and finally pointless offensives," Castro had vented to Gusev's staff. "And count us out if you do." General Arnaldo Ochoa, the senior Cuban military officer in Angola, also protested that the tactics FAPLA were being forced to adopt were more applicable to combat operations in central Europe than an offensive against an irregular fighting force on the broken African terrain. Ronnie Kasrils, MK's intelligence chief, warned the Soviet mission that if Saluting October proceeded an SADF counteroffensive was imminent. Gusev overruled the Cuban and MK concerns, and the operation commenced without contingency plans for a South African intervention.
The preliminary phase of the new offensive began in August 1987. Eight FAPLA brigades deployed to Tumpo, a region to the east of Cuito Cuanavale in early August, where on Soviet advice they temporarily paused for more supplies and reinforcements. This would prove to be a fatal error. On 14 August, having lost days of precious time, FAPLA resumed its efforts to advance; by then South Africa had launched Operation Moduler to halt the offensive. The bloody campaign that followed entailed a series of engagements known collectively as the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.
Prior to 1987, the South African government was reluctant to become directly involved with its UNITA's internal struggle with Luanda, other than providing that movement with arms and some limited air and artillery support. Nevertheless, Botha recognised that if Jamba fell, the buffer provided by UNITA's presence in southern Angola would collapse with it, and FAPLA would allow PLAN to gain direct access to its territory contiguous to the border. This would make PLAN infiltration of northern South West Africa almost impossible to check, especially in the Caprivi Strip and Kavangoland. As Cuban and MK sources had predicted, the commitment of regular ground troops alongside UNITA was authorised, albeit on the condition that strict control would be exercised over combat operations at the highest level of government to ensure that political and diplomatic requirements meshed with the military ones. The SADF took advantage of FAPLA's numerous delays to assemble a blocking force strong enough to stop the FAPLA drive on Mavinga. By the end of August, South Africa's expeditionary forces near Mavinga had built up to include 32 Battalion, 101 Battalion of the SWATF, and its elite 61 Mechanised Battalion Group.
There were three major rivers and nine tributaries between Cuito Cuanavale and Mavinga. Although none of the rivers were especially large, all the prospective crossing points were adjacent to vast expanses of swamps and waterlogged flood plains. These stalled the FAPLA advance and permitted the SADF to create effective choke points which further hampered FAPLA's progress. The South African general staff judged correctly that if these narrow entry points were seriously contested they had the potential to bottleneck the FAPLA brigades. They opted to launch a counteroffensive at the Lomba River, which was the last of the three rivers FAPLA had to cross before reaching Mavinga. The success of the South African counteroffensive was ensured by the rapid collapse of FAPLA's 47 Infantry Brigade, which was tasked with establishing a bridgehead on the Lomba's southern bank.
In conventional terms, the FAPLA brigades theoretically possessed more than enough strength and firepower to dislodge UNITA and the SADF from the Lomba River. But they were inadequately trained or experienced to counter the South African blocking force, which was composed of units selected for their experience in mobile bush warfare, and were outmanoeuvred in the thick foliage cover. The Lomba's swampy environment also hampered coordinated actions and allowed the SADF to isolate and route each brigade in piecemeal engagements. Between September and October 1987 FAPLA suffered almost 2,000 casualties during several failed river crossings. With much of its bridging equipment destroyed, FAPLA abandoned the offensive and ordered its remaining brigades back to Cuito Cuanavale. The Soviet military mission had suffered 1 seriously wounded. The SADF had suffered 17 dead and 41 wounded, as well as the loss of 5 armoured vehicles.
During Operation Moduler, Cuban combat troops had remained well north of the Lomba River and declined to participate in the fighting, per Castro's instructions. In Luanda, President dos Santos summoned General Gusev and the senior Cuban general officer, Gustavo Fleitas Ramirez, for an urgent conference to discuss the worsening military situation and the failure of Operation Saluting October. Ramirez reminded dos Santos that Cuba had been opposed to the offensive from the beginning. Gusev lamented in his memoirs that "I informed [chief of the Soviet general staff] Akhromeyev about the result of the operation, but the most difficult task, in moral terms, was to inform the president of Angola, whom I had assured that the operation would succeed and that Savimbi would be crushed".
On 25 November 1987, United Nations Security Council Resolution 602 was passed, condemning Operation Moduler as an illegal violation of Angolan sovereignty. The resolution expressed dismay at the continued presence of SADF troops in Angola and called for their unconditional withdrawal. South African foreign minister Pik Botha flatly dismissed the resolution out of hand, citing the unaddressed issue of Cuban linkage. He promised that the SADF would depart Angola once FAPLA's Cuban and Soviet advisers had likewise been withdrawn, or when their presence no longer threatened South African interests.
