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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1201287489#15_2472874212
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Title: Urbanization and the Development of Cities | Boundless Sociology
Headings: Urbanization and the Development of Cities
Urbanization and the Development of Cities
The Earliest Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
The Formation of Cities
Preindustrial Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
Cities as Political Centers
Trade Routes
Industrial Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
The Structure of Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
Urban Structure Models
Grid
Concentric Ring Model
Sectoral
Multiple Nuclei
Irregular Pattern
Alternate Uses of “Urban Structure”
The Process of Urbanization
Key Points
Key Terms
Urbanization and rural flight
Economic and Environmental Effects of Urbanization
Suburbanization and Counterurbanization
U.S. Urban Patterns
Key Points
Key Terms
The Rural Rebound
Key Points
Key Terms
Suburbanization
White Flight
Models of Urban Growth
Key Points
Key Terms
Growth Machine Theory
Urban Sprawl
Urban Decay
BROKEN WINDOWS
RESPONSES TO DECAY
Content: Quickly expanding industrial cities could be quite deadly, full of contaminated water and air, and communicable diseases. industrial era: During the industrial era, cities grew rapidly and became centers of population and production. Slum in Glasgow, 1871: An example of slum life in an industrial city. During the industrial era, cities grew rapidly and became centers of population and production. The growth of modern industry from the late 18 th century onward led to massive urbanization and the rise of new, great cities, first in Europe, and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world’s population lived in cities. Since the industrial era, that figure, as of the beginning of the 21 st century, has risen to nearly 50%. The United States provides a good example of how this process unfolded;
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/urbanization-and-the-development-of-cities/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1201347045#14_2472904239
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Title: Women as a Minority | Boundless Sociology
Headings: Women as a Minority
Women as a Minority
Women as a Minority
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Sexism
Women’s Rights
The Origins of Patriarchy
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: To be clear, though, the line of thought called Social Darwinism, or the application of evolutionary principles to the development of human beings and our social practices, was never promoted by Darwin himself. With the popularization of the idea of human evolution, what had previously been explained as a “natural order” for the world morphed into a “biological order. ” The modern term for using biological explanations to explain social phenomena is sociobiology. Sociobiologists use genetics to explain social life, including gender roles. According to the sociobiologists, patriarchy arises more as a result of inherent biology than social conditioning. One such contemporary sociobiologist is Steven Goldbe
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/women-as-a-minority/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1201924116#0_2473452411
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Title: Observational Studies | Boundless Statistics
Headings: Observational Studies
Observational Studies
What are Observational Studies?
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Usefulness and Reliability of Observational Studies
The Clofibrate Trial
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Placebo-Controlled Observational Studies
Results of The Coronary Drug Project
Confounding
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Confounding Variables
Types of Confounding
Decreasing the Potential for Confounding
Sex Bias in Graduate Admissions
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Sex Bias at the University of California, Berkeley
Aggregate Data:
Department A
Department B
Department C
Department D
Department E
Department F
Confounding Variables and Simpson’s Paradox
Content: Observational Studies | Boundless Statistics
Observational Studies
What are Observational Studies? An observational study is one in which no variables can be manipulated or controlled by the investigator. Learning Objectives
Identify situations in which observational studies are necessary and the challenges that arise in their interpretation. Key Takeaways
Key Points
An observational study is in contrast with experiments, such as randomized controlled trials, where each subject is randomly assigned to a treated group or a control group. Variables may be uncontrollable because 1) a randomized experiment would violate ethical standards, 2) the investigator may simply lack the requisite influence, or 3) a randomized experiment may be impractical. Observational studies can never identify causal relationships because even though two variables are related both might be caused by a third, unseen, variable. A major challenge in conducting observational studies is to draw inferences that are acceptably free from influences by overt biases, as well as to assess the influence of potential hidden biases. A major challenge in conducting observational studies is to draw inferences that are acceptably free from influences by overt biases, as well as to assess the influence of potential hidden biases. Key Terms
causality: the relationship between an event (the cause) and a second event (the effect), where the second event is understood as a consequence of the first
observational study:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-statistics/chapter/observational-studies/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1202743636#4_2474303971
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Title: Conclusion: The Effects of Westward Expansion | Boundless US History
Headings: Conclusion: The Effects of Westward Expansion
Conclusion: The Effects of Westward Expansion
Conclusion: The Effects of Westward Expansion
