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msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1619281197#6_3401933003 | Title: neurotoxin | Definition, Examples, & Effects | Britannica
Headings: Neurotoxin
Neurotoxin
biology
Learn about the popular yet controversial use of Botox injection in nonsurgical cosmetic procedures
Characteristics
Physiological effects
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Content: In elderly individuals, a decline in neural function associated with aging can limit the ability to cope with the effects of neurotoxins, particularly for those with compromised liver metabolism or impaired renal function, which are the primary routes of toxin clearance from the body. Prenatal, postnatal, and early childhood exposure to certain chemicals can result in permanent damage to the developing brain, causing functional deficits that become apparent immediately or that emerge later in life. Studies have shown that the placenta cannot prevent many toxins from passing from mother to fetus; moreover, chemicals can be transferred through breast milk. Certain chemicals found in the environment and in common household items have been linked to behavioral and cognitive problems in children. In the early 2000s, increased exposure to some of those chemicals during fetal and early childhood development—as result of overall increases in the use of chemicals in food production and in consumer products—was blamed for the sharp rise in disorders such as autism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children. Although genetic factors play a role, neurotoxins such as arsenic, chlorpyrifos, DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), ethyl alcohol, fluoride, lead, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), manganese, mercury, and toluene are major contributors to the prevalence of neurobehavioral disorders. The impact of some neurotoxins, such as lead and ethyl alcohol, are well-documented. Fetal alcohol syndrome, characterized by brain damage and developmental delays in children, has been known since the 1970s to occur in children born to alcoholic mothers. Concern about lead contamination dates to ancient Rome, where the malleable metal was used to line aqueducts. | https://www.britannica.com/science/neurotoxin |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1620070692#1_3403538882 | Title: Old age | Britannica
Headings: Old age
Old age
Social programs
Physiological effects
Demographic and socioeconomic influences
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therapeutics: Requirements of the elderly
The elderly often have decreased intestinal motility and decreased gastric acid secretion that can lead to nutritional deficiencies. The...
Old age has a dual definition. It is the last stage in the life processes of an individual, and it is an age group or generation comprising a segment of the oldest members of a population. The social aspects of old age are influenced by the relationship of the physiological effects of aging and the collective experiences and shared values of that generation to the particular organization of the society in which it exists. There is no universally accepted age that is considered old among or within societies. Often discrepancies exist as to what age a society may consider old and what members in that society of that age and older may consider old. Moreover, biologists are not in agreement about the existence of an inherent biological cause for aging. However, in most contemporary Western countries, 60 or 65 is the age of eligibility for retirement and old-age social programs, although many countries and societies regard old age as occurring anywhere from the mid-40s to the 70s. Social programs
State institutions to aid the elderly have existed in varying degrees since the time of the ancient Roman Empire. | https://www.britannica.com/science/old-age |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1620070692#6_3403547902 | Title: Old age | Britannica
Headings: Old age
Old age
Social programs
Physiological effects
Demographic and socioeconomic influences
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Content: Certain aspects of sensory and perceptual skills, muscular strength, and certain kinds of memory tend to diminish with age, rendering older people unsuitable for some activities. There is, however, no conclusive evidence that intelligence deteriorates with age, but rather that it is more closely associated with education and standard of living. Sexual activity tends to decrease with age, but if an individual is healthy there is no age limit for its continuance. Many of the myths surrounding the process of aging are being invalidated by increased studies in gerontology, but there still is not sufficient information to provide adequate conclusions. Demographic and socioeconomic influences
In general the social status of an age group is related to its effective influence in its society, which is associated with that group’s function in productivity. In agrarian societies the elderly have a status of respectability. Their life experiences and knowledge are regarded as valuable, especially in preliterate societies where knowledge is orally transmitted. The range of activities in these societies allows the elderly to continue to be productive members of their communities. In industrialized nations the status of the elderly has altered as the socioeconomic conditions have changed, tending to reduce the status of the elderly as a society becomes more technologically oriented. Since physical disability is less a factor in productive capability in industrialized countries, this reduction in social status is thought to have been generated by several interrelated factors: | https://www.britannica.com/science/old-age |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1620070692#7_3403549856 | Title: Old age | Britannica
Headings: Old age
Old age
Social programs
Physiological effects
Demographic and socioeconomic influences
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Content: In agrarian societies the elderly have a status of respectability. Their life experiences and knowledge are regarded as valuable, especially in preliterate societies where knowledge is orally transmitted. The range of activities in these societies allows the elderly to continue to be productive members of their communities. In industrialized nations the status of the elderly has altered as the socioeconomic conditions have changed, tending to reduce the status of the elderly as a society becomes more technologically oriented. Since physical disability is less a factor in productive capability in industrialized countries, this reduction in social status is thought to have been generated by several interrelated factors: the numbers of still able-bodied older workers outstripping the number of available employment opportunities, the decline in self-employment which allows a worker to gradually decrease activity with age, and the continual introduction of new technology requiring special training and education. Although in certain fields old age is still considered an asset, particularly in the political arena, older people are increasingly being forced into retirement before their productive years are over, causing problems in their psychological adaptations to old age. Retirement is not regarded unfavourably in all instances, but its economic limitations tend to further remove older people from the realm of influence and raise problems in the extended use of leisure time and housing. As a consequence, financial preparation for retirement has become an increased concern for individuals and society. For an essay on retirement, medical care, and other issues affecting the elderly, see John Kenneth Galbraith’s Notes on Aging, a Britannica sidebar by the distinguished economist, ambassador, and public servant. | https://www.britannica.com/science/old-age |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1621749864#4_3406771404 | Title: Phylogeny - Major evolutionary steps | Britannica
Headings: Major evolutionary steps
Major evolutionary steps
Cyanobacteria, algae, and other early forms of life
Evolution of land plants
Animal evolution
Applications of phylogeny
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Content: Other theories of animal evolutions include their descent from one or more groups of protozoans. Evolution of land plants
Land plants contain two major groups, bryophytes and tracheophytes, which differ in many ways but which share distinctive characteristics for adaptation to dry land. Those include housing the plant embryo in maternal tissue. Bryophytes are descended from green algae and include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. Only small quantities of water are needed for their reproduction, so that the sperm may travel to the eggs. The fertilized egg matures within the maternal tissue. The plant is protected from desiccation by a waxy cuticle. All the dominant plants on Earth are included in the tracheophytes. The tracheophytes’ development of large plant bodies was made possible by vascular parts that carry water and food inside those plants and by a dominant sporophyte stage (the nonsexual phase in the alternation of generations in the life cycle of certain plants and algae) with a microscopic-sized gametophyte (the sexual phase in the alternation of generations). Tracheophytes’ tissues have differentiated into leaves, stems, and roots and, in the highest plants, into seeds and flowers. | https://www.britannica.com/science/phylogeny/Major-evolutionary-steps |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1622093166#9_3407508458 | Title: Plant disease - Transmission | Britannica
Headings:
Transmission
Control
Some viral and viroid diseases of plants
Diseases caused by bacteria
General characteristics
Content: causes reduction of crop yield
Diseases caused by bacteria
Thousands of bacterial species occur in nature. Many of these perform biochemical processes essential for the continuity of life; for example, bacterial detritivores, or decomposers, feed on nonliving organic matter, recycling it through the ecosystem. There are, however, hundreds of bacterial species that cause diseases in humans, animals, and plants. General characteristics
Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms—i.e., single-celled microorganisms in which the nuclear substance is not enclosed in a membrane. There are two major types of bacteria, the eubacteria and the archaebacteria, and they are distinguished by differences in the composition of their cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane and by certain metabolic features. Plant pathogens belong to the eubacteria. The eubacteria can be divided into three groups: gram-negative bacteria, gram-positive bacteria, and the mycoplasmas and spiroplasmas, referred to as mycoplasma-like organisms (MLOs). | https://www.britannica.com/science/plant-disease/Transmission |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1622412215#0_3408155291 | Title: Plutonium | chemical element | Britannica
Headings: Plutonium
Plutonium
chemical element
Element Properties
Content: Plutonium | chemical element | Britannica
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Lester Morss
Adjunct Professor, Department of Chemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. See Article History
Alternative Title: Pu
Plutonium (Pu), radioactive chemical element of the actinoid series of the periodic table, atomic number 94. It is the most important transuranium element because of its use as fuel in certain types of nuclear reactors and as an ingredient in nuclear weapons. Plutonium is a silvery metal that takes on a yellow tarnish in air. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Britannica Quiz
118 Names and Symbols of the Periodic Table Quiz
The periodic table is made up of 118 elements. How well do you know their symbols? In this quiz you’ll be shown all 118 chemical symbols, and you’ll need to choose the name of the chemical element that each one represents. The element was first detected (1941) as the isotope plutonium-238 by American chemists Glenn T. Seaborg, Joseph W. Kennedy, and Arthur C. Wahl, who produced it by deuteron bombardment of uranium -238 in the 152-cm (60-inch) cyclotron at Berkeley, California. The element was named after the then planet Pluto. | https://www.britannica.com/science/plutonium |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1622412215#3_3408160168 | Title: Plutonium | chemical element | Britannica
Headings: Plutonium
Plutonium
chemical element
Element Properties
Content: Plutonium and all elements of higher atomic number are radiological poisons because of their high rate of alpha emission and their specific absorption in bone marrow. The maximum amount of plutonium-239 that can be indefinitely maintained in an adult without significant injury is 0.008 microcurie (equal to 0.13 microgram [1 microgram = 10 −6 gram]). Longer-lived isotopes plutonium-242 and plutonium-244 are valuable in chemical and metallurgical research. Plutonium-238 is an alpha-emitting isotope that emits a negligible amount of gamma rays; it can be manufactured to harness its heat of radioactive decay to operate thermoelectric and thermionic devices that are small, lightweight, and long-lived (the half-life of plutonium-238 is 87.7 years). The power produced from plutonium-238 alpha decay (approximately 0.5 watt per gram) has been used to provide spacecraft electrical power (radioisotope thermoelectric generators [RTGs]) and to provide heat for batteries in spacecraft, such as in the Curiosity rover. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
Plutonium exhibits six forms differing in crystal structure and density (allotropes); the alpha form exists at room temperature. It has the highest electrical resistivity of any metallic element (145 microhm-centimetres). | https://www.britannica.com/science/plutonium |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1622412215#4_3408161799 | Title: Plutonium | chemical element | Britannica
Headings: Plutonium
Plutonium
chemical element
Element Properties
Content: The power produced from plutonium-238 alpha decay (approximately 0.5 watt per gram) has been used to provide spacecraft electrical power (radioisotope thermoelectric generators [RTGs]) and to provide heat for batteries in spacecraft, such as in the Curiosity rover. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
Plutonium exhibits six forms differing in crystal structure and density (allotropes); the alpha form exists at room temperature. It has the highest electrical resistivity of any metallic element (145 microhm-centimetres). Chemically reactive, it dissolves in acids and can exist in four oxidation states as ions of characteristic colour in aqueous solution: Pu 3+, blue-lavender; Pu 4+, yellow-brown; PuO 2+, pink; PuO 22+, yellow or pink-orange; | https://www.britannica.com/science/plutonium |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1624358608#5_3412088691 | Title: Recreation therapy | Britannica
Headings: Recreation therapy
Recreation therapy
Understand about the rehabilitation physiotherapy program in which people with spinal cord injuries learn to sail and go sailing
Understand how music therapy is helping young children in Australian elementary schools to deal with grief, loss and other behavioral and emotional disorders
Models of recreation therapy
Process of recreation therapy intervention
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History at your fingertips
Recreation therapy
Content: Process of recreation therapy intervention
The practice of recreation therapy encompasses a wide and varied spectrum of individuals, interventions, activities, and contexts. Recreation therapy applies a “clinical process” to provide consistency. Regardless of the context or content of the intervention, recreation therapists follow a systematic sequence of assessment, planning the intervention, implementing the intervention, planning for transition, and evaluation to systematically document the outcomes of their interventions. Those processes and activities maximize the likelihood that the services provided by the recreation therapist are individualized, purposeful, outcome-focused, and, ultimately, effective. Assessment is the first step undertaken by the recreation therapist. That sets the direction for the “purposeful intervention” by enabling the therapist to focus specifically on the strengths, needs, and health concerns of the individual being served. Assessment may be defined as a systematic process of gathering and synthesizing information about an individual and his or her world to determine the most-effective course of intervention. Some assessments are standardized, while some are more flexible, allowing the therapist more latitude in how and when to administer them. Generally, it is recommended that more than one method be used to gain the most accurate and complete picture of the individual. An effective assessment will provide information about the individual’s functioning at the beginning of the intervention, his or her desires and goals for intervention, and some possible ways to structure the intervention. | https://www.britannica.com/science/recreation-therapy |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1624358608#6_3412091101 | Title: Recreation therapy | Britannica
Headings: Recreation therapy
Recreation therapy
Understand about the rehabilitation physiotherapy program in which people with spinal cord injuries learn to sail and go sailing
Understand how music therapy is helping young children in Australian elementary schools to deal with grief, loss and other behavioral and emotional disorders
Models of recreation therapy
Process of recreation therapy intervention
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Recreation therapy
Content: That sets the direction for the “purposeful intervention” by enabling the therapist to focus specifically on the strengths, needs, and health concerns of the individual being served. Assessment may be defined as a systematic process of gathering and synthesizing information about an individual and his or her world to determine the most-effective course of intervention. Some assessments are standardized, while some are more flexible, allowing the therapist more latitude in how and when to administer them. Generally, it is recommended that more than one method be used to gain the most accurate and complete picture of the individual. An effective assessment will provide information about the individual’s functioning at the beginning of the intervention, his or her desires and goals for intervention, and some possible ways to structure the intervention. It also provides a baseline against which to measure progress and outcomes. In the planning phase (sometimes called “treatment planning,” “individualized program planning,” or “care planning,” depending on the setting), the strengths, needs, and goals of the individual as well as the expertise and contributions of the therapist are organized into a coherent plan that maximizes the chance that the individual will reach the desired outcomes. Many settings have particular guidelines or requirements for the development and formatting of intervention plans. In some, the recreation therapist will develop specific recreation goals. For example, the objective for a patient to be able to fish independently is a possible goal for an individual who has experienced a stroke and needs to master the use of adaptive equipment to continue his or her most valued-pursuit, fishing. | https://www.britannica.com/science/recreation-therapy |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1624522035#12_3412417210 | Title: Relativity - Experimental evidence for general relativity | Britannica
Headings: Experimental evidence for general relativity
Experimental evidence for general relativity
Applications of relativistic ideas
Elementary particles
Particle accelerators
Fission and fusion: bombs and stellar processes
The global positioning system
Know about the application of gravitational waves in science and our day to day life
Cosmology
Relativity, quantum theory, and unified theories
Content: Relativity, quantum theory, and unified theories
Cosmic behaviour on the biggest scale is described by general relativity. Behaviour on the subatomic scale is described by quantum mechanics, which began with the work of the German physicist Max Planck in 1900 and treats energy and other physical quantities in discrete units called quanta. A central goal of physics has been to combine relativity theory and quantum theory into an overarching “theory of everything” describing all physical phenomena. Quantum theory explains electromagnetism and the strong and weak forces, but a quantum description of the remaining fundamental force of gravity has not been achieved. After Einstein developed relativity, he unsuccessfully sought a so-called unified field theory with a space-time geometry that would encompass all the fundamental forces. Other theorists have attempted to merge general relativity with quantum theory, but the two approaches treat forces in fundamentally different ways. In quantum theory, forces arise from the interchange of certain elementary particles, not from the shape of space-time. Furthermore, quantum effects are thought to cause a serious distortion of space-time at an extremely small scale called the Planck length, which is much smaller than the size of elementary particles. This suggests that quantum gravity cannot be understood without treating space-time at unheard-of scales. Although the connection between general relativity and quantum mechanics remains elusive, some progress has been made toward a fully unified theory. | https://www.britannica.com/science/relativity/Experimental-evidence-for-general-relativity |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1626313125#1_3415946425 | Title: Small intestine | anatomy | Britannica
Headings:
Small intestine
anatomy
Consider whether the continuous band of membranous tissue around humans' intestines should be deemed an organ
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Content: The mesentery contains areas of fat that help retain heat in the organs, as well as an extensive web of blood vessels. Nerves lead to the small intestine from two divisions of the autonomic nervous system: parasympathetic nerves initiate muscular contractions that move food along the tract ( peristalsis ), and sympathetic nerves suppress intestinal movements. small intestine
The small intestine contains many distinct types of cells, each of which serves a specific function. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Britannica Quiz
The Human Body
You may know that the human brain is composed of two halves, but what fraction of the human body is made up of blood? Test both halves of your mind in this human anatomy quiz. Three successive regions of the small intestine are customarily distinguished: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. These regions form one continuous tube, and, although each area exhibits certain characteristic differences, there are no distinctly marked separations between them. The first area, the duodenum, is adjacent to the stomach; | https://www.britannica.com/science/small-intestine |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1626313125#2_3415947909 | Title: Small intestine | anatomy | Britannica
Headings:
Small intestine
anatomy
Consider whether the continuous band of membranous tissue around humans' intestines should be deemed an organ
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Content: Test both halves of your mind in this human anatomy quiz. Three successive regions of the small intestine are customarily distinguished: duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. These regions form one continuous tube, and, although each area exhibits certain characteristic differences, there are no distinctly marked separations between them. The first area, the duodenum, is adjacent to the stomach; it is only 23 to 28 cm (9 to 11 inches) long, has the widest diameter, and is not supported by the mesentery. Ducts from the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas enter the duodenum to provide juices that neutralize acids coming from the stomach and help digest proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The second region, the jejunum, in the central section of the abdomen, comprises about two-fifths of the remaining tract. The colour of the jejunum is deep red because of its extensive blood supply; its peristaltic movements are rapid and vigorous, and there is little fat in the mesentery that supports this region. | https://www.britannica.com/science/small-intestine |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627036814#1_3417342228 | Title: sporophyte | Definition and Examples | Britannica
Headings: Sporophyte
Sporophyte
biology
Content: Sporophyte phase
The sporophytes of all conifers are trees or shrubs. They have a life span that ranges from a few decades to more than 5,000 years. The...
