id
stringlengths 33
45
| content
stringlengths 95
98.7k
| url
stringlengths 18
263
|
|---|---|---|
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1545449353#2_3251045593 | Title: Reies Tijerina | American activist | Britannica
Headings: Reies Tijerina
Reies Tijerina
American activist
Content: Two years later Tijerina joined families who had been dispossessed of their lands in the late 1800s in an appeal to the Mexican government to petition the United Nations to force U.S. compliance with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Although they were ultimately unsuccessful, that appeal served as a catalyst for Tijerina’s interest in land grants and the injustice he perceived in the historical dispossession of Chicanos and Latinos. After researching land-grant titles in Mexico City and Spain, Tijerina popularized the land-grant movement during the early 1960s on a daily radio program, The Voice of Justice, and in a regular column in Albuquerque, New Mexico’s News Chieftain. In February 1963 Tijerina established La Alianza Federal de Mercedes (Federal Alliance of Land Grants). La Alianza’s first convention included 800 delegates representing 48 New Mexico land grants and voted to focus on two major grants in northern New Mexico: the Tierra Amarilla and the San Joaquín del Río de Chama. La Alianza’s initial membership consisted primarily of the descendents of the original heirs, but the organization grew rapidly and gained national attention in October 1966 when members occupied the Echo Amphitheater, a natural rock formation that rests on the San Joaquín land. The group reclaimed the land as the Republic of San Joaquín and even arrested two forest rangers for trespassing. Since the organization could not afford to fund a trial, La Alianza charged the government with the burden of proving who owned the land. After five days La Alianza members turned themselves in, and five, including Tijerina, were charged with assault on government officials. | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Reies-Lopez-Tijerina |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1545449353#3_3251047654 | Title: Reies Tijerina | American activist | Britannica
Headings: Reies Tijerina
Reies Tijerina
American activist
Content: the Tierra Amarilla and the San Joaquín del Río de Chama. La Alianza’s initial membership consisted primarily of the descendents of the original heirs, but the organization grew rapidly and gained national attention in October 1966 when members occupied the Echo Amphitheater, a natural rock formation that rests on the San Joaquín land. The group reclaimed the land as the Republic of San Joaquín and even arrested two forest rangers for trespassing. Since the organization could not afford to fund a trial, La Alianza charged the government with the burden of proving who owned the land. After five days La Alianza members turned themselves in, and five, including Tijerina, were charged with assault on government officials. Tijerina was released on bond. On June 5, 1967, La Alianza members raided the local courthouse in Tierra Amarilla in an attempt to perform a citizen’s arrest of the local district attorney for violating their civil rights and thwarting the organizing efforts of the Tierra Amarilla grant heirs. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
After being arrested, tried, and acquitted for the Tierra Amarilla courthouse raid, Tijerina gained international attention and entered national civil rights politics, forming alliances with Black Power advocates and rising Chicano leaders and serving as the Latino leader of the 1968 Poor People’s Campaign. However, despite a defense of double jeopardy, Tijerina was sentenced to federal prison in La Tuna, Texas, in 1970 for his involvement in the courthouse raid and was later transferred to a mental hospital in Springfield, Missouri. | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Reies-Lopez-Tijerina |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1545449353#4_3251049647 | Title: Reies Tijerina | American activist | Britannica
Headings: Reies Tijerina
Reies Tijerina
American activist
Content: Tijerina was released on bond. On June 5, 1967, La Alianza members raided the local courthouse in Tierra Amarilla in an attempt to perform a citizen’s arrest of the local district attorney for violating their civil rights and thwarting the organizing efforts of the Tierra Amarilla grant heirs. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
After being arrested, tried, and acquitted for the Tierra Amarilla courthouse raid, Tijerina gained international attention and entered national civil rights politics, forming alliances with Black Power advocates and rising Chicano leaders and serving as the Latino leader of the 1968 Poor People’s Campaign. However, despite a defense of double jeopardy, Tijerina was sentenced to federal prison in La Tuna, Texas, in 1970 for his involvement in the courthouse raid and was later transferred to a mental hospital in Springfield, Missouri. La Alianza declined during his incarceration, and Tijerina was prohibited from holding any leadership position in the organization under the terms of his release in 1971. Although Tijerina continued to be involved with social justice, his religiously based ideals became increasingly anti-Semitic and alienated many of his supporters. Tijerina moved to central Mexico in 1994 after his New Mexico home burned in a fire; in 2006 he moved to El Paso, Texas. He published an autobiography, They Called Me “King Tiger”: | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Reies-Lopez-Tijerina |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1548703891#4_3257887526 | Title: Septimius Severus | Roman emperor | Britannica
Headings: Septimius Severus
Septimius Severus
Roman emperor
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Content: By 202 Severus was back in Rome, where he spent the next six years making major changes in the structure of the imperial government. Since his power rested on military might rather than constitutional sanction, he gave the army a dominant role in his state. He won the soldiers’ support by increasing their pay and permitting them to marry. To prevent the rise of a powerful military rival, he reduced the number of legions under each general’s control. At the same time Severus ignored the Senate, which declined rapidly in power, and he recruited his officials from the equestrian rather than the senatorial order. Many provincials and peasants received advancement, and the Italian aristocracy lost much of its former influence. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
Severus paid special attention to the administration of justice. The Italian courts outside Rome were removed from senatorial jurisdiction and put under the control of the praetorian prefect. After the fall (205) of the emperor’s favourite, the praetorian prefect Gaius Fulvius Plautianus, the distinguished jurist Papinian became prefect. | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Septimius-Severus |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1553560824#0_3268149299 | Title: William Wordsworth | Biography, Facts, Daffodils, & Poems | Britannica
Headings: William Wordsworth
William Wordsworth
English author
Why is William Wordsworth important?
What was William Wordsworth’s childhood like?
What did William Wordsworth write?
Early life and education
The great decade: 1797–1808
Coleridge and Lyrical Ballads
Content: William Wordsworth | Biography, Facts, Daffodils, & Poems | Britannica
Home Literature Poetry Poets L-Z
William Wordsworth
English author
Give Feedback
External Websites
WRITTEN BY
Stephen Maxfield Parrish
Goldwin Smith Professor Emeritus of English, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Author of The Art of the Lyrical Ballads and others. Last Updated: Apr 19, 2021 See Article History
William Wordsworth, (born April 7, 1770, Cockermouth, Cumberland, England—died April 23, 1850, Rydal Mount, Westmorland), English poet whose Lyrical Ballads (1798), written with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped launch the English Romantic movement. Top Questions
Why is William Wordsworth important? William Wordsworth (1770–1850) produced some of the greatest English poems of the late 1700s and early 1800s. In contrast to the decorum of much 18th-century verse, he wanted to relate “situations from common life” in “language really used by men,” embodying “the spontaneous overflow of feelings…recollected in tranquility” (preface to Lyrical Ballads [1802]). What was William Wordsworth’s childhood like? William Wordsworth grew up in the Lake District of northern England. There he spent much of his boyhood playing outdoors and exploring the mountains and lake-strewn valleys—“foster'd alike by beauty and by fear,” as he would later testify in his autobiographical poem The Prelude; | https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Wordsworth |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1554188054#0_3269493468 | Title: Zora Neale Hurston | Biography, Books, Short Stories, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Zora Neale Hurston
Zora Neale Hurston
American author
Top Questions
When was Zora Neale Hurston born?
Where did Zora Neale Hurston grow up?
What were Zora Neale Hurston’s contributions?
Where was Zora Neale Hurston educated?
Content: Zora Neale Hurston | Biography, Books, Short Stories, & Facts | Britannica
Home Literature Novels & Short Stories Novelists A-K
Zora Neale Hurston
American author
Print
Give Feedback
External Websites
WRITTEN BY
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....
See Article History
Zora Neale Hurston, (born January 7, 1891, Notasulga, Alabama, U.S.—died January 28, 1960, Fort Pierce, Florida), American folklorist and writer associated with the Harlem Renaissance who celebrated the African American culture of the rural South. Top Questions
When was Zora Neale Hurston born? Zora Neale Hurston was born on January 7, 1891, but she claimed to have been born in 1901 in order to receive a high school education even though she was already in her mid-20s. Where did Zora Neale Hurston grow up? Zora Neale Hurston grew up in Eatonville, Florida, the first incorporated all-black town in the country. What were Zora Neale Hurston’s contributions? Zora Neale Hurston was a scholar whose ethnographic research made her a pioneer writer of “folk fiction” about the black South, making her a prominent writer in the Harlem Renaissance. Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937) is her most celebrated novel. Where was Zora Neale Hurston educated? Zora Neale Hurston attended Howard University from 1921 to 1924 before winning a scholarship to Barnard College to study anthropology under Franz Boas. | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zora-Neale-Hurston |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1554517880#1_3270109767 | Title: Affordable Care Act cases | law cases | Britannica
Headings: Affordable Care Act cases
Affordable Care Act cases
law cases
District and appellate decisions
Content: v. Kathleen Sebelius, Secretary of Health and Human Services, et al.; and Department of Health and Human Services et al. v. Florida et al. — in which the U.S. Supreme Court on June 28, 2012, upheld key provisions of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA; also called the Affordable Care Act), a comprehensive reform of U.S. health care passed by Congress and signed into law by Pres. Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. The specific questions that were decided by the court included: ( 1) whether Congress exceeded its enumerated powers in Article I of the U.S. Constitution (including its power to lay taxes and to regulate interstate commerce) by requiring that most Americans obtain health insurance by January 1, 2014, or pay a fine (the minimum-coverage provision, also called the “ individual mandate ”) and (2) whether Congress unduly “coerced” state governments into increasing their contributions to Medicaid —the national health insurance program for the poor, jointly funded by the federal government and the states—by revising eligibility requirements to add up to 17 million beneficiaries to the program by 2022. The court also considered, as a preliminary matter, the question of whether it was barred from hearing challenges to the individual mandate by the Anti-Injunction Act (1867), which generally prohibits the federal courts from hearing lawsuits intended to restrain “the assessment or collection of any tax” before it has gone into effect. For political as well as constitutional reasons, the Affordable Care Act cases were among the most significant to reach the Supreme Court in a generation. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Affordable-Care-Act-cases |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1554517880#2_3270111797 | Title: Affordable Care Act cases | law cases | Britannica
Headings: Affordable Care Act cases
Affordable Care Act cases
law cases
District and appellate decisions
Content: Barack Obama on March 23, 2010. The specific questions that were decided by the court included: ( 1) whether Congress exceeded its enumerated powers in Article I of the U.S. Constitution (including its power to lay taxes and to regulate interstate commerce) by requiring that most Americans obtain health insurance by January 1, 2014, or pay a fine (the minimum-coverage provision, also called the “ individual mandate ”) and (2) whether Congress unduly “coerced” state governments into increasing their contributions to Medicaid —the national health insurance program for the poor, jointly funded by the federal government and the states—by revising eligibility requirements to add up to 17 million beneficiaries to the program by 2022. The court also considered, as a preliminary matter, the question of whether it was barred from hearing challenges to the individual mandate by the Anti-Injunction Act (1867), which generally prohibits the federal courts from hearing lawsuits intended to restrain “the assessment or collection of any tax” before it has gone into effect. For political as well as constitutional reasons, the Affordable Care Act cases were among the most significant to reach the Supreme Court in a generation. The court’s decision was expected to clarify, if not to redefine, the scope of federal regulatory power under the commerce clause, drawing comparisons to the Supreme Court rulings of the 1930s on the constitutionality of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt ’s New Deal package of economic reforms. It was also likely to affect Obama’s bid for reelection in November 2012 by either upholding or striking down the signature legislative achievement of his first term. Indeed, the cases galvanized Obama’s conservative and libertarian opponents on one side and many of his moderate and liberal supporters on the other, the former group condemning the PPACA (and specifically the individual mandate) as emblematic of the excessive growth of federal power under his administration and the latter group defending the law as a constitutionally sound reform that would guarantee affordable health care to millions of uninsured Americans. In apparent recognition of the cases’ unusual importance and complexity, the court scheduled a total of approximately six hours of oral argument—six times the limit of one hour of argument per decision that the court had observed since 1970. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Affordable-Care-Act-cases |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1554517880#4_3270116813 | Title: Affordable Care Act cases | law cases | Britannica
Headings: Affordable Care Act cases
Affordable Care Act cases
law cases
District and appellate decisions
Content: District and appellate decisions
The Affordable Care Act cases originated in a suit filed in U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Florida. In State of Florida et al. v. United States Department of Health and Human Services et al., Florida and 12 other states (later joined by 13 additional states, two individuals, and the National Federation of Independent Business [NFIB]) argued that in passing the individual mandate Congress had exceeded its power under the commerce clause to regulate interstate commerce, because the mandate amounted to a regulation of “inactivity”—i.e., the failure to purchase health insurance. The state plaintiffs additionally alleged that the PPACA’s expansion of Medicaid was an onerous financial burden that they had been forced to accept to continue receiving federal matching funds for Medicaid beneficiaries within their borders. Although state participation in Medicaid is voluntary, the plaintiffs could not realistically opt out of the program, which had become “customary and necessary for citizens throughout the United States, including the Plaintiffs’ respective states.” The Medicaid expansion thus allegedly violated the spending clause of the U.S. Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1), which does not permit Congress to offer financial inducements to the states that are “so coercive as to pass the point at which pressure turns into compulsion,” as the Supreme Court ruled in South Dakota v. Dole (1987), citing the court’s decision in Steward Machine Co. v. Davis (1937). In his ruling, issued in January 2011, U.S. District Court Judge Roger Vinson agreed with the government that the plaintiffs’ underlying “coercion theory” was unsupported in existing case law, having been rejected in challenges to federal spending laws by “every single federal Court of Appeals.” On the constitutionality of the individual mandate, however, he agreed with the plaintiffs that the commerce clause limits the scope of Congress’s regulatory authority to “activities”; | https://www.britannica.com/event/Affordable-Care-Act-cases |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1554517880#5_3270119281 | Title: Affordable Care Act cases | law cases | Britannica
Headings: Affordable Care Act cases
Affordable Care Act cases
law cases
District and appellate decisions
Content: The state plaintiffs additionally alleged that the PPACA’s expansion of Medicaid was an onerous financial burden that they had been forced to accept to continue receiving federal matching funds for Medicaid beneficiaries within their borders. Although state participation in Medicaid is voluntary, the plaintiffs could not realistically opt out of the program, which had become “customary and necessary for citizens throughout the United States, including the Plaintiffs’ respective states.” The Medicaid expansion thus allegedly violated the spending clause of the U.S. Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 1), which does not permit Congress to offer financial inducements to the states that are “so coercive as to pass the point at which pressure turns into compulsion,” as the Supreme Court ruled in South Dakota v. Dole (1987), citing the court’s decision in Steward Machine Co. v. Davis (1937). In his ruling, issued in January 2011, U.S. District Court Judge Roger Vinson agreed with the government that the plaintiffs’ underlying “coercion theory” was unsupported in existing case law, having been rejected in challenges to federal spending laws by “every single federal Court of Appeals.” On the constitutionality of the individual mandate, however, he agreed with the plaintiffs that the commerce clause limits the scope of Congress’s regulatory authority to “activities”; he thus rejected the government’s claims that congressional authority was not so limited and that, in any event, the failure to purchase health insurance should be understood as an activity. Finding in addition that the individual mandate was not severable from the other provisions of the PPACA (many of which, nevertheless, were unrelated to health insurance), he declared the entire law unconstitutional. In August 2011 a three-judge panel of the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals reversed (2–1) Vinson’s decision regarding severability but affirmed it regarding Medicaid and the individual mandate. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
Load Next Page | https://www.britannica.com/event/Affordable-Care-Act-cases |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1557107713#7_3275049981 | Title: Crusades | Definition, History, Map, Significance, & Legacy | Britannica
Headings:
Crusades
Christianity
How many Crusades were there, and when did they take place?
What was the purpose of the Crusades?
Who were the leaders of the Crusades?
Were the Crusades successful?
Were there lasting results from the Crusades?
Content: The Crusaders conquered Nicaea (in Turkey) and Antioch and then went on to seize Jerusalem, and they established a string of Crusader-ruled states. However, after the Muslim leader Zangī captured one of them, the Second Crusade, called in response, was defeated at Dorylaeum (near Nicaea) and failed in an attempt to conquer Damascus. The Third Crusade, called after the sultan Saladin conquered the Crusader state of Jerusalem, resulted in the capture of Cyprus and the successful siege of Acre (now in Israel), and Richard I’s forces defeated those of Saladin at the Battle of Arsūf and at Jaffa. Richard signed a peace treaty with Saladin allowing Christians access to Jerusalem. The Fourth Crusade—rather than attacking Egypt, then the centre of Muslim power—sacked the Byzantine Christian city of Constantinople. None of the following Crusades were successful. The capture of Acre in 1291 by the Māmluk sultan al-Ashraf Khalil marked the end of Crusader rule in the Middle East. Read more below: The results of the Crusades
Were there lasting results from the Crusades? The Crusades slowed the advance of Islamic power and may have prevented western Europe from falling under Muslim suzerainty. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1557107713#8_3275051717 | Title: Crusades | Definition, History, Map, Significance, & Legacy | Britannica
Headings:
Crusades
Christianity
How many Crusades were there, and when did they take place?
What was the purpose of the Crusades?
Who were the leaders of the Crusades?
Were the Crusades successful?
Were there lasting results from the Crusades?