Tumpo Triangle campaign
On 29 September P.W. Botha added a third objective to Operation Moduler: the destruction of all FAPLA units east of Cuito Cuanavale. The reasons for this shift in objectives once FAPLA had abandoned its offensive were not apparent to everybody in the South African government. Pik Botha and his senior colleagues in the foreign ministry cautioned against a major offensive north of the Lomba, citing potential diplomatic repercussions. But confidence in the SADF had been buoyed by its effective defence of the Lomba, and members of the South African general staff successfully agitated for a renewed offensive towards Cuito Cuanavale. It is unclear whether they interpreted their new objective as veiled permission to seize Cuito Cuanavale itself, although the option was discussed.
Per Botha's new directive, the SADF commenced Operation Hooper with the goal of encircling the retreating Angolan brigades and preparing for operations further east of the Cuito River. The decision to commence Hooper towards the end of the 1987 calendar year created problems for the SADF, since a number of white conscripts involved in the Lomba River engagements were nearing the end of their national service. This led to a delay of several weeks while the existing troops were gradually withdrawn from Angola and replaced with a new intake. The SADF had dispatched a second mechanised battalion, 4 South African Infantry, to Angola, as well as a squadron of Olifant Mk1A tanks and a battery of G5 and G6 howitzers. Between January and March 1988, the SADF and UNITA launched several bloody offensives just east of Cuito Cuanavale to destroy the shattered Angolan units that had succeeded in establishing a new defensive line there, an initiative which became known as Operation Packer. They managed to drive FAPLA deeper into a shrinking perimeter between the Cuito, Tumpo, and Dala rivers known as the "Tumpo Triangle".
The Cubans and Soviets concurred with FAPLA's decision to withdraw to Cuito Cuanavale, with Castro pointing out that a strong defensive stand could plausibly be made there if the brigades managed to reach it. He also suggested that the only way to defeat the South African expeditionary forces in the long term was to outflank them and apply pressure to the South West African border. This would entail opening up yet another military front, in southwestern Angola, well south of Cuito Cuanavale. On 15 November, dos Santos had written a letter to Castro requesting direct Cuban military assistance against the SADF. Castro agreed on the condition that he and General Arnaldo Ochoa receive command of all FAPLA forces on the front. The Soviet military mission was notably excluded from all future operational planning. Shortly afterwards, the Cuban government authorised the deployment of an armoured brigade and several air defence units—about 3,000 personnel—to Cuito Cuanavale. Castro suspected that the South Africans would not be content with eliminating FAPLA east of the town and that they intended to take control of Cuito Cuanavale's strategic airfield as well. His strategy was to strengthen the defence of that settlement while dispatching a few more brigades to Lobito, near the South West African border.
The FAPLA and Cuban defenders now ringed their defensive positions with minefields and interlocking fields of fire from dug-in tanks and field guns, into which they channelled SADF assaults. On multiple occasions the combined UNITA and SADF forces launched unsuccessful offensives which became bogged down in minefields along narrow avenues of approach and were abandoned when the attackers came under heavy fire from the Cuban and FAPLA artillerymen west of the Cuito River. The defenders' artillery was sited just beyond the maximum range of the South African artillery and on high ground which gave them a commanding view of the battlefield. This advantage, coupled with the proliferation of minefields, and heavily reinforced FAPLA-Cuban defensive positions rendered further attacks by the South African troops futile.
Operations Hooper and Packer were terminated after the SADF had killed almost 700 FAPLA troops and destroyed about half of the Angolan brigades' remaining tanks and armoured vehicles. Cuba had suffered 42 dead and the loss of 6 tanks. South African casualties were relatively light: 13 dead and several dozen severely wounded. Three SADF tanks were also abandoned in a minefield, while most of the others were damaged beyond immediate repair or rendered unserviceable due to mechanical problems. UNITA suffered thousands of casualties, prompting accusations that its troops had been used as "cannon fodder" by the SADF. Cuban post-action reports claimed that UNITA insurgents had been sent through the minefields at gunpoint to clear the way for the South African armour.