In the sporophyte phase a diploid (having two sets of chromosomes) plant body grows and eventually produces spores through meiosis. These spores divide mitotically to produce haploid (having a single set of chromosomes) gamete -producing bodies called gametophytes. The union of two gametes during fertilization produces a diploid zygote, which divides mitotically to form a new sporophyte. fern: life cycle
The life cycle of the fern. © Merriam-Webster Inc.
The character and relative extent of the two phases vary greatly among different groups of plants and algae. During the course of evolution, the sporophyte stage has become progressively increased. Thus, in the higher (i.e., vascular) plants the sporophyte is the dominant phase in the life cycle, whereas in the more primitive nonvascular plants ( bryophytes) the gametophyte remains dominant. | https://www.britannica.com/science/sporophyte |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627036814#2_3417343522 | Title: sporophyte | Definition and Examples | Britannica
Headings: Sporophyte
Sporophyte
biology
Content: fern: life cycle
The life cycle of the fern. © Merriam-Webster Inc.
The character and relative extent of the two phases vary greatly among different groups of plants and algae. During the course of evolution, the sporophyte stage has become progressively increased. Thus, in the higher (i.e., vascular) plants the sporophyte is the dominant phase in the life cycle, whereas in the more primitive nonvascular plants ( bryophytes) the gametophyte remains dominant. The dominant phase in algae often depends on environmental conditions, though some species have determinant life cycles and are commonly gametophyte-dominant. This article was most recently revised and updated by Melissa Petruzzello, Assistant Editor. History at your fingertips
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627214602#3_3417698966 | Title: Statistics - Estimation of a population mean | Britannica
Headings: Estimation of a population mean
Estimation of a population mean
Estimation of other parameters
Estimation procedures for two populations
Content: The interpretation of a 95% confidence interval is that 95% of the intervals constructed in this manner will contain the population mean. Thus, any interval computed in this manner has a 95% confidence of containing the population mean. By changing the constant from 1.96 to 1.645, a 90% confidence interval can be obtained. It should be noted from the formula for an interval estimate that a 90% confidence interval is narrower than a 95% confidence interval and as such has a slightly smaller confidence of including the population mean. Lower levels of confidence lead to even more narrow intervals. In practice, a 95% confidence interval is the most widely used. Owing to the presence of the n1/2 term in the formula for an interval estimate, the sample size affects the margin of error. Larger sample sizes lead to smaller margins of error. This observation forms the basis for procedures used to select the sample size. Sample sizes can be chosen such that the confidence interval satisfies any desired requirements about the size of the margin of error. | https://www.britannica.com/science/statistics/Estimation-of-a-population-mean |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627689971#0_3418639948 | Title: Sulfa drug | medicine | Britannica
Headings: Sulfa drug
Sulfa drug
medicine
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Content: Sulfa drug | medicine | Britannica
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Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....
See Article History
Alternative Titles: sulfonamide, sulpha drug, sulphonamide drug
Sulfa drug, also called sulfonamide, any member of a group of synthetic antibiotics containing the sulfanilamide molecular structure. Sulfa drugs were the first chemical substances systematically used to treat and prevent bacterial infections in humans. Their use has diminished because of the availability of antibiotics that are more effective and safer and because of increased instances of drug resistance. Sulfonamides are still used, but largely for treating urinary tract infections and preventing infection of burns. They are also used in the treatment of certain forms of malaria. The antibacterial effects of sulfonamides were first observed in 1932, when German bacteriologist and pathologist Gerhard Domagk noted the effects of the red dye Prontosil on Streptococcus infections in mice. It was later proved by French researchers that the active agent of Prontosil was sulfanilamide, or para- aminobenzenesulfonamide, a product of the body’s metabolism of Prontosil. By the 1940s sulfanilamide was a widely used drug. During World War II white sulfanilamide powders became standard in first-aid kits for the treatment of open wounds, and sulfanilamide tablets were taken to fight intestinal infections. | https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfa-drug |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627689971#1_3418641952 | Title: Sulfa drug | medicine | Britannica
Headings: Sulfa drug
Sulfa drug
medicine
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Content: They are also used in the treatment of certain forms of malaria. The antibacterial effects of sulfonamides were first observed in 1932, when German bacteriologist and pathologist Gerhard Domagk noted the effects of the red dye Prontosil on Streptococcus infections in mice. It was later proved by French researchers that the active agent of Prontosil was sulfanilamide, or para- aminobenzenesulfonamide, a product of the body’s metabolism of Prontosil. By the 1940s sulfanilamide was a widely used drug. During World War II white sulfanilamide powders became standard in first-aid kits for the treatment of open wounds, and sulfanilamide tablets were taken to fight intestinal infections. Though the medicine was relatively safe, allergic reactions such as skin rashes, fever, nausea, vomiting, and even mental confusion were common. With the introduction of less-toxic derivatives and especially with the mass production of penicillin, its use declined. Many other sulfa drugs were derived from sulfanilamide in the 1940s, including sulfathiazole (systemic bacterial infections), sulfadiazine (urinary tract and intestinal tract infections), and sulfamethazine (urinary tract infections). However, all sulfa drugs induced some of the side effects listed above, and bacteria developed resistant strains after exposure to the drugs. Within a few decades many of the sulfa drugs had lost favour to more-effective and less-toxic antibiotics. | https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfa-drug |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627689971#2_3418643707 | Title: Sulfa drug | medicine | Britannica
Headings: Sulfa drug
Sulfa drug
medicine
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Content: Though the medicine was relatively safe, allergic reactions such as skin rashes, fever, nausea, vomiting, and even mental confusion were common. With the introduction of less-toxic derivatives and especially with the mass production of penicillin, its use declined. Many other sulfa drugs were derived from sulfanilamide in the 1940s, including sulfathiazole (systemic bacterial infections), sulfadiazine (urinary tract and intestinal tract infections), and sulfamethazine (urinary tract infections). However, all sulfa drugs induced some of the side effects listed above, and bacteria developed resistant strains after exposure to the drugs. Within a few decades many of the sulfa drugs had lost favour to more-effective and less-toxic antibiotics. Trisulfapyrimidine (triple sulfa), a combination of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethazine, is used in the treatment of vaginal infections, and several sulfa drugs are used in combination with antibiotics to treat a wide range of conditions, from skin burns to malaria to pneumonia in HIV/ AIDS patients. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
Sulfa drugs are bacteriostatic; i.e., they inhibit the growth and multiplication of bacteria but do not kill them. They act by interfering with the synthesis of folic acid (folate), a member of the vitamin B complex present in all living cells. | https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfa-drug |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627689971#3_3418645419 | Title: Sulfa drug | medicine | Britannica
Headings: Sulfa drug
Sulfa drug
medicine
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Content: Trisulfapyrimidine (triple sulfa), a combination of sulfadiazine, sulfamerazine, and sulfamethazine, is used in the treatment of vaginal infections, and several sulfa drugs are used in combination with antibiotics to treat a wide range of conditions, from skin burns to malaria to pneumonia in HIV/ AIDS patients. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
Sulfa drugs are bacteriostatic; i.e., they inhibit the growth and multiplication of bacteria but do not kill them. They act by interfering with the synthesis of folic acid (folate), a member of the vitamin B complex present in all living cells. Most bacteria make their own folic acid from simpler starting materials; humans and other higher animals, however, must obtain folic acid in the diet. Thus, sulfa drugs can inhibit the growth of invading microorganisms without harming the host. When trimethoprim (a dihydrofolate reductase inhibitor) is given with sulfamethoxazole, the sequential blockage of the pathway produced by the two drugs achieves markedly greater inhibition of folic acid synthesis. As a result, this combination is valuable in treating urinary tract infections and some systemic infections. | https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfa-drug |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627689971#4_3418646950 | Title: Sulfa drug | medicine | Britannica
Headings: Sulfa drug
Sulfa drug
medicine
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Content: Most bacteria make their own folic acid from simpler starting materials; humans and other higher animals, however, must obtain folic acid in the diet. Thus, sulfa drugs can inhibit the growth of invading microorganisms without harming the host. When trimethoprim (a dihydrofolate reductase inhibitor) is given with sulfamethoxazole, the sequential blockage of the pathway produced by the two drugs achieves markedly greater inhibition of folic acid synthesis. As a result, this combination is valuable in treating urinary tract infections and some systemic infections. The sulfones are related to the sulfonamides and are inhibitors of folic acid synthesis. They tend to accumulate in skin and inflamed tissue and are retained in the tissue for long periods. Thus, sulfones such as dapsone are useful in treatment of leprosy. This article was most recently revised and updated by Kara Rogers, Senior Editor. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: | https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfa-drug |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627689971#5_3418648219 | Title: Sulfa drug | medicine | Britannica
Headings: Sulfa drug
Sulfa drug
medicine
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Content: The sulfones are related to the sulfonamides and are inhibitors of folic acid synthesis. They tend to accumulate in skin and inflamed tissue and are retained in the tissue for long periods. Thus, sulfones such as dapsone are useful in treatment of leprosy. This article was most recently revised and updated by Kara Rogers, Senior Editor. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: pharmaceutical industry: Early efforts in the development of anti-infective drugs
…many derivatives of sulfonamides, or sulfa drugs, were synthesized and tested for antibacterial and other activities.… carboxylic acid: Amino acids
…some of its derivatives (the sulfa drugs) are used to cure many bacterial diseases.… organosulfur compound: | https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfa-drug |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627689971#6_3418649281 | Title: Sulfa drug | medicine | Britannica
Headings: Sulfa drug
Sulfa drug
medicine
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Content: pharmaceutical industry: Early efforts in the development of anti-infective drugs
…many derivatives of sulfonamides, or sulfa drugs, were synthesized and tested for antibacterial and other activities.… carboxylic acid: Amino acids
…some of its derivatives (the sulfa drugs) are used to cure many bacterial diseases.… organosulfur compound: Other sulfinyl and sulfonyl compounds
…led to the development of sulfa drugs, which still find some use today in the treatment of infections, although they have been largely replaced by newer antibiotics, to which bacteria are less resistant. Other sulfonamides include sildenafil (Viagra), a popular drug for the treatment of erectile dysfunction; piroxicam (Feldene), a…
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627689971#7_3418650570 | Title: Sulfa drug | medicine | Britannica
Headings: Sulfa drug
Sulfa drug
medicine
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Content: Other sulfinyl and sulfonyl compounds
…led to the development of sulfa drugs, which still find some use today in the treatment of infections, although they have been largely replaced by newer antibiotics, to which bacteria are less resistant. Other sulfonamides include sildenafil (Viagra), a popular drug for the treatment of erectile dysfunction; piroxicam (Feldene), a…
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Quick Facts
key people
Daniel Bovet
related topics
Sulfonamide
Prontosil
Bacteriostatic
Sulfanilamide
Mafenide
Sulfathiazole | https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfa-drug |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627695418#2_3418655321 | Title: Sulfanilamide | drug | Britannica
Headings: Sulfanilamide
Sulfanilamide
drug
Learn about this topic in these articles:
antibiotic development
antimetabolites
carboxylic acids
medicinal applications
organosulfur compounds
sulfa drugs
Content: Thus, the enzymes are inhibited from catalyzing the synthesis of folic acid and, deprived of folic…
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medicinal applications
In protein: Inhibition of enzymes
The inhibitor sulfanilamide, for example, is similar enough to a substrate ( p -aminobenzoic acid) of an enzyme involved in the metabolism of folic acid that it binds to the enzyme but cannot react. It covers the active site and prevents the binding of p -aminobenzoic acid. This enzyme is…
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In history of medicine: Sulfonamide drugs
…its active antibacterial agent is sulfanilamide. In 1936 English physician Leonard Colebrook and colleagues provided overwhelming evidence of the efficacy of both Prontosil and sulfanilamide in streptococcal septicemia (bloodstream infection), thereby ushering in the sulfonamide era. New sulfonamides, which appeared with astonishing rapidity, had greater potency, wider antibacterial range, or…
Read More
organosulfur compounds
In organosulfur compound: Other sulfinyl and sulfonyl compounds
Sulfanilamide, p -aminobenzenesulfonamide, a compound used in the manufacture of azo dyes, was found to inhibit the growth of bacteria. This discovery led to the development of sulfa drugs, which still find some use today in the treatment of infections, although they have been largely replaced…
Read More
sulfa drugs
In sulfa drug
…of synthetic antibiotics containing the sulfanilamide molecular structure. Sulfa drugs were the first chemical substances systematically used to treat and prevent bacterial infections in humans. | https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfanilamide |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1627695418#3_3418657328 | Title: Sulfanilamide | drug | Britannica
Headings: Sulfanilamide
Sulfanilamide
drug
Learn about this topic in these articles:
antibiotic development
antimetabolites
carboxylic acids
medicinal applications
organosulfur compounds
sulfa drugs
Content: In 1936 English physician Leonard Colebrook and colleagues provided overwhelming evidence of the efficacy of both Prontosil and sulfanilamide in streptococcal septicemia (bloodstream infection), thereby ushering in the sulfonamide era. New sulfonamides, which appeared with astonishing rapidity, had greater potency, wider antibacterial range, or…
Read More
organosulfur compounds
In organosulfur compound: Other sulfinyl and sulfonyl compounds
Sulfanilamide, p -aminobenzenesulfonamide, a compound used in the manufacture of azo dyes, was found to inhibit the growth of bacteria. This discovery led to the development of sulfa drugs, which still find some use today in the treatment of infections, although they have been largely replaced…
Read More
sulfa drugs
In sulfa drug
…of synthetic antibiotics containing the sulfanilamide molecular structure. Sulfa drugs were the first chemical substances systematically used to treat and prevent bacterial infections in humans. Their use has diminished because of the availability of antibiotics that are more effective and safer and because of increased instances of drug resistance. Sulfonamides…
Read More | https://www.britannica.com/science/sulfanilamide |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1629522150#1_3422299053 | Title: Tundra - Effects of human activities and climate change | Britannica
Headings:
Effects of human activities and climate change
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Content: Hunting, oil drilling, and other activities have polluted the environment and have threatened wildlife in tundra ecosystems. Environmental scientists are concerned that the continued expansion of these activities—along with the release of air pollutants, some of which deplete the ozone layer, and greenhouse gases, which hasten climate change —has begun to affect the very integrity and sustainability of Arctic and alpine tundra ecosystems. For example, the increased occurrence of tundra fires would decrease the coverage of lichens, which could, in turn, potentially reduce caribou habitats and subsistence resources for other Arctic species. surface temperature
Projected surface temperature changes from the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The effects of climate change on tundra regions have received extensive attention from scientists as well as policy makers and the public. This attention partly stems from the tundra’s high sensitivity to the general trend of global warming. While the average global surface-air temperature has risen by approximately 0.9 °C (about 1.5 °F) since 1900, average surface air temperatures in the Arctic have risen by 3.5 °C (5.3 °F) over the same period. Many parts of the region have experienced several consecutive years of record-breaking winter warmth since the late 20th century. In some locations, this record-breaking winter warmth has been unprecedented; three-month winter mean temperatures in Norway’s Svalbard archipelago in 2016 were 8–11 °C (14.4–19.8 °F) higher than the 1961–90 average. | https://www.britannica.com/science/tundra/Effects-of-human-activities-and-climate-change |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1631168289#3_3425582004 | Title: Olympic Games - Women and the Olympic Games | Britannica
Headings:
Women and the Olympic Games
Demise of the Olympics
The modern Olympic movement
Revival of the Olympics
Organization
The International Olympic Committee
International Olympic Committee presidents
The awarding of the Olympic Games
Sites of the modern Olympic Games
Content: Romans neither trained for nor participated in Greek athletics. Roman gladiator shows and team chariot racing were not related to the Olympic Games or to Greek athletics. The main difference between the Greek and Roman attitudes is reflected in the words each culture used to describe its festivals: for the Greeks they were contests ( agōnes ), while for the Romans they were games ( ludi ). The Greeks originally organized their festivals for the competitors, the Romans for the public. One was primarily competition, the other entertainment. The Olympic Games were finally abolished about 400 ce by the Roman emperor Theodosius I or his son because of the festival’s pagan associations. The modern Olympic movement
Revival of the Olympics
The ideas and work of several people led to the creation of the modern Olympics. The best-known architect of the modern Games was Pierre, baron de Coubertin, born in Paris on New Year’s Day, 1863. Family tradition pointed to an army career or possibly politics, but at age 24 Coubertin decided that his future lay in education, especially physical education. | https://www.britannica.com/sports/Olympic-Games/Women-and-the-Olympic-Games |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1632973247#8_3429023737 | Title: The Rise of the Machines: Pros and Cons of the Industrial Revolution | Britannica
Headings: The Rise of the Machines: Pros and Cons of the Industrial Revolution
The Rise of the Machines: Pros and Cons of the Industrial Revolution
Content: In addition, the housing, transportation, and recreational needs of factory workers resulted in the rapid expansion of cities and towns. Governmental bureaucracies grew to support these, and new specialized departments were created to handle traffic, sanitation, taxation, and other services. Other businesses within the towns also became more specialized as more builders, physicians, lawyers, and other workers were added to handle the various needs of the new residents. Con: Overcrowding of Cities and Industrial Towns
The promise of better wages attracted migrants to cities and industrial towns that were ill-prepared to handle them. Although initial housing shortages in many areas eventually gave way to construction booms and the development of modern buildings, cramped shantytowns made up of shacks and other forms of poor-quality housing appeared first. Local sewerage and sanitation systems were overwhelmed by the sudden influx of people, and drinking water was often contaminated. People living in such close proximity, fatigued by poor working conditions, and drinking unsafe water presented ideal conditions for outbreaks of typhus, cholera, smallpox, tuberculosis, and other infectious diseases. The need to treat these and other diseases in urban areas spurred medical advances and the development of modern building codes, health laws, and urban planning in many industrialized cities. Con: | https://www.britannica.com/story/the-rise-of-the-machines-pros-and-cons-of-the-industrial-revolution |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1633561208#0_3430216680 | Title: Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet - Student Center | Britannica.com
Headings: Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet
Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet
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The Presidency
List of Presidents
5 Wacky Facts about the Births and Deaths of U.S. Presidents
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Electing the President
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President of the United States: Fact or Fiction?