Content: None of the following Crusades were successful. The capture of Acre in 1291 by the Māmluk sultan al-Ashraf Khalil marked the end of Crusader rule in the Middle East. Read more below: The results of the Crusades
Were there lasting results from the Crusades? The Crusades slowed the advance of Islamic power and may have prevented western Europe from falling under Muslim suzerainty. The Crusader states extended trade with the Muslim world, bringing new tastes and foods to Europe. The Crusades had a marked impact on the development of Western historical literature, bringing a plethora of chronicles and eyewitness accounts. However, Constantinople never returned to its former glory after being sacked by the Fourth Crusade, and the schism between Eastern and Roman Catholic Christianity was further entrenched. The Islamic world saw the Crusaders as cruel invaders, which helped engender distrust and resentment toward the Christian world. Read more below: | https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1557107713#9_3275053188 | Title: Crusades | Definition, History, Map, Significance, & Legacy | Britannica
Headings:
Crusades
Christianity
How many Crusades were there, and when did they take place?
What was the purpose of the Crusades?
Who were the leaders of the Crusades?
Were the Crusades successful?
Were there lasting results from the Crusades?
Content: The Crusader states extended trade with the Muslim world, bringing new tastes and foods to Europe. The Crusades had a marked impact on the development of Western historical literature, bringing a plethora of chronicles and eyewitness accounts. However, Constantinople never returned to its former glory after being sacked by the Fourth Crusade, and the schism between Eastern and Roman Catholic Christianity was further entrenched. The Islamic world saw the Crusaders as cruel invaders, which helped engender distrust and resentment toward the Christian world. Read more below: The results of the Crusades
Approximately two-thirds of the ancient Christian world had been conquered by Muslims by the end of the 11th century, including the important regions of Palestine, Syria, Egypt, and Anatolia. The Crusades, attempting to check this advance, initially enjoyed success, founding a Christian state in Palestine and Syria, but the continued growth of Islamic states ultimately reversed those gains. By the 14th century the Ottoman Turks had established themselves in the Balkans and would penetrate deeper into Europe despite repeated efforts to repulse them. The Crusades constitute a controversial chapter in the history of Christianity, and their excesses have been the subject of centuries of historiography. The Crusades also played an integral role in the expansion of medieval Europe. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Crusades |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1557588261#2_3275959150 | Title: Exxon Valdez oil spill | Response, Animals, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Exxon Valdez oil spill
Exxon Valdez oil spill
environmental disaster, Prince William Sound, Alaska, United States [1989]
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Exxon Valdez oil spill
Content: After evidence suggested that Joseph J. Hazelwood, the ship’s captain, had been drinking before the accident, Exxon terminated his employment. In 1990 the U.S. Congress passed the Oil Pollution Act in direct response to the Exxon Valdez accident. Among other measures, the act created procedures for responding to future oil spills, established the legal liabilities of responsible parties, and set a schedule for banning single-hulled tankers from U.S. waters by 2015. Exxon Valdez oil spill: Naked Island
Crews using water from high-pressure hoses to clean oil off rocks on a beach, Naked Island, Alaska, April 21, 1989. The oil had spilled from the tanker Exxon Valdez when it ran aground on a reef. Rob Stapleton—AP/Shutterstock.com
Exxon Valdez oil spill
Workers cleaning rocks coated in oil from the Exxon Valdez, an oil tanker than ran aground (1989) in Prince William Sound, Alaska, U.S.
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council/NOAA (ID: line1532)
The Exxon Valdez itself was repaired and returned to service but was legally prohibited by a clause in the Oil Pollution Act from ever reentering Prince William Sound. Recommissioned the Exxon Mediterranean, it worked the Mediterranean Sea until single-hulled vessels were banned from European waters. In 2008 it was converted by a Hong Kong company to an ore carrier, and in 2012, under the name Oriental Nicety, it was sold for scrapping in Alang, India. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Exxon-Valdez-oil-spill |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1558982586#1_3278782755 | Title: La Reforma | Mexican history | Britannica
Headings: La Reforma
La Reforma
Mexican history
Content: appalled at the easy victory the United States had won, the more thoughtful...
La Reforma period began with the issuance in 1854 of the Plan de Ayutla, a liberal pronouncement calling for the removal of the dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna. After Santa Anna’s fall in 1855, Juárez and the liberals enacted the Ley Juárez, abolishing the fueros (special privileges of the clergy and the military); the Ley Lerdo (1856) ordered the sale of all church lands not used for specifically religious purposes. In 1857 the congress, in which the moderate liberals held sway, drafted a liberal, federalist constitution; it ended special jurisdiction for the clergy, limited the power of the church, placed the army under ultimate civilian control, abolished hereditary titles and imprisonment for debt, and gave Mexican citizens their first genuine bill of rights. In 1858 the conservative clergy, military, and landowners precipitated a civil war (known as the War of the Reform or Reform War), which was won by the liberal government by 1860. By the Laws of La Reforma (1859), church property, except for places of worship, was to be confiscated without compensation, monasteries were suppressed, cemeteries nationalized, and civil marriage instituted. Confiscated church property was to be allotted in small parcels to the landless; the land policy of La Reforma was its outstanding failure, however, because by the end of the period the number and wealth of large landholders increased while the condition of impoverished, landless peasants worsened. In 1862 Juárez’s government was attacked from without: | https://www.britannica.com/event/La-Reforma |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559379297#1_3279579516 | Title: Mexican-American War | Significance, Battles, Results, Timeline, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Mexican-American War
Mexican-American War
Mexico-United States [1846–1848]
See how President Polk's administration won the Mexican-American War but failed to solve the slavery debate
What was the Mexican-American War?
What did the Mexican-American War have to do with Manifest Destiny?
Was there opposition to the Mexican-American War within the United States?
What did the U.S. gain by winning the Mexican-American War?
How did the Mexican-American War increase sectionalism in the United States?
“American blood on American soil”: Polk and the prelude to war
Spot Resolutions and Civil Disobedience: American opposition to the war
Content: The Mexican-American War was a conflict between the United States and Mexico, fought from April 1846 to February 1848. Won by the Americans and damned by its contemporary critics as expansionist, it resulted in the U.S. gaining more than 500,000 square miles (1,300,000 square km) of Mexican territory extending westward from the Rio Grande to the Pacific Ocean. It stemmed from the annexation of the Republic of Texas by the U.S. in 1845 and from a dispute over whether Texas ended at the Nueces River (the Mexican claim) or the Rio Grande (the U.S. claim). What did the Mexican-American War have to do with Manifest Destiny? The concept of Manifest Destiny held that the United States had the providential right to expand to the Pacific Ocean. In 1845 the U.S. annexed the Republic of Texas, which had won de facto independence from Mexico in the Texas Revolution (1835–36). When U.S. diplomatic efforts to establish agreement on the Texas-Mexico border and to purchase Mexico’s California and New Mexico territories failed, expansionist U.S. Pres. James K. Polk found a rationale to justify an attempt to take that land by force when U.S. and Mexican troops skirmished north of the Rio Grande on April 25, 1846. Manifest Destiny
Read more about Manifest Destiny. James K. Polk
Read about James K. Polk, during whose presidency the United States acquired vast territories along the Pacific coast and in the Southwest. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Mexican-American-War |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559379297#4_3279586500 | Title: Mexican-American War | Significance, Battles, Results, Timeline, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Mexican-American War
Mexican-American War
Mexico-United States [1846–1848]
See how President Polk's administration won the Mexican-American War but failed to solve the slavery debate
What was the Mexican-American War?
What did the Mexican-American War have to do with Manifest Destiny?
Was there opposition to the Mexican-American War within the United States?
What did the U.S. gain by winning the Mexican-American War?
How did the Mexican-American War increase sectionalism in the United States?
“American blood on American soil”: Polk and the prelude to war
Spot Resolutions and Civil Disobedience: American opposition to the war
Content: Read more below: Spot Resolutions and Civil Disobedience: American opposition to the war
Henry David Thoreau
Learn more about Transcendentalist author Henry David Thoreau, an opponent of the Mexican-American War. What did the U.S. gain by winning the Mexican-American War? Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which settled the Mexican-American War, the United States gained more than 500,000 square miles (1,300,000 square km) of land, expanding U.S. territory by about one-third. Mexico ceded nearly all the territory now included in the U.S. states of New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, Texas, and western Colorado for $15 million and U.S. assumption of its citizens’ claims against Mexico. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Read more about the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. How the Border Between the United States and Mexico Was Established
Learn more about how the borders of the United States and Mexico were changed by the Mexican-American War. How did the Mexican-American War increase sectionalism in the United States? The Mexican-American War reopened the slavery-extension issue, which divided the North and South and which had been largely dormant since the Missouri Compromise. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Mexican-American-War |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559443840#0_3279716357 | Title: Miranda v. Arizona | Definition, Background, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Miranda v. Arizona
Miranda v. Arizona
law case
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Content: Miranda v. Arizona | Definition, Background, & Facts | Britannica
Home Politics, Law & Government Law, Crime & Punishment
Miranda v. Arizona
law case
Print
Give Feedback
External Websites
WRITTEN BY
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....
See Article History
Miranda v. Arizona, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on June 13, 1966, established a code of conduct for police interrogations of criminal suspects held in custody. Chief Justice Earl Warren, writing for a 5–4 majority, held that prosecutors may not use statements made by suspects under questioning in police custody unless certain minimum procedural safeguards were followed. He specified new guidelines to ensure “that the individual is accorded his privilege under the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution not to be compelled to incriminate himself .” Known as the Miranda warnings, these guidelines included informing arrested persons prior to questioning that they have the right to remain silent, that anything they say may be used against them as evidence, that they have the right to have an attorney present, and that if they are unable to afford an attorney, one will be appointed for them. Warren also declared that police may not question (or continue questioning) a suspect in custody if at any stage of the process he “indicates in any manner that he does not wish to be interrogated” or “indicates in any manner…that he wishes to consult with an attorney.” Although suspects could waive their rights to remain silent and to consult an attorney, their waivers were valid (for the purpose of using their statements in court) only if they were performed “voluntarily, knowingly, and intelligently.” The Miranda decision was one of the most controversial rulings of the Warren Court, which had become increasingly concerned about the methods used by local police to obtain confessions. Miranda v. Arizona reversed an Arizona court’s conviction of Ernesto Miranda on charges of kidnapping and rape. After being identified in a police lineup, Miranda had been questioned by police; he confessed and then signed a written statement without first having been told that he had the right to have a lawyer present to advise him or that he had the right to remain silent. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Miranda-v-Arizona |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559443840#1_3279719232 | Title: Miranda v. Arizona | Definition, Background, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Miranda v. Arizona
Miranda v. Arizona
law case
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Content: Although suspects could waive their rights to remain silent and to consult an attorney, their waivers were valid (for the purpose of using their statements in court) only if they were performed “voluntarily, knowingly, and intelligently.” The Miranda decision was one of the most controversial rulings of the Warren Court, which had become increasingly concerned about the methods used by local police to obtain confessions. Miranda v. Arizona reversed an Arizona court’s conviction of Ernesto Miranda on charges of kidnapping and rape. After being identified in a police lineup, Miranda had been questioned by police; he confessed and then signed a written statement without first having been told that he had the right to have a lawyer present to advise him or that he had the right to remain silent. Miranda’s confession was later used at his trial to obtain his conviction. The Supreme Court held that the prosecution could not use his statements obtained by the police while the suspect was in custody unless the police had complied with several procedural safeguards to secure the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination. Critics of the Miranda decision argued that the Court, in seeking to protect the rights of individuals, had seriously weakened law enforcement. Later decisions by the Supreme Court limited some of the potential scope of the Miranda safeguards. In 2000 the Supreme Court decided Dickerson v. United States, a case that presented a more conservative Court under Chief Justice William Rehnquist an opportunity to overrule Miranda v. Arizona —which, nevertheless, it declined to do. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Miranda-v-Arizona |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559685272#2_3280222175 | Title: New Deal | Definition, History, Programs, Summary, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: New Deal
New Deal
United States history
WRITTEN BY
What was the purpose of the New Deal?
What were the New Deal programs and what did they do?
What were the most important results of the New Deal?
What New Deal programs remain in effect?
Explore the programs of FDR's New Deal during the Great Depression
Content: U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal (1933–39) aimed to provide immediate economic relief and to bring about reforms to stabilize the economy. Great Depression
Learn about this period of steep economic decline. Franklin D. Roosevelt
Read more about Franklin D. Roosevelt and his economic policies. What were the New Deal programs and what did they do? The Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) brought relief to farmers by paying them to curtail production, reducing surpluses, and raising prices for agricultural products. The Public Works Administration (PWA) reduced unemployment by hiring the unemployed to build new public buildings, roads, bridges, and subways. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) employed hundreds of thousands of young men in reforestation and flood-control work. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) established codes to eliminate unfair practices, establish minimum wages and maximum hours, and guarantee the right of collective bargaining. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) brought cheap electricity to people in seven states. The Home Owners’ Refinancing Act provided mortgage relief to the unemployed. | https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Deal |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559685272#3_3280223928 | Title: New Deal | Definition, History, Programs, Summary, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: New Deal
New Deal
United States history
WRITTEN BY
What was the purpose of the New Deal?
What were the New Deal programs and what did they do?
What were the most important results of the New Deal?
What New Deal programs remain in effect?
Explore the programs of FDR's New Deal during the Great Depression
Content: The Public Works Administration (PWA) reduced unemployment by hiring the unemployed to build new public buildings, roads, bridges, and subways. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) employed hundreds of thousands of young men in reforestation and flood-control work. The National Recovery Administration (NRA) established codes to eliminate unfair practices, establish minimum wages and maximum hours, and guarantee the right of collective bargaining. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) brought cheap electricity to people in seven states. The Home Owners’ Refinancing Act provided mortgage relief to the unemployed. The Securities Act of 1933 provided government oversight of stock trading. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) protected depositors’ bank accounts. Later programs included the Social Security Act, the Works Progress Administration (WPA), and the National Labor Relations Act. What were the most important results of the New Deal? The New Deal established federal responsibility for the welfare of the U.S. economy and the American people. | https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Deal |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559685272#4_3280225584 | Title: New Deal | Definition, History, Programs, Summary, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: New Deal
New Deal
United States history
WRITTEN BY
What was the purpose of the New Deal?
What were the New Deal programs and what did they do?
What were the most important results of the New Deal?
What New Deal programs remain in effect?
Explore the programs of FDR's New Deal during the Great Depression
Content: The Securities Act of 1933 provided government oversight of stock trading. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) protected depositors’ bank accounts. Later programs included the Social Security Act, the Works Progress Administration (WPA), and the National Labor Relations Act. What were the most important results of the New Deal? The New Deal established federal responsibility for the welfare of the U.S. economy and the American people. Despite the importance of this growth of federal responsibility, perhaps the greatest achievement of the New Deal was to restore faith in American democracy at a time when many people believed that the only choice left was between communism and fascism. United States: The New Deal
Read more about the New Deal and its impact in America. What New Deal programs remain in effect? The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) in banking and Fannie Mae (FNMA) in mortgage lending are among New Deal programs still in operation. | https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Deal |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559685272#5_3280227146 | Title: New Deal | Definition, History, Programs, Summary, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: New Deal
New Deal
United States history
WRITTEN BY
What was the purpose of the New Deal?
What were the New Deal programs and what did they do?
What were the most important results of the New Deal?
What New Deal programs remain in effect?
Explore the programs of FDR's New Deal during the Great Depression
Content: Despite the importance of this growth of federal responsibility, perhaps the greatest achievement of the New Deal was to restore faith in American democracy at a time when many people believed that the only choice left was between communism and fascism. United States: The New Deal
Read more about the New Deal and its impact in America. What New Deal programs remain in effect? The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) in banking and Fannie Mae (FNMA) in mortgage lending are among New Deal programs still in operation. Other such programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), the Farm Credit Administration, and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The Soil Conservation Service remains as the Natural Resources Conservation Service. Perhaps the most notable New Deal program still in effect is the national old-age pension system created by the Social Security Act (1935). Read more below: 7 Alphabet Soup Agencies that Stuck Around
Fannie Mae
Read more about Fannie Mae, the Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA). | https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Deal |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559685272#6_3280228824 | Title: New Deal | Definition, History, Programs, Summary, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: New Deal
New Deal
United States history
WRITTEN BY
What was the purpose of the New Deal?
What were the New Deal programs and what did they do?
What were the most important results of the New Deal?
What New Deal programs remain in effect?
Explore the programs of FDR's New Deal during the Great Depression
Content: Other such programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), the Farm Credit Administration, and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The Soil Conservation Service remains as the Natural Resources Conservation Service. Perhaps the most notable New Deal program still in effect is the national old-age pension system created by the Social Security Act (1935). Read more below: 7 Alphabet Soup Agencies that Stuck Around
Fannie Mae
Read more about Fannie Mae, the Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA). Federal Housing Administration (FHA)
Learn about this agency, designed to facilitate home financing and improve housing standards. Federal Communications Commission
Learn about this independent agency. Social security
Read more about the history and development of social security programs. Much of the New Deal legislation was enacted within the first three months of Roosevelt’s presidency, which became known as the Hundred Days. The new administration’s first objective was to alleviate the suffering of the nation’s huge number of unemployed workers. | https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Deal |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559685272#8_3280232757 | Title: New Deal | Definition, History, Programs, Summary, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: New Deal
New Deal
United States history
WRITTEN BY
What was the purpose of the New Deal?