The Tumpo Triangle campaign exposed several flaws in the planning of the South African defence chiefs and general staff. They had estimated quite accurately that their forces would be able to inflict a crushing defeat on FAPLA in the flood plains and open terrain south of Cuito Cuanavale. But they had not anticipated so many Angolan units would survive and establish strong defensive lines in the Tumpo Triangle, or that the addition of Cuban troops there would stiffen the resistance considerably. Further South African miscalculations appeared in the latter phases of the campaign. One was the assumption that the small and highly mobile but lightly armed SADF expeditionary force was suited to mounting frontal attacks on well-prepared defenders supported by dug in artillery west of Cuito. The use of battalions trained and organised for mobile warfare in this manner was in violation of the SADF's own mechanised doctrine. The defending Angolans had ample armour, anti-tank weapons, and the benefit of air cover: the Soviet Union's increased willingness to supply FAPLA with advanced fighter aircraft and even Soviet pilots on loan posed a serious threat to South African air operations over Cuito Cuanavale. As Soviet involvement grew, and the number of air battles increased, South Africa's air force began encountering MiG-21 and MiG-23 fighters flown by well-trained Soviet pilots. Furthermore, Angolan pilots newly trained under Soviet supervision at Lubango were proving more capable of challenging South African fighters. For the first time the SADF began losing aircraft in numbers, indicating the contested extent of the Angolan skies.
The SADF's declining air supremacy forced a number of operational changes. South African pilots exercised a standoff bombing capacity of twenty kilometres and timed their raids so they were out of range before FAPLA MiGs could be scrambled to intercept them. The necessity of avoiding prolonged aerial contact was partly dictated by fuel considerations: the SADF Mirage F1AZ and F1CZ fighters launched from distant bases in South West Africa, which meant they had barely enough fuel for three minutes of combat once they reached Cuito Cuanavale. The impact on ground operations was more consequential. FAPLA MiGs flew reconnaissance missions in search of the G5 and G6 howitzers, forcing the South African artillery crews to resort to increasingly elaborate camouflage and take the precaution of carrying out their bombardments after dark. Owing to the increase in losses and damage due to UNITA's US-supplied Stinger missiles, however, MiG pilots had to adopt contingencies of their own to reduce the vulnerability of their aircraft. Cuban and Angolan warplanes were forced to drop bombs from higher altitudes, greatly reducing their accuracy. FAPLA airfields were also monitored by South African forward artillery observers, who called in bombardments to destroy aircraft while they were exposed on the runway and preparing to take off.
Final Cuban offensive
Although the SADF and UNITA counteroffensive had been checked, FAPLA remained heavily strained and more dependent than before on its Cuban allies and Soviet materiel. This gave dos Santos an incentive to ease the military dilemma with negotiations and he reopened the possibility of reaching a new ceasefire and disengagement agreement with South Africa. As early as January 1987, Chester Crocker had responded to positive signals from Luanda, especially when President Denis Sassou Nguesso of the People's Republic of the Congo offered to mediate peace talks between the rival states. Yet preliminary discussions in Brazzaville throughout late 1987 and early 1988 remained stymied by the Angolan government's refusal to compromise on the timetable for a proposed Cuban withdrawal. The Cuban government had not been consulted on the Brazzaville talks in advance and resented what it perceived as a discourtesy on the part of dos Santos. This factor had the effect of persuading Castro to make an authoritative bid to join the Angolan-US peace talks. He was determined that Cuba no longer be excluded from negotiations concerning its own military, and the results of any future settlement on the withdrawal process leave Cuba's image untarnished.
While Operation Hooper was underway in late January 1988, Crocker relented to pressure and accepted Cuba as an equal partner in further peace talks. Castro agreed that he would not introduce extraneous issues to the agenda, such as Cuba–US relations, and that discussion of a phased troop withdrawal would extend to all Cuban military personnel stationed in Angola, including combat troops, logistical staff, and advisers. With Cuba's entry into the Brazzaville talks, its desire to shift its military involvement in Angola from a passive, defensive role to an offensive one intensified. Castro opted to escalate ground operations against the SADF, since he considered diplomatic progress impossible as long as South Africa still clung to the likelihood of a tactical victory. He retained a solely defensive posture at Cuito Cuanavale, keeping the SADF fixed in place, while carrying out his longstanding proposal to launch a flanking manoeuvre towards the South West African border.