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Presidential elections
Election of 2000
Election of 1800
Election of 1860
Vice President
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Who Becomes President After the President and Vice President?
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Executive actions
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The president’s chief duty is to make sure that the laws are faithfully executed, and this duty is performed through an elaborate system of executive agencies that includes cabinet-level departments. Presidents appoint all cabinet heads and most other high-ranking officials of the executive branch of the federal government with the consent of the Senate. The existence of the cabinet and its operations are matters of custom rather than of law, and the cabinet as a collective body has no legal existence or power. Important non-cabinet-level presidential aides include those serving in the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, the National Security Council, and the office of the White House Chief of Staff.
Independent Regulatory Agencies
The first independent regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) was established by Congress in 1887, to regulate the railroads. The assertion of governmental control in other industries led to the creation of many other regulatory agencies modeled upon the ICC.
Content: Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet - Student Center | Britannica.com
United States Government
Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet
The executive branch is headed by the president, whose constitutional responsibilities include serving as commander in chief of the armed forces; negotiating treaties; appointing federal judges (including the members of the Supreme Court), ambassadors, and cabinet officials; and acting as head of state. The members of the president’s cabinet are appointed by the president with the approval of the Senate. The Twenty-fifth Amendment describes them as “the principal officers of the executive departments,” but significant power has flowed to non-cabinet-level presidential aides. The executive branch also includes independent regulatory agencies, government corporations, and independent executive agencies. LEARN THE WHOLE STORY
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In contrast to many countries with parliamentary forms of government, where the office of president, or head of state, is mainly ceremonial, in the United States the president has great authority and is arguably the most powerful elected official in the world. | https://www.britannica.com/study/executive-branch |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1633561208#1_3430220491 | Title: Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet - Student Center | Britannica.com
Headings: Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet
Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet
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The Presidency
List of Presidents
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Secret Service Code Names of 10 U.S. Presidents
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President of the United States: Fact or Fiction?
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Presidential elections
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Who Becomes President After the President and Vice President?
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Executive actions
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Executive Orders
Cabinet
The president’s chief duty is to make sure that the laws are faithfully executed, and this duty is performed through an elaborate system of executive agencies that includes cabinet-level departments. Presidents appoint all cabinet heads and most other high-ranking officials of the executive branch of the federal government with the consent of the Senate. The existence of the cabinet and its operations are matters of custom rather than of law, and the cabinet as a collective body has no legal existence or power. Important non-cabinet-level presidential aides include those serving in the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, the National Security Council, and the office of the White House Chief of Staff.
Independent Regulatory Agencies
The first independent regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) was established by Congress in 1887, to regulate the railroads. The assertion of governmental control in other industries led to the creation of many other regulatory agencies modeled upon the ICC.
Content: and acting as head of state. The members of the president’s cabinet are appointed by the president with the approval of the Senate. The Twenty-fifth Amendment describes them as “the principal officers of the executive departments,” but significant power has flowed to non-cabinet-level presidential aides. The executive branch also includes independent regulatory agencies, government corporations, and independent executive agencies. LEARN THE WHOLE STORY
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Constitution
Bill of Rights
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Judicial
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The Presidency
In contrast to many countries with parliamentary forms of government, where the office of president, or head of state, is mainly ceremonial, in the United States the president has great authority and is arguably the most powerful elected official in the world. In addition to the formal constitutional responsibilities vested in the presidency, in practice presidential powers have expanded to include drafting legislation, formulating foreign policy, conducting personal diplomacy, and leading the president’s political party. The president must be a natural-born citizen of the United States, at least 35 years old, and a resident of the country for at least 14 years. A president is elected indirectly by the people through an Electoral College system to a four-year term and is limited to two elected terms of office. List of Presidents
Since the beginning of the country, 44 individuals have served as the president of the United States, beginning with George Washington, who took office on April 30, 1789. The presidents have come from 18 different states, though 28 presidents have come from just six states: | https://www.britannica.com/study/executive-branch |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1633561208#7_3430244513 | Title: Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet - Student Center | Britannica.com
Headings: Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet
Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and The Cabinet
READ MORE
The Presidency
List of Presidents
5 Wacky Facts about the Births and Deaths of U.S. Presidents
Secret Service Code Names of 10 U.S. Presidents
Electing the President
Kennedy-Nixon Debates
Primary election
Electoral Colleage
political convention
President of the United States: Fact or Fiction?
Think you’ve got a handle on U.S. presidential history? Sort the true from the false in this quiz on the U.S. presidents.
Presidential elections
Election of 2000
Election of 1800
Election of 1860
Vice President
List of Vice Presidents
Richard Nixon
Harry S. Truman
Aaron Burr
Who Becomes President After the President and Vice President?
First Lady
List of First Ladies
Eleanor Roosevelt
Barbara Bush
Dolley Madison
U.S. Presidential Firsts
How well do you know the U.S. presidents?
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Executive actions
Impeachment
Definitions
Executive Orders
Cabinet
The president’s chief duty is to make sure that the laws are faithfully executed, and this duty is performed through an elaborate system of executive agencies that includes cabinet-level departments. Presidents appoint all cabinet heads and most other high-ranking officials of the executive branch of the federal government with the consent of the Senate. The existence of the cabinet and its operations are matters of custom rather than of law, and the cabinet as a collective body has no legal existence or power. Important non-cabinet-level presidential aides include those serving in the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, the National Security Council, and the office of the White House Chief of Staff.
Independent Regulatory Agencies
The first independent regulatory agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) was established by Congress in 1887, to regulate the railroads. The assertion of governmental control in other industries led to the creation of many other regulatory agencies modeled upon the ICC.
Content: Though pledged to vote for the winner in their state’s election, electors are not constitutionally obliged to do so. The candidate receiving the largest number of electoral votes is elected president. It is possible to win the national popular vote but lose the election. Read more
political convention
Political conventions were introduced in the 1830s to eliminate the abuses of caucuses, at which parties’ congressional delegations had voted for their party’s policies and elected their party's candidates. Through their open and public conduct of business, conventions were thought to be more democratic and less amenable to control by party bosses and machines, though historically activity on the floor of the convention was often merely a reflection of behind-the-scenes decisions and compromises. Read more
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Presidential elections
Presidential elections can be razor-close nail-biters that spawn controversy, decisive landslides that produce mandates, and everything in between. | https://www.britannica.com/study/executive-branch |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1633583186#0_3430267046 | Title: Judicial Branch - Student Center | Britannica.com
Headings: Judicial Branch
Judicial Branch
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Judicial independence
Judiciary Act of 1789
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Certiorari
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U.S. Court of Federal Claims
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According to the Constitution, appointments to the Supreme Court are made by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, though presidents have rarely consulted the Senate before making a nomination. The Senate Judiciary Committee ordinarily conducts hearings on nominations to the Supreme Court, and a simple majority of the full Senate is required for confirmation. Members of the Supreme Court are appointed for life terms, though they may be expelled if they are impeached by the House of Representatives and convicted in the Senate.
Chief justice
John Marshall
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
Louis Brandeis
Charles Evans Hughes
Sandra Day O’Connor
Earl Warren
Why Are There Nine Justices on the U.S. Supreme Court?
Select Cases of the Supreme Court
Because the Constitution is vague and ambiguous in many places, it is often possible for critics to fault the Supreme Court for misinterpreting it. Among the most important doctrinal sources used by the Supreme Court have been the commerce, due-process, and equal-protection clauses of the Constitution. It also has often ruled on controversies involving civil liberties, including freedom of speech and the right of privacy. Much of its work consists of clarifying, refining, and testing the Constitution’s philosophic ideals and translating them into working principles. On divisive issues such as abortion, affirmative action, school prayer, and flag burning, the Court’s decisions have aroused considerable opposition and controversy, with opponents sometimes seeking constitutional amendments to overturn the Court’s decisions.
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission
Roe v. Wade
Dred Scott Decision
Marbury v. Madison
Brown v. Board of Education
Plessy v. Ferguson
Content: Judicial Branch - Student Center | Britannica.com
United States Government
Judicial Branch
The Constitution says little about the powers, structure, and functions of the judicial branch. Instead it left much of that responsibility to Congress, stipulating (in Article III) only that judicial power be “vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.” As a result, the judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court of the United States, which consists of nine justices (including a chief justice) appointed to life terms by the president with the consent of the Senate. The Supreme Court interprets the Constitution and federal legislation. Beneath the Supreme Court are 13 courts of appeals and 94 district-level trial courts. Though not expressly covered in the text of the Constitution, judicial review—the power of the courts to examine the actions of the legislative, executive, and administrative arms of government to ensure that they are constitutional—became an important part of government in the United States and one of the key checks and balances of the American system. Learn the whole story
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Judicial independence
The ability of courts and judges to perform their duties free of influence or control by other actors, whether governmental or private, is known as judicial independence. As a practical matter, the type of judicial independence that is widely considered both the most important and the most difficult to achieve is independence from other governmental actors. Judiciary Act of 1789
The Judiciary Act of 1789 established the federal court system as a three-part judiciary made up of district courts, circuit courts, and the Supreme Court. It divided the country into districts with one court and one judge in each, along with attorneys responsible for civil and criminal actions in their districts. | https://www.britannica.com/study/judicial-branch |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1633583186#8_3430299004 | Title: Judicial Branch - Student Center | Britannica.com
Headings: Judicial Branch
Judicial Branch
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Judicial independence
Judiciary Act of 1789
Supreme Court
Certiorari
Lower Courts
U.S. Courts of Appeals
U.S. Court of Federal Claims
U.S. District Courts
Supreme Court Justices
According to the Constitution, appointments to the Supreme Court are made by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate, though presidents have rarely consulted the Senate before making a nomination. The Senate Judiciary Committee ordinarily conducts hearings on nominations to the Supreme Court, and a simple majority of the full Senate is required for confirmation. Members of the Supreme Court are appointed for life terms, though they may be expelled if they are impeached by the House of Representatives and convicted in the Senate.
Chief justice
John Marshall
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
Louis Brandeis
Charles Evans Hughes
Sandra Day O’Connor
Earl Warren
Why Are There Nine Justices on the U.S. Supreme Court?
Select Cases of the Supreme Court
Because the Constitution is vague and ambiguous in many places, it is often possible for critics to fault the Supreme Court for misinterpreting it. Among the most important doctrinal sources used by the Supreme Court have been the commerce, due-process, and equal-protection clauses of the Constitution. It also has often ruled on controversies involving civil liberties, including freedom of speech and the right of privacy. Much of its work consists of clarifying, refining, and testing the Constitution’s philosophic ideals and translating them into working principles. On divisive issues such as abortion, affirmative action, school prayer, and flag burning, the Court’s decisions have aroused considerable opposition and controversy, with opponents sometimes seeking constitutional amendments to overturn the Court’s decisions.
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission
Roe v. Wade
Dred Scott Decision
Marbury v. Madison
Brown v. Board of Education
Plessy v. Ferguson
Content: When the office is occupied by a person of extraordinary intellectual capacity and dynamic personality, the chief justice may exert a great influence on the Court’s work. John Marshall
As perhaps the Supreme Court’s most influential chief justice, John Marshall, the fourth chief justice (1801–35), was responsible for constructing and defending both the foundation of judicial power and the principles of American federalism. In Marbury v. Madison (1803), he established the Supreme Court’s right to exercise judicial review by declaring laws unconstitutional. His defense of federalism was articulated in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), which upheld the authority of Congress to create the Bank of the United States. Read more
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
Justice Oliver Wendell Homes, Jr., served on the Supreme Court from 1902 to 1932 and is considered one of the ablest jurists of his age. He was an advocate of judicial restraint and argued that the concept of “clear and present danger” was the only basis for limiting the right of freedom of speech. Read more
Louis Brandeis
The Supreme Court’s first Jewish justice, Louis Brandeis believed that, to preserve federalism, state legislatures had to be able to make laws suited to varied and changing needs, but he wished to restrict state laws when they interfered with the freedom to express ideas. Read more
Charles Evans Hughes
Having served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court (1910–16) and as secretary of state (1921–25), Charles Evans Hughes became the 11th chief justice of the United States in 1930 and served in that capacity until 1941. As chief justice he led the Supreme Court through the great controversy arising over the New Deal legislation of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt. | https://www.britannica.com/study/judicial-branch |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1633775275#3_3430724404 | Title: Industrial Revolution | Causes & Effects | Britannica
Headings: Industrial Revolution Causes and Effects
Industrial Revolution Causes and Effects
Causes
Effects
Content: Wellcome Library, London (cc-by-4.0)
Another key development was the adoption of the factory system. This system of manufacturing is based on the concentration of industry into specialized—and often large—establishments. The use of waterpower and then the steam engine to mechanize processes such as cloth weaving in Britain in the second half of the 18th century marked the beginning of the factory system. Effects
The Industrial Revolution brought about sweeping changes in economic and social organization. These changes included a wider distribution of wealth and increased international trade. Managerial hierarchies also developed to oversee the division of labor. By the late 1700s many people could no longer earn their living in the countryside. Increasingly, people moved from farms and villages into bigger towns and cities to find work in factories. Cities grew larger, but they were often dirty, crowded, and unhealthy. Machines greatly increased production. | https://www.britannica.com/summary/Industrial-Revolution-Causes-and-Effects |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1636826970#1_3436847778 | Title: Electronic waste | Britannica
Headings: Electronic waste
Electronic waste
Impacts on human health
Environmental impacts
Classification
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Electronic waste
Content: Given that the information and technology revolution has exponentially increased the use of new electronic equipment, it has also produced growing volumes of obsolete products; e-waste is one of the fastest-growing waste streams. Although e-waste contains complex combinations of highly toxic substances that pose a danger to health and the environment, many of the products also contain recoverable precious materials, making it a different kind of waste compared with traditional municipal waste. electronic waste
Electronic waste in a garbage dump. © Clarence Alford/Fotolia
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waste disposal
Electronic waste, or e-waste, is electronic equipment that has ceased to be of value to users or that no longer satisfies...