What were the New Deal programs and what did they do?
What were the most important results of the New Deal?
What New Deal programs remain in effect?
Explore the programs of FDR's New Deal during the Great Depression
Content: Such agencies as the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) were established to dispense emergency and short-term governmental aid and to provide temporary jobs, employment on construction projects, and youth work in the national forests. Before 1935 the New Deal focused on revitalizing the country’s stricken business and agricultural communities. To revive industrial activity, the National Recovery Administration (NRA) was granted authority to help shape industrial codes governing trade practices, wages, hours, child labour, and collective bargaining. The New Deal also tried to regulate the nation’s financial hierarchy in order to avoid a repetition of the stock market crash of 1929 and the massive bank failures that followed. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) granted government insurance for bank deposits in member banks of the Federal Reserve System, and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was formed to protect the investing public from fraudulent stock-market practices. The farm program was centred in the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), which attempted to raise prices by controlling the production of staple crops through cash subsidies to farmers. In addition, the arm of the federal government reached into the area of electric power, establishing in 1933 the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), which was to cover a seven-state area and supply cheap electricity, prevent floods, improve navigation, and produce nitrates. Civilian Conservation Corps
New members of the Civilian Conservation Corps waiting to be fitted for shoes at Camp Dix, New Jersey, 1935. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Explore the programs of FDR's New Deal during the Great Depression
Learn more about the program, known as the New Deal, launched by U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt to address the effects of the Great Depression. | https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Deal |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1559685272#9_3280235250 | Title: New Deal | Definition, History, Programs, Summary, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: New Deal
New Deal
United States history
WRITTEN BY
What was the purpose of the New Deal?
What were the New Deal programs and what did they do?
What were the most important results of the New Deal?
What New Deal programs remain in effect?
Explore the programs of FDR's New Deal during the Great Depression
Content: The farm program was centred in the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), which attempted to raise prices by controlling the production of staple crops through cash subsidies to farmers. In addition, the arm of the federal government reached into the area of electric power, establishing in 1933 the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), which was to cover a seven-state area and supply cheap electricity, prevent floods, improve navigation, and produce nitrates. Civilian Conservation Corps
New members of the Civilian Conservation Corps waiting to be fitted for shoes at Camp Dix, New Jersey, 1935. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Explore the programs of FDR's New Deal during the Great Depression
Learn more about the program, known as the New Deal, launched by U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt to address the effects of the Great Depression. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. See all videos for this article
In 1935 the New Deal emphasis shifted to measures designed to assist labour and other urban groups. The Wagner Act of 1935 greatly increased the authority of the federal government in industrial relations and strengthened the organizing power of labour unions, establishing the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to execute this program. To aid the “forgotten” homeowner, legislation was passed to refinance shaky mortgages and guarantee bank loans for both modernization and mortgage payments. Perhaps the most far-reaching programs of the entire New Deal were the Social Security measures enacted in 1935 and 1939, providing old-age and widows’ benefits, unemployment compensation, and disability insurance. Maximum work hours and minimum wages were also set in certain industries in 1938. | https://www.britannica.com/event/New-Deal |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1560430529#0_3281718775 | Title: Revolutions of 1848 | Causes, Summary, & Significance | Britannica
Headings: Revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 1848
European history
History at your fingertips
Content: Revolutions of 1848 | Causes, Summary, & Significance | Britannica
Home World History Wars, Battles & Armed Conflicts
Revolutions of 1848
European history
Print
Give Feedback
External Websites
WRITTEN BY
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....
See Article History
Revolutions of 1848, series of republican revolts against European monarchies, beginning in Sicily and spreading to France, Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire. They all ended in failure and repression and were followed by widespread disillusionment among liberals. Read More on This Topic
history of Europe: The Revolutions of 1848
After adopting reforms in the 1830s and the early 1840s, Louis-Philippe of France rejected further change and thereby spurred new liberal...
The revolutionary movement began in Italy with a local revolution in Sicily in January 1848, and, after the revolution of February 24 in France, the movement extended throughout the whole of Europe, with the exception of Russia, Spain, and the Scandinavian countries. In the United Kingdom it amounted to little more than a Chartist demonstration and a republican agitation in Ireland. In Belgium, the Netherlands, and Denmark it manifested itself in peaceful reforms of existing institutions, but democratic insurrections broke out in the capitals of the three great monarchies, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin, where the governments, rendered powerless by their fear of “the revolution,” did little to defend themselves. The revolution was successful in France alone; the Second Republic and universal manhood suffrage were established, but the quarrel between the supporters of the république démocratique and the partisans of république démocratique et sociale culminated in a workers’ insurrection in June 1848. In Austria, where the new ministers promised to grant constitutions, the monarchy withstood the storm, and in Prussia King Frederick William IV, who led the movement for the unification of Germany, hoisted the black, red, and gold flag that had become the symbol of German unity. The German governments agreed to the convocation of three constituent assemblies at Berlin, Vienna, and Frankfurt by which democratic constitutions were to be drafted for Prussia, Austria, and Germany. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Revolutions-of-1848 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1560430529#1_3281721615 | Title: Revolutions of 1848 | Causes, Summary, & Significance | Britannica
Headings: Revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 1848
European history
History at your fingertips
Content: In Belgium, the Netherlands, and Denmark it manifested itself in peaceful reforms of existing institutions, but democratic insurrections broke out in the capitals of the three great monarchies, Paris, Vienna, and Berlin, where the governments, rendered powerless by their fear of “the revolution,” did little to defend themselves. The revolution was successful in France alone; the Second Republic and universal manhood suffrage were established, but the quarrel between the supporters of the république démocratique and the partisans of république démocratique et sociale culminated in a workers’ insurrection in June 1848. In Austria, where the new ministers promised to grant constitutions, the monarchy withstood the storm, and in Prussia King Frederick William IV, who led the movement for the unification of Germany, hoisted the black, red, and gold flag that had become the symbol of German unity. The German governments agreed to the convocation of three constituent assemblies at Berlin, Vienna, and Frankfurt by which democratic constitutions were to be drafted for Prussia, Austria, and Germany. In Italy, at first, the revolution only took the form of a nationalist rising against Austria led by the king of Sardinia under the Italian tricolour, the “white, red, and green.” The republic was proclaimed in 1849, and then only in Rome and Tuscany. Within the Austrian Empire the nationalities subjected to the German Government of Vienna agitated for a national government, and Hungary succeeded in organizing itself on an autonomous basis. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
This upheaval seemed to indicate a redistribution of the territories of Europe. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Revolutions-of-1848 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1560479170#0_3281801183 | Title: Roe v. Wade | Summary, Origins, & Influence | Britannica
Headings: Roe v. Wade
Roe v. Wade
law case
Content: Roe v. Wade | Summary, Origins, & Influence | Britannica
Home Politics, Law & Government Law, Crime & Punishment
Roe v. Wade
law case
Print
Give Feedback
External Websites
WRITTEN BY
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....
See Article History
Roe v. Wade, legal case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on January 22, 1973, ruled (7–2) that unduly restrictive state regulation of abortion is unconstitutional. In a majority opinion written by Justice Harry A. Blackmun, the Court held that a set of Texas statutes criminalizing abortion in most instances violated a woman’s constitutional right of privacy, which it found to be implicit in the liberty guarantee of the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (“…nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law”). Harry A. Blackmun
Harry A. Blackmun, 1976. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (neg. no. LC-USZC6-24)
The case began in 1970 when “Jane Roe”—a fictional name used to protect the identity of the plaintiff, Norma McCorvey—instituted federal action against Henry Wade, the district attorney of Dallas county, Texas, where Roe resided. The Supreme Court disagreed with Roe’s assertion of an absolute right to terminate pregnancy in any way and at any time and attempted to balance a woman’s right of privacy with a state’s interest in regulating abortion. In his opinion, Blackmun noted that only a “compelling state interest” justifies regulations limiting “fundamental rights” such as privacy and that legislators must therefore draw statutes narrowly “to express only the legitimate state interests at stake.” The Court then attempted to balance the state’s distinct compelling interests in the health of pregnant women and in the potential life of fetuses. It placed the point after which a state’s compelling interest in the pregnant woman’s health would allow it to regulate abortion “at approximately the end of the first trimester” of pregnancy. | https://www.britannica.com/event/Roe-v-Wade |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1562157492#0_3285193328 | Title: United States Presidential Election of 2008 | United States government | Britannica
Headings:
United States Presidential Election of 2008
United States government
Witness Barack Obama taking the presidential oath and delivering his inaugural address, January 20, 2009
United States Presidential Election of 2008
Content: United States Presidential Election of 2008 | United States government | Britannica
Home Politics, Law & Government Politics & Political Systems
United States Presidential Election of 2008
United States government
Give Feedback
External Websites
WRITTEN BY
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....
See Article History
Witness Barack Obama taking the presidential oath and delivering his inaugural address, January 20, 2009
Barack Obama taking the presidential oath of office and delivering his inaugural address on January 20, 2009, Washington, D.C.
White House See all videos for this article
On November 4, 2008, after a campaign that lasted nearly two years, Americans elected Illinois senator Barack Obama their 44th president. The result was historic, as Obama, a first-term U.S. senator, became, when he was inaugurated on January 20, 2009, the country’s first African American president. He also was the first sitting U.S. senator to win election to the presidency since John F. Kennedy in 1960. With the highest voter turnout rate in four decades, Obama and Delaware senator Joe Biden defeated the Republican ticket of Arizona senator John McCain, who sought to become the oldest person elected president to a first term in U.S. history, and Alaska governor Sarah Palin, who attempted to become the first woman vice president in the country’s history, winning nearly 53 percent of the vote. results of the American presidential election, 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Britannica Quiz
U.S. Presidential History Quiz
The phrase “New Frontier” is associated with which U.S. president? Who was “first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen”? Use this in-depth quiz to make every day Presidents’ Day by testing your knowledge of U.S. presidents and first ladies. The 24/7 news cycle and the proliferation of blogs as a means of disseminating information (both factual and erroneous) framed the contest as both campaigns attempted to control the narrative. McCain’s campaign tried to paint Obama as a naive, inexperienced political lightweight who would sit down with the leaders of anti-American regimes in Cuba, Iran, and Venezuela without preconditions, claimed that he was merely a celebrity with little substance (airing an ad comparing Obama to Britney Spears and Paris Hilton), labeled his ideas socialist (hammering away at Obama’s tax policy in particular and pouncing on Obama’s comment to “Joe the Plumber” that he would seek “spread the wealth”), and attacked his association with Bill Ayers, who had cofounded the Weathermen, a group that carried out bombings in the 1960s. Ayers, in 2008 a professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago—and constantly called an “unrepentant domestic terrorist” by the McCain campaign—lived a few blocks from Obama in Chicago, contributed to his reelection campaign for the Illinois Senate, and served on an antipoverty board with Obama from 1999 to 2002. | https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-2008 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1562569232#3_3285963399 | Title: World War I | History, Summary, Causes, Combatants, Casualties, Map, & Facts | Britannica
Headings:
World War I
Top Questions
What was the main cause of World War I?
What countries fought in World War I?
Who won World War I?
How many people died during World War I?
What was the significance of World War I?
Explore the roles of Marie Curie, Mabel St. Clair Stobart, and Aileen Cole Stewart in World War I
The outbreak of war
Witness the beginning of World War I with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914
Content: The outbreak of war: Forces and resources of the combatant nations in 1914
Who won World War I? The Allies won World War I after four years of combat and the deaths of some 8.5 million soldiers as a result of battle wounds or disease. Treaty of Versailles
Read more about the Treaty of Versailles. In many ways, the peace treaty that ended World War I set the stage for World War II. How many people died during World War I? Some 8,500,000 soldiers died as a result of wounds or disease during World War I. Perhaps as many as 13,000,000 civilians also died. This immensely large number of deaths dwarfed that of any previous war, largely because of the new technologies and styles of warfare used in World War I.
Read more below: The last offensives and the Allies’ victory: Killed, wounded, and missing
Read more below: | https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1562569232#4_3285964954 | Title: World War I | History, Summary, Causes, Combatants, Casualties, Map, & Facts | Britannica
Headings:
World War I
Top Questions
What was the main cause of World War I?
What countries fought in World War I?
Who won World War I?
How many people died during World War I?
What was the significance of World War I?
Explore the roles of Marie Curie, Mabel St. Clair Stobart, and Aileen Cole Stewart in World War I
The outbreak of war
Witness the beginning of World War I with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914
Content: How many people died during World War I? Some 8,500,000 soldiers died as a result of wounds or disease during World War I. Perhaps as many as 13,000,000 civilians also died. This immensely large number of deaths dwarfed that of any previous war, largely because of the new technologies and styles of warfare used in World War I.
Read more below: The last offensives and the Allies’ victory: Killed, wounded, and missing
Read more below: The outbreak of war: Technology of war in 1914
Trench warfare
Read more about trench warfare. What was the significance of World War I? Four imperial dynasties—the Habsburgs of Austria-Hungary, the Hohenzollerns of Germany, the sultanate of the Ottoman Empire, and the Romanovs of Russia—collapsed as a direct result of the war, and the map of Europe was changed forever. The United States emerged as a world power, and new technology made warfare deadlier than ever before. | https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-I |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1565024134#0_3291205323 | Title: The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church | Britannica
Headings: The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church
The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church
Baptism
Eucharist
Confirmation
Reconciliation
Anointing of the Sick
Marriage
Ordination
Content: The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church | Britannica
Home List Philosophy & Religion
The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church
Share: Facebook Twitter
Home List Philosophy & Religion
The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church
WRITTEN BY
Melissa Petruzzello
Melissa Petruzzello is Assistant Editor of Plant and Environmental Science and covers a range of content from plants, algae, and fungi, to renewable energy and environmental engineering. She has her M.S....
© fragolerosse/Fotolia
The Roman Catholic Church has seven holy sacraments that are seen as mystical channels of divine grace, instituted by Christ. Each is celebrated with a visible rite, which reflects the invisible, spiritual essence of the sacrament. Whereas some sacraments are received only once, others require active and ongoing participation to foster the "living faith" of the celebrant. Baptism
baptism of Jesus
The baptism of Jesus by St. John the Baptist, from an Armenian evangelistary (1587). © Photos.com/Thinkstock
Baptism is seen as the sacrament of admission to the faith, bringing sanctifying grace to the person being baptized. In Catholicism the baptism of infants is the most common form, but unbaptized children or adults who wish to join the faith must also receive the sacrament. A person is to be baptized only once in their life, and the Catholic Church recognizes baptisms done by most other Christian denominations as valid. In the rite of baptism holy water is usually sprinkled or poured on the head by a priest who simultaneously invokes the Trinity with the words, "I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." | https://www.britannica.com/list/the-seven-sacraments-of-the-roman-catholic-church |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1565024134#1_3291207507 | Title: The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church | Britannica
Headings: The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church
The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church
Baptism
Eucharist
Confirmation
Reconciliation
Anointing of the Sick
Marriage
Ordination
Content: Baptism
baptism of Jesus
The baptism of Jesus by St. John the Baptist, from an Armenian evangelistary (1587). © Photos.com/Thinkstock
Baptism is seen as the sacrament of admission to the faith, bringing sanctifying grace to the person being baptized. In Catholicism the baptism of infants is the most common form, but unbaptized children or adults who wish to join the faith must also receive the sacrament. A person is to be baptized only once in their life, and the Catholic Church recognizes baptisms done by most other Christian denominations as valid. In the rite of baptism holy water is usually sprinkled or poured on the head by a priest who simultaneously invokes the Trinity with the words, "I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." The old self is said to die in the waters, and a new self emerges, mirroring the death and resurrection of Christ. Given that the sacrament is understood as a requirement for salvation, anyone, even non-baptized persons, can baptize someone as the situation requires. Eucharist
Clements, George
George Clements (left) distributes the Eucharist at his parish, Holy Angels Church, in Chicago, 1973. John H. White/EPA/National Archives, Washington, D.C.
The Eucharist, or Holy Communion, is another sacrament of initiation and can be received daily if desired. It is the central rite of Catholic worship. | https://www.britannica.com/list/the-seven-sacraments-of-the-roman-catholic-church |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1565024134#2_3291209394 | Title: The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church | Britannica
Headings: The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church
The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church
Baptism
Eucharist
Confirmation
Reconciliation
Anointing of the Sick
Marriage
Ordination
Content: The old self is said to die in the waters, and a new self emerges, mirroring the death and resurrection of Christ. Given that the sacrament is understood as a requirement for salvation, anyone, even non-baptized persons, can baptize someone as the situation requires. Eucharist
Clements, George
George Clements (left) distributes the Eucharist at his parish, Holy Angels Church, in Chicago, 1973. John H. White/EPA/National Archives, Washington, D.C.