It was a risky operation, beginning with a movement of Cuban troops in divisional strength west of the Cunene River, which had the potential to expand into an invasion of South West Africa. On 9 March, Castro sent the Cuban forces massed at Lobito, which had grown to about 40,000 men, southward. He likened their movement to "a boxer who with his left hand blocks the blow [at Cuito Cuanavale] and with his right – strikes [in the west]". "That way," Castro recounted on another occasion, "while the South African troops were being bled slowly dry in Cuito Cuanavale, down in the southwest...40,000 Cuban soldiers...backed by about 600 tanks, hundreds of artillery pieces, 1,000 anti-aircraft weapons, and the daring MiG-23 units that took over the skies, advanced towards the Namibian border, ready to sweep away the South African forces".
As the Cuban brigades advanced, they accumulated thousands of PLAN insurgents, who departed their bases to join the offensive. The presence of so many Cuban troops effectively resuscitated PLAN's sagging fortunes, as it curtailed new South African military initiatives against the insurgents not only in Angola but South West Africa as well. Firstly, the region being occupied by the Cubans just north of the border was the same territory the SADF had monitored and patrolled for almost a decade in order to prevent PLAN infiltration into Ovamboland. Secondly, all South African units near the border had ceased routine counter-insurgency operations while they were being mobilised to resist a potential Cuban invasion. Matters were complicated further when the Cubans formed three joint battalions with PLAN fighters, each with its own artillery and armoured contingents. Due to the integration of the insurgents with Cuban personnel at the battalion level, South African patrols found it impossible to engage PLAN in Angola without risking a much larger confrontation involving aggressive and well-armed Cuban troops.
The limited number of SADF troops available near the border could not halt the continued progress of the Cuban army or reduce the threat to South West Africa. There were simply too few personnel and resources to secure the broad defensive positions along the Cutline against a conventional force in divisional strength. Nevertheless, the SADF was able to slow the Cuban offensive with a series of effective delaying actions throughout mid-1988, an initiative known as Operation Excite. When South African officials warned against an invasion of South West Africa, Castro retorted that they were "in no position to demand anything". Havana also issued an ambiguous statement which read, "we are not saying we will not go into Namibia". The South African government responded by mobilising 140,000 reservists—a figure almost unprecedented in SADF history—and threatening severe repercussions on any Cuban unit which crossed the border.
1988 Tripartite Accord
Despite taking the necessary countermeasures on the battlefield, the South African government discerned it had reached the political limits of further escalation in Angola. The casualties sustained during the Cuito Cuanavale campaign had been sufficient to cause public alarm and provoke difficult questions about the tactical situation on the border and why South African soldiers were dying there. There was little reason to believe yet another bloody campaign would be successful in expelling the Soviets and Cuba from the region; on the contrary, as in the past, it could lead to an increase in the amount of Soviet weapons and Cuban troops. The conflict had also evolved from a low-intensity struggle against lightly armed insurgents into protracted battles between armies backed by all the paraphernalia of modern conventional warfare, with the accompanying rise in human and material costs. This contributed to a sense of war weariness and increased the growing skepticism and sensitivity in civilian circles towards the SADF's Angolan operations.
The failure of the Soviet-supervised Operation Saluting October, along with the consequent destruction of hundreds of millions of dollars' of FAPLA's Soviet-supplied arms, had the effect of moderating Moscow's stance on Angola. In a notable departure from its previous foreign policy stance, the Soviet Union disclosed it too was weary of the Angolan and South West African conflicts and was prepared to assist in a peace process—even one conducted on the basis of Cuban linkage. Reformist Mikhail Gorbachev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, also wished to reduce defence expenditures, including the enormous open-ended commitment of military aid to FAPLA, and was more open to a political settlement accordingly.
For South Africa and the Soviet Union—the two parties which had previously refrained from joining the US-mediated talks—the point had now been reached where the costs of continuing the war exceeded its anticipated benefits. This necessitated a change in perceptions in both nations, which began warming to the possibility of a negotiated peace. The Soviet government agreed to jointly sponsor with the US a series of renewed peace talks on 3 and 4 May 1988. For its part, South Africa made its first bid to join the tripartite negotiations and agreed to send a delegation of diplomats, intelligence chiefs, and senior SADF officers. The Soviet and US diplomats in attendance, including Crocker, made it clear to the South Africans that they wanted peace in Angola and a political settlement in South West Africa. They were also agreed on the need to bring pressure on their respective allies to bring about a solution. South Africa would be expected to comply with United Nations Security Council Resolution 435, in exchange for the complete withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola. The Cuban and Angolan delegations had already assented to a complete Cuban withdrawal, and under US pressure produced an extremely precise timetable which extended this process over three to four years. South Africa found this unacceptable but conceded that the withdrawal could be timed to certain benchmarks in the Namibian independence process.