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: 1872), the figure of Columbia, representing the United States and the spirit of democracy, makes her way westward, literally bringing light to the darkness as she advances. In the mid-19th century, the quest for control of the West led to the annexation of Texas and the Mexican–American War. President James Polk’s administration (1845–1849) was a period of intensive expansion for the United States. After overseeing the final details regarding the annexation of Texas from Mexico, Polk negotiated a peaceful settlement with Britain regarding ownership of the Oregon Country, which delivered to the United States what are now Washington and Oregon. The acquisition of additional lands from Mexico, a country many in the United States perceived as weak and inferior, was not so bloodless and culminated in the Mexican–American War. After U.S. victory, the Mexican Cession added nearly half of Mexico’s territory to the United States, including New Mexico and California, and established the U.S.–Mexico border at the Rio Grande. The California Gold Rush of 1849 rapidly expanded the population of the new territory, while also prompting concerns over immigration, especially from China. Efforts to seize western territories from native peoples and expand the republic by warring with Mexico succeeded beyond expectations; few nations had ever expanded so quickly. However, this expansion led to debates about the fate of slavery in the West.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/conclusion-the-effects-of-westward-expansion/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1202743636#5_2474305968
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Title: Conclusion: The Effects of Westward Expansion | Boundless US History
Headings: Conclusion: The Effects of Westward Expansion
Conclusion: The Effects of Westward Expansion
Conclusion: The Effects of Westward Expansion
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: After U.S. victory, the Mexican Cession added nearly half of Mexico’s territory to the United States, including New Mexico and California, and established the U.S.–Mexico border at the Rio Grande. The California Gold Rush of 1849 rapidly expanded the population of the new territory, while also prompting concerns over immigration, especially from China. Efforts to seize western territories from native peoples and expand the republic by warring with Mexico succeeded beyond expectations; few nations had ever expanded so quickly. However, this expansion led to debates about the fate of slavery in the West. Increasingly, the South came to regard itself as under attack by radical northern abolitionists, and many northerners began to speak ominously of a southern drive to dominate U.S. politics for the purpose of protecting slaveholders’ human property. As tensions mounted and both sides hurled accusations, national unity frayed. Compromise became nearly impossible and antagonistic sectional rivalries replaced the idea of a unified, democratic republic. Tensions between the North and South ultimately led to the collapse of American democracy and a brutal civil war. CC licensed content, Shared previously
Curation and Revision.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/conclusion-the-effects-of-westward-expansion/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1202749377#6_2474325233
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Title: Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal | Boundless US History
Headings: Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal
Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal
Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
“Halfway Revolution”
Social Assistance
Political Legacies
Content: They emphasized the absence of a philosophy of reform to explain the failure of New Dealers to attack fundamental social problems. They also detected a remoteness from the people and indifference to participatory democracy and emphasized conflict and exploitation during the era. Regardless of political views, however, historians generally agree that the United States battled the consequences of the Great Depression not thanks to the New Deal and its relief and reform programs, but thanks to the growth that resulted from the demands of World War II. New Deal relief programs are generally regarded as a mixed success in ending the nation’s economic problems on a macroeconomic level. Although fundamental economic indicators may have remained depressed, the programs were very popular among ordinary Americans. They improved the life of many citizens through providing jobs for the unemployed, legal protection for labor unions and some non-unionized industrial workers, modern utilities for rural America (e.g., electricity), living wages for the working poor, and price stability for farmers. However, the same programs disproportionately benefited white Americans and particularly white males. Economic progress for minorities, especially African Americans and many working class women, was hindered by discrimination, which the Roosevelt administration rarely battled and often endorsed. Social Assistance
One of the primary legacies of the New Deal was a change in the relationship between the government and the nation. The New Deal was built around the assumption that the government–both federal and state–not only could but should intervene in and regulate the economy and directly support those in need.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/conclusion-the-legacy-of-the-new-deal/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1202749377#7_2474327528
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Title: Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal | Boundless US History
Headings: Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal
Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal
Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
“Halfway Revolution”
Social Assistance
Political Legacies
Content: They improved the life of many citizens through providing jobs for the unemployed, legal protection for labor unions and some non-unionized industrial workers, modern utilities for rural America (e.g., electricity), living wages for the working poor, and price stability for farmers. However, the same programs disproportionately benefited white Americans and particularly white males. Economic progress for minorities, especially African Americans and many working class women, was hindered by discrimination, which the Roosevelt administration rarely battled and often endorsed. Social Assistance
One of the primary legacies of the New Deal was a change in the relationship between the government and the nation. The New Deal was built around the assumption that the government–both federal and state–not only could but should intervene in and regulate the economy and directly support those in need. While the idea emerged in Europe already in the 19th century and gained some traction in the United States during the Progressive Era, it was Roosevelt and his New Deal that applied it on such a massive scale. A number of social assistance programs that exist in the United States today trace their legacy to the New Deal era, including old age pensions, unemployment insurance, farm subsidies, subsidized public housing, support for the disabled, or support for children in the poorest families. They are designed to subsidize the needs of the general population with various eligibility requirements. The Social Security system remains the largest and most prominent social aid program originally established by New Deal legislation. Similarly, measures protecting labor that are today a taken-for-granted aspect of American life are a result of the New Deal.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/conclusion-the-legacy-of-the-new-deal/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1202749377#8_2474329864