The Eucharist, or Holy Communion, is another sacrament of initiation and can be received daily if desired. It is the central rite of Catholic worship. A baptized child's First Communion is usually celebrated around age seven or eight and is preceded by their first confession (the sacrament of Reconciliation). During the mass the priest consecrates bread and wine, the elements of the Eucharist, which are transubstantiated into the body and blood of Christ. As a memorial of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross and in a reflection of his Last Supper with his disciples, the congregation then shares in the sacred meal. Special lay ministers (i.e., non-priests) are trained to bring the consecrated elements to the ill or otherwise homebound so that all Catholics can participate. Confirmation
Confirmation is the third sacrament of initiation and serves to "confirm" a baptized person in their faith. | https://www.britannica.com/list/the-seven-sacraments-of-the-roman-catholic-church |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1565024134#8_3291221247 | Title: The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church | Britannica
Headings: The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church
The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church
Baptism
Eucharist
Confirmation
Reconciliation
Anointing of the Sick
Marriage
Ordination
Content: Christian wedding ceremony
A bride and groom receiving Communion during their wedding ceremony. © Bogdan Sonjachnyj/Shutterstock.com
In Catholicism marriage is a sacrament that a baptized man and a baptized woman administer to each other through their marriage vows and lifelong partnership. Given that to a Catholic sacramental marriage reflects the union of Christ with the church as his mystical body, marriage is understood to be an indissoluble union. The rite commonly takes place during a mass, with a priest serving as the minister of the mass and as a witness to the mutual consent of the couple. The marriage union is used to sanctify both the husband and wife by drawing them into a deeper understanding of God’s love and is intended to be fruitful, with any children to be raised within the teachings of the church. Ordination
Ordination, or Holy Orders, is a sacrament that is available only to men who are being ordained as deacons, priests, or bishops. As with Baptism and Confirmation, the sacrament is said to convey a special indelible “character” on the soul of the recipient. During the rite, which typically occurs during a special Sunday mass, a prayer and blessing is offered as a bishop lays his hands on the head of the man being ordained. In the case of the ordination of priests and bishops, this act confers the sacramental power to ordain (for bishops), baptize, confirm, witness marriages, absolve sins, and consecrate the Eucharist. Deacons can baptize, witness marriages, preach, and assist during the mass, but they cannot consecrate the Eucharist or hear confessions. | https://www.britannica.com/list/the-seven-sacraments-of-the-roman-catholic-church |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1565873543#3_3293017889 | Title: Alps | Map, Mountaineering, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Alps
Alps
mountains, Europe
Content: Moreover, they create their own unique climate based on both the local differences in elevation and relief and the location of the mountains in relation to the frontal systems that cross Europe from west to east. Apart from tropical conditions, most of the other climates found on the Earth may be identified somewhere in the Alps, and contrasts are sharp. A distinctive Alpine pastoral economy that evolved through the centuries has been modified since the 19th century by industry based on indigenous raw materials, such as the industries in the Mur and Mürz valleys of southern Austria that used iron ore from deposits near Eisenerz. Hydroelectric power development at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, often involving many different watersheds, led to the establishment in the lower valleys of electricity -dependent industries, manufacturing such products as aluminum, chemicals, and specialty steels. Tourism, which began in the 19th century in a modest way, became, after World War II, a mass phenomenon. Thus, the Alps are a summer and winter playground for millions of European urban dwellers and annually attract tourists from around the world. Because of this enormous human impact on a fragile physical and ecological environment, the Alps are likely the most threatened mountain system in the world. Load Next Page | https://www.britannica.com/place/Alps |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1566410977#0_3294167119 | Title: Arabia - Economy | Britannica
Headings: Economy of Arabia
Economy of Arabia
Content: Arabia - Economy | Britannica
Load Previous Page
Economy of Arabia
The mineral resource of greatest value is oil. The Arabian Peninsula has the largest oil reserves in the world. With the exception of deposits in Yemen, the Arabian oil fields lie in the same great sedimentary basin as the fields of Iran and Iraq. Although oil was discovered in Iran in 1908, the first field on the Arabian side of the basin, in Bahrain, was not found until 1932. This inspired an intensive search in eastern Arabia that in time reached far into the interior. Oil was discovered in Saudi Arabia in 1938, in Kuwait and Qatar in 1940, on the mainland of the Saudi Arabia/Kuwait Neutral Zone in 1953, on the mainland of Abu Dhabi in 1960, in Oman in 1964, in South Yemen in 1983, and in North Yemen in 1984. In 1951 oil was discovered in the Persian Gulf off Saudi Arabia, in 1958 in Abu Dhabi offshore, and in 1960 in the Saudi Arabia/Kuwait Neutral Zone offshore. Oil refinery on the island of Ḥālū in the Persian Gulf, Qatar. © Peter Sanders
In association with the oil are enormous amounts of natural gas. Making use of this gas commercially requires extremely large investments. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabia-peninsula-Asia/Economy |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1566410977#1_3294168581 | Title: Arabia - Economy | Britannica
Headings: Economy of Arabia
Economy of Arabia
Content: Oil was discovered in Saudi Arabia in 1938, in Kuwait and Qatar in 1940, on the mainland of the Saudi Arabia/Kuwait Neutral Zone in 1953, on the mainland of Abu Dhabi in 1960, in Oman in 1964, in South Yemen in 1983, and in North Yemen in 1984. In 1951 oil was discovered in the Persian Gulf off Saudi Arabia, in 1958 in Abu Dhabi offshore, and in 1960 in the Saudi Arabia/Kuwait Neutral Zone offshore. Oil refinery on the island of Ḥālū in the Persian Gulf, Qatar. © Peter Sanders
In association with the oil are enormous amounts of natural gas. Making use of this gas commercially requires extremely large investments. Some gas is liquefied for local consumption or for export, and some is reinjected into the oil-bearing strata for storage and to help maintain pressure for oil production. The Arabian countries are attempting economic diversification, though the abundance of oil is a disincentive. Ancient mining sites bear witness to once-flourishing production of minerals: gold at the old mine of Mahd al-Dhahab in the Hejaz; silver at a mine in the mountains west of Maʾrib; | https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabia-peninsula-Asia/Economy |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1566410977#2_3294169966 | Title: Arabia - Economy | Britannica
Headings: Economy of Arabia
Economy of Arabia
Content: Some gas is liquefied for local consumption or for export, and some is reinjected into the oil-bearing strata for storage and to help maintain pressure for oil production. The Arabian countries are attempting economic diversification, though the abundance of oil is a disincentive. Ancient mining sites bear witness to once-flourishing production of minerals: gold at the old mine of Mahd al-Dhahab in the Hejaz; silver at a mine in the mountains west of Maʾrib; and very large copper production in Oman (until deforestation exhausted the supplies of wood for on-site smelting). Deposits of iron have been found in the northern Hejaz and Najd. Other resources, some of which are being exploited, are barite, gypsum, salt, lime for cement, clay for bricks and pottery, shale, quartz sand for glass, marble, and building stone. For many centuries the oyster beds of the Persian Gulf produced some of the world’s finest pearls, and pearling was once a thriving and profitable occupation. Bahrain was the chief centre, and the Trucial States (now the United Arab Emirates), Qatar, and Saudi Arabia also participated. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabia-peninsula-Asia/Economy |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1566410977#3_3294171365 | Title: Arabia - Economy | Britannica
Headings: Economy of Arabia
Economy of Arabia
Content: and very large copper production in Oman (until deforestation exhausted the supplies of wood for on-site smelting). Deposits of iron have been found in the northern Hejaz and Najd. Other resources, some of which are being exploited, are barite, gypsum, salt, lime for cement, clay for bricks and pottery, shale, quartz sand for glass, marble, and building stone. For many centuries the oyster beds of the Persian Gulf produced some of the world’s finest pearls, and pearling was once a thriving and profitable occupation. Bahrain was the chief centre, and the Trucial States (now the United Arab Emirates), Qatar, and Saudi Arabia also participated. Since about 1931 the trade has declined continuously as a result of the world economic depression, the competition of Japanese cultured pearls, and the siphoning off of labour into other less onerous and more lucrative fields. Even in the southwest, where rainfall is heaviest, the water supply is not constant enough for the generation of power. The scarcity of water and the poor quality of the soil have hampered the development of an export trade in agricultural produce. Progress has been made by individual states in improving irrigation systems and expanding cultivated areas. George S. Rentz Basheer K. Nijim | https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabia-peninsula-Asia/Economy |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1566534555#11_3294438984 | Title: Arctic - Climate | Britannica
Headings: Climate of the Arctic
Climate of the Arctic
Content: The evidence from glacier fluctuations suggests significant climatic change in polar latitudes in the past millennium. The first half of the 20th century saw climatic amelioration in the Arctic, with higher temperatures found particularly in winter and especially around the Norwegian Sea. In general, the magnitude of the warming increased with latitude, and in Svalbard winter temperatures rose by 14 °F (8 °C). Associated with climatic changes were a radical reduction of sea ice around Svalbard and off southwestern Greenland. Birds, animals, and especially fish appeared farther north than before; in Greenland this led to a change in the economy, as its traditional dependence on seals yielded to dependence on fishing, particularly cod, which were caught north of the 70th parallel. In the early 1940s, however, there was a downturn in polar temperatures. This widespread climatic cooling continued intermittently into the early 1970s. At this time sea ice failed to leave coastal areas in the summer in the eastern Canadian Arctic for the first time in living memory. A reversal of this trend followed in the next two decades, with the most noticeable temperature increases occurring in the lands to the north of the Pacific Ocean and around the Barents and Greenland seas (a change of +2.7 °F [+1.5 °C] in annual temperatures). | https://www.britannica.com/place/Arctic/Climate |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1569194558#0_3300043502 | Title: California - Climate | Britannica
Headings: Climate of California
Climate of California
Plant and animal life
Content: California - Climate | Britannica
Load Previous Page
Climate of California
California’s climate is marked by two seasons—a wet and a dry. Except on the coast, the dryness of the air and the consequent rapidity of evaporation greatly lessen the severity of summer heat. Precipitation ranges from more than 170 inches (4,300 mm) in the northwest to traces in the southeastern desert, but moderate temperatures and rainfall prevail along the coast. The climate also changes rapidly with elevational extremes. Death Valley, with its lowest point at 282 feet (86 metres) below sea level, is the hottest and driest place in North America. Its temperatures easily soar into the 100s F (about 48 °C) in the summer, and average annual rainfall is only about 2 inches (50 mm). Summer temperatures in the low-lying Colorado Desert can reach as high as about 130 °F (54 °C), and annual precipitation there averages only 3 to 4 inches (75 to 100 mm). In the higher eastern deserts of California, summer temperatures are more moderate. Winter temperatures in the Sierra Nevada can drop to near freezing. The average annual temperature is in the mid-60s F (about 18 °C) in Los Angeles, with an annual precipitation average of about 14 inches (350 mm). | https://www.britannica.com/place/California-state/Climate |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1569642659#0_3300977000 | Title: Caribbean Sea | Definition, Location, Map, Islands, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Caribbean Sea
Caribbean Sea
sea, Atlantic Ocean
Physical features
Geology
Physiography
Hydrology
Climate
Content: Caribbean Sea | Definition, Location, Map, Islands, & Facts | Britannica
Home Geography & Travel Physical Geography of Water Oceans & Seas
Caribbean Sea
sea, Atlantic Ocean
Give Feedback
External Websites
WRITTEN BY
John C. Ogden See All Contributors
Director, Florida Institute of Oceanography, St. Petersburg. Professor of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa. See Article History
Alternative Title: Antillean-Caribbean Sea
Caribbean Sea, suboceanic basin of the western Atlantic Ocean, lying between latitudes 9° and 22° N and longitudes 89° and 60° W. It is approximately 1,063,000 square miles (2,753,000 square km) in extent. To the south it is bounded by the coasts of Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama; to the west by Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, and the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico; to the north by the Greater Antilles islands of Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico; and to the east by the north-south chain of the Lesser Antilles, consisting of the island arc that extends from the Virgin Islands in the northeast to Trinidad, off the Venezuelan coast, in the southeast. Within the boundaries of the Caribbean itself, Jamaica, to the south of Cuba, is the largest of a number of islands. The Caribbean Sea Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Typical landscape in the Caribbean region. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Caribbean-Sea |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1569642659#1_3300978743 | Title: Caribbean Sea | Definition, Location, Map, Islands, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Caribbean Sea
Caribbean Sea
sea, Atlantic Ocean
Physical features
Geology
Physiography
Hydrology
Climate
Content: to the west by Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, and the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico; to the north by the Greater Antilles islands of Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico; and to the east by the north-south chain of the Lesser Antilles, consisting of the island arc that extends from the Virgin Islands in the northeast to Trinidad, off the Venezuelan coast, in the southeast. Within the boundaries of the Caribbean itself, Jamaica, to the south of Cuba, is the largest of a number of islands. The Caribbean Sea Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Typical landscape in the Caribbean region. © Getty Images
Britannica Quiz
All About Oceans and Seas Quiz
What is the world’s largest inland sea? Where is the Puerto Rico Trench? Find out how deep your knowledge of oceans and seas goes with this quiz. Together with the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea has been erroneously termed the American Mediterranean, owing to the fact that, like the Mediterranean Sea, it is located between two continental landmasses. In neither hydrology nor climate, however, does the Caribbean resemble the Mediterranean. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Caribbean-Sea |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1570458104#0_3302654224 | Title: China - The role of the government | Britannica
Headings:
The role of the government
Content: China - The role of the government | Britannica
Load Previous Page
The role of the government
China has been a socialist country since 1949, and, for nearly all of that time, the government has played a predominant role in the economy. In the industrial sector, for example, the state long owned outright nearly all of the firms producing China’s manufacturing output. The proportion of overall industrial capacity controlled by the government has gradually declined, although heavy industries have remained largely state owned. In the urban sector the government has set the prices for key commodities, determined the level and general distribution of investment funds, prescribed output targets for major enterprises and branches, allocated energy resources, set wage levels and employment targets, run the wholesale and retail networks, and controlled financial policy and the banking system. The foreign trade system became a government monopoly in the early 1950s. In the countryside from the mid-1950s, the government prescribed cropping patterns, set the level of prices, and fixed output targets for all major crops. By the early 21st century much of the above system was in the process of changing, as the role of the central government in managing the economy was reduced and the role of both private initiative and market forces increased. Nevertheless, the government continued to play a dominant role in the urban economy, and its policies on such issues as agricultural procurement still exerted a major influence on performance in the rural sector. The effective exercise of control over the economy requires an army of bureaucrats and a highly complicated chain of command, stretching from the top down to the level of individual enterprise. The Chinese Communist Party reserves the right to make broad decisions on economic priorities and policies, but the government apparatus headed by the State Council assumes the major burden of running the economy. | https://www.britannica.com/place/China/The-role-of-the-government |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1570496761#0_3302740576 | Title: China - Visual arts | Britannica
Headings:
Visual arts
Learn about Chinese art including their sculptures during the Han dynasty
Performing arts
Content: China - Visual arts | Britannica
Load Previous Page
Visual arts
Learn about Chinese art including their sculptures during the Han dynasty
A discussion concerning Chinese art, from the documentary China: West Meets East at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Great Museums Television ( A Britannica Publishing Partner) See all videos for this article
Painting and calligraphy, like poetry, were the domain of the elite, and most educated Chinese traditionally boasted of some competence in them. There are early anonymous and folk-oriented paintings on tomb and cave walls, and many works are known from the Han dynasty (206 bce –220 ce ). Fine-art painters are known by name from as early as the 6th century ce from historical records and serially copied versions of their works. Chinese painting is predominantly of landscapes, done in black pine-soot ink on fine paper or silk, occasionally with the addition of faint colour washes. The most vigorous period for landscape painting spanned the years from the Song (960–1279) to the Ming (1368–1644) dynasty. Calligraphy rivals painting as a fine art in China, and paintings are often captioned with artfully written poems. Calligraphy reveals the great fondness the Chinese have for their written characters, and it ranges in style from meticulously and laboriously scribed “seal” characters to flamboyant and unconstrained “grass” characters. Calligraphy, as painting, is prized for a number of abstract aesthetic qualities, described by such terms as balance, vitality, energy, bones, wind, and strength. | https://www.britannica.com/place/China/Visual-arts |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1570496761#1_3302742505 | Title: China - Visual arts | Britannica
Headings:
Visual arts
Learn about Chinese art including their sculptures during the Han dynasty
Performing arts
Content: Chinese painting is predominantly of landscapes, done in black pine-soot ink on fine paper or silk, occasionally with the addition of faint colour washes. The most vigorous period for landscape painting spanned the years from the Song (960–1279) to the Ming (1368–1644) dynasty. Calligraphy rivals painting as a fine art in China, and paintings are often captioned with artfully written poems. Calligraphy reveals the great fondness the Chinese have for their written characters, and it ranges in style from meticulously and laboriously scribed “seal” characters to flamboyant and unconstrained “grass” characters. Calligraphy, as painting, is prized for a number of abstract aesthetic qualities, described by such terms as balance, vitality, energy, bones, wind, and strength. Painting has undergone numerous style changes since the beginning of the 20th century. Before 1949, painters such as Qi Baishi (1863–1957) developed distinct new styles that internationalized traditional Chinese aesthetics. After 1949, pressure for a form of socialist realism made painters shift their focus to such subjects as factory scenes, peasant villages, and convoys of tour buses. But, with the liberalization of the arts that followed Mao’s death in 1976, more-traditional values reasserted themselves. Qi Baishi: | https://www.britannica.com/place/China/Visual-arts |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1570496761#2_3302744184 | Title: China - Visual arts | Britannica