Globally, e-waste constitutes more than 5 percent of all municipal solid waste and is increasing with the rise of sales of electronic products in developing countries. The majority of the world’s e-waste is recycled in developing countries, where informal and hazardous setups for the extraction and sale of metals are common. Recycling companies in developed countries face strict environmental regulatory regimes and an increasing cost of waste disposal and thus may find exportation to small traders in developing countries more profitable than recycling in their own countries. There is also significant illegal transboundary movement of e-waste in the form of donations and charity from rich industrialized nations to developing countries. E-waste profiteers can harvest substantial profits owing to lax environmental laws, corrupt officials, and poorly paid workers, and there is an urgent need to develop policies and strategies to dispose of and recycle e-waste safely in order to achieve a sustainable future. Impacts on human health
The complex composition and improper handling of e-waste adversely affect human health. | https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronic-waste |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1636826970#2_3436850066 | Title: Electronic waste | Britannica
Headings: Electronic waste
Electronic waste
Impacts on human health
Environmental impacts
Classification
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Electronic waste
Content: The majority of the world’s e-waste is recycled in developing countries, where informal and hazardous setups for the extraction and sale of metals are common. Recycling companies in developed countries face strict environmental regulatory regimes and an increasing cost of waste disposal and thus may find exportation to small traders in developing countries more profitable than recycling in their own countries. There is also significant illegal transboundary movement of e-waste in the form of donations and charity from rich industrialized nations to developing countries. E-waste profiteers can harvest substantial profits owing to lax environmental laws, corrupt officials, and poorly paid workers, and there is an urgent need to develop policies and strategies to dispose of and recycle e-waste safely in order to achieve a sustainable future. Impacts on human health
The complex composition and improper handling of e-waste adversely affect human health. A growing body of epidemiological and clinical evidence has led to increased concern about the potential threat of e-waste to human health, especially in developing countries such as India and China. The primitive methods used by unregulated backyard operators (e.g., the informal sector) to reclaim, reprocess, and recycle e-waste materials expose the workers to a number of toxic substances. Processes such as dismantling components, wet chemical processing, and incineration are used and result in direct exposure and inhalation of harmful chemicals. Safety equipment such as gloves, face masks, and ventilation fans are virtually unknown, and workers often have little idea of what they are handling. For instance, in terms of health hazards, open burning of printed wiring boards increases the concentration of dioxins in the surrounding areas. | https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronic-waste |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1636826970#3_3436852285 | Title: Electronic waste | Britannica
Headings: Electronic waste
Electronic waste
Impacts on human health
Environmental impacts
Classification
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Electronic waste
Content: A growing body of epidemiological and clinical evidence has led to increased concern about the potential threat of e-waste to human health, especially in developing countries such as India and China. The primitive methods used by unregulated backyard operators (e.g., the informal sector) to reclaim, reprocess, and recycle e-waste materials expose the workers to a number of toxic substances. Processes such as dismantling components, wet chemical processing, and incineration are used and result in direct exposure and inhalation of harmful chemicals. Safety equipment such as gloves, face masks, and ventilation fans are virtually unknown, and workers often have little idea of what they are handling. For instance, in terms of health hazards, open burning of printed wiring boards increases the concentration of dioxins in the surrounding areas. These toxins cause an increased risk of cancer if inhaled by workers and local residents. Toxic metals and poison can also enter the bloodstream during the manual extraction and collection of tiny quantities of precious metals, and workers are continuously exposed to poisonous chemicals and fumes of highly concentrated acids. Recovering resalable copper by burning insulated wires causes neurological disorders, and acute exposure to cadmium, found in semiconductors and chip resistors, can damage the kidneys and liver and cause bone loss. Long-term exposure to lead on printed circuit boards and computer and television screens can damage the central and peripheral nervous system and kidneys, and children are more susceptible to these harmful effects. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. | https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronic-waste |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1636826970#4_3436854369 | Title: Electronic waste | Britannica
Headings: Electronic waste
Electronic waste
Impacts on human health
Environmental impacts
Classification
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Electronic waste
Content: These toxins cause an increased risk of cancer if inhaled by workers and local residents. Toxic metals and poison can also enter the bloodstream during the manual extraction and collection of tiny quantities of precious metals, and workers are continuously exposed to poisonous chemicals and fumes of highly concentrated acids. Recovering resalable copper by burning insulated wires causes neurological disorders, and acute exposure to cadmium, found in semiconductors and chip resistors, can damage the kidneys and liver and cause bone loss. Long-term exposure to lead on printed circuit boards and computer and television screens can damage the central and peripheral nervous system and kidneys, and children are more susceptible to these harmful effects. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
Environmental impacts
Although electronics constitute an indispensable part of everyday life, their hazardous effects on the environment cannot be overlooked or underestimated. The interface between electrical and electronic equipment and the environment takes place during the manufacturing, reprocessing, and disposal of these products. The emission of fumes, gases, and particulate matter into the air, the discharge of liquid waste into water and drainage systems, and the disposal of hazardous wastes contribute to environmental degradation. In addition to tighter regulation of e-waste recycling and disposal, there is a need for policies that extend the responsibility of all stakeholders, particularly the producers, beyond the point of sale and up to the end of product life. There are a number of specific ways in which e-waste recycling can be damaging to the environment. | https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronic-waste |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1636826970#5_3436856503 | Title: Electronic waste | Britannica
Headings: Electronic waste
Electronic waste
Impacts on human health
Environmental impacts
Classification
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Electronic waste
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Environmental impacts
Although electronics constitute an indispensable part of everyday life, their hazardous effects on the environment cannot be overlooked or underestimated. The interface between electrical and electronic equipment and the environment takes place during the manufacturing, reprocessing, and disposal of these products. The emission of fumes, gases, and particulate matter into the air, the discharge of liquid waste into water and drainage systems, and the disposal of hazardous wastes contribute to environmental degradation. In addition to tighter regulation of e-waste recycling and disposal, there is a need for policies that extend the responsibility of all stakeholders, particularly the producers, beyond the point of sale and up to the end of product life. There are a number of specific ways in which e-waste recycling can be damaging to the environment. Burning to recover metal from wires and cables leads to emissions of brominated and chlorinated dioxins, causing air pollution. During the recycling process in the informal sector, toxic chemicals that have no economic value are simply dumped. The toxic industrial effluent is poured into underground aquifers and seriously affects the local groundwater quality, thereby making the water unfit for human consumption or for agricultural purposes. Atmospheric pollution is caused by dismantling activities as dust particles loaded with heavy metals and flame retardants enter the atmosphere. These particles either redeposit (wet or dry deposition) near the emission source or, depending on their size, can be transported over long distances. | https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronic-waste |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1636826970#6_3436858544 | Title: Electronic waste | Britannica
Headings: Electronic waste
Electronic waste
Impacts on human health
Environmental impacts
Classification
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Electronic waste
Content: Burning to recover metal from wires and cables leads to emissions of brominated and chlorinated dioxins, causing air pollution. During the recycling process in the informal sector, toxic chemicals that have no economic value are simply dumped. The toxic industrial effluent is poured into underground aquifers and seriously affects the local groundwater quality, thereby making the water unfit for human consumption or for agricultural purposes. Atmospheric pollution is caused by dismantling activities as dust particles loaded with heavy metals and flame retardants enter the atmosphere. These particles either redeposit (wet or dry deposition) near the emission source or, depending on their size, can be transported over long distances. The dust can also enter the soil or water systems and, with compounds found in wet and dry depositions, can leach into the ground and cause both soil and water pollution. Soils become toxic when substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are deposited in landfills. Classification
E-waste can be classified on the basis of its composition and components. Ferrous and nonferrous metals, glass, plastics, pollutants, and other are the six categories of materials reported for e-waste composition. Iron and steel constitute the major fraction in waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) materials, with plastics being the second largest. | https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronic-waste |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1637810866#12_3438788589 | Title: insecticide | Description, Modes of Action, Types, & Environmental Impacts | Britannica
Headings:
Insecticide
chemical substance
Modes of penetration
Synthetic insecticides
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Organophosphates
Carbamates
Environmental contamination and resistance
Content: Consequently, the use of such chemicals began to be restricted in the 1960s and banned outright in the 1970s in many countries. Cases of insecticide poisoning of humans also occur occasionally, and the use of one common organophosphate, parathion, was drastically curtailed in the United States in 1991 owing to its toxic effects on farm labourers who were directly exposed to it. Another problem with insecticides is the tendency of some target insect populations to develop resistance as their susceptible members are killed off and those resistant strains that survive multiply, eventually perhaps to form a majority of the population. Resistance denotes a formerly susceptible insect population that can no longer be controlled by a pesticide at normally recommended rates. Hundreds of species of harmful insects have acquired resistance to different synthetic organic pesticides, and strains that become resistant to one insecticide may also be resistant to a second that has a similar mode of action to the first. Once resistance has developed, it tends to persist in the absence of the pesticide for varying amounts of time, depending on the type of resistance and the species of pest. Insecticides may also encourage the growth of harmful insect populations by eliminating the natural enemies that previously held them in check. The nonspecific nature of broad-spectrum chemicals makes them more likely to have such unintended effects on the abundance of both harmful and beneficial insects. Because of the problems associated with the heavy use of some chemical insecticides, current insect-control practice combines their use with biological methods in an approach called integrated control. In this approach, a minimal use of insecticide may be combined with the use of pest-resistant crop varieties; | https://www.britannica.com/technology/insecticide |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1640902837#0_3444912742 | Title: telephone | History, Definition, Invention, Uses, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Telephone
Telephone
Learn how Alexander Graham Bell went to revolutionize telegraphy but instead invented the telephone
What is a telephone?
When was the telephone patented?
When was the telephone introduced to the public?
Who is credited as the inventor of the telephone?
When did the first transmission of speech occur with a telephone?
The telephone instrument
Working components of the telephone
Power source
Switch hook
Content: telephone | History, Definition, Invention, Uses, & Facts | Britannica
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Corporate Vice President and Director, Communications Research Laboratories, Motorola Inc., Schaumburg, Illinois. Coauthor of Introduction to Spread Spectrum Communications. Last Updated: May 7, 2021 See Article History
Alternative Title: telephony
Learn how Alexander Graham Bell went to revolutionize telegraphy but instead invented the telephone
Overview of the invention of the telephone, with a focus on the work by Alexander Graham Bell. Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz See all videos for this article
Telephone, an instrument designed for the simultaneous transmission and reception of the human voice. The telephone is inexpensive, is simple to operate, and offers its users an immediate, personal type of communication that cannot be obtained through any other medium. As a result, it has become the most widely used telecommunications device in the world. Billions of telephones are in use around the world. Alexander Graham Bell and the New York City–Chicago telephone link
Alexander Graham Bell, who patented the telephone in 1876, inaugurating the 1,520-km (944-mile) telephone link between New York City and Chicago on October 18, 1892. | https://www.britannica.com/technology/telephone |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1640902837#2_3444916599 | Title: telephone | History, Definition, Invention, Uses, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Telephone
Telephone
Learn how Alexander Graham Bell went to revolutionize telegraphy but instead invented the telephone
What is a telephone?
When was the telephone patented?
When was the telephone introduced to the public?
Who is credited as the inventor of the telephone?
When did the first transmission of speech occur with a telephone?
The telephone instrument
Working components of the telephone
Power source
Switch hook
Content: Photos.com/Getty Images Plus
Top Questions
What is a telephone? A telephone is an instrument designed for the simultaneous transmission and reception of the human voice. Telephones are inexpensive and simple to operate, and they offer an immediate, personal type of communication. Billions of telephones are in use around the world. When was the telephone patented? On February 14, 1876, Alexander Graham Bell applied for a U.S. patent for the telephone. On March 7, 1876, Bell was awarded U.S. patent 174,465. This patent is often referred to as the most valuable ever issued by the U.S. Patent Office, as it described not only the telephone instrument but also the concept of a telephone system. When was the telephone introduced to the public? One of the earliest demonstrations of the telephone occurred in June 1876 at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. | https://www.britannica.com/technology/telephone |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1640902837#3_3444918171 | Title: telephone | History, Definition, Invention, Uses, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Telephone
Telephone
Learn how Alexander Graham Bell went to revolutionize telegraphy but instead invented the telephone
What is a telephone?
When was the telephone patented?
When was the telephone introduced to the public?
Who is credited as the inventor of the telephone?
When did the first transmission of speech occur with a telephone?
The telephone instrument
Working components of the telephone
Power source
Switch hook
Content: On February 14, 1876, Alexander Graham Bell applied for a U.S. patent for the telephone. On March 7, 1876, Bell was awarded U.S. patent 174,465. This patent is often referred to as the most valuable ever issued by the U.S. Patent Office, as it described not only the telephone instrument but also the concept of a telephone system. When was the telephone introduced to the public? One of the earliest demonstrations of the telephone occurred in June 1876 at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. Who is credited as the inventor of the telephone? Alexander Graham Bell is credited with developing the telephone because he received the first patent. When did the first transmission of speech occur with a telephone? The first transmission of speech with a telephone occurred on March 10, 1876, from Alexander Graham Bell to Thomas Watson, which Bell transcribed in his lab notes as “Mr. Watson—come here—I want to see you.” This article describes the functional components of the modern telephone and traces the historical development of the telephone instrument. | https://www.britannica.com/technology/telephone |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1640902837#4_3444919961 | Title: telephone | History, Definition, Invention, Uses, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Telephone
Telephone
Learn how Alexander Graham Bell went to revolutionize telegraphy but instead invented the telephone
What is a telephone?
When was the telephone patented?
When was the telephone introduced to the public?
Who is credited as the inventor of the telephone?
When did the first transmission of speech occur with a telephone?
The telephone instrument
Working components of the telephone
Power source
Switch hook
Content: Who is credited as the inventor of the telephone? Alexander Graham Bell is credited with developing the telephone because he received the first patent. When did the first transmission of speech occur with a telephone? The first transmission of speech with a telephone occurred on March 10, 1876, from Alexander Graham Bell to Thomas Watson, which Bell transcribed in his lab notes as “Mr. Watson—come here—I want to see you.” This article describes the functional components of the modern telephone and traces the historical development of the telephone instrument. In addition it describes the development of what is known as the public switched telephone network (PSTN). For discussion of broader technologies, see the articles telecommunications system and telecommunications media. For technologies related to the telephone, see the articles mobile telephone, videophone, fax and modem. The telephone instrument
The word telephone, from the Greek roots tēle, “far,” and phonē, “sound,” was applied as early as the late 17th century to the string telephone familiar to children, and it was later used to refer to the megaphone and the speaking tube, but in modern usage it refers solely to electrical devices derived from the inventions of Alexander Graham Bell and others. Within 20 years of the 1876 Bell patent, the telephone instrument, as modified by Thomas Watson, Emil Berliner, Thomas Edison, and others, acquired a functional design that has not changed fundamentally in more than a century. | https://www.britannica.com/technology/telephone |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1642558609#0_3448180904 | Title: American Association of Retired Persons | American organization | Britannica
Headings: American Association of Retired Persons
American Association of Retired Persons
American organization
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American Association of Retired Persons
Content: American Association of Retired Persons | American organization | Britannica
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Alternative Title: AARP
American Association of Retired Persons (AARP), nonprofit, nonpartisan organization that works to address the needs and interests of middle-aged and elderly people in the United States. Its membership is open to all persons age 50 or older, whether working or retired. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C.
The AARP was founded in 1958 by a retired teacher, Ethel Percy Andrus, with the goal of helping older Americans remain physically and intellectually active by serving others. In 1982 the AARP merged with the National Retired Teachers Association (NRTA), an organization that Andrus had founded in 1947 to obtain pension and health insurance benefits for retired educators. The AARP offers a broad range of services and benefits to its members. Among these are a group health insurance program; special discounts on automobile rental, airline, and hotel rates; automotive insurance; a credit union; | https://www.britannica.com/topic/American-Association-of-Retired-Persons |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1644833744#3_3452735833 | Title: Boeing Company | Description, History, & Aircraft | Britannica
Headings: Boeing Company
Boeing Company
American company
Witness the launching of an X-15 from under a U.S. Air Force B-52 mother ship
History of Boeing Company
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Content: Boeing Business Jets, a joint venture of Boeing and General Electric Co., makes and markets business jets based on the 737-700 airliner as well as VIP versions of the 747, 777, and 787 airliners. Witness the launching of an X-15 from under a U.S. Air Force B-52 mother ship
An X-15 air launched from under a U.S. Air Force B-52 mother ship, c. 1960s. NASA/Dryden Research Aircraft Movie Collection See all videos for this article
The company’s military-related activities are centred on the design, manufacture, and support of fighter aircraft, bombers, transports, helicopters, and missiles. Its products include, among others, the F-15 Eagle, F/A-18 Hornet and Super Hornet, and AV-8 Harrier fighters; the C-17 Globemaster III airlifter; the AH-64 Apache series of attack helicopters; the CH-47 Chinook transport helicopter; and the AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System) aircraft, based on the 767. Boeing contributes to the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor air-superiority stealth fighter and the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. In partnership with Bell Helicopter Textron, it builds the V-22 Osprey tilt-rotor aircraft, and, with United Technologies ’ Sikorsky division, it made the RAH-66 Comanche armed reconnaissance helicopter. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Boeing-Company |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1645508322#0_3454078643 | Title: Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. | law case | Britannica
Headings: Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.
Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.
law case
Background
Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.
Content: Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. | law case | Britannica
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Brian Duignan is a senior editor at Encyclopædia Britannica. His subject areas include philosophy, law, social science, politics, political theory, and religion. See Article History
Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc., legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court held (5–4) on June 30, 2014, that the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) of 1993 permits for-profit corporations that are closely held (e.g., owned by a family or family trust) to refuse, on religious grounds, to pay for legally mandated coverage of certain contraceptive drugs and devices in their employees’ health insurance plans. In so ruling, the court embraced the view that closely held for-profit corporations are legal “persons” under the RFRA and are therefore capable of exercising religion. Background
Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. was a consolidation of two cases, originally called Sebelius v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. and Conestoga Wood Specialties Corporation v. Sebelius; the case names were changed to Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. and Conestoga Wood Specialties Corporation v. Burwell, respectively, following the confirmation of Sylvia Burwell as secretary of health and human services in June 2014. The former case arose in 2012 when David and Barbara Green, their children, and the for-profit corporations they owned— Hobby Lobby, Inc. (an arts-and-crafts retailer) and Mardel Christian & Education Stores, Inc. (a chain of Christian bookstores)—filed suit in U.S. district court, naming Kathleen Sebelius, then secretary of health and human services, and others as defendants. The individual plaintiffs (the Greens) alleged that the imminent enforcement of a regulation issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) pursuant to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (2010; PPACA) would infringe their rights under the RFRA, which prohibited the government from “substantially burden [ing] a person’s exercise of religion” unless “application of the burden…is in furtherance of a compelling governmental interest” and is “the least restrictive means of furthering that…interest.” The Greens also contended that the regulation would violate the free-exercise clause of the First Amendment (“Congress shall make no law…prohibiting the free exercise [of religion]”). | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Burwell-v-Hobby-Lobby-Stores-Inc |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1645508322#1_3454081663 | Title: Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. | law case | Britannica
Headings: Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.
Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.
law case
Background
Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.