According to Crocker, the US decision to use Security Council Resolution 435 as the basis and pivot for a regional settlement provided leverage over the discussions. The proposed formation of a UN "verification mission" to monitor Cuba's adherence to a withdrawal settlement proved instrumental in persuading the South African government that it would receive a balanced agreement. The talks began progressing more smoothly after July 1988, when Carlos Aldana Escalante was appointed head of the Cuban delegation. Aldana was chief of ideological affairs and international relations for the Communist Party of Cuba; he was far better informed of foreign developments, particularly in the Soviet bloc, than many of his contemporaries. In light of Gorbachev's reforms, political developments in Eastern Europe, and the reduction of tensions between the superpowers, Aldana believed that Cuba needed to work swiftly towards normalising relations with the US. Cooperation vis-à-vis Southern Africa was seen as a natural prerequisite to better relations with Washington and possibly, a permanent bilateral dialogue.
Between May and September 1988 the parties met for several rounds of talks in Cairo, New York, Geneva, and Brazzaville, but remained deadlocked on the nuances of the withdrawal timetable. The fact that there were two objectives—Namibian independence and a Cuban withdrawal—doubly aggravated the issue of timing and deadlines. In August, the Angolan, Cuban, and South African delegations signed the Geneva Protocol, which established the principles for a peace settlement in South West Africa and committed the SADF to a withdrawal from that territory. As a direct result of the Geneva Protocol, PLAN declared a ceasefire effective from 10 August. The 1988 US presidential elections lent new urgency to the negotiations, which had recently stalled after six consecutive rounds of talks in Brazzaville. Angola and Cuba had gambled heavily on a victory for Michael Dukakis and the Democratic Party during the US elections, hoping that this would spell the end of US aid to UNITA and a harder line on South Africa. At the time of the Geneva Protocol, dos Santos had commented that "if the Democrats had won the elections, there would be a readjustment in US policy, particularly on Southern Africa". The election of Republican candidate George H. W. Bush had the effect of persuading the Angolan and Cuban delegations to be more flexible. Crocker reiterated on several occasions that a new US administration meant changes in personnel and basic policy review, and pressed them not to waste months of effort.
Three days after the US election results were released, the parties reconvened in Geneva and within the week had agreed to a phased Cuban withdrawal over the course of twenty seven months. In exchange, South Africa pledged to begin bestowing independence on South West Africa by 1 November 1989. On 13 December, South Africa, Angola, and Cuba signed the Brazzaville Protocol, which affirmed their commitment to these conditions and set up a Joint Military Monitoring Commission (JMMC) to supervise the disengagement in Angola. The JMMC was to include Soviet and US observers. All hostilities between the belligerents, including PLAN, were to formally cease by 1 April 1989. On 22 December, the Brazzaville Protocol was enshrined in the Tripartite Accord, which required the SADF to withdraw from Angola and reduce its troop levels in South West Africa to a token force of 1,500 within twelve weeks. Simultaneously, all Cuban brigades would be withdrawn from the border to an area north of the 15th parallel. At least 3,000 Cuban military personnel would depart Angola by April 1989, with another 25,000 leaving within the next six months. The remaining troops would depart at a date not later than 1 July 1991. An additional condition was that South Africa would cease all support for UNITA, and Angola likewise for PLAN and MK.
On 20 December, United Nations Security Council Resolution 626 was passed, creating the United Nations Angola Verification Mission (UNAVEM) to verify the redeployment northwards and subsequent withdrawal of the Cuban forces from Angola. UNAVEM included observers from Western as well as non-aligned and communist nations. In February 1989 the United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) was formed to monitor the South West African peace process.
Namibian independence
The initial terms of the Geneva Protocol and Security Council Resolution 435 provided the foundation from which a political settlement in South West Africa could proceed: holding of elections for a constitutional assembly, confinement of both PLAN and the SADF to their respective bases, the subsequent phased withdrawal of all but 1,500 SADF troops, demobilisation of all paramilitary forces that belonged to neither the SADF nor to the police, and the return of refugees via designated entry points to participate in elections. Responsibility for implementing these terms rested with UNTAG, which would assist in the SADF withdrawal, monitor the borders, and supervise the demobilisation of paramilitary units.