Headings:
Visual arts
Learn about Chinese art including their sculptures during the Han dynasty
Performing arts
Content: Painting has undergone numerous style changes since the beginning of the 20th century. Before 1949, painters such as Qi Baishi (1863–1957) developed distinct new styles that internationalized traditional Chinese aesthetics. After 1949, pressure for a form of socialist realism made painters shift their focus to such subjects as factory scenes, peasant villages, and convoys of tour buses. But, with the liberalization of the arts that followed Mao’s death in 1976, more-traditional values reasserted themselves. Qi Baishi: A Branch of Persimmon and a Butterfly
A Branch of Persimmon and a Butterfly, ink and paint on paper by Qi Baishi, c. 1930; in the National Gallery in Prague, Czech Republic. 34.5 × 34.5 cm. Werner Forman Archive/Heritages-Images
Sculpture and carving date to the Zhou dynasty or earlier. Tombs frequently contained burial dolls, said to have been made to replace live sacrificial victims, and many early jade carvings are related to burial practices and include body orifice stoppers and bangle bracelets. | https://www.britannica.com/place/China/Visual-arts |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1571404129#8_3304667282 | Title: Death Valley | Environment, Location, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Death Valley
Death Valley
region, California, United States
Explore California's diverse landscapes from Mount Whitney in the Sierra Nevada to Death Valley
Physical environment
Content: Most rainfall is blocked by the mountains to the west, so the valley is extremely arid. In a 50-year period in the 20th century, the average annual rainfall at Furnace Creek was only 1.66 inches (42.2 mm), the maximum annual rainfall was 4.5 inches (114.3 mm), and two years passed with no measurable rainfall. Most of the surface water in Death Valley is in the saline ponds and marshes around the salt pan. The Amargosa River brings some water into the southern end of the valley from desert areas to the east, but most of its flow is underground. Salt Creek, draining the northern arm of the valley, also has only short stretches of perennial surface flow. At times in the past, much more water reached Death Valley. During the Wisconsin Glacial Stage of the Pleistocene Epoch, perhaps about 50,000 years ago, a body of water ( Lake Manly) filled the valley to a depth of as much as 600 feet (180 metres). More recently, some 2,000 to 5,000 years ago, a shallow lake occupied the floor of the valley, its evaporation producing the present salt pan. Load Next Page | https://www.britannica.com/place/Death-Valley |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1573518296#6_3309173086 | Title: Germany - The 1850s: years of political reaction and economic growth | Britannica
Headings: The 1850s: years of political reaction and economic growth
The 1850s: years of political reaction and economic growth
Content: The German Confederation as a whole, rigid and unyielding, remained during these last years of its existence blind to the need for reform that the revolution had made clear. Yet the 1850s, so politically barren, were economically momentous, for it was during this period that the great breakthrough of industrial capitalism occurred in Germany. The national energies, frustrated in the effort to achieve civic reform, turned to the attainment of material progress. The victory of the reaction was followed by an economic expansion as the business community began to recover from its fear of mob violence and social upheaval. The influx of gold from America and Australia, moreover, generated an inflationary tendency, which in turn encouraged a speculative boom. Not only did the value of industrial production and foreign trade in the Zollverein more than double in the course of the decade, but also new investment banks based on the joint-stock principle were founded to provide venture capital for factories and railroads. The bubble burst in 1857 in a financial crash that affected the entire Continent. For many investors the price of overoptimism and speculation was misfortune and bankruptcy. Yet Germany had now crossed the dividing line between a preindustrial and an industrial economy. Although the rural population still outnumbered the urban, the tendency toward industrialization and urbanization had become irreversible. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/The-1850s-years-of-political-reaction-and-economic-growth |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1573532886#2_3309198524 | Title: Germany - The Treaty of Versailles | Britannica
Headings:
The Treaty of Versailles
Learn about the history of the Treaty of Versailles (1919), the German's resentment for the treaty paving the way for the next war
Content: Much of the province of Posen, which, like West Prussia, had been acquired by Prussia in the late 18th-century partitions of Poland, was likewise granted to the restored Polish state. Also transferred from Germany to Poland, as the result of a later plebiscite, was a significant portion of coal-rich and industrially developed Upper Silesia. Overseas Germany was compelled to yield control of its colonies. Although these colonies had proven to be economic liabilities, they had also been symbols of the world-power status that Germany had gained in the 1880s and ’90s. More damaging were the treaty’s commercial clauses that took from Germany most of its foreign financial holdings and reduced its merchant carrier fleet to roughly one-tenth of its prewar size. The treaty’s provisions for disarming Germany were to be, the Allied leaders promised, merely the first step in a worldwide process of disarmament. To ensure that Germany would not revive as a military power, its army was to be reduced to 100,000 men and would not be allowed to produce tanks, poison gas, or military planes. Moreover, Germany’s frontier with France was to be permanently demilitarized; German military forces were to remain behind a line 31 miles (50 km) east of the Rhine. The treaty also called for the dissolution of the German general staff, the German army’s military command structure that the Allies believed to be the engine of German aggression. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/The-Treaty-of-Versailles |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1573570850#0_3309283607 | Title: Germany - The revolutions of 1848–49 | Britannica
Headings:
The revolutions of 1848 –49
Content: Germany - The revolutions of 1848–49 | Britannica
Load Previous Page
The revolutions of 1848 –49
The hard times that swept over the Continent in the late 1840s transformed widespread popular discontent in the German Confederation into a full-blown revolution. After the middle of the decade, a severe economic depression halted industrial expansion and aggravated urban unemployment. At the same time, serious crop failures led to a major famine in the area from Ireland to Russian Poland. In the German states, the hungry 1840s drove the lower classes, which had long been suffering from the economic effects of industrial and agricultural rationalization, to the point of open rebellion. There were sporadic hunger riots and violent disturbances in several of the states, but the signal for a concerted uprising did not come until early in 1848 with the exciting news that the regime of the bourgeois king Louis-Philippe had been overthrown by an insurrection in Paris (February 22–24). The result was a series of sympathetic revolutions against the governments of the German Confederation, most of them mild but a few, as in the case of the fighting in Berlin, bitter and bloody. When on March 13 Metternich, the proud symbol of the established order, was forced to resign his position in the Austrian cabinet, the princes hastened to make peace with the opposition in order to forestall republican and socialist experiments like those in France. Prominent liberals were appointed to the state ministries, and civic reforms were introduced to safeguard the rights of the citizens and the powers of the legislature. But even more important was the attempt to achieve political unification through a national assembly representing all of Germany. Elections were held soon after the spring uprising had subsided, and on May 18 the Frankfurt National Assembly met in Frankfurt am Main to prepare the constitution for a free and united fatherland. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/The-revolutions-of-1848-49 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1573570850#2_3309287788 | Title: Germany - The revolutions of 1848–49 | Britannica
Headings:
The revolutions of 1848 –49
Content: Its convocation represented the realization of the hopes that nationalists had cherished for more than a generation. Within the space of a few weeks, those who had fought against the particularistic system of the restoration for so long suddenly found themselves empowered with a popular mandate to rebuild the foundations of political and social life in Germany. It was an intoxicating moment. Once the spring uprising was over, the parties and classes that had participated in it began to quarrel about the nature of the new order that was to take the place of the old. There were, first of all, sharp differences between the liberals and the democrats. While the former had comfortable majorities in most of the state legislatures as well as in the Frankfurt parliament, the latter continued to plead, agitate, and conspire for a more radical course of action. There were also bitter disputes over the form that national unification should assume. The Grossdeutsch (“great German”) movement maintained that Austria, the state whose rulers had worn the crown of the Holy Roman Empire for 400 years, should play a leading role in the united fatherland. The Kleindeutsch (“little German”) party, on the other hand, argued that the Habsburgs had too many Slavic, Magyar, and Italian interests to work single-mindedly for the greatness of Germany, that Austria should therefore be excluded from a unified Germany, and that the natural leader of the nation was Prussia, whose political vigour and geographic position would provide efficient government and military security for Germany. Finally, there was a basic conflict between poor and marginalized social groups, many of whom wanted protection against mechanized production and rural impoverishment, and the business interests who sought to use their new political influence to promote economic growth and freedom of enterprise. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/The-revolutions-of-1848-49 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1573570850#7_3309297981 | Title: Germany - The revolutions of 1848–49 | Britannica
Headings:
The revolutions of 1848 –49
Content: The radicals, on the other hand, sought to attain their objectives by inciting a new wave of insurrections. Their appeals for a mass uprising, however, were answered mostly by visionary intellectuals, enthusiastic students, radical politicians, and professional revolutionaries. The lower classes remained by and large indifferent. There was sporadic violence, especially in the southwest, but troops loyal to princely authority had little difficulty in defeating the insurrection. By the summer of 1849 the revolution, which had begun a year earlier amid such extravagant expectations, was completely crushed. Load Next Page | https://www.britannica.com/place/Germany/The-revolutions-of-1848-49 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1574728259#5_3311807294 | Title: Hawaii - History | Britannica
Headings: History of Hawaii
History of Hawaii
Early history
The arrival of Europeans
Establishment of U.S. dominance
Content: U.S. interests grew paramount, however, in the succeeding years, culminating in the signing of the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875, essentially a free-trade agreement between the United States and Hawaii in which the former guaranteed a duty-free market for Hawaiian sugar and the latter gave the United States special economic privileges that were denied to other countries. ( When the treaty was renewed in 1887, the United States received exclusive rights to enter and establish a naval base at Pearl Harbor .) King Kalakaua, who would be the last king of Hawaii, had lobbied for the Reciprocity Treaty. He lost the support of the planter class because of his attempts to revive Hawaiian culture and because of his profligate spending. In 1887 a company of “white” troops, the Honolulu Rifles, helped force upon him the Bayonet Constitution, which severely limited his powers and which allowed suffrage for the wealthy residents (who were generally American or European). When his successor, Queen Liliuokalani, seemed as if she would abrogate that constitution, the Committee of Safety, a group of American and European businessmen, some of whom were citizens of the kingdom, seized power in 1893, with the help of a company of U.S. Marines from the USS Boston, at anchor in the harbour. The U.S. government, under Pres. Grover Cleveland, refused to annex the territory, however, noting that the overthrow of the monarchy was an “act of war” accomplished against popular will using U.S. armed force . A short-lived republic (an oligarchy of American and European businessmen) ensued, until the administration of Pres. William McKinley annexed the islands as U.S. territory in 1900. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Hawaii-state/History |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579224929#0_3321291418 | Title: Massachusetts Bay Colony | Facts, Map, & Significance | Britannica
Headings: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Massachusetts Bay Colony
American history
Top Questions
When was the Massachusetts Bay Colony founded, and how long did it last?
What was the purpose of the Massachusetts Bay Colony?
What is the importance of the Massachusetts Bay Colony?
Top Questions: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Massachusetts Bay Colony
Content: Massachusetts Bay Colony | Facts, Map, & Significance | Britannica
Home Geography & Travel Cities & Towns Cities & Towns M-O
Massachusetts Bay Colony
American history
Print
Give Feedback
External Websites
WRITTEN BY
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree....
See Article History
Massachusetts Bay Colony, one of the original English settlements in present-day Massachusetts, settled in 1630 by a group of about 1,000 Puritan refugees from England under Gov. John Winthrop and Deputy Gov. Thomas Dudley. In 1629 the Massachusetts Bay Company had obtained from King Charles I a charter empowering the company to trade and colonize in New England between the Charles and Merrimack rivers. The grant was similar to that of the Virginia Company in 1609, the patentees being joint proprietors with rights of ownership and government. The intention of the crown was evidently to create merely a commercial company with what, in modern parlance, would be called stockholders, officers, and directors. By a shrewd and legally questionable move, however, the patentees decided to transfer the management and the charter itself to Massachusetts. By this move, they not only paved the way for local management, but they established the assumption that the charter for a commercial company was in reality a political constitution for a new government with only indefinable dependence upon the imperial one in England. Among the communities that the Puritans established were Boston, Charlestown, Dorchester, Medford, Watertown, Roxbury, and Lynn. Massachusetts Bay Colony Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Top Questions
When was the Massachusetts Bay Colony founded, and how long did it last? In 1629 King Charles I of England granted the Massachusetts Bay Company a charter to trade in and colonize the part of New England that lay approximately between the Charles and Merrimack Rivers, and settlement began in 1630. Boston was made the capital in 1632. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Massachusetts-Bay-Colony |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579224929#1_3321294183 | Title: Massachusetts Bay Colony | Facts, Map, & Significance | Britannica
Headings: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Massachusetts Bay Colony
American history
Top Questions
When was the Massachusetts Bay Colony founded, and how long did it last?
What was the purpose of the Massachusetts Bay Colony?
What is the importance of the Massachusetts Bay Colony?
Top Questions: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Massachusetts Bay Colony
Content: By this move, they not only paved the way for local management, but they established the assumption that the charter for a commercial company was in reality a political constitution for a new government with only indefinable dependence upon the imperial one in England. Among the communities that the Puritans established were Boston, Charlestown, Dorchester, Medford, Watertown, Roxbury, and Lynn. Massachusetts Bay Colony Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Top Questions
When was the Massachusetts Bay Colony founded, and how long did it last? In 1629 King Charles I of England granted the Massachusetts Bay Company a charter to trade in and colonize the part of New England that lay approximately between the Charles and Merrimack Rivers, and settlement began in 1630. Boston was made the capital in 1632. The charter was revoked in 1684, and two years later all the New England colonies were united into the Dominion of New England. A new charter was issued in 1691 that joined the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Plymouth Colony, and the Maine Colony as the Province of Massachusetts Bay and placed it under a royal governor. Charles I
Learn more about Charles I.
What was the purpose of the Massachusetts Bay Colony? The Puritans who settled the Massachusetts Bay Colony intended to set up a society that would accord with what they believed to be God’s wishes. Only those who could testify to a “work of grace” in their lives were permitted to choose the governor and the members of the lawmaking council, and those whose religious beliefs did not conform to the Puritans' were expelled. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Massachusetts-Bay-Colony |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579224929#2_3321296405 | Title: Massachusetts Bay Colony | Facts, Map, & Significance | Britannica
Headings: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Massachusetts Bay Colony
American history
Top Questions
When was the Massachusetts Bay Colony founded, and how long did it last?
What was the purpose of the Massachusetts Bay Colony?
What is the importance of the Massachusetts Bay Colony?
Top Questions: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Massachusetts Bay Colony
Content: The charter was revoked in 1684, and two years later all the New England colonies were united into the Dominion of New England. A new charter was issued in 1691 that joined the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Plymouth Colony, and the Maine Colony as the Province of Massachusetts Bay and placed it under a royal governor. Charles I
Learn more about Charles I.
What was the purpose of the Massachusetts Bay Colony? The Puritans who settled the Massachusetts Bay Colony intended to set up a society that would accord with what they believed to be God’s wishes. Only those who could testify to a “work of grace” in their lives were permitted to choose the governor and the members of the lawmaking council, and those whose religious beliefs did not conform to the Puritans' were expelled. The self-governing, self-reliant colony was first governed by John Winthrop and organized under principles laid out by John Cotton . The colonists made their living through farming, fishing, and trade. Puritanism
Learn more about Puritanism. What is the importance of the Massachusetts Bay Colony? By moving the Massachusetts Bay Company’s General Court from England to America, the Puritans converted it from an instrument of the company to a legislative and administrative assembly free from royal oversight. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Massachusetts-Bay-Colony |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579224929#3_3321298333 | Title: Massachusetts Bay Colony | Facts, Map, & Significance | Britannica
Headings: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Massachusetts Bay Colony
American history
Top Questions
When was the Massachusetts Bay Colony founded, and how long did it last?
What was the purpose of the Massachusetts Bay Colony?
What is the importance of the Massachusetts Bay Colony?
Top Questions: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Massachusetts Bay Colony
Content: The self-governing, self-reliant colony was first governed by John Winthrop and organized under principles laid out by John Cotton . The colonists made their living through farming, fishing, and trade. Puritanism
Learn more about Puritanism. What is the importance of the Massachusetts Bay Colony? By moving the Massachusetts Bay Company’s General Court from England to America, the Puritans converted it from an instrument of the company to a legislative and administrative assembly free from royal oversight. The General Court was made into a bicameral assembly in 1644. In addition, Puritans believed that churchgoers should read the Bible for themselves, and thus the education of children was required. The first public school in North America, the Boston Latin School, was established in Boston in 1635, and Harvard University was founded in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1636. Harvard University
Learn more about Harvard University. Top Questions: | https://www.britannica.com/place/Massachusetts-Bay-Colony |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579224929#4_3321299907 | Title: Massachusetts Bay Colony | Facts, Map, & Significance | Britannica
Headings: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Massachusetts Bay Colony
American history
Top Questions
When was the Massachusetts Bay Colony founded, and how long did it last?
What was the purpose of the Massachusetts Bay Colony?
What is the importance of the Massachusetts Bay Colony?