Content: the case names were changed to Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. and Conestoga Wood Specialties Corporation v. Burwell, respectively, following the confirmation of Sylvia Burwell as secretary of health and human services in June 2014. The former case arose in 2012 when David and Barbara Green, their children, and the for-profit corporations they owned— Hobby Lobby, Inc. (an arts-and-crafts retailer) and Mardel Christian & Education Stores, Inc. (a chain of Christian bookstores)—filed suit in U.S. district court, naming Kathleen Sebelius, then secretary of health and human services, and others as defendants. The individual plaintiffs (the Greens) alleged that the imminent enforcement of a regulation issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) pursuant to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (2010; PPACA) would infringe their rights under the RFRA, which prohibited the government from “substantially burden [ing] a person’s exercise of religion” unless “application of the burden…is in furtherance of a compelling governmental interest” and is “the least restrictive means of furthering that…interest.” The Greens also contended that the regulation would violate the free-exercise clause of the First Amendment (“Congress shall make no law…prohibiting the free exercise [of religion]”). Eventually known as the contraceptive mandate, the regulation required companies with 50 or more employees to provide insurance coverage of the 20 contraceptive methods then approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Despite scientific consensus to the contrary, the Greens believed that four of those methods—two types of “morning after” pills and two types of intrauterine devices (IUDs)—were abortifacients ( abortion inducers). On that basis they also believed that providing coverage of those methods in their employees’ health insurance plans would be tantamount to facilitating abortion and therefore inconsistent with the tenets of their Christian faith. They argued that, because HHS imposed considerable penalties (regulatory taxes of $100 per day per affected employee) on companies whose health insurance plans failed to provide “basic essential coverage,” including contraceptive coverage, the contraceptive mandate constituted a “substantial burden” on their exercise of religion—a violation of both the RFRA and the free-exercise clause. The district court denied the Greens’ motion for a preliminary injunction against enforcement of the mandate, as did a two-judge panel of the Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Burwell-v-Hobby-Lobby-Stores-Inc |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1646218182#1_3455486735 | Title: Chicano | people | Britannica
Headings: Chicano
Chicano
people
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Chicano
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The Chicano community created a strong political and cultural presence in response to years of social oppression and discrimination in a predominantly Caucasian American society. Like most historically disenfranchised groups in the United States, some Mexican Americans have taken the term Chicano, previously considered a pejorative word, and used it to empower themselves. Today, the term Chicano is an essential component of the community’s revitalization and renewed sense of hope and pride. Regaining and regenerating the term Chicano, and having Chicanismo (an identity embracing the political consciousness of the Mexicans’ history in the United States), was the first step toward releasing the psychological barriers in the minds of many Mexican Americans. Initially, Chicana/o was used to refer to all people of Mexican origin. Since the 20th century, the term has referred to people of Mexican descent born in the United States. The term Chicana has feminist connotations resulting from its use by Mexican American female activists determined to raise consciousness about women’s rights within the Chicana/o community and to raise political awareness of those outside the Chicana/o community. In fact, during the Chicano Movement ( El Movimiento) of the 1960s and 1970s, Chicanos established a strong political presence and agenda in the United States through the leadership of Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales, Cesar Chavez, and Dolores Huerta. All three individuals gave strength to men and women in the community to fight for equality and demand social justice. The Chicano Movement, political unrest, community disturbances, and a focus on ethnic conflict raised the consciousness of "Brown pride," "Chicano power," and Chicanismo. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chicano |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1646353100#0_3455765080 | Title: Chiquita Brands International, Inc. | American corporation | Britannica
Headings: Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
American corporation
Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
Content: Chiquita Brands International, Inc. | American corporation | Britannica
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Alternative Title: United Brands Company
Chiquita Brands International, Inc., American corporation formed in 1970 as the United Brands Company in the merger of United Fruit Company and AMK Corporation (the holding company for John Morrell and Co., meat packers). The company, which adopted its present name in 1990, markets and distributes bananas and other produce, processes and distributes meats, manufactures and distributes other foods, fats, oils, and beverages, and administers diversified activities in plastics, animal feeds, telecommunications, and other areas. Chiquita is the leading distributor of bananas in the United States. Headquarters are in Cincinnati, Ohio. United Fruit Company was founded in 1899 in the merger of the Boston Fruit Company and other companies producing and marketing bananas grown in the Caribbean islands, Central America, and Colombia. The principal founder was Minor C. Keith, who had begun to acquire banana plantations and to build a railroad in Costa Rica as early as 1872. In 1884 he contracted with the Costa Rican government to fund the national debt and to lay about 50 additional miles of track. In return he received full rights to these rail lines for 99 years as well as 800,000 acres (325,000 hectares) of virgin land, tax exempt for 20 years. United Fruit Company was initially capitalized at more than $11 million. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chiquita-Brands-International-Inc |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1646353100#1_3455767372 | Title: Chiquita Brands International, Inc. | American corporation | Britannica
Headings: Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
American corporation
Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
Content: United Fruit Company was founded in 1899 in the merger of the Boston Fruit Company and other companies producing and marketing bananas grown in the Caribbean islands, Central America, and Colombia. The principal founder was Minor C. Keith, who had begun to acquire banana plantations and to build a railroad in Costa Rica as early as 1872. In 1884 he contracted with the Costa Rican government to fund the national debt and to lay about 50 additional miles of track. In return he received full rights to these rail lines for 99 years as well as 800,000 acres (325,000 hectares) of virgin land, tax exempt for 20 years. United Fruit Company was initially capitalized at more than $11 million. However, by absorbing more than 20 rival firms, the company expanded its capitalization to $215 million by 1930, making it the largest employer in Central America. From the company’s founding, Caribbean and Latin American governments made available to it vast undeveloped tracts of jungle lands, which United Fruit cleared, planted, and supplied with extensive railroad and port facilities. Marketing operations included a shipping arm known as the Great White Fleet, then one of the largest private merchant navies. All these efforts were matched by an advertising campaign that was extremely successful in marketing bananas in North America and Europe. As a foreign corporation of conspicuous size, United Fruit sometimes became the target of popular attacks. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chiquita-Brands-International-Inc |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1646353100#2_3455769250 | Title: Chiquita Brands International, Inc. | American corporation | Britannica
Headings: Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
American corporation
Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
Content: However, by absorbing more than 20 rival firms, the company expanded its capitalization to $215 million by 1930, making it the largest employer in Central America. From the company’s founding, Caribbean and Latin American governments made available to it vast undeveloped tracts of jungle lands, which United Fruit cleared, planted, and supplied with extensive railroad and port facilities. Marketing operations included a shipping arm known as the Great White Fleet, then one of the largest private merchant navies. All these efforts were matched by an advertising campaign that was extremely successful in marketing bananas in North America and Europe. As a foreign corporation of conspicuous size, United Fruit sometimes became the target of popular attacks. The Latin American press often referred to it as el pulpo (“the octopus”), accusing it of exploiting labourers, bribing officials, and influencing governments, especially during the period of Yankee “dollar diplomacy” in the early decades of the 20th century. The company’s defenders, however, pointed out that United Fruit’s early excesses were somewhat mitigated later. Through the Associated Producers Program, the company gradually transferred title of portions of its landholdings to individual growers, provided them with reasonable credit terms and technological assistance, and acted as marketing agent for their produce; its workers were comparatively well paid and were provided with medical care. After the European Union imposed import restrictions on bananas in the mid-1990s, Chiquita suffered steep declines in profits, which led to its reorganization under bankruptcy protection in 2001. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chiquita-Brands-International-Inc |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1646353100#3_3455771370 | Title: Chiquita Brands International, Inc. | American corporation | Britannica
Headings: Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
American corporation
Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
Content: The Latin American press often referred to it as el pulpo (“the octopus”), accusing it of exploiting labourers, bribing officials, and influencing governments, especially during the period of Yankee “dollar diplomacy” in the early decades of the 20th century. The company’s defenders, however, pointed out that United Fruit’s early excesses were somewhat mitigated later. Through the Associated Producers Program, the company gradually transferred title of portions of its landholdings to individual growers, provided them with reasonable credit terms and technological assistance, and acted as marketing agent for their produce; its workers were comparatively well paid and were provided with medical care. After the European Union imposed import restrictions on bananas in the mid-1990s, Chiquita suffered steep declines in profits, which led to its reorganization under bankruptcy protection in 2001. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
In 1998 the Cincinnati Enquirer published a series of articles accusing Chiquita of a variety of misdeeds, including workers’ rights violations; the newspaper retracted the articles after it was learned that some of the evidence on which the stories were based had been obtained illegally. In 2007 Chiquita pleaded guilty to charges of making illegal protection payments to a right-wing militia in Colombia, for which it was fined $25 million as part of a settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice. This article was most recently revised and updated by Jeannette L. Nolen, Assistant Editor. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chiquita-Brands-International-Inc |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1646353100#4_3455773415 | Title: Chiquita Brands International, Inc. | American corporation | Britannica
Headings: Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
American corporation
Chiquita Brands International, Inc.
Content: Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
In 1998 the Cincinnati Enquirer published a series of articles accusing Chiquita of a variety of misdeeds, including workers’ rights violations; the newspaper retracted the articles after it was learned that some of the evidence on which the stories were based had been obtained illegally. In 2007 Chiquita pleaded guilty to charges of making illegal protection payments to a right-wing militia in Colombia, for which it was fined $25 million as part of a settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice. This article was most recently revised and updated by Jeannette L. Nolen, Assistant Editor. History at your fingertips
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Quick Facts
date
1970 - present
headquarters
New York City
areas of involvement
Meat processing
Fruit farming
Banana | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chiquita-Brands-International-Inc |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1647094423#3_3457278290 | Title: Conservative Party | History, Facts, Policy, & Structure | Britannica
Headings: Conservative Party
Conservative Party
political party, United Kingdom
History
Conservative Party
Content: Thus reinforced, the Conservatives held office for all but 3 of the next 20 years, first under the leadership of Lord Salisbury and then under Arthur Balfour. A split over tariff policy caused them to lose the election of 1906 in a disastrous landslide, and they did not regain power until they joined a wartime coalition with the Liberals in May 1915. In the election of 1918, most of the candidates elected to support the coalition were Conservatives. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
In 1922 Conservative backbenchers forced the party’s withdrawal from the coalition and thereby precipitated the resignation of party leader Austen Chamberlain. The rebellion owed much to the revulsion felt by many backbenchers toward the Liberal leader and prime minister, David Lloyd George, and to their unease over some of the more interventionist reforms introduced by Liberal ministers. A surprise election called in December 1923 by Conservative prime minister Stanley Baldwin proved to be a miscalculation that briefly reunited the ailing Liberal Party and opened the way to a minority Labour Party government, though the Conservatives remained the largest single party and were able to regain power the following year. Apart from another brief Labour administration in 1929–31, the Conservatives dominated national office until 1945. Baldwin emerged as a popular figure and the architect of what he called the “new Conservatism,” an attempt to appeal to the middle class through a modest movement away from the laissez-faire economic policies that the party had advocated since 1918. Baldwin’s successor as party leader and prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, was forced from office in May 1940 by his own backbenchers because of his poor leadership in the early months of World War II. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Conservative-Party-political-party-United-Kingdom |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1647094423#4_3457280558 | Title: Conservative Party | History, Facts, Policy, & Structure | Britannica
Headings: Conservative Party
Conservative Party
political party, United Kingdom
History
Conservative Party
Content: The rebellion owed much to the revulsion felt by many backbenchers toward the Liberal leader and prime minister, David Lloyd George, and to their unease over some of the more interventionist reforms introduced by Liberal ministers. A surprise election called in December 1923 by Conservative prime minister Stanley Baldwin proved to be a miscalculation that briefly reunited the ailing Liberal Party and opened the way to a minority Labour Party government, though the Conservatives remained the largest single party and were able to regain power the following year. Apart from another brief Labour administration in 1929–31, the Conservatives dominated national office until 1945. Baldwin emerged as a popular figure and the architect of what he called the “new Conservatism,” an attempt to appeal to the middle class through a modest movement away from the laissez-faire economic policies that the party had advocated since 1918. Baldwin’s successor as party leader and prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, was forced from office in May 1940 by his own backbenchers because of his poor leadership in the early months of World War II. Chamberlain was replaced by another Conservative, Winston Churchill, who formed a coalition government with the Labour Party. Although Churchill led the country to victory in the war, he failed to lead his own party to success in the first postwar election in 1945. The party’s stunning defeat can be attributed to the electorate’s desire for social reform and economic security, as well as its inclination to blame the Conservatives for not having done enough in the 1930s to alleviate mass unemployment or to thwart the aspirations of dictators. While in opposition, the party reformed its policies and organization. It created a new youth movement (the Young Conservatives) and an education wing (the Conservative Political Centre), revived the party’s research department, and undertook a drive to increase party membership. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Conservative-Party-political-party-United-Kingdom |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1647094423#7_3457287434 | Title: Conservative Party | History, Facts, Policy, & Structure | Britannica
Headings: Conservative Party
Conservative Party
political party, United Kingdom
History
Conservative Party
Content: From 1964 to 1979 the Conservatives held power alternately with the Labour Party. Under the prime ministership of Edward Heath (1970–74), the party pursued policies designed to deregulate finance and industry. Economic problems led to confrontations with the trade unions, especially the National Union of Miners, and to internal party dissension. Heath called an election in 1974 and the party lost, allowing Labour to form a minority government. After losing a second national election to Labour in 1974, Heath was succeeded as party leader by Margaret Thatcher, who during her four years as leader of the opposition (1975–79) frequently stated her determination to pursue deregulation and supply-side economic reforms. As prime minister after the Conservatives’ victory over Labour in 1979, Thatcher attempted to “roll back the state” in the economic sphere, weaken the power of the trade unions, and reduce welfare programs. She combined this ambitious economic agenda—which included the privatization of several state-owned industries and the sale of more than 1.5 million council houses (publicly owned houses) to their tenants—with moral traditionalism and skepticism toward further European integration through the European Economic Community (ultimately succeeded by the European Union ). Critics both inside and outside the Conservative Party contended that the “cult of the market” did much to disintegrate the social order, yet Thatcher was able to lead her party to resounding victories in the general elections of 1983 and 1987, owing in part to her decisive leadership in the Falkland Islands War (1982) and to deep divisions in the opposition. Her eventual resignation as party leader (and therefore as prime minister) in 1990 reflected the combined impact of a number of factors, including public protests over a proposal to finance local government through a flat-rate “poll tax,” a series of bitter conflicts with some of her senior ministers, her strident and authoritarian style, and a growing sense among backbenchers that she might prove unable to withstand the electoral challenge of a newly united and considerably reformed Labour Party. Thatcher’s successor, John Major, had held senior ministerial office for only a brief period prior to his selection as prime minister. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Conservative-Party-political-party-United-Kingdom |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1647094423#8_3457290194 | Title: Conservative Party | History, Facts, Policy, & Structure | Britannica
Headings: Conservative Party
Conservative Party
political party, United Kingdom
History
Conservative Party
Content: As prime minister after the Conservatives’ victory over Labour in 1979, Thatcher attempted to “roll back the state” in the economic sphere, weaken the power of the trade unions, and reduce welfare programs. She combined this ambitious economic agenda—which included the privatization of several state-owned industries and the sale of more than 1.5 million council houses (publicly owned houses) to their tenants—with moral traditionalism and skepticism toward further European integration through the European Economic Community (ultimately succeeded by the European Union ). Critics both inside and outside the Conservative Party contended that the “cult of the market” did much to disintegrate the social order, yet Thatcher was able to lead her party to resounding victories in the general elections of 1983 and 1987, owing in part to her decisive leadership in the Falkland Islands War (1982) and to deep divisions in the opposition. Her eventual resignation as party leader (and therefore as prime minister) in 1990 reflected the combined impact of a number of factors, including public protests over a proposal to finance local government through a flat-rate “poll tax,” a series of bitter conflicts with some of her senior ministers, her strident and authoritarian style, and a growing sense among backbenchers that she might prove unable to withstand the electoral challenge of a newly united and considerably reformed Labour Party. Thatcher’s successor, John Major, had held senior ministerial office for only a brief period prior to his selection as prime minister. His less charismatic political style did not prevent him from winning the general election of 1992, but he had to contend with a prolonged economic recession, internal party conflict over the question of European integration, and dismally low opinion-poll ratings. The party’s economic policies were questioned after Britain was forced to leave the European exchange-rate mechanism and devalue the pound in 1992. Further hampered by a series of personal scandals involving prominent officials of Major’s government and facing a rejuvenated Labour Party under Tony Blair, the Conservatives suffered a crushing defeat in the general election of 1997, losing more than half their seats in the House of Commons. Soon after the 1997 elections, Major resigned as party leader. With some potential leaders suddenly ineligible because they had lost their parliamentary seats, William Hague, former secretary of state for Wales, was elected party leader. | https://www.britannica.com/topic/Conservative-Party-political-party-United-Kingdom |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_285552#0_519748 | Title: Tripartite System of education in England, Wales and Northern Ireland - Wikipedia
Headings: Tripartite System of education in England, Wales and Northern Ireland