Controversy soon arose over the size of UNTAG's military component, as the member states of the Security Council expected to cover the majority of the costs were irritated by its relatively large size. However, Angola, Zambia, and other states sympathetic to PLAN insisted that a larger force was necessary to ensure that South Africa did not interfere with independence proceedings. Against their objections UNTAG's force levels were reduced from the proposed 7,500 to three battalions of 4,650 troops. This slashed projected expenses by nearly three hundred million dollars, but the Security Council did not approve the revised budget until 1 March 1989. The inevitable delay in UNTAG's full deployment ensured there were insufficient personnel prepared to monitor the movement of PLAN and the SADF or their confinement to bases on 1 April, when the permanent cessation in hostilities was to take effect. Secretary-General de Cuéllar urged restraint in the interim on both sides to avoid jeopardising the de facto ceasefire maintained since August 1988 or the 1 April implementation schedule. Nevertheless, PLAN took advantage of the political uncertainty in the weeks following the UNTAG budget debate to begin moving its forces in Angola closer to the border.
Since the early 1980s PLAN had consistently stated its intention to establish camps inside South West Africa during any future political transition, a notion rejected with equal consistency by the South African government. Compounding this fact was that PLAN insurgents also identified themselves as refugees without making any distinction between their civilian or military background, and the UN had explicitly invited refugees to return home. Indeed, PLAN did not possess many regular standing units and by the late 1980s many of its personnel followed cyclical patterns of fighting as insurgents before returning to refugee camps as civilians. On 31 March, Pik Botha complained to the JMMC that PLAN troops had advanced south of the 16th parallel and were massing less than eight kilometres from the border. He promptly intercepted UN Special Representative Martti Ahtisaari and UNTAG commander Dewan Prem Chand that evening and gave them the same information. On the morning of 1 April, the first PLAN cadres crossed into Ovamboland, unhindered by UNTAG, which had failed to monitor their activity in Angola due to the delays in its deployment. Ahtisaari immediately contacted SWAPO, ordering it to rein in PLAN, to little avail. The South African foreign ministry also contacted the Secretary-General, who in turn relayed the same message to SWAPO officials in New York.
At the end of the day, with no signs of the PLAN advance abating, Ahtisaari lifted all restrictions confining the SADF to its bases. Local police mobilised and fought off the invaders in a delaying action until regular SADF forces were able to deploy with six battalions. After the first two days the insurgents lost their offensive initiative, and the combined South African forces drove PLAN back across the border in a counteroffensive codenamed Operation Merlyn. Between 1 April – 9 April 273 PLAN insurgents were killed in the fighting. The SADF and police suffered 23 dead. On 8 April, the JMMC had issued the Mount Etjo Declaration, which reiterated that the Tripartite Accord was still in effect and that South Africa, Angola, and Cuba remained committed to peace. It also ordered all PLAN insurgents remaining in Ovamboland to surrender at UNTAG-supervised assembly points.
Sam Nujoma denied any incursion had taken place on 1 April, claiming that he had only ordered PLAN insurgents already inside South West Africa to begin establishing base camps. He also pointed out that SWAPO had never been a signatory to the Tripartite Accord, and therefore the cessation of hostilities as dictated by its terms was non-binding. This drew some ire from Angola, which had given guarantees to the UN that PLAN would remain north of the 16th parallel. The SADF was re-confined to its bases on 26 April, then released into Ovamboland again to verify that the insurgents had departed. By May, all but a small handful of PLAN insurgents had been relocated north of the 16th parallel under JMMC supervision, effectively ending the South African Border War.
General elections under a universal franchise were held in South West Africa between 7 and 11 November 1989, returning 57% of the popular vote for SWAPO. This gave SWAPO 41 seats in the territory's Constituent Assembly, but not a two-thirds majority which would have enabled it to unilaterally draft a constitution without the other parties represented. South West Africa formally obtained independence as the Republic of Namibia on 21 March 1990.
See also
Cuban intervention in Angola
Angolan Civil War
List of operations of the South African Border War
Portuguese Colonial War
Rhodesian Bush War
South Africa and weapons of mass destruction
Notes and references
Annotations
References
External links
1960s conflicts
1970s conflicts
1980s conflicts
20th-century conflicts
20th century in Angola
20th century in Namibia
Angola–Cuba military relations
Angola–South Africa relations
Angola–Soviet Union relations
Cold War conflicts
Cold War in Africa
Communism in Angola
Cuba–Namibia relations
Events associated with apartheid
Guerrilla wars
Military history of Angola
Military history of South Africa
Namibia–South Africa relations
Proxy wars
South Africa–Soviet Union relations
Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa
Wars involving Angola
Wars involving Cuba
Wars involving Namibia
Wars involving South Africa
Wars involving the Soviet Union
Wars involving Zambia |
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