Top Questions: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Massachusetts Bay Colony
Content: The General Court was made into a bicameral assembly in 1644. In addition, Puritans believed that churchgoers should read the Bible for themselves, and thus the education of children was required. The first public school in North America, the Boston Latin School, was established in Boston in 1635, and Harvard University was founded in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1636. Harvard University
Learn more about Harvard University. Top Questions: Massachusetts Bay Colony
Questions and answers about the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. See all videos for this article
The Puritans established a theocratic government with the franchise limited to church members. Winthrop, Dudley, the Rev. John Cotton, and other leaders zealously sought to prevent any independence of religious views, and many with differing religious beliefs—including Roger Williams of Salem and Anne Hutchinson of Boston, as well as unrepentant Quakers and Anabaptists —were banished. By the mid-1640s Massachusetts Bay Colony had grown to more than 20,000 inhabitants. Increasing estrangement between the colony and England resulted in the annulment of the company’s charter in 1684 and the substitution of royal government under a new charter granted in 1691. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Massachusetts-Bay-Colony |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579742035#6_3322371423 | Title: Mexico - Independence | Britannica
Headings: Independence of Mexico
Independence of Mexico
The Mexican Empire, 1821–23
The early republic
The age of Santa Anna: Texas and the Mexican-American War
Content: The Centralists, who were generally conservative, favoured a strong central government in the viceregal tradition, a paid national army, and Roman Catholicism as the exclusive religion. Opposed to them were the Federalists, who favoured limited central government, local militia, and nearly autonomous states; they tended to be anticlerical and opposed the continuance of colonial fueros, which gave special status to ecclesiastics and the military and exempted them from various civil obligations. The pendulum of power swung back and forth between the two groups. In 1824 Guadalupe Victoria, a Federalist and a leader in the independence movement, was elected Mexico’s first president. Centralists replaced Federalists in 1828. A Federalist revolt in 1829 put Vicente Guerrero in the presidential chair, but he was soon overthrown by the Centralists, who held power until 1832. In 1833 another change placed Federalists in power until 1836, when Centralists again regained control and held it for nearly a decade. The age of Santa Anna: Texas and the Mexican-American War
After the downfall of Iturbide, Mexican politics revolved for some time about the enigmatic personality of the charismatic Antonio López de Santa Anna, who seemingly had few fixed ideological or political beliefs. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/Independence |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579742035#7_3322373118 | Title: Mexico - Independence | Britannica
Headings: Independence of Mexico
Independence of Mexico
The Mexican Empire, 1821–23
The early republic
The age of Santa Anna: Texas and the Mexican-American War
Content: Centralists replaced Federalists in 1828. A Federalist revolt in 1829 put Vicente Guerrero in the presidential chair, but he was soon overthrown by the Centralists, who held power until 1832. In 1833 another change placed Federalists in power until 1836, when Centralists again regained control and held it for nearly a decade. The age of Santa Anna: Texas and the Mexican-American War
After the downfall of Iturbide, Mexican politics revolved for some time about the enigmatic personality of the charismatic Antonio López de Santa Anna, who seemingly had few fixed ideological or political beliefs. Allied with the Federalists, Santa Anna was first chosen president in 1833, but, rather than serve, he placed the liberal vice president, Valentín Gómez Farías, at the head of the government until Farías and his group in 1834 attacked the privileges of the clergy. Then Santa Anna assumed his presidential post and nullified the anticlerical legislation. Before his political career ended he would be in and out of the presidency 10 more times. Santa Anna was president when difficulties over Texas first began to mount. Under favourable terms, some 30,000 U.S. immigrants had populated that previously desolate area. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/Independence |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579753573#1_3322387301 | Title: Mexico - La Reforma | Britannica
Headings:
La Reforma
French intervention
The restored republic
Content: The role of the returned expatriates was to act as a brain trust to carry out La Reforma (“The Reform”). Its aims were to abolish remnants of colonialism by removing special ecclesiastical and military privileges; to separate church and state by secularizing education, marriages, and burials; to reduce the economic power of the church by forcing it to sell its properties; to foster an economic development that envisaged Mexico as a country of yeoman farmers and small industrialists; and, above all, to establish a single standard of legal justice. Juárez was made minister of justice. Among his first reforms was the so-called Ley Juárez (Nov. 23, 1855), which abolished fueros (special exemptions) and the use of special military and ecclesiastical courts in civil cases. The minister of finance, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, sponsored the Ley Lerdo (June 25, 1856), which restricted the right of ecclesiastical and civil corporations to own lands by decreeing that church lands not directly used for religious purposes and lands held in common by indigenous communities ( ejidos) must be sold. Benito Juárez
Benito Juárez. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/La-Reforma |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579753573#4_3322391586 | Title: Mexico - La Reforma | Britannica
Headings:
La Reforma
French intervention
The restored republic
Content: it prescribed that Mexico was to be a representative, democratic, republican country; and it defined the states and their responsibilities. This constitution, which remained in force until 1917, increased the power of the central executive. Neither the religious community nor the military accepted the 1857 constitution, and both inveighed against the reform, calling for retention of “religion and fueros .” The church excommunicated all civil officials who swore to support the constitution. When civil war erupted, Comonfort went into exile after his efforts at compromise failed; Juárez automatically succeeded him as constitutional president. The conservatives captured Mexico City and set up a competing regime. Juárez and his government moved to Veracruz, where they controlled the customs receipts. Foreign powers, rarely bashful about aggressively asserting their influence in Mexican affairs, became even more influential. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/La-Reforma |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579753573#6_3322394039 | Title: Mexico - La Reforma | Britannica
Headings:
La Reforma
French intervention
The restored republic
Content: On April 6, 1859, the United States recognized the Juárez government; President James Buchanan permitted war matériel to be shipped to Juárez’s forces. Americans were encouraged to serve the liberal cause as volunteers, but Spain and France generally favoured the conservatives, as did Great Britain. In July 1859 Juárez issued a series of decrees: all church property except buildings used for worship was to be confiscated without compensation; all marriages apart from civil marriages were declared annulled; the formal separation of church and state was proclaimed; cemeteries were declared public property, and burial fees were abolished. Moneys from the sale of confiscated church property, though less than anticipated, speeded the end of the civil war. On Dec. 22, 1860, the liberals won a critical battle, and, when the conservative president, Miguel Miramón, fled, the conservative cause collapsed. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/La-Reforma |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1579753573#14_3322407232 | Title: Mexico - La Reforma | Britannica
Headings:
La Reforma
French intervention
The restored republic
Content: A papal nuncio from Rome arrived with a message asking that Maximilian revoke the controversial laws of La Reforma, establish Roman Catholicism as the exclusive religion, restore the religious orders, remove the church from its dependence on civil authorities, turn education over to ecclesiastics, and return properties confiscated and sold by the republicans. Replying that he, not outsiders, would decide such matters, Maximilian issued decrees establishing religious toleration, with Roman Catholicism favoured but still dependent on the state. He confirmed that the previous sales of church property under the laws of La Reforma were legal and that revenues the church had received from property Juárez had nationalized were to be ceded to the state. Thus, Maximilian’s conservative support further dwindled because the clergy and their followers felt betrayed. In September 1864 Maximilian took what amounted to a guided tour of the cities that supported his empire. The warm welcomes he received from the people led him to conclude that a majority of Mexicans wanted peace and justice, which the activities of the republican guerrillas threatened. He therefore decreed on November 4 that, thenceforth, republicans would be considered bandits and brigands, subject to extreme penalties; this negated Maximilian’s attempts to woo their supporters by inviting them into his council of state. In 1865 French troops chased Juárez to | https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico/La-Reforma |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1583633639#0_3330494147 | Title: Persian Gulf - Economic aspects | Britannica
Headings: Economic aspects
Economic aspects
Biological and mineral resources
Discover the extraction of natural gas from the North Field Bravo, off the coast of Qatar
Transportation
Study and exploration
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
History at your fingertips
Content: Persian Gulf - Economic aspects | Britannica
Load Previous Page
Economic aspects
Biological and mineral resources
The waters of the area support many plants and animals, but the high temperatures and salinities lead to a diminution in the variety of flora and fauna typical of the Indian Ocean. Until the discovery of oil in Iran in 1908, the Persian Gulf area was important mainly for fishing, pearling, the building of dhows (lateen-rigged boats common in the region), sailcloth making, camel breeding, the making of reed mats, date growing, and the production of other minor products, such as red ochre from the islands in the south. The arid lands surrounding the gulf produced little else and, except for the rich alluvial lands of the Mesopotamian plain, supported only a small population of those engaged in fishing, date growing, and nomadic herding. Fishing has become highly commercialized. The traditional pearl-fishing industry has declined since the advent of Japanese cultivated pearls on world markets in the 1930s. Large fishing industries have been set up in Kuwait, Qatar, and Bahrain, and some countries have become exporters of fish. Yields in the northwest have been affected, however, by the construction of large dams on the rivers, which restrict the supply of nutrients into the gulf. Oil refinery on the island of Hālūl in the Persian Gulf, Qatar. © Peter Sanders
Discover the extraction of natural gas from the North Field Bravo, off the coast of Qatar
Drilling for natural gas off the coast of Qatar in the Persian Gulf. Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz See all videos for this article
Since World War II the Persian Gulf and the surrounding countries have come to account for a significant proportion of the world’s oil production. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Persian-Gulf/Economic-aspects |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1583633639#1_3330496477 | Title: Persian Gulf - Economic aspects | Britannica
Headings: Economic aspects
Economic aspects
Biological and mineral resources
Discover the extraction of natural gas from the North Field Bravo, off the coast of Qatar
Transportation
Study and exploration
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
History at your fingertips
Content: Large fishing industries have been set up in Kuwait, Qatar, and Bahrain, and some countries have become exporters of fish. Yields in the northwest have been affected, however, by the construction of large dams on the rivers, which restrict the supply of nutrients into the gulf. Oil refinery on the island of Hālūl in the Persian Gulf, Qatar. © Peter Sanders
Discover the extraction of natural gas from the North Field Bravo, off the coast of Qatar
Drilling for natural gas off the coast of Qatar in the Persian Gulf. Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz See all videos for this article
Since World War II the Persian Gulf and the surrounding countries have come to account for a significant proportion of the world’s oil production. In addition, the area has approximately two-thirds of the world’s estimated proven oil reserves and one-third of the world’s estimated proven natural gas reserves. The region thus has acquired considerable strategic significance for the world’s industrialized countries. Exploration has remained active, and new reserves are continually being discovered, both on land and offshore. Control of these reserves has led to numerous legal wrangles among states about exact territorial limits and has been at least partially responsible for major conflicts in the region: the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s, the Persian Gulf War of the early 1990s, and the Iraq War of the early 21st century. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Persian-Gulf/Economic-aspects |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1585306135#12_3333998730 | Title: Russia - Post-Soviet Russia | Britannica
Headings: Post-Soviet Russia
Post-Soviet Russia
The Yeltsin presidency (1991–99)
Economic reforms
Political and social changes
Content: The majority of the population had seen their living standards drop, their social services collapse, and a great rise in crime and corruption. As a result, Yeltsin’s popularity began to plummet. Political and social changes
Having played a key role in defeating the attempted coup against Gorbachev in 1991, Yeltsin saw his popularity surge. A skillful politician, he was first elected president of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic in 1991 before the collapse of the U.S.S.R, and he was reelected in 1996. Although he had come to represent for many the face of political and economic reform, his first priority was the preservation of his own power and authority. In dealing with those around him in both the government and the bureaucracy, Yeltsin effectively utilized a divide-and-rule strategy that led to the emergence of various factions that battled each other. Indeed, in some cases bureaucrats spent more time in conflict with each other than they did governing the country. Yeltsin also had the tendency to frequently remove ministers and prime ministers, which led to abrupt changes in policy. Throughout his presidency Yeltsin refused to establish his own political party or to align himself openly with any party or group of parties. Instead, he believed that the president should remain above party politics, though he was at the heart of the political process, playing the role of power broker—a position he coveted—until his resignation in 1999. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Post-Soviet-Russia |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1585306135#13_3334000597 | Title: Russia - Post-Soviet Russia | Britannica
Headings: Post-Soviet Russia
Post-Soviet Russia
The Yeltsin presidency (1991–99)
Economic reforms
Political and social changes
Content: In dealing with those around him in both the government and the bureaucracy, Yeltsin effectively utilized a divide-and-rule strategy that led to the emergence of various factions that battled each other. Indeed, in some cases bureaucrats spent more time in conflict with each other than they did governing the country. Yeltsin also had the tendency to frequently remove ministers and prime ministers, which led to abrupt changes in policy. Throughout his presidency Yeltsin refused to establish his own political party or to align himself openly with any party or group of parties. Instead, he believed that the president should remain above party politics, though he was at the heart of the political process, playing the role of power broker—a position he coveted—until his resignation in 1999. When the Soviet Union collapsed, the Russian Federation continued to be governed according to its Soviet-era | https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Post-Soviet-Russia |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1585373576#11_3334089481 | Title: Russia - The Gorbachev era: perestroika and glasnost | Britannica
Headings:
The Gorbachev era: perestroika and glasnost
Collapse of the Soviet Union
Content: Yeltsin for the first time had a national platform. In parliament he pilloried Gorbachev, the Communist Party, corruption, and the slow pace of economic reform. Yeltsin was elected president of the Russian parliament despite the bitter opposition of Gorbachev. Boris Yeltsin
Boris Yeltsin, 1991. Vario Press—Camera Press/Globe Photos
In March 1991, when Gorbachev launched an all-union referendum about the future Soviet federation, Russia and several other republics added some supplementary questions. One of the Russian questions was whether the voters were in favour of a directly elected president. They were, and they chose Yeltsin. He used his newfound legitimacy to promote Russian sovereignty, to advocate and adopt radical economic reform, to demand Gorbachev’s resignation, and to negotiate treaties with the Baltic republics, in which he acknowledged their right to independence. Soviet attempts to discourage Baltic independence led to a bloody confrontation in Vilnius in January 1991, after which Yeltsin called upon Russian troops to disobey orders that would have them shoot unarmed civilians. Yeltsin’s politics reflected the rise of Russian nationalism. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-Gorbachev-era-perestroika-and-glasnost |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1585373576#12_3334091045 | Title: Russia - The Gorbachev era: perestroika and glasnost | Britannica
Headings:
The Gorbachev era: perestroika and glasnost
Collapse of the Soviet Union
Content: One of the Russian questions was whether the voters were in favour of a directly elected president. They were, and they chose Yeltsin. He used his newfound legitimacy to promote Russian sovereignty, to advocate and adopt radical economic reform, to demand Gorbachev’s resignation, and to negotiate treaties with the Baltic republics, in which he acknowledged their right to independence. Soviet attempts to discourage Baltic independence led to a bloody confrontation in Vilnius in January 1991, after which Yeltsin called upon Russian troops to disobey orders that would have them shoot unarmed civilians. Yeltsin’s politics reflected the rise of Russian nationalism. Russians began to view the Soviet system as one that worked for its own political and economic interests at Russia’s expense. There were increasing complaints that the “Soviets” had destroyed the Russian environment and had impoverished Russia in order to maintain their empire and subsidize the poorer republics. Consequently, Yeltsin and his supporters demanded Russian control over Russia and its resources. In June 1990 the Russian republic declared sovereignty, establishing the primacy of Russian law within the republic. This effectively undermined all attempts by Gorbachev to establish a Union of Sovereign Socialist Republics. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-Gorbachev-era-perestroika-and-glasnost |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1585395379#3_3334128386 | Title: Russia - The Putin presidency | Britannica
Headings:
The Putin presidency
Separatism
Foreign affairs
The oligarchs
Political and economic reforms
The Medvedev presidency
Content: Despite worries arising from his years working for the intelligence services, many Russians came to believe that Putin’s coolness and decisiveness would enable him to establish economic and political order in the country and deal with the Chechen problem. After years of Yeltsin’s unpredictable behaviour, the upsurge in violent crime, and the decline in both living standards and Russia’s prestige abroad, Russians were ready for a leader with an agenda and the mental capacity to implement it. Putin soon moved to reassert central control over the country’s 89 regions by dividing the country into seven administrative districts, each of which would be overseen by a presidential appointee. The new districts were created to root out corruption, keep an eye on the local governors, and ensure that Moscow’s will and laws were enforced. During the Yeltsin years, contradictions between Russian federal law and that of the regions had created great chaos in the Russian legal system, and Putin worked to establish the supremacy of Russian Federation law throughout the country. Putin even enjoyed success in taming the independent-minded regions, as the republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan reluctantly brought their constitutions into accord with that of the Russian Federation in 2002. Foreign affairs
Although Putin hoped to maintain a strategic partnership with the United States, he focused on strengthening Russia’s relations (both security and economic) with Europe, particularly Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. Nevertheless, after the September 11 attacks in 2001 on the United States by al-Qaeda, Putin was the first foreign leader to telephone U.S. Pres. George W. Bush to offer sympathy and help in combating terrorism. Moreover, Russia established a council with NATO on which it sat as an equal alongside NATO’s 19 members. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-Putin-presidency |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1585395379#4_3334130648 | Title: Russia - The Putin presidency | Britannica
Headings:
The Putin presidency
Separatism
Foreign affairs
The oligarchs
Political and economic reforms
The Medvedev presidency
Content: Putin even enjoyed success in taming the independent-minded regions, as the republics of Tatarstan and Bashkortostan reluctantly brought their constitutions into accord with that of the Russian Federation in 2002. Foreign affairs