Tripartite System of education in England, Wales and Northern Ireland
Contents
A new design for secondary education
Origins
The Butler Act
Design of the system
The system in operation
Implementation
The 11-plus
Examination systems and relationship to further education
Decline
The fall of the meritocracy
Abolition in England and Wales
Aftermath and legacy
Survival of the system in Northern Ireland
Debates
See also
References
Bibliography
External links
Content: Tripartite System of education in England, Wales and Northern Ireland - Wikipedia
Tripartite System of education in England, Wales and Northern Ireland
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Tripartite System)
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Grammar school, technical school, and secondary modern school
For the tripartite education system in Germany, see Education in Germany. For the system of schools divided by age, see Three-tier education. For the grammatical case system, see Tripartite language. The Tripartite System was the arrangement of state-funded secondary education between 1945 and the 1970s in England and Wales, and from 1947 to 2009 in Northern Ireland. It was an administrative implementation of the Education Act 1944 and the Education Act (Northern Ireland) 1947. State-funded secondary education was to be arranged into a structure containing three types of school, namely: grammar school, secondary technical school (sometimes described as "Technical Grammar", or "Technical High" schools) and secondary modern school. Not all education authorities implemented the tripartite system; many maintained only two types of secondary school, the grammar and the secondary modern. Pupils were allocated to their respective types of school according to their performance in the 11-plus examination. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripartite_System |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#0_18754518 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: True crime - Wikipedia
True crime
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Literary genre
For other uses, see True Crime. True crime is a nonfiction literary, podcast, and film genre in which the author examines an actual crime and details the actions of real people. The crimes most commonly include murder; about 40 percent focus on tales of serial killers. True crime comes in many forms, such as books, films, podcasts, and television shows. Many works in this genre recount high-profile, sensational crimes such as the JonBenét Ramsey killing, the O. J. Simpson murder case, and the Pamela Smart murder, while others are devoted to more obscure slayings. True crime works can impact the crimes they cover and the audience who consumes it. The genre is often criticized for being insensitive to the victims and their families and is described by some as trash culture. Contents
1 History
2 Forms
2.1 Books
2.2 Films and television
2.3 Podcasts
3 Effects
4 Criticism
5 References
History
Murder pamphlet, 1812
Zhang Yingyu's The Book of Swindles ( c. 1617) is a late Ming dynasty collection of stories about allegedly true cases of fraud. Works in the related Chinese genre of court case fiction (gong'an xiaoshuo), such as the 16th-century Cases of Magistrate Bao, were either inspired by historical events or else purely fictional. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#1_18756232 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: Many works in this genre recount high-profile, sensational crimes such as the JonBenét Ramsey killing, the O. J. Simpson murder case, and the Pamela Smart murder, while others are devoted to more obscure slayings. True crime works can impact the crimes they cover and the audience who consumes it. The genre is often criticized for being insensitive to the victims and their families and is described by some as trash culture. Contents
1 History
2 Forms
2.1 Books
2.2 Films and television
2.3 Podcasts
3 Effects
4 Criticism
5 References
History
Murder pamphlet, 1812
Zhang Yingyu's The Book of Swindles ( c. 1617) is a late Ming dynasty collection of stories about allegedly true cases of fraud. Works in the related Chinese genre of court case fiction (gong'an xiaoshuo), such as the 16th-century Cases of Magistrate Bao, were either inspired by historical events or else purely fictional. Hundreds of pamphlets, broadsides, chapbooks and other street literature about murders and other crimes were published from 1550 to 1700 in Britain as literacy increased and cheap new printing methods became widespread. They varied in style: some were sensational, while others conveyed a moral message. Most were purchased by the "artisan class and above", as the lower classes did not have the money or time read them. Ballads were also created, the verses of which were posted on walls around towns, that were told from the perpetrator 's point of view in an attempt to understand the psychological motivations of the crime. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#2_18758096 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: Hundreds of pamphlets, broadsides, chapbooks and other street literature about murders and other crimes were published from 1550 to 1700 in Britain as literacy increased and cheap new printing methods became widespread. They varied in style: some were sensational, while others conveyed a moral message. Most were purchased by the "artisan class and above", as the lower classes did not have the money or time read them. Ballads were also created, the verses of which were posted on walls around towns, that were told from the perpetrator 's point of view in an attempt to understand the psychological motivations of the crime. Such pamphlets remained in circulation in the 19th century in Britain and the United States, even after widespread crime journalism was introduced via the penny press. Thomas De Quincey published the essay " On Murder Considered as One of the Fine Arts " in Blackwood's Magazine in 1827, which focused not on the murder or the murderer but on how society views crime. Starting in 1889, Scottish lawyer William Roughead wrote and published essays for six decades about notable British murder trials he attended, with many of these essays collected in the 2000 book Classic Crimes. Many regard Roughead "as the dean of the modern true crime genre." An American pioneer of the genre was Edmund Pearson, who was influenced in his style of writing about crime by De Quincey. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#3_18759828 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: Such pamphlets remained in circulation in the 19th century in Britain and the United States, even after widespread crime journalism was introduced via the penny press. Thomas De Quincey published the essay " On Murder Considered as One of the Fine Arts " in Blackwood's Magazine in 1827, which focused not on the murder or the murderer but on how society views crime. Starting in 1889, Scottish lawyer William Roughead wrote and published essays for six decades about notable British murder trials he attended, with many of these essays collected in the 2000 book Classic Crimes. Many regard Roughead "as the dean of the modern true crime genre." An American pioneer of the genre was Edmund Pearson, who was influenced in his style of writing about crime by De Quincey. Pearson published a series of books of this type starting with Studies in Murder in 1924 and concluding with More Studies in Murder in 1936. Before being collected in his books, Pearson's true crime stories typically appeared in magazines like Liberty, The New Yorker, and Vanity Fair. Inclusion in these high-class magazines distinguished Pearson's crime narratives from those found in the penny press. Truman Capote 's " non-fiction novel " In Cold Blood (1965) is usually credited with establishing the modern novelistic style of the genre and the one that rocketed it to great profitability. Forms
Books
True crime books often center on sensational, shocking, or strange events, particularly murder. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#4_18761638 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: Pearson published a series of books of this type starting with Studies in Murder in 1924 and concluding with More Studies in Murder in 1936. Before being collected in his books, Pearson's true crime stories typically appeared in magazines like Liberty, The New Yorker, and Vanity Fair. Inclusion in these high-class magazines distinguished Pearson's crime narratives from those found in the penny press. Truman Capote 's " non-fiction novel " In Cold Blood (1965) is usually credited with establishing the modern novelistic style of the genre and the one that rocketed it to great profitability. Forms
Books
True crime books often center on sensational, shocking, or strange events, particularly murder. Even though murder makes up less than 20% of reported crime, it is present in most true crime stories. Typically, these books report on a crime from the beginning of its investigation to its legal proceedings. Serial killers have been a highly profitable sub-genre. An informal survey conducted by Publishers Weekly in 1993 concluded that the more popular true crime books focus on serial killers, with the more gruesome and grotesque content performing even better. Some true crime works are "instant books" produced quickly to capitalize on popular demand; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#5_18763235 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: Even though murder makes up less than 20% of reported crime, it is present in most true crime stories. Typically, these books report on a crime from the beginning of its investigation to its legal proceedings. Serial killers have been a highly profitable sub-genre. An informal survey conducted by Publishers Weekly in 1993 concluded that the more popular true crime books focus on serial killers, with the more gruesome and grotesque content performing even better. Some true crime works are "instant books" produced quickly to capitalize on popular demand; these have been described as "more than formulaic" and hyper-conventional. Others may reflect years of thoughtful research and inquiry and may have considerable literary merit. A milestone of the genre was Norman Mailer 's The Executioner's Song (1979), which was the first book in the genre to win a Pulitzer Prize. Other prominent true crime accounts include Truman Capote 's In Cold Blood; the best-selling true crime book of all time Helter Skelter, by the lead Manson family prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi and Curt Gentry; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#6_18764651 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: these have been described as "more than formulaic" and hyper-conventional. Others may reflect years of thoughtful research and inquiry and may have considerable literary merit. A milestone of the genre was Norman Mailer 's The Executioner's Song (1979), which was the first book in the genre to win a Pulitzer Prize. Other prominent true crime accounts include Truman Capote 's In Cold Blood; the best-selling true crime book of all time Helter Skelter, by the lead Manson family prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi and Curt Gentry; and Ann Rule 's The Stranger Beside Me, about Ted Bundy. An example of a modern true crime book is I'll Be Gone in the Dark by Michelle McNamara. Erik Larson 's The Devil in the White City gives a novelistic account of H. H. Holmes ' operations during the 1893 World's Fair . In 2006, Associated Content stated that since the start of the 21st century, the genre of writing that was growing the quickest was true crime. Much of this is due to the ease of recycling materials and the publication of numerous volumes by the same authors differing only by minor updates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#7_18766074 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: and Ann Rule 's The Stranger Beside Me, about Ted Bundy. An example of a modern true crime book is I'll Be Gone in the Dark by Michelle McNamara. Erik Larson 's The Devil in the White City gives a novelistic account of H. H. Holmes ' operations during the 1893 World's Fair . In 2006, Associated Content stated that since the start of the 21st century, the genre of writing that was growing the quickest was true crime. Much of this is due to the ease of recycling materials and the publication of numerous volumes by the same authors differing only by minor updates. The majority of readers of true crime books are women. Films and television
True crime documentaries have been a growing medium in the last several decades. One of the most influential documentaries in this process was The Thin Blue Line, directed by Errol Morris. This documentary, among others, feature reenactments, although other documentary filmmakers choose not to use them since they don't show the truth. Other prominent documentaries include Paradise Lost: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#8_18767437 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: The majority of readers of true crime books are women. Films and television
True crime documentaries have been a growing medium in the last several decades. One of the most influential documentaries in this process was The Thin Blue Line, directed by Errol Morris. This documentary, among others, feature reenactments, although other documentary filmmakers choose not to use them since they don't show the truth. Other prominent documentaries include Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills, Making a Murderer, The Jinx, and The Keepers. In the early 1990s, a boom of true crime films began in Hong Kong. These films ranged from graphic Category III -rated films such as The Untold Story and Dr. Lamb (based on serial killers Wong Chi Hang and Lam Kor-wan, respectively) to more general audience fare such as the film Crime Story (based on the kidnapping of businessman Teddy Wang Tei-huei ), which featured action star Jackie Chan. Podcasts
Podcasts with a true crime theme are a recent trend. The 2014 true crime podcast Serial broke podcasting records when it achieved 5 million downloads on iTunes quicker than any previous podcast. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#9_18768917 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills, Making a Murderer, The Jinx, and The Keepers. In the early 1990s, a boom of true crime films began in Hong Kong. These films ranged from graphic Category III -rated films such as The Untold Story and Dr. Lamb (based on serial killers Wong Chi Hang and Lam Kor-wan, respectively) to more general audience fare such as the film Crime Story (based on the kidnapping of businessman Teddy Wang Tei-huei ), which featured action star Jackie Chan. Podcasts
Podcasts with a true crime theme are a recent trend. The 2014 true crime podcast Serial broke podcasting records when it achieved 5 million downloads on iTunes quicker than any previous podcast. As of September 2018, it has been downloaded more than 340 million times. It has been followed by other true crime podcasts such as Dirty John, My Favorite Murder, Up and Vanished, Parcast series such as Cults, Female Criminals and Mind's Eye, Someone Knows Something, and many more. It's been speculated that fear could play a role in the popularity of true crime podcasts. These podcasts often recount horrific crimes, which triggers the fear response and the release of adrenaline in the body. Due to the possibility of bingeing podcasts, adrenaline rushes can be experienced in quick bursts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#10_18770526 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: As of September 2018, it has been downloaded more than 340 million times. It has been followed by other true crime podcasts such as Dirty John, My Favorite Murder, Up and Vanished, Parcast series such as Cults, Female Criminals and Mind's Eye, Someone Knows Something, and many more. It's been speculated that fear could play a role in the popularity of true crime podcasts. These podcasts often recount horrific crimes, which triggers the fear response and the release of adrenaline in the body. Due to the possibility of bingeing podcasts, adrenaline rushes can be experienced in quick bursts. Another explanation for the popularity of true crime podcasts is due to the serialized nature of crime, in which events happen one after another. Podcasts that explore a crime episodically can utilize this aspect in their storytelling. Effects
The investigative process of the true crime genre can lead to changes in the cases being covered, such as when Robert Durst seemingly confessed to murder in the documentary The Jinx and was arrested. A study conducted in 2011, in Nebraska, showed that consuming non-fiction crime shows (aka true crime) is correlated with an increased fear of being a victim of crime. As the frequency of watching true crime shows increased, support for the death penalty increased, while support for the criminal justice system decreased. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#11_18772219 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: Another explanation for the popularity of true crime podcasts is due to the serialized nature of crime, in which events happen one after another. Podcasts that explore a crime episodically can utilize this aspect in their storytelling. Effects
The investigative process of the true crime genre can lead to changes in the cases being covered, such as when Robert Durst seemingly confessed to murder in the documentary The Jinx and was arrested. A study conducted in 2011, in Nebraska, showed that consuming non-fiction crime shows (aka true crime) is correlated with an increased fear of being a victim of crime. As the frequency of watching true crime shows increased, support for the death penalty increased, while support for the criminal justice system decreased. In Australia, the amount of reports given to the crime reporting network Crime Stoppers Australia that led to charges being pressed doubled from 2012 to 2017. This increased interest in crime is attributed to popular true crime podcasts. The Netflix show Making A Murderer has had a range of real-life effects, ranging from the show being shown in law schools as instructional material to increased mistrust in criminal investigators. Criticism
The true crime genre has been criticized as being disrespectful to crime victims and their families. Author Jack Miles believes this genre has a high potential to cause harm and mental trauma to the real people involved. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#12_18773983 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: In Australia, the amount of reports given to the crime reporting network Crime Stoppers Australia that led to charges being pressed doubled from 2012 to 2017. This increased interest in crime is attributed to popular true crime podcasts. The Netflix show Making A Murderer has had a range of real-life effects, ranging from the show being shown in law schools as instructional material to increased mistrust in criminal investigators. Criticism
The true crime genre has been criticized as being disrespectful to crime victims and their families. Author Jack Miles believes this genre has a high potential to cause harm and mental trauma to the real people involved. True crime media can be produced without the consent of the victim's family, which can lead to their being re-traumatized. Recent discussions about the consumption of true crime media have also focused on the impact on the audience's mental health. Depending on the writer, true crime can adhere strictly to well-established facts in journalistic fashion or can be highly speculative. Writers can selectively choose which information to present and which to leave out in order to support their narrative. Author Christiana Gregoriou analyzed several books of the genre and concluded that tabloidization and fictionalization are pervasive in the works of some of the authors of true crime literature. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_15029762#13_18775679 | Title: True crime - Wikipedia
Headings: True crime
True crime
Contents
History
Forms
Books
Films and television
Podcasts
Effects
Criticism
References
Content: True crime media can be produced without the consent of the victim's family, which can lead to their being re-traumatized. Recent discussions about the consumption of true crime media have also focused on the impact on the audience's mental health. Depending on the writer, true crime can adhere strictly to well-established facts in journalistic fashion or can be highly speculative. Writers can selectively choose which information to present and which to leave out in order to support their narrative. Author Christiana Gregoriou analyzed several books of the genre and concluded that tabloidization and fictionalization are pervasive in the works of some of the authors of true crime literature. In some cases, even books by the same author disagree on specifics about the same killer or events. For instance, some facts reported in Capote's In Cold Blood were challenged in 2013. Capote's second attempt at a true crime book, Handcarved Coffins (1979), despite being subtitled "Nonfiction Account of an American Crime", was already noted for containing significant fictional elements. References
^ a b cDavid Levinson (2002). Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_crime |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_37164276#1_43341412 | Title:
Headings:
Content: 5]
The grants from RTTT and SIG, which is indirectly supported by RTTT, were made available to various State Education Agencies (SEAs).[6] After receiving the large sums of money, SEAs re-allocated these funds to the Local Education Agencies (LEAs). In order to actually receive and utilize funds from RTTT or SIGs, an LEA had to demonstrate that it contained consistently low performing schools and it had to adhere to one of four generic models or strategies designed to "turn around" a school’s performance. The Turnaround Model is one of the four strategies that an LEA can choose to implement in its local schools in an effort to raise student achievement per a 2009 Department of Education initiative.[7] Though the Turnaround Model shares the name with the overarching program, the model is a particular strategy within the greater initiative. [ 8]
Contents
1Policy History
2Policy In Action
3Policy Evolution
4References
Policy History[edit]
The turnaround initiative stems back to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, which was enacted by Congress under the Johnson Administration. The bill was designed in part to emphasize equal access to education and excellent educational opportunities for all children. Even though the bill was not originally authorized until 1970, it has been reauthorized every 5 years by Congress. In 2001, ESEA experienced its most significant reauthorization under the George W. Bush Administration in which it was not only reauthorized, but renamed No Child Left Behind(NCLB). NCLB operates with the same charge as ESEA, but focuses specifically on providing all children with accessibility to a high-quality education as measured by standardized assessments.[9] NCLB also required states to create academic state standards and a testing system to measure students’ progress against these standards. Additionally, NCLB pushed accountability for all students and flexibility at the district level, meaning that even students who are at a socioeconomic disadvantage must meet state standards and that districts are able to use federal funding as needed in their area. But unlike ESEA, NCLB introduced a requirement that by the year 2014, 100% of all students would be Proficient in Reading and Math.[10] As the deadline for 100% Proficiency in Reading and Math continues to approach, it became increasingly obvious that unless there was a drastic change, the U.S. would not reach its 100% target and schools would receive various sanctions that correspond with length of underperformance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnaround_model |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_46217162#1_54562811 | Title: Twinjet - Wikipedia