Although Putin hoped to maintain a strategic partnership with the United States, he focused on strengthening Russia’s relations (both security and economic) with Europe, particularly Germany, France, and the United Kingdom. Nevertheless, after the September 11 attacks in 2001 on the United States by al-Qaeda, Putin was the first foreign leader to telephone U.S. Pres. George W. Bush to offer sympathy and help in combating terrorism. Moreover, Russia established a council with NATO on which it sat as an equal alongside NATO’s 19 members. Russia also reacted calmly when the United States officially abandoned the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 2002, established temporary military bases in several of the former Soviet states in Central Asia, and dispatched special forces on a training mission to Georgia, where there were suspected al-Qaeda training bases. However, Putin was wary of U.S. unilateralism and worked to strengthen Russian ties with China and India and maintain ties with Iran. In 2002–03 he opposed military intervention against Iraq by the United States and the United Kingdom and developed a joint position with France and Germany that favoured a more stringent inspections regime of Iraq’s suspected weapons of mass destruction program rather than the use of military force ( see also Iraq War ). Putin brought new life to the CIS by providing relatively active Russian leadership, in sharp contrast to the Yeltsin years, and he strengthened Russia’s ties with the Central Asian republics in order to maintain Russian influence in this vital area. Under Yeltsin the Russian army, starved of funds, had lost much of its effectiveness and technological edge. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/The-Putin-presidency |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1586175961#9_3335772506 | Title: Saudi Arabia - Economy | Britannica
Headings: Economy of Saudi Arabia
Economy of Saudi Arabia
Agriculture
Watch how dairy cows are kept comfortable in Saudi Arabia
Resources and power
Petroleum
Other resources
Content: Intensive exploration of the Rubʿ al-Khali began in 1950, and oil fields were finally discovered in the area in the 1970s. In 1950 Aramco put into operation the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line (Tapline), which ran from Al-Qayṣūmah in Saudi Arabia across Jordan and Syria to its Mediterranean terminal at Sidon, Lebanon. The line was in operation only sporadically during the 1970s, and in 1983 it ceased to function beyond supplying a refinery in Jordan. In 1981 Petroline, built to carry crude oil, was completed from Al-Jubayl on the Persian Gulf to Yanbuʿ on the Red Sea, and this greatly shortened the distance to Europe and obviated navigation through the gulf and the Strait of Hormuz. Petroline was built by the General Petroleum and Mineral Organization (Petromin), a government-owned corporation. Aramco constructed a massive gas-gathering system and, parallel to Petroline, a pipeline for transporting natural-gas liquids, which reached Yanbuʿ in 1981. During the 1970s and early ’80s, Saudi Arabia gradually acquired complete ownership of Aramco, and in 1984 Aramco had its first Saudi president. In 1988 the company was renamed Saudi Aramco. Other resources
Other mineral resources are known to exist, and the government has pursued a policy of exploration and production in order to diversify the economic base. Geologic reconnaissance mapping of the Precambrian shield in the west has revealed deposits of gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, iron, titanium, pyrite, magnesite, platinum, and cadmium. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Economy |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1588234424#6_3339978164 | Title: Switzerland - Trade | Britannica
Headings: Trade of Switzerland
Trade of Switzerland
Finance
Learn how Switzerland's neutrality in past European wars and gold trade made it a secure banking centre
Services
Experience the vibrant Zurich at night
Content: © helvetiabynight.com ( A Britannica Publishing Partner) See all videos for this article
Tourism is a significant source of revenue for Switzerland, with receipts slightly outpacing expenditures by Swiss tourists abroad. Primary destinations for Swiss tourists include France, Spain, Italy, and Germany. Among the principal foreign visitors to Switzerland are Germans, who account for more than one-fourth, followed by Americans, Britons, and Japanese. A significant proportion of tourism receipts also come from residents of Switzerland. Alpine lakes
Alpine lake, with Matterhorn in the background, Switzerland. © Lazar Mihai-Bogdan/Shutterstock.com
During the Middle Ages healing spas such as Baden, Bad Pfäfers, Leukerbad, and Rheinfelden flourished, while mountain-pass hospices such as those on the Great Saint Bernard or the Furka were the predecessors of Alpine hotels. Since World War II, travel has increased at an explosive rate: hotels, guesthouses, and vacation apartments count millions of visitors each year, as do youth hostels and campgrounds. Efforts have been made with limited success to broaden the tourist season from the peak summer and winter periods in order to reduce congestion both in the resorts and on the highways. Nearly two-thirds of overnight stays are in the Alps and the Alpine foothills. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Switzerland/Trade |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1588234424#7_3339979945 | Title: Switzerland - Trade | Britannica
Headings: Trade of Switzerland
Trade of Switzerland
Finance
Learn how Switzerland's neutrality in past European wars and gold trade made it a secure banking centre
Services
Experience the vibrant Zurich at night
Content: © Lazar Mihai-Bogdan/Shutterstock.com
During the Middle Ages healing spas such as Baden, Bad Pfäfers, Leukerbad, and Rheinfelden flourished, while mountain-pass hospices such as those on the Great Saint Bernard or the Furka were the predecessors of Alpine hotels. Since World War II, travel has increased at an explosive rate: hotels, guesthouses, and vacation apartments count millions of visitors each year, as do youth hostels and campgrounds. Efforts have been made with limited success to broaden the tourist season from the peak summer and winter periods in order to reduce congestion both in the resorts and on the highways. Nearly two-thirds of overnight stays are in the Alps and the Alpine foothills. The tourist industry as a whole employs more people than are engaged in farming and is heavily dependent on foreign labour. Apart from the traditionally important retail trade component of the service sector, business-related services are a fast-growing subsector, partly reflecting the outsourcing trend in the industry sector. Load Next Page | https://www.britannica.com/place/Switzerland/Trade |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1589944241#2_3343518491 | Title: United States - Settlement patterns | Britannica
Headings: Settlement patterns
Settlement patterns
Rural settlement
Early models of land allocation
Creating the national domain
Distribution of rural lands
Patterns of farm life
Regional small-town patterns
Study how American Indians and buffalo were driven westward from the Midwest by European settlers
The rural–urban transition
Weakening of the agrarian ideal
Content: Urban-rural Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Another special characteristic of American settlement, one that became obvious only by the mid-20th century, is the convergence of rural and urban modes of life. The farmsteads—and rural folk in general—have become increasingly urbanized, and agricultural operations have become more automated, while the metropolis grows more gelatinous, unfocused, and pseudo-bucolic along its margins. Rural settlement
Patterns of rural settlement indicate much about the history, economy, society, and minds of those who created them as well as about the land itself. The essential design of rural activity in the United States bears a strong family resemblance to that of other neo-European lands, such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Argentina, or tsarist Siberia —places that have undergone rapid occupation and exploitation by immigrants intent upon short-term development and enrichment. In all such areas, under novel social and political conditions and with a relative abundance of territory and physical resources, ideas and institutions derived from a relatively stable medieval or early modern Europe have undergone major transformation. Further, these are nonpeasant countrysides, alike in having failed to achieve the intimate symbiosis of people and habitat, the humanized rural landscapes characteristic of many relatively dense, stable, earthbound communities in parts of Asia, Africa, Europe, and Latin America. Early models of land allocation
From the beginning the prevalent official policy of the British (except between 1763 and 1776) and then of the U.S. government was to promote agricultural and other settlement—to push the frontier westward as fast as physical and economic conditions permitted. The British crown’s grants of large, often vaguely specified tracts to individual proprietors or companies enabled the grantees to draw settlers by the sale or lease of land at attractive prices or even by outright gift. Of the numerous attempts at group colonization, the most notable effort was the theocratic and collectivist New England town that flourished, especially in Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire, during the first century of settlement. The town, the basic unit of government and comparable in area to townships in other states, allotted both rural and village parcels to single families by group decision. | https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States/Settlement-patterns |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1590130064#8_3343836032 | Title: United States - The United States from 1816 to 1850 | Britannica
Headings: The United States from 1816 to 1850
The United States from 1816 to 1850
The Era of Mixed Feelings
Effects of the War of 1812
National disunity
The economy
Transportation revolution
Content: The economy
The American economy expanded and matured at a remarkable rate in the decades after the War of 1812. The rapid growth of the West created a great new centre for the production of grains and pork, permitting the country’s older sections to specialize in other crops. New processes of manufacture, particularly in textiles, not only accelerated an “industrial revolution” in the Northeast but also, by drastically enlarging the Northern market for raw materials, helped account for a boom in Southern cotton production. If by midcentury Southerners of European descent had come to regard slavery—on which the cotton economy relied—as a “positive good” rather than the “necessary evil” that they had earlier held the system to be, it was largely because of the increasingly central role played by cotton in earning profits for the region. Industrial workers organized the country’s first trade unions and even workingmen’s political parties early in the period. The corporate form thrived in an era of booming capital requirements, and older and simpler forms of attracting investment capital were rendered obsolete. Commerce became increasingly specialized, the division of labour in the disposal of goods for sale matching the increasingly sophisticated division of labour that had come to characterize production. Edward Pessen
The management of the growing economy was inseparable from political conflict in the emerging United States. At the start the issue was between agrarians (represented by Jeffersonian Republicans) wanting a decentralized system of easy credit and an investing community looking for stability and profit in financial markets. This latter group, championed by Hamilton and the Federalists, won the first round with the establishment of the first Bank of the United States (1791), jointly owned by the government and private stockholders. | https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States/The-United-States-from-1816-to-1850 |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1590169504#4_3343879442 | Title: United States - The civil rights movement | Britannica
Headings:
The civil rights movement
Latino and Native American activism
Social changes
The Vietnam War
Content: Four summers of violence resulted in many deaths and property losses that left whole neighbourhoods ruined and their residents more distressed than ever. After a final round provoked by the assassination of King in April 1968, the rioting abated. Yet the activist pursuit of political and economic empowerment for African Americans continued, reflected culturally in the Black Arts movement —which pursued populist art that promoted the ideas of Black separatism—and in the politicized soul music that replaced gospel and folk music as the sound track of the freedom struggle. Latino and Native American activism
In September 1965 Cesar Chavez, who had founded the National Farm Workers Association (later the United Farm Workers of America) in 1962, began leading what became a five-year strike by California grape pickers and a nationwide boycott of California grapes that attracted liberal support from throughout the country. Many of those farmworkers were, like Chavez, Latino, and the 1960s—particularly during the strike and boycott—arguably marked the first time the Latino population in the United States drew sustained attention. People of Hispanic origin had lived in the United States since the country’s origin, and their presence increased after huge portions of Mexico became part of the United States in the wake of the Mexican-American War (1846–48) and following the acquisition of Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War (1898). Large-scale Hispanic immigration to the United States began in the 20th century as Mexicans sought economic opportunity or to escape the Mexican Revolution (1910–20). Cesar Chavez
Cesar Chavez, 1972. National Archives, Washington, D.C. (544069)
In 1954, in Hernandez v. Texas, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the conviction of an agricultural labourer, Pete Hernandez, for murder should be overturned because Mexican Americans had been barred from participating in both the jury that indicted him and the jury that convicted him. In this landmark ruling, the court recognized that the Fourteenth Amendment ’s guarantee of equal protection under the law extended to Mexican Americans. | https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States/The-civil-rights-movement |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1590169504#5_3343882005 | Title: United States - The civil rights movement | Britannica
Headings:
The civil rights movement
Latino and Native American activism
Social changes
The Vietnam War
Content: People of Hispanic origin had lived in the United States since the country’s origin, and their presence increased after huge portions of Mexico became part of the United States in the wake of the Mexican-American War (1846–48) and following the acquisition of Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War (1898). Large-scale Hispanic immigration to the United States began in the 20th century as Mexicans sought economic opportunity or to escape the Mexican Revolution (1910–20). Cesar Chavez
Cesar Chavez, 1972. National Archives, Washington, D.C. (544069)
In 1954, in Hernandez v. Texas, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the conviction of an agricultural labourer, Pete Hernandez, for murder should be overturned because Mexican Americans had been barred from participating in both the jury that indicted him and the jury that convicted him. In this landmark ruling, the court recognized that the Fourteenth Amendment ’s guarantee of equal protection under the law extended to Mexican Americans. The Chicano (Mexican American) civil rights movement of the 1960s encompassed not only the Chavez-led efforts of agricultural workers in California but also the land grant movement in New Mexico spearheaded by Reies Lopez Tijerina as well as the struggle for equal education in Los Angeles. Yet it would not be until the 1980s that Latinos—such as Henry Cisneros, who was elected mayor of San Antonio, Texas, in 1981—began to hold prominent political office in the United States. By that point Hispanic servicemen had already racked up scores of medals in World War I, World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. And by 2010 the 50 million Latinos living in all 50 states constituted 16 percent of the U.S. population. Activism on behalf of Native Americans also grew substantially during the 1960s. | https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States/The-civil-rights-movement |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1590183435#2_3343897536 | Title: United States - The executive branch | Britannica
Headings:
The executive branch
The legislative branch
Know how the United States elects the offices of the House of Representatives, the Senate, the president, and the vice president unlike the United Kingdom
The judicial branch
Content: cabinet-level rank may be conferred to the heads of such institutions at the discretion of the president. Members of the cabinet and presidential aides serve at the pleasure of the president and may be dismissed by him at any time. Bush, George W.; National Security Council
U.S. Pres. George W. Bush meeting with the National Security Council in the Cabinet Room of the White House, September 12, 2001. Courtesy of the George W. Bush Presidential Library & Museum/NARA
The executive branch also includes independent regulatory agencies such as the Federal Reserve System and the Securities and Exchange Commission. Governed by commissions appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate (commissioners may not be removed by the president), these agencies protect the public interest by enforcing rules and resolving disputes over federal regulations. Also part of the executive branch are government corporations (e.g., the Tennessee Valley Authority, the National Railroad Passenger Corporation [ Amtrak ], and the U.S. Postal Service), which supply services to consumers that could be provided by private corporations, and independent executive agencies (e.g., the Central Intelligence Agency, the National Science Foundation, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ), which comprise the remainder of the federal government. The legislative branch
Know how the United States elects the offices of the House of Representatives, the Senate, the president, and the vice president unlike the United Kingdom
Learn how the United States elects the offices of the House of Representatives, the Senate, the president, and the vice president in the 21st century and how this system compares to that of other countries, such as the United Kingdom. © UK Parliament Education Service ( A Britannica Publishing Partner) See all videos for this article
The U.S. Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, consists of two houses: | https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States/The-executive-branch |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1590497519#2_3344543098 | Title: Vatican City | History, Map, Flag, Location, Population, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Vatican City
Vatican City
Visit the holy site of Saint Peter's Basilica and learn about its history and architectural styles
Explore Vatican City's art treasure and understand Pope Leo Xs love for art which including both Biblical and secular themes
Vatican City
Content: The Vatican palace is the residence of the pope within the city walls. The Holy See is the name given to the government of the Roman Catholic Church, which is led by the pope as the bishop of Rome. As such, the Holy See’s authority extends over Catholics throughout the world. Since 1929 it has resided in Vatican City, which was established as an independent state to enable the pope to exercise his universal authority. Vatican City: St. Peter's Basilica
St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. AdstockRF
Vatican City has its own telephone system, post office, gardens, astronomical observatory, radio station, banking system, and pharmacy, as well as a contingent of Swiss Guards responsible for the personal safety of the pope since 1506. Almost all supplies—including food, water, electricity, and gas—must be imported. There is no income tax and no restriction on the import or export of funds. As the Holy See, it derives its income from the voluntary contributions of more than one billion Roman Catholics worldwide, as well as interest on investments and the sale of stamps, coins, and publications. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Vatican-City |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1590497519#3_3344544759 | Title: Vatican City | History, Map, Flag, Location, Population, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Vatican City
Vatican City
Visit the holy site of Saint Peter's Basilica and learn about its history and architectural styles
Explore Vatican City's art treasure and understand Pope Leo Xs love for art which including both Biblical and secular themes
Vatican City
Content: St. Peter's Basilica
St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. AdstockRF
Vatican City has its own telephone system, post office, gardens, astronomical observatory, radio station, banking system, and pharmacy, as well as a contingent of Swiss Guards responsible for the personal safety of the pope since 1506. Almost all supplies—including food, water, electricity, and gas—must be imported. There is no income tax and no restriction on the import or export of funds. As the Holy See, it derives its income from the voluntary contributions of more than one billion Roman Catholics worldwide, as well as interest on investments and the sale of stamps, coins, and publications. Banking operations and expenditures have been reported publicly since the early 1980s. During the period from the 4th century to 1870, the Vatican gained control of territory around Rome and served as capital of the Papal States. In 1929 Vatican City’s independent sovereignty was recognized by the Fascist Italian government in the Lateran Treaty. Sovereignty is exercised by the pope upon his election as the head of the Roman Catholic Church. He has absolute executive, legislative, and judicial powers within the city. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Vatican-City |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1590497519#4_3344546507 | Title: Vatican City | History, Map, Flag, Location, Population, & Facts | Britannica
Headings: Vatican City
Vatican City
Visit the holy site of Saint Peter's Basilica and learn about its history and architectural styles
Explore Vatican City's art treasure and understand Pope Leo Xs love for art which including both Biblical and secular themes
Vatican City
Content: Banking operations and expenditures have been reported publicly since the early 1980s. During the period from the 4th century to 1870, the Vatican gained control of territory around Rome and served as capital of the Papal States. In 1929 Vatican City’s independent sovereignty was recognized by the Fascist Italian government in the Lateran Treaty. Sovereignty is exercised by the pope upon his election as the head of the Roman Catholic Church. He has absolute executive, legislative, and judicial powers within the city. In 1984 a major reshuffle of offices in the Roman Curia resulted in the delegation of the routine administration of Vatican City to a pontifically appointed commission of five cardinals headed by the Secretariat of State. The inhabitants of Vatican City, the majority of whom are priests and nuns, also include several hundred laypersons engaged in secretarial, domestic, trade, and service occupations. Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now
Visit the holy site of Saint Peter's Basilica and learn about its history and architectural styles
Overview of St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz See all videos for this article
Special extraterritorial privileges are extended to more than 10 other buildings in Rome and to Castel Gandolfo, the pope’s summer residence in the Alban Hills. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Vatican-City |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1591078083#2_3345764106 | Title: Washington, D.C. - History | Britannica
Headings: History of Washington, D.C.
History of Washington, D.C.
The creation of Washington
Growth and change
Content: Structural damage was extensive, and the morale of the local citizens sank. By 1817, however, a newly reconstructed White House welcomed Pres. James Monroe (served 1817–25), and Congress reconvened in the newly built Capitol in 1819, after having spent five years in the temporary Old Brick Capitol Building, which had been erected on the site of the present-day Supreme Court Building. Capitol prior to 1814 burning
The Capitol, Washington, D.C., as seen from Pennsylvania Avenue before it was burned by the British in 1814. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
Growth and change
Between 1830 and 1865 tremendous changes occurred in Washington, beginning with the arrival of Pres. Andrew Jackson (served 1829–37), who brought with him a retinue of new civil servants—beneficiaries of the “ spoils system ” who introduced democratizing social changes to the workplace and the community. Challenges were plentiful: the local economy was unstable; silt in the Potomac River restricted navigation; the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal was delayed; | https://www.britannica.com/place/Washington-DC/History |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1591105468#6_3345833630 | Title: Washington - Plant and animal life | Britannica
Headings: Plant and animal life
Plant and animal life
Explore the Whale Museum and the whales around the San Juan Islands
People
Population composition
Settlement patterns
Demographic trends
Economy
Content: Migration continued, particularly from the Midwest, and, until national quotas on foreign immigration were imposed in the 1920s, large numbers of foreign-born people entered the state, especially from Canada and Scandinavia. The Japanese arrived later and by 1930 numbered about 18,000. During World War II, citizens or not, they were moved from the coastal areas to relocation camps in inland regions. After the war only a few received back their homes and property, and many chose to live elsewhere. For decades the western movement of the U.S. population dominated Washington’s growth. During the 1950s, for the first time—and by a wide margin—natural increase overtook migration, but toward the end of the 20th century Seattle again became a destination for large numbers of people, its population growing by about one-tenth in the last decade of the century alone. Economy
Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries have been major contributors to the state’s economy since early settlement by Europeans. The rapid increase in manufacturing and services that began in the 1940s led to concentration of the population in urban areas. About one-tenth of the nonagricultural labour force is employed in manufacturing; less than one-fifth works for state or federal government agencies. | https://www.britannica.com/place/Washington-state/Plant-and-animal-life |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1591105468#7_3345835397 | Title: Washington - Plant and animal life | Britannica
Headings: Plant and animal life
Plant and animal life
Explore the Whale Museum and the whales around the San Juan Islands
People
Population composition
Settlement patterns
Demographic trends
Economy
Content: During the 1950s, for the first time—and by a wide margin—natural increase overtook migration, but toward the end of the 20th century Seattle again became a destination for large numbers of people, its population growing by about one-tenth in the last decade of the century alone. Economy
Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries have been major contributors to the state’s economy since early settlement by Europeans. The rapid increase in manufacturing and services that began in the 1940s led to concentration of the population in urban areas. About one-tenth of the nonagricultural labour force is employed in manufacturing; less than one-fifth works for state or federal government agencies. Since the late 1970s, the manufacture of high-technology products has contributed greatly to the state’s economy. Load Next Page | https://www.britannica.com/place/Washington-state/Plant-and-animal-life |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1593587494#2_3350564624 | Title: Bryophyte | plant | Britannica
Headings: Bryophyte
Bryophyte
plant
General features
Content: In most vascular plants, however, the gametophyte is dependent on the sporophyte. In bryophytes the long-lived and conspicuous generation is the gametophyte, while in vascular plants it is the sporophyte. Structures resembling stems, roots, and leaves are found on the gametophore of bryophytes, while these structures are found on the sporophytes in the vascular plants. The sporophyte releases spores, from which the gametophytes ultimately develop. moss life cycle
Life cycle of moss. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The gametophyte of some bryophyte species reproduces asexually, or vegetatively, by specialized masses of cells ( gemmae) that are usually budded off and ultimately give rise to gametophytes. Fragmentation of the gametophyte also results in vegetative reproduction: each living fragment has the potential to grow into a complete gametophyte. The mature gametophyte of most mosses is leafy in appearance, but some liverworts and hornworts have a flattened gametophyte, called a thallus. The thallus tends to be ribbonlike in form and is often compressed against the substratum to which it is generally attached by threadlike structures called rhizoids. | https://www.britannica.com/plant/bryophyte |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1593910323#9_3351196461 | Title: Corn | History, Cultivation, Uses, & Description | Britannica
Headings:
Corn
plant
Observe the underground germination of sweet corn
What is corn?
When was corn first domesticated?
Why do corn kernels pop?
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Content: Its gluten (elastic protein) is of comparatively poor quality, and it is not used to produce leavened bread. It is widely used, however, in Latin American cuisine to make masa, a kind of dough used in such staple foods as tortillas and tamales. Given that corn flour is gluten -free, it cannot be used alone to make rising breads. In the United States corn is boiled or roasted on the cob, creamed, converted into hominy (hulled kernels) or meal, and cooked in corn puddings, mush, polenta, griddle cakes, cornbread, and scrapple. It is also used for popcorn, confections, and various manufactured cereal preparations. corn
Fresh corn and corn grits. ©dream79/Fotolia
Corn is also used to produce ethanol (ethyl alcohol), a first-generation liquid biofuel. In the United States corn ethanol is typically blended with gasoline to produce “ gasohol ,” an automotive fuel that is 10 percent ethanol. Although corn-based biofuels were initially touted as environmentally friendly alternatives to petroleum, their production diverts arable land and feedstock from the human food chain, sparking a “food versus fuel” debate. Cellulosic ethanol, which is made from nonedible plant parts such as agricultural waste, has a smaller impact on the food chain than corn ethanol, though the conversion technology is generally less efficient than that of first-generation biofuels. | https://www.britannica.com/plant/corn-plant |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1594947504#12_3353278073 | Title: Plant - Definition of the kingdom | Britannica
Headings: Definition of the kingdom
Definition of the kingdom
See how evolution in plants, from bryophytes to angiosperms, has provided habitats and food sources for organisms
Nonvascular plants
Definition of the category
Compare and contrast reproduction, water absorption, and energy generation of liverworts and mosses
Content: others have become adapted to alternately wet and dry environments by growing during wet periods and becoming dormant during dry intervals. Although bryophytes are widely distributed, occurring in practically all parts of the world, none are found in salt water. Ecologically, some mosses are considered pioneer plants because they can invade bare areas. Bryophytes are typically land plants but seldom attain a height of more than a few centimetres. They possess the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll (both a and b forms) and carotenoids in cell organelles called chloroplasts. The life histories of these plants show a well-defined alternation of generations, with the independent and free-living gametophyte as the dominant photosynthetic phase in the life cycle. ( This is in contrast to the vascular plants, in which the dominant photosynthetic phase is the sporophyte .) The sporophyte generation develops from, and is almost entirely parasitic on, the gametophyte. The gametophyte produces multicellular sex organs ( gametangia ). Female gametangia are called archegonia; | https://www.britannica.com/plant/plant/Definition-of-the-kingdom |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1600376353#0_3363962589 | Title: archaea | Definition, Characteristics, & Examples | Britannica
Headings: Archaea
Archaea
prokaryote
Habitats of the archaea
Content: archaea | Definition, Characteristics, & Examples | Britannica
Home Science Biology Archaea & Bacteria
Archaea
prokaryote
Give Feedback
External Websites
WRITTEN BY
Thomas Niederberger
Postdoctoral fellow, Natural Resource Sciences, Microbiology, McGill University. See Article History
Alternative Titles: Archaea, archaean, archaebacteria, archaebacterium, archaeobacteria, archaeobacterium, archaeon
Archaea, (domain Archaea), any of a group of single-celled prokaryotic organisms (that is, organisms whose cells lack a defined nucleus) that have distinct molecular characteristics separating them from bacteria (the other, more prominent group of prokaryotes) as well as from eukaryotes (organisms, including plants and animals, whose cells contain a defined nucleus). Archaea is derived from the Greek word archaios, meaning “ancient” or “primitive,” and indeed some archaea exhibit characteristics worthy of that name. Members of the archaea include: Pyrolobus fumarii, which holds the upper temperature limit for life at 113 °C (235 °F) and was found living in hydrothermal vents; species of Picrophilus, which were isolated from acidic soils in Japan and are the most acid-tolerant organisms known—capable of growth at around pH 0; and the methanogens, which produce methane gas as a metabolic by-product and are found in anaerobic environments, such as in marshes, hot springs, and the guts of animals, including humans. archaea
Archaea are found in a diverse range of extreme environments, including the salt deposits on the shores of the Dead Sea. Z. Radovan, Jerusalem
Britannica Quiz
Science at Random Quiz
Which kingdom do mushrooms belong to? | https://www.britannica.com/science/archaea |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1601042000#5_3365276240 | Title: Attitude | psychology | Britannica
Headings: Attitude
Attitude
psychology
Content: attitudes” are viewed as still more narrow predispositions, with “beliefs” and “opinions” being progressively the most specific members of this hierarchy. According to this terminology the difference is one of degree rather than of kind. Some apply the term “ knowledge ” to what are held to be certainties and “attitudes” to what is uncertain, even using them to mean “true” and “false” beliefs, respectively. Another suggestion is that attitudes refer to beliefs that impel action while knowledge is more intellectual and passive. The study of attitude change—that is, the processes by which people acquire new attitudes—has been a major focus of social psychological research since the mid-20th century, and work in this field has led to theoretical developments (e.g., cognitive dissonance) and practical applications (e.g., in politics and advertising ). History at your fingertips
Sign up here to see what happened On This Day, every day in your inbox! Thank you for subscribing! Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. Attitude
Quick Facts
related topics
Public opinion
Loyalty
Toleration
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Spiral of silence
Conspiracy theory
Confirmation bias
Institutionalized bias
Pessimism
Dunning-Kruger effect | https://www.britannica.com/science/attitude-psychology |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1609539824#0_3382170871 | Title: Familial disease | pathology | Britannica
Headings: Familial disease
Familial disease
pathology
Learn about this topic in these articles:
birth defects
cancer
growth aberrations
Content: Familial disease | pathology | Britannica
Familial disease
pathology
Alternative Title: familial disorder
Learn about this topic in these articles: birth defects
In human disease: Diseases of genetic origin
A familial disease is hereditary, passed on from one generation to the next. It resides in a genetic mutation that is transmitted by mother or father (or both) through the gametes to their offspring. Not all genetic disorders are familial, however, because the mutation may arise…
Read More
In human genetic disease
Rare, indeed, is the family that is entirely free of any known genetic disorder. Many thousands of different genetic disorders with defined clinical symptoms have been identified. Of the 3 to 6 percent of newborns with a recognized birth defect, at least half involve a predominantly genetic contribution. Furthermore,…
Read More
cancer
In human genetic disease: Genetics of cancer
…cancers are now recognized as familial, and some are actually inherited in an apparently autosomal dominant manner. | https://www.britannica.com/science/familial-disease |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1610462747#1_3384000671 | Title: gametophyte | Definition & Examples | Britannica
Headings: Gametophyte
Gametophyte
biology
Content: Emerging from the spore at the time of germination...
In the gametophyte phase, which is haploid (having a single set of chromosomes ), male and female organs (gametangia) develop and produce eggs and sperm ( gametes) through simple mitosis for sexual reproduction. When these unite in fertilization, the zygote then develops into the diploid (having two sets of chromosomes) sporophyte phase, which produces unicellular spores through meiosis. These, in turn, develop into a new gametophyte phase. moss life cycle
Life cycle of moss. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The character and relative extent of the two phases vary greatly among different groups of plants and algae. Over the course of evolution, the gametophyte stage has become progressively reduced. Thus, the gametophyte stage is dominant in the more primitive (nonvascular) plants ( bryophytes ), whereas the sporophyte is the dominant phase in the life cycle of higher (i.e., vascular) plants. In algae, the dominant phase often depends on environmental conditions, though some species have determinant life cycles. This article was most recently revised and updated by Melissa Petruzzello, Assistant Editor. History at your fingertips
Sign up here to see what happened On This Day, every day in your inbox! | https://www.britannica.com/science/gametophyte |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1612835578#3_3388856454 | Title: Human disease - Diseases of genetic origin | Britannica
Headings: Diseases of
genetic
origin
Diseases of genetic origin
Factors relating to genetic injury
Heredity and environment
Chemical and physical injury
Content: Mutations that occur in the DNA of somatic (body) cells cannot be inherited, but they can cause congenital malformations and cancers (see below Abnormal growth of cells ); however, mutations that occur in germ cells—i.e., the gametes, ova and sperm—are transmitted to offspring and are responsible for inherited diseases. Each gamete contributes one set of chromosomes and therefore one copy (allele) of each gene to the resultant offspring. If a gene bearing a mutation is passed on, it may cause a genetic disorder. Genetic diseases caused by a mutation in one gene are inherited in either dominant or recessive fashion. In dominantly inherited conditions, only one mutant allele, which codes for a defective protein or does not produce a protein at all, is necessary for the disorder to occur. In recessively inherited disorders, two copies of a mutant gene are necessary for the disorder to manifest; if only one copy is inherited, the offspring is not affected, but the trait may continue to be passed on to future offspring. In addition to dominant or recessive transmission, genetic disorders may be inherited in an autosomal or X-linked manner. | https://www.britannica.com/science/human-disease/Diseases-of-genetic-origin |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1612835578#4_3388858048 | Title: Human disease - Diseases of genetic origin | Britannica
Headings: Diseases of
genetic
origin
Diseases of genetic origin
Factors relating to genetic injury
Heredity and environment
Chemical and physical injury
Content: Genetic diseases caused by a mutation in one gene are inherited in either dominant or recessive fashion. In dominantly inherited conditions, only one mutant allele, which codes for a defective protein or does not produce a protein at all, is necessary for the disorder to occur. In recessively inherited disorders, two copies of a mutant gene are necessary for the disorder to manifest; if only one copy is inherited, the offspring is not affected, but the trait may continue to be passed on to future offspring. In addition to dominant or recessive transmission, genetic disorders may be inherited in an autosomal or X-linked manner. Autosomal genes are those not located on the sex chromosomes, X and Y; X-linked genes are those located on the X chromosomes that have no complementary genes on the Y chromosome. Females have two copies of the X chromosome, but males have an X and a Y chromosome. Because males have only one copy of the X chromosome, any mutation occurring in a gene on this chromosome will be expressed in male offspring regardless of whether its behaviour is recessive or dominant in females. Autosomal dominant disorders include Huntington’s chorea, a degenerative disease of the nervous system that usually does not develop until the carrier is between 30 and 40 years of age. | https://www.britannica.com/science/human-disease/Diseases-of-genetic-origin |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1612835578#8_3388864613 | Title: Human disease - Diseases of genetic origin | Britannica
Headings: Diseases of
genetic
origin
Diseases of genetic origin
Factors relating to genetic injury
Heredity and environment
Chemical and physical injury
Content: Further confusion often arises over the terms genetic and familial. A familial disease is hereditary, passed on from one generation to the next. It resides in a genetic mutation that is transmitted by mother or father (or both) through the gametes to their offspring. Not all genetic disorders are familial, however, because the mutation may arise for the first time during the formation of the gametes or during the early development of the fetus. Such an infant will have some genetic abnormality, though the parents themselves do not. Down syndrome is an example of a genetic disease that is not familial. Factors relating to genetic injury
The causes of mutations are still poorly understood. Certain factors, however, are thought to be important. Maternal age plays an important role in predisposing toward genetic injury. The frequency of Down syndrome and of congenital malformations increases with the age of the mother. | https://www.britannica.com/science/human-disease/Diseases-of-genetic-origin |
msmarco_v2.1_doc_34_1613091279#3_3389396213 | Title: Human genetic disease - Autosomal dominant inheritance | Britannica
Headings:
Autosomal dominant inheritance
Human disorders attributable to a single dominant gene
Autosomal recessive inheritance
Human disorders attributable to a single pair of recessive genes
Content: An individual who carries one copy of a dominant mutation ( Aa) will produce two kinds of germ cells—eggs or sperm—typically in equal proportions; one half will bear the mutant gene ( A ), and the other will bear the normal gene ( a ). As a result, an affected heterozygote has a 50 percent chance of passing on the disease gene to each of his or her children. If an individual were to carry two copies of the dominant mutant gene (inherited from both parents), he or she would be homozygous ( AA ). The homozygote for a dominantly inherited abnormal gene may be equally affected with the heterozygote. Alternatively, he or she may be much more seriously affected; indeed, the homozygous condition may be lethal, sometimes even in utero or shortly after birth. Such is the case with achondroplasia, so that a couple with one affected partner and one unaffected partner will typically see half of their children affected, whereas a couple with both partners affected will see two-thirds of their surviving children affected and one-third unaffected, because 1 out of 4 conceptions will produce a homozygous fetus who will die before or shortly after birth. Although autosomal dominant traits are typically evident in multiple generations of a family, they can also arise from new mutations, so that two unaffected parents, neither of whom carries the mutant gene in their somatic cells, can conceive an affected child. Indeed, for some disorders the new mutation rate is quite high; | https://www.britannica.com/science/human-genetic-disease/Autosomal-dominant-inheritance |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.