Headings: Twinjet
Twinjet
Contents
Aircraft configurations
History
Efficiency
ETOPS
Introduction to transoceanic flights
Other advantages
See also
References
External links
Content: Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (November 2016)
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: " Twinjet" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR
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Boeing 737 Twinjet
The Vought F7U Cutlass was one of the first modern twinjet fighters. A twinjet or twin-engine jet is a jet aircraft powered by two engines. A twinjet is able to fly well enough to land with a single working engine, making it safer than a single-engine aircraft in the event of failure of an engine. Fuel efficiency of a twinjet is better than that of aircraft with more engines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twinjet |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_46217162#2_54564210 | Title: Twinjet - Wikipedia
Headings: Twinjet
Twinjet
Contents
Aircraft configurations
History
Efficiency
ETOPS
Introduction to transoceanic flights
Other advantages
See also
References
External links
Content: Find sources: " Twinjet" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR
(November 2016)
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( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Boeing 737 Twinjet
The Vought F7U Cutlass was one of the first modern twinjet fighters. A twinjet or twin-engine jet is a jet aircraft powered by two engines. A twinjet is able to fly well enough to land with a single working engine, making it safer than a single-engine aircraft in the event of failure of an engine. Fuel efficiency of a twinjet is better than that of aircraft with more engines. These considerations have led to the widespread use of aircraft of all types with twin engines, including airliners, fixed-wing military aircraft, and others. Contents
1 Aircraft configurations
2 History
3 Efficiency
4 ETOPS
4.1 Introduction to transoceanic flights
5 Other advantages
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Aircraft configurations
There are three common configurations of twinjet aircraft. The first, common on large aircraft such as airliners, has a podded engine usually mounted beneath, or occasionally above or within, each wing. The second has one engine mounted on each side of the rear fuselage, close to its empennage, used by many business jets . In the third configuration both engines are within the fuselage, side-by-side, used by most fighters since the 1960s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twinjet |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_46217162#3_54566014 | Title: Twinjet - Wikipedia
Headings: Twinjet
Twinjet
Contents
Aircraft configurations
History
Efficiency
ETOPS
Introduction to transoceanic flights
Other advantages
See also
References
External links
Content: These considerations have led to the widespread use of aircraft of all types with twin engines, including airliners, fixed-wing military aircraft, and others. Contents
1 Aircraft configurations
2 History
3 Efficiency
4 ETOPS
4.1 Introduction to transoceanic flights
5 Other advantages
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Aircraft configurations
There are three common configurations of twinjet aircraft. The first, common on large aircraft such as airliners, has a podded engine usually mounted beneath, or occasionally above or within, each wing. The second has one engine mounted on each side of the rear fuselage, close to its empennage, used by many business jets . In the third configuration both engines are within the fuselage, side-by-side, used by most fighters since the 1960s. Later fighters using this configuration include the Su-27 'Flanker', the F-15 Eagle, and the F-22 Raptor . History
The first twinjet to fly was the German fighter prototype Heinkel He 280, flying in April 1941 with a pair of nacelled Heinkel HeS 8 axial-flow turbojets. The twinjet configuration was used for short-range narrow-bodied aircraft such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737. The Airbus A300 was initially not successful when first produced as a short-range widebody, as airlines operating the A300 on short-haul routes had to reduce frequencies to try and fill the high-capacity aircraft, and lost passengers to airlines operating more frequent narrow-body flights. However, thanks to the introduction of ETOPS rules that allowed twin-engine jets to fly long-distance routes that were previously off-limits to them, Airbus was able to further develop the A300 as a medium- to long-range airliner to increased sales; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twinjet |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_50183838#0_59789201 | Title: Two Minutes Hate - Wikipedia
Headings: Two Minutes Hate
Two Minutes Hate
Contents
Purpose
Origins of the term
Orwell's concept
See also
References
Content: Two Minutes Hate - Wikipedia
Two Minutes Hate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Ceremony in the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four
In the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), by George Orwell, the Two Minutes Hate is the daily, public period during which members of the Outer Party of Oceania must watch a film depicting the enemies of the state, specifically Emmanuel Goldstein and his followers, to openly and loudly express hatred for them. The political purpose of the Two Minutes Hate is to allow the citizens of Oceania to vent their existential anguish and personal hatreds towards politically expedient enemies: Goldstein and the enemy superstate of the moment. In re-directing the members' subconscious feelings away from the Party's government of Oceania, and towards non-existent external enemies, the Party minimises thoughtcrime and the consequent, subversive behaviours of thoughtcriminals. Contents
1 Purpose
2 Origins of the term
3 Orwell's concept
4 See also
5 References
Purpose
In the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), the first session of Two Minutes Hate shows the introduction of O'Brien, a member of the Inner Party, to the story of Winston Smith, the protagonist whose feelings communicate the effectiveness of the Party's psychological manipulation and control of Oceanian society: The horrible thing about the Two Minutes Hate was not that one was obliged to act a part, but that it was impossible to avoid joining in. Within thirty seconds any pretence was always unnecessary. A hideous ecstasy of fear and vindictiveness, a desire to kill, to torture, to smash faces in with a sledge hammer, seemed to flow through the whole group of people like an electric current, turning one even against one's will into a grimacing, screaming lunatic. And yet the rage that one felt was an abstract, undirected emotion which could be switched from one object to another like the flame of a blowlamp. In the cinematic version of Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984), brainwashing of the participants in the Two Minutes Hate includes auditory and visual cues, such as "a hideous, grinding speech, as of some monstrous machine running without oil" that burst from the telescreen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Minutes_Hate |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_50183838#1_59791770 | Title: Two Minutes Hate - Wikipedia
Headings: Two Minutes Hate
Two Minutes Hate
Contents
Purpose
Origins of the term
Orwell's concept
See also
References
Content: The horrible thing about the Two Minutes Hate was not that one was obliged to act a part, but that it was impossible to avoid joining in. Within thirty seconds any pretence was always unnecessary. A hideous ecstasy of fear and vindictiveness, a desire to kill, to torture, to smash faces in with a sledge hammer, seemed to flow through the whole group of people like an electric current, turning one even against one's will into a grimacing, screaming lunatic. And yet the rage that one felt was an abstract, undirected emotion which could be switched from one object to another like the flame of a blowlamp. In the cinematic version of Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984), brainwashing of the participants in the Two Minutes Hate includes auditory and visual cues, such as "a hideous, grinding speech, as of some monstrous machine running without oil" that burst from the telescreen. meant to psychologically excite the crowd into an emotional frenzy of hatred, fear, and loathing for Emmanuel Goldstein, and for Oceania's enemy of the moment, either Eastasia or Eurasia. The hate session includes the participants throwing things at the telescreen showing the film, as does the Julia character. In the course of the Two Minutes Hate, the film image of Goldstein metamorphoses into the face of a bleating sheep, as enemy soldiers advance towards the viewers of the film, before one enemy soldier charges towards the viewers, whilst firing his sub-machinegun; the face of that soldier then becomes the face of Big Brother. At the end of the two-minute session of hatred, the members of the Party ritualistically chant "B-B . . . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Minutes_Hate |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_50183838#2_59793729 | Title: Two Minutes Hate - Wikipedia
Headings: Two Minutes Hate
Two Minutes Hate
Contents
Purpose
Origins of the term
Orwell's concept
See also
References
Content: meant to psychologically excite the crowd into an emotional frenzy of hatred, fear, and loathing for Emmanuel Goldstein, and for Oceania's enemy of the moment, either Eastasia or Eurasia. The hate session includes the participants throwing things at the telescreen showing the film, as does the Julia character. In the course of the Two Minutes Hate, the film image of Goldstein metamorphoses into the face of a bleating sheep, as enemy soldiers advance towards the viewers of the film, before one enemy soldier charges towards the viewers, whilst firing his sub-machinegun; the face of that soldier then becomes the face of Big Brother. At the end of the two-minute session of hatred, the members of the Party ritualistically chant "B-B . . . B-B . . . B-B . . . B-B." To maintain the extreme emotions provoked in the Two Minutes Hate sessions, the Party created Hate Week, a week-long festival of hatreds. Origins of the term
George Orwell's conceptions of the Two Minutes Hate and of Hate Week derived from the psychological warfare used by the Allies of the Entente and by the Central Powers during the First World War (1914–1918) to disrupt the garrison-like routines that the entrenched armies had developed, consequent to the stalemate of trench warfare. In that time, British propagandists satirised the Imperial German campaign of nationalist hatred against the English, and imagined a Prussian family at their kitchen table having their "morning hate". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Minutes_Hate |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_59166087#6_71203312 | Title: Tyrant - Wikipedia
Headings: Tyrant
Tyrant
Contents
Etymology
Definition
Early history
Historical forms
Aesymnetes
Populism
Archaic tyrants
Corinth
Athens
Sicilian tyrants
Later tyrants
Roman tyrants
In the classics
Enlightenment
Lists of tyrants
Methods of obtaining and retaining power
Obtaining
Retaining
See also
References
External links
Content: Proverbs 29:4
The Greek philosophers stressed the quality of rule rather than legitimacy or absolutism. " Both Plato and Aristotle speak of the king as a good monarch and the tyrant as a bad one. Both say that monarchy, or rule by a single man, is royal when it is for the welfare of the ruled and tyrannical when it serves only the interest of the ruler. Both make lawlessness – either a violation of existing laws or government by personal fiat without settled laws – a mark of tyranny." Enlightenment philosophers seemed to define tyranny by its associated characteristics. "The sovereign is called a tyrant who knows no laws but his caprice." Voltaire in a Philosophical Dictionary
"Where Law ends Tyranny begins." Locke in Two Treatises of Government
Bad results are relative. Authoritarian rule might be beneficial (like with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey) or of limited lasting harm to the country (like with Francisco Franco of Spain ). Those who list or rank tyrants can provide definitions and criteria for comparison or acknowledge subjectivity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannos |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_59166087#7_71204934 | Title: Tyrant - Wikipedia
Headings: Tyrant
Tyrant
Contents
Etymology
Definition
Early history
Historical forms
Aesymnetes
Populism
Archaic tyrants
Corinth
Athens
Sicilian tyrants
Later tyrants
Roman tyrants
In the classics
Enlightenment
Lists of tyrants
Methods of obtaining and retaining power
Obtaining
Retaining
See also
References
External links
Content: "The sovereign is called a tyrant who knows no laws but his caprice." Voltaire in a Philosophical Dictionary
"Where Law ends Tyranny begins." Locke in Two Treatises of Government
Bad results are relative. Authoritarian rule might be beneficial (like with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey) or of limited lasting harm to the country (like with Francisco Franco of Spain ). Those who list or rank tyrants can provide definitions and criteria for comparison or acknowledge subjectivity. Comparative criteria may include checklists or body counts. Accounting for deaths in war is problematic – war can build empires or defend the populace – it also keeps winning tyrants in power. "Qin Shi-Huang Li is the first emperor of China. He united seven separate kingdoms into a single nation. He built the Great Wall and was buried with the terra-cotta soldiers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannos |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_59166087#8_71206345 | Title: Tyrant - Wikipedia
Headings: Tyrant
Tyrant
Contents
Etymology
Definition
Early history
Historical forms
Aesymnetes
Populism
Archaic tyrants
Corinth
Athens
Sicilian tyrants
Later tyrants
Roman tyrants
In the classics
Enlightenment
Lists of tyrants
Methods of obtaining and retaining power
Obtaining
Retaining
See also
References
External links
Content: Comparative criteria may include checklists or body counts. Accounting for deaths in war is problematic – war can build empires or defend the populace – it also keeps winning tyrants in power. "Qin Shi-Huang Li is the first emperor of China. He united seven separate kingdoms into a single nation. He built the Great Wall and was buried with the terra-cotta soldiers. The Chinese have mixed feelings about him. They're proud of the nation he created, but he was a maniacal tyrant." - Gene Luen Yang
Oppressive leaders have held states together ( Alexander the Great, Josip Broz Tito ). A modern tyrant might be objectively defined by proven violation of international criminal law such as crimes against humanity. Edward Sexby's 1657 pamphlet, "Killing, No Murder", [ https://www.yorku.ca/comninel/courses/3025pdf/Killing_Noe_Murder.pdf] outlined 14 key traits of a tyrant, as the pamphlet was written to inspire the assassination of Oliver Cromwell, and show in what circumstances an assassination might be considered honorable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannos |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_59166087#9_71207929 | Title: Tyrant - Wikipedia
Headings: Tyrant
Tyrant
Contents
Etymology
Definition
Early history
Historical forms
Aesymnetes
Populism
Archaic tyrants
Corinth
Athens
Sicilian tyrants
Later tyrants
Roman tyrants
In the classics
Enlightenment
Lists of tyrants
Methods of obtaining and retaining power
Obtaining
Retaining
See also
References
External links
Content: The Chinese have mixed feelings about him. They're proud of the nation he created, but he was a maniacal tyrant." - Gene Luen Yang
Oppressive leaders have held states together ( Alexander the Great, Josip Broz Tito ). A modern tyrant might be objectively defined by proven violation of international criminal law such as crimes against humanity. Edward Sexby's 1657 pamphlet, "Killing, No Murder", [ https://www.yorku.ca/comninel/courses/3025pdf/Killing_Noe_Murder.pdf] outlined 14 key traits of a tyrant, as the pamphlet was written to inspire the assassination of Oliver Cromwell, and show in what circumstances an assassination might be considered honorable. The full document mulls over and references points on the matter from early pre-Christian history, up into the 17th century when the pamphlet was writ. Of the most prevailing traits of tyranny outlined, " Killing, No Murder " emphasizes: Prior military leadership service -- tyrants are often former captains or generals, which allows them to assume a degree of honor, loyalty, and reputability regarding matters of state
Fraud over force -- most tyrants are likely to manipulate their way into supreme power than force it militarily
Defamation and/or disbanding of formerly respectable persons, intellectuals, or institutions, and the discouragement of refined thinking or public involvement in state affairs
Absence or minimalization of collective input, bargaining, or debate (assemblies, conferences, etc.) Amplification of military activity for the purposes of public distraction, raising new levies, or opening future business pathways
Tit-for-tat symbiosis in domestic relations: e.g. finding religious ideas permissible insofar as they are useful and flattering of the tyrant; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannos |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_59166087#12_71214429 | Title: Tyrant - Wikipedia
Headings: Tyrant
Tyrant
Contents
Etymology
Definition
Early history
Historical forms
Aesymnetes
Populism
Archaic tyrants
Corinth
Athens
Sicilian tyrants
Later tyrants
Roman tyrants
In the classics
Enlightenment
Lists of tyrants
Methods of obtaining and retaining power
Obtaining
Retaining
See also
References
External links
Content: Political and military leaders arose to manage conflicts. All leaders were once tyrants in their own ways. " [ T]he very essence of politics in [agrarian civilizations] was, by our contemporary democratic standards, tyrannical". Eventually alternative forms and methods of government arose which allowed belated definitions and criticism. Historical forms
A sculptural pairing of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, who became known as the tyrannicides after they killed Hipparchus and were the preeminent symbol of Athenian democracy
History has labeled a set of ancient Greek and Sicilian leaders as tyrants. History remembers the rulers, their ris | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrannos |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_61956436#7_74210366 | Title: United States–China Relations Act of 2000 - Wikipedia
Headings: United States–China Relations Act of 2000
United States–China Relations Act of 2000
Contents
Background
Impact
See also
References
Content: Economically, this agreement is the equivalent of a one-way street. It requires China to open its markets—with a fifth of the world’s population, potentially the biggest markets in the world—to both our products and services in unprecedented new ways," said Clinton. In a speech in 2000, Clinton reiterated his hopes: For the first time, our companies will be able to sell and distribute products in China made by workers here in America without being forced to relocate manufacturing to China, sell through the Chinese government, or transfer valuable technology—for the first time. We’ll be able to export products without exporting jobs. As a new member, China agreed to rapidly lower import tariffs and open its markets, although many trade officials doubted it would stand by those promises. China did cut tariffs after it joined the WTO, but it nonetheless continued to steal U.S. intellectual property (IP) and forced American companies to transfer technology to access the Chinese market, which were violations of WTO rules. Impact
U.S. trade deficit (in billions, goods and services) by country in 2014
When President Barack Obama met with Chinese President Hu Jintao in 2011, officials were concerned that China was not acting in the free trade spirit it agreed to when it joined the WTO 10 years earlier. They proclaimed that China was still restricting foreign investment, avoiding national treatment of foreign firms, failing to protect intellectual property rights, and distorting trade with its government subsidies. There were also complaints by various lawmakers who wanted the administration to act against what they said was China's manipulating its currency, worried that it would allow China to underprice its exports and put American and other nations' manufacturing at a great disadvantage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%E2%80%93China_Relations_Act_of_2000 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_72336969#5_84459405 | Title: U.S. Route 8 - Wikipedia
Headings: U.S. Route 8
U.S. Route 8
Contents
Route description
Forest Lake to St. Croix Falls
St. Croix Falls to Rhinelander
Rhinelander to Norway
History
20th century
21st century
Future
Major intersections
Business route
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: East of those lakes, US 8 crosses into the town of Center City. In Center City, US 8 runs between North and South Center lakes, curving around the north shore of South Center Lake. On the eastern edge of town, it turns due east for several miles and runs through Shafer. US 8 merges with State Highway 95 (MN 95) at a roundabout about two miles (3.2 km) southwest of Taylors Falls. The two highways concurrently turn northeast along the St. Croix River, entering town. At this point, MN 95 continues north along the river while US 8 turns east to cross the St. Croix River, exiting the state of Minnesota into Wisconsin. Bridge carrying US 8 across the St. Croix River
Legally, the Minnesota section of US 8 is defined as Constitutional Route 46 and Legislative Route 98 in the Minnesota Statutes §§ 161.114 (2) and 161.115 (29); the roadway is not marked with those numbers. The section of US 8 in Chisago County is officially designated the Moberg Trail. St. Croix Falls to Rhinelander
US 8 enters Polk County at St. Croix Falls as a multilane roadway. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_8 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_72336969#6_84460954 | Title: U.S. Route 8 - Wikipedia
Headings: U.S. Route 8
U.S. Route 8
Contents
Route description
Forest Lake to St. Croix Falls
St. Croix Falls to Rhinelander
Rhinelander to Norway
History
20th century
21st century
Future
Major intersections
Business route
See also
Notes
References
External links
Content: At this point, MN 95 continues north along the river while US 8 turns east to cross the St. Croix River, exiting the state of Minnesota into Wisconsin. Bridge carrying US 8 across the St. Croix River
Legally, the Minnesota section of US 8 is defined as Constitutional Route 46 and Legislative Route 98 in the Minnesota Statutes §§ 161.114 (2) and 161.115 (29); the roadway is not marked with those numbers. The section of US 8 in Chisago County is officially designated the Moberg Trail. St. Croix Falls to Rhinelander
US 8 enters Polk County at St. Croix Falls as a multilane roadway. It joins State Highway 35 (WIS 35) at a diamond interchange located approximately one mile (1.6 km) from the state line. The two highways run concurrently for four miles (6.4 km) before WIS 35 turns off to the north at a location in the Town of St. Croix Falls west of Deer Lake. US 8 continues eastward through forest lands, and WIS 46 joins from the north for a four-mile (6.4 km) concurrency before splitting off to the south. Continuing eastward, US 8 passes through Range and crosses into Barron County at Turtle Lake. US 63 merges from the south near Turtle Lake and departs to the north in the downtown area. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_8 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_79458971#7_90509798 | Title: UEFA club competition records and statistics - Wikipedia
Headings: UEFA club competition records and statistics
UEFA club competition records and statistics
Contents
Teams
UEFA club competition winners
Ranking three main European club competitions' winning club sides by winning percentage
Top 15 club sides
Table key
List of teams to have won the three main European club competitions
List of teams to have won all UEFA club competitions
All winners from one country
All finalists from one country
Other records
Players
List of players to have won the three main European club competitions
List of players to have won all international club competitions
Most appearances in UEFA club competitions
Top scorers in UEFA club competitions
Managers
List of managers to have won the three main European club competitions
List of managers to have won all international club competitions
Other records
Attendance
Highest attendance for a UEFA club competition
References
Content: Hamburger SV, Fiorentina, Ajax, Arsenal and Liverpool are the only clubs to have been runners-up in all three of these competitions. List of teams to have won all UEFA club competitions
Juventus was the first club – and remains the only one club at present – in association football history to have won all six official confederation tournaments. Club
First title
Second title
Third title
Fourth title
Fifth title
Sixth title
Juventus
1976–77 UEFA Cup
1983–84 European Cup Winners' Cup
1984 European Super Cup
1984–85 European Cup
1985 Intercontinental Cup
1999 UEFA Intertoto Cup
Shows first win only in the case of club's multiple wins of same competition. German side Hamburger SV are the only club to have been runners-up in all six UEFA club competitions. The club lost in the final of the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1968, the European Super Cup in 1977 and 1983, the final of the European Cup in 1980, the final of the UEFA Cup in 1982, the Intercontinental Cup in 1983, and the finals of the UEFA Intertoto Cup in 1999 . All winners from one country
Before the abolition of the Cup Winners' Cup in 1999 and the commencement of the Europa Conference League in 2021, only once have three clubs from the same country; Italy in 1989–90, won all three main UEFA club competitions in the same season: Season
Competition
Winners
1989–90
European Cup
Milan
European Cup Winners' Cup
Sampdoria
UEFA Cup
Juventus
In between, clubs from the same country have won both remaining main UEFA club competitions (Champions League and Europa League) in the same season six times: two Spanish teams in 2005–06, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, and 2017–18, and two English teams in 2018–19. All finalists from one country
The 2018–19 season was the first time that all European finals featured representatives from only one country (England). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_club_competition_records_and_statistics |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_102401129#0_117440058 | Title: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system - Wikipedia
Headings: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system
Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system
Contents
History
Definitions
UTM zone
Overlapping grids
Latitude bands
Latitude bands
Notation
Exceptions
Locating a position using UTM coordinates
Simplified formulae
From latitude, longitude (φ, λ) to UTM coordinates (E, N)
From UTM coordinates (E, N, Zone, Hemi) to latitude, longitude (φ, λ)
See also
References
Further reading
Content: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system - Wikipedia
Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system
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(Redirected from UTM coordinates)
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Geodesy
Fundamentals
Geodesy
Geodynamics
Geomatics
History
Concepts
Geographical distance
Geoid
Figure of the Earth ( Earth radius and Earth's circumference)
Geodetic datum
Geodesic
Geographic coordinate system
Horizontal position representation
Latitude / Longitude
Map projection
Reference ellipsoid
Satellite geodesy
Spatial reference system
Spatial relations
Technologies
Global Nav. Sat. Systems (GNSSs)
Global Pos. System (GPS)
GLONASS (Russia)
BeiDou (BDS) (China)
Galileo (Europe)
NAVIC (India)
Quasi-Zenith Sat. Sys. ( QZSS) (Japan)
Discrete Global Grid and Geocoding
Standards (history)
NGVD 29
Sea Level Datum 1929
OSGB36
Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936
SK-42
Systema Koordinat 1942 goda
ED50
European Datum 1950
SAD69
South American Datum 1969
GRS 80
Geodetic Reference System 1980
ISO 6709
Geographic point coord. 1983
NAD 83
North American Datum 1983
WGS 84
World Geodetic System 1984
NAVD 88
N. American Vertical Datum 1988
ETRS89
European Terrestrial Ref. Sys. 1989
GCJ-02
Chinese obfuscated datum 2002
Geo URI
Internet link to a point 2010
International Terrestrial Reference System
Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID)
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
v
t
e
The Universal Transverse Mercator ( UTM) is a system for assigning coordinates to locations on the surface of the Earth. Like the traditional method of latitude and longitude, it is a horizontal position representation, which means it ignores altitude and treats the earth as a perfect ellipsoid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTM_coordinates |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_102401129#1_117442540 | Title: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system - Wikipedia
Headings: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system
Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system
Contents
History
Definitions
UTM zone
Overlapping grids
Latitude bands
Latitude bands
Notation
Exceptions
Locating a position using UTM coordinates
Simplified formulae
From latitude, longitude (φ, λ) to UTM coordinates (E, N)
From UTM coordinates (E, N, Zone, Hemi) to latitude, longitude (φ, λ)
See also
References
Further reading
Content: QZSS) (Japan)
Discrete Global Grid and Geocoding
Standards (history)
NGVD 29
Sea Level Datum 1929
OSGB36
Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936
SK-42
Systema Koordinat 1942 goda
ED50
European Datum 1950
SAD69
South American Datum 1969
GRS 80
Geodetic Reference System 1980
ISO 6709
Geographic point coord. 1983
NAD 83
North American Datum 1983
WGS 84
World Geodetic System 1984
NAVD 88
N. American Vertical Datum 1988
ETRS89
European Terrestrial Ref. Sys. 1989
GCJ-02
Chinese obfuscated datum 2002
Geo URI
Internet link to a point 2010
International Terrestrial Reference System
Spatial Reference System Identifier (SRID)
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
v
t
e
The Universal Transverse Mercator ( UTM) is a system for assigning coordinates to locations on the surface of the Earth. Like the traditional method of latitude and longitude, it is a horizontal position representation, which means it ignores altitude and treats the earth as a perfect ellipsoid. However, it differs from global latitude/longitude in that it divides earth into 60 zones and projects each to the plane as a basis for its coordinates. Specifying a location means specifying the zone and the x, y coordinate in that plane. The projection from spheroid to a UTM zone is some parameterization of the transverse Mercator projection. The parameters vary by nation or region or mapping system. Most zones in UTM span 6 degrees of longitude, and each has a designated central meridian. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTM_coordinates |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_102401129#4_117450376 | Title: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system - Wikipedia
Headings: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system
Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system
Contents
History
Definitions
UTM zone
Overlapping grids
Latitude bands
Latitude bands
Notation
Exceptions
Locating a position using UTM coordinates
Simplified formulae
From latitude, longitude (φ, λ) to UTM coordinates (E, N)
From UTM coordinates (E, N, Zone, Hemi) to latitude, longitude (φ, λ)
See also
References
Further reading
Content: For areas within the contiguous United States the Clarke Ellipsoid of 1866 was used. For the remaining areas of Earth, including Hawaii, the International Ellipsoid was used. The World Geodetic System WGS84 ellipsoid is now generally used to model the Earth in the UTM coordinate system, which means current UTM northing at a given point can differ up to 200 meters from the old. For different geographic regions, other datum systems can be used. Prior to the development of the Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system, several European nations demonstrated the utility of grid-based conformal maps by mapping their territory during the interwar period. Calculating the distance between two points on these maps could be performed more easily in the field (using the Pythagorean theorem) than was possible using the trigonometric formulas required under the graticule-based system of latitude and longitude. In the post-war years, these concepts were extended into the Universal Transverse Mercator/ Universal Polar Stereographic (UTM/UPS) coordinate system, which is a global (or universal) system of grid-based maps. The transverse Mercator projection is a variant of the Mercator projection, which was originally developed by the Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator, in 1570. This projection is conformal, which means it preserves angles and therefore shapes across small regions. However, it distorts distance and area. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTM_coordinates |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_119644956#0_135195032 | Title: Classical conditioning - Wikipedia
Headings: Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning
Contents
Overview
Definition
Procedures
Pavlov's research
Terminology
Forward conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
Second-order and higher-order conditioning
Backward conditioning
Temporal conditioning
Zero contingency procedure
Extinction
Phenomena observed
Acquisition
Extinction
External inhibition
Recovery from extinction
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Latent inhibition
Conditioned suppression
Conditioned inhibition
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Blocking
Phase 1
Phase 2
Test
Theories
Data sources
Stimulus-substitution theory
Rescorla–Wagner model
Equation
R–W model: acquisition
R–W model: extinction
R–W model: blocking
Theoretical issues and alternatives to the Rescorla–Wagner model
Content of learning
Role of attention in learning
Context
Comparator theory
Computational theory
Element-based models
The SOP model
Applications
Neural basis of learning and memory
Behavioral therapies
Conditioned drug response
Conditioned hunger
Conditioned emotional response
Pavlovian-instrumental transfer
In popular culture
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: Classical conditioning - Wikipedia
Classical conditioning
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Unconditioned response)
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Learning procedure in which biologically potent stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus
"Pavlov's dog" and "Pavlovian" redirect here. For the Pavlovian Upper Paleolithic culture, see Pavlovian culture. For other uses, see Pavlov's dog (disambiguation). This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize its key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. ( March 2020)
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell). It also refers to the learning process that results from this pairing, through which the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response (e.g. salivation) that is usually similar to the one elicited by the potent stimulus. It was first studied by Ivan Pavlov in 1897. It is distinct from operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning ), through which the strength of a voluntary behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment. Classically conditioned stimuli can enhance operant behavior by independently inducing rewarding choices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditioned_response |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_119644956#1_135197895 | Title: Classical conditioning - Wikipedia
Headings: Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning
Contents
Overview
Definition
Procedures
Pavlov's research
Terminology
Forward conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
Second-order and higher-order conditioning
Backward conditioning
Temporal conditioning
Zero contingency procedure
Extinction
Phenomena observed
Acquisition
Extinction
External inhibition
Recovery from extinction
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Latent inhibition
Conditioned suppression
Conditioned inhibition
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Blocking
Phase 1
Phase 2
Test
Theories
Data sources
Stimulus-substitution theory
Rescorla–Wagner model
Equation
R–W model: acquisition
R–W model: extinction
R–W model: blocking
Theoretical issues and alternatives to the Rescorla–Wagner model
Content of learning
Role of attention in learning
Context
Comparator theory
Computational theory
Element-based models
The SOP model
Applications
Neural basis of learning and memory
Behavioral therapies
Conditioned drug response
Conditioned hunger
Conditioned emotional response
Pavlovian-instrumental transfer
In popular culture
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: March 2020)
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell). It also refers to the learning process that results from this pairing, through which the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response (e.g. salivation) that is usually similar to the one elicited by the potent stimulus. It was first studied by Ivan Pavlov in 1897. It is distinct from operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning ), through which the strength of a voluntary behavior is modified by reinforcement or punishment. Classically conditioned stimuli can enhance operant behavior by independently inducing rewarding choices. Research has shown this to be a beneficial phenomenon in cases where operant behavior is error-prone. Pavlov performed an experiment to condition salivation response in dogs, which brought about classical conditioning. He described classical conditioning as a form of learning in which a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus in order to produce a behavioral response, the conditioned response. He also identified various types of classical conditioning: forward conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, backward conditioning, and temporal conditioning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditioned_response |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_119644956#4_135207997 | Title: Classical conditioning - Wikipedia
Headings: Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning
Contents
Overview
Definition
Procedures
Pavlov's research
Terminology
Forward conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
Second-order and higher-order conditioning
Backward conditioning
Temporal conditioning
Zero contingency procedure
Extinction
Phenomena observed
Acquisition
Extinction
External inhibition
Recovery from extinction
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Latent inhibition
Conditioned suppression
Conditioned inhibition
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Blocking
Phase 1
Phase 2
Test
Theories
Data sources
Stimulus-substitution theory
Rescorla–Wagner model
Equation
R–W model: acquisition
R–W model: extinction
R–W model: blocking
Theoretical issues and alternatives to the Rescorla–Wagner model
Content of learning
Role of attention in learning
Context
Comparator theory
Computational theory
Element-based models
The SOP model
Applications
Neural basis of learning and memory
Behavioral therapies
Conditioned drug response
Conditioned hunger
Conditioned emotional response
Pavlovian-instrumental transfer
In popular culture
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Content: blocking
5.4 Theoretical issues and alternatives to the Rescorla–Wagner model
5.4.1 Content of learning
5.4.2 Role of attention in learning
5.4.3 Context
5.4.4 Comparator theory
5.4.5 Computational theory
5.4.6 Element-based models
5.4.6.1 The SOP model
6 Applications
6.1 Neural basis of learning and memory
6.2 Behavioral therapies
6.3 Conditioned drug response
6.4 Conditioned hunger
6.5 Conditioned emotional response
6.6 Pavlovian-instrumental transfer
7 In popular culture
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Overview
Classical conditioning was first studied in detail by Ivan Pavlov, who conducted experiments with dogs and published his findings in 1897. During the Russian physiologist's study of digestion, Pavlov observed that the dogs serving as his subjects drooled when they were being served meat. Together with operant conditioning, classical conditioning became the foundation of behaviorism, a school of psychology which was dominant in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of psychological therapy and the study of animal behavior. Classical conditioning is a basic learning process, and its neural substrates are now beginning to be understood. Though it is sometimes hard to distinguish classical conditioning from other forms of associative learning (e.g. instrumental learning and human associative memory ), a number of observations differentiate them, especially the contingencies whereby learning occurs. Definition
Classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US). Usually, the conditioned stimulus is a neutral stimulus (e.g., the sound of a tuning fork), the unconditioned stimulus is biologically potent (e.g., the taste of food) and the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response (e.g., salivation). After pairing is repeated the organism exhibits a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. ( A conditioned response may occur after only one pairing.) Thus, unlike the UR, the CR is acquired through experience, and it is also less permanent than the UR. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditioned_response |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_137433167#0_155987112 | Title: United Fruit Company - Wikipedia
Headings: United Fruit Company
United Fruit Company
Contents
Corporate history
Early history
United Fruit (1899–1970)
United Brands (1970–1984)
Chiquita Brands International
Reputation
History in Latin America
Environmental effects
Guatemala
Cuba
Banana massacre
The United Fruit Company in Honduras
Attempt at state capture
Banana multinational establishment and expansion
Social welfare programs for employees of United Fruit Company
Agriculture research and training
United fruit and labor challenges
Invasive banana diseases
Labor health risks
Resistance and reformation
Labor unionization
Nationalist movement
End of the Honduran banana republic era
Aiding and abetting a terrorist organization
The Great White Fleet
See also
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Content: United Fruit Company - Wikipedia
United Fruit Company
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: " United Fruit Company" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2021) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)
American corporation
Entrance façade of the old United Fruit Building at 321 St. Charles Avenue, New Orleans, Louisiana
The United Fruit Company, now Chiquita Brands International, was an American corporation that traded in tropical fruit (primarily bananas) grown on Latin American plantations and sold in the United States and Europe. The company was formed in 1899, from the merger of Minor C. Keith 's banana-trading concerns with Andrew W. Preston 's Boston Fruit Company. It flourished in the early and mid-20th century, and it came to control vast territories and transportation networks in Central America, the Caribbean coast of Colombia and the West Indies. Though it competed with the Standard Fruit Company (later Dole Food Company) for dominance in the international banana trade, it maintained a virtual monopoly in certain regions, some of which came to be called banana republics, such as Costa Rica, Honduras, and Guatemala. United Fruit had a deep and long-lasting impact on the economic and political development of several Latin American countries. Critics often accused it of exploitative neocolonialism, and described it as the archetypal example of the influence of a multinational corporation on the internal politics of the banana republics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Fruit_Company |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_19_138292006#4_156660937 | Title:
Headings:
Content: Labour pledged in its February 1974 manifesto to renegotiate the terms of British accession to the EC, and then to consult the public on whether Britain should remain in the EC on the new terms, if they were acceptable to the government. The Labour Party had historically feared the consequences of EC membership, such as the large differentials between the high price of food under the Common Agricultural Policyand the low prices prevalent in Commonwealthmarkets, as well as the loss of both economic sovereignty and the freedom of governments to engage in socialist industrial policies, and party leaders stated their opinion that the Conservatives had negotiated unfavourable terms for Britain.[3] The EC heads of government agreed to a deal in Dublinon 11 March 1975; Wilson declared: " I believe that our renegotiation objectives have been substantially though not completely achieved", and said that the government would recommend a vote in favour of continued membership.[4] On 9 April, the House of Commonsvoted by 396 to 170 to continue within the Common Market on the new terms. Along with these developments, the government drafted a Referendum Bill, to be moved in case of a successful renegotiation. The referendum debate and campaign was an unusual time in British politics and was the third national vote to be held in seventeen months. During the campaign, the Labour Cabinetwas split and its members campaigned on each side of the question, an unprecedented breach of Cabinet collective responsibility. Most votes in the House of Commons in preparation for the referendum were only carried after opposition support, and the Government faced several defeats on technical issues such as the handling and format of the referendum counts. The referendum did temporarily achieve Harold Wilson's ambition to bring the divided Labour Party together on the European issue; however, eight years later, Labour's 1983 general electionmanifesto pledged withdrawal from the Communities.[5] It significantly strengthened the position of pro-marketeer (later pro-Europe) politicians within Parliament for the next thirty years; | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_European_Communities_membership_referendum,_1975 |
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