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Title: Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal | Boundless US History
Headings: Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal
Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal
Conclusion: The Legacy of the New Deal
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
“Halfway Revolution”
Social Assistance
Political Legacies
Content: While the idea emerged in Europe already in the 19th century and gained some traction in the United States during the Progressive Era, it was Roosevelt and his New Deal that applied it on such a massive scale. A number of social assistance programs that exist in the United States today trace their legacy to the New Deal era, including old age pensions, unemployment insurance, farm subsidies, subsidized public housing, support for the disabled, or support for children in the poorest families. They are designed to subsidize the needs of the general population with various eligibility requirements. The Social Security system remains the largest and most prominent social aid program originally established by New Deal legislation. Similarly, measures protecting labor that are today a taken-for-granted aspect of American life are a result of the New Deal. While such developments as a ban on child labor, maximum working hours, and minimum wages had been discussed or even introduced to a limited extent on a state level during the Progressive Era, it was the New Deal legislation that included them in federal legislation. Political Legacies
Historians agree that the New Deal resulted in critical changes in the U.S. political landscape. Roosevelt’s presidency redefined the role of the executive branch, giving much more substantial power to the president and the federal government. Through a large number of federal agencies and programs, the government regulated the economy, including for example, labor relations in some industries, and thus, multiple groups of citizens received legal protection and support. These ideas inspired the next generations of American reformers and paved the way for reform-minded presidents and their ideas, particularly those of President Lyndon B. Johnson and his Great Society agenda (inspired by Johnson’s direct participation in the New Deal).
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/conclusion-the-legacy-of-the-new-deal/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1203146903#12_2474824351
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Title: Expansion and the Mexican-American War | Boundless US History
Headings: Expansion and the Mexican-American War
Expansion and the Mexican-American War
The Mexican–American War, 1846–1848
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Background
The War
California, Kearny, and Sloat
Taylor and Scott’s Legacies
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Victory in Mexico
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Opposition to the Acquisition
Impact of the War
Manifest Destiny
The Politics of Slavery
The California Gold Rush
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Seeking Fortune in the West
Effects of the Gold Rush
Content: U.S. Occupation of Mexico City: This 1851 painting by Carl Nebel shows the U.S. occupation of Mexico City, which began after US forces captured the city in September 1847. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in February 1848, was a triumph for U.S. expansionism under which Mexico ceded nearly half its land. The Mexican Cession, as the conquest of land west of the Rio Grande was called, included the current states of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and portions of Colorado and Wyoming. Mexico also came to recognize the Rio Grande as the border with the United States. Mexican citizens in the ceded territory were promised U.S. citizenship in the future when the territories they were living in became states. In exchange, the United States agreed to assume $3.35 million worth of Mexican debts owed to U.S. citizens, paid Mexico $15 million for the loss of its land, and promised to guard the residents of the Mexican Cession from American Indian raids. Victory in Mexico
American victory in the Mexican–American war yielded huge acquisition of land and increased domestic tensions over slavery. Learning Objectives
Identify the territories that the United States acquired at the end of the Mexican–American War
Key Takeaways
Key Points
After the U.S. army occupied Mexico City, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was negotiated and brought the war to an end. The treaty gave the United States control of Texas, established the border at the Rio Grande, and ceded other Mexican lands to the United States in the southwest.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/expansion-and-the-mexican-american-war/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1203293548#14_2474954378
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Title: Government During the War | Boundless US History
Headings: Government During the War
Government During the War
Government During the War
Key Points
Key Terms
Union Governance
Confederate Governance
Union Finances
Key Points
Key Terms
Confederate Finances
Key Points
Key Terms
Union Politics
Key Points
Key Terms
Confederate Politics
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: Annual income of U.S. residents was taxed at a 3 percent rate, while those earning more than $10,000 per year were taxed at a 5 percent rate. An additional means of financing the war was printing money, a strategy also employed in the Confederacy. The Legal Tender Act of 1862 was enacted in February 1862 to issue paper money to finance the war. As the paper money depreciated, it became the subject of controversy, particularly because debts contracted earlier could be paid in this cheaper currency. Apart from instituting new taxes and printing money, a third major source of funding was government bonds. For the first time, bonds in small denominations were sold directly to citizens. Among the Union’s most important war measures was the creation of a system of national banks that provided a sound currency for industrial expansion. These new banks were required to purchase government bonds, directly financing the war. The Greenback bill issued by the United States during the Civil War: The Union printed paper money, which was used in lieu of gold and silver, to finance the war.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/government-during-the-war/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1203329895#5_2474972109
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Title: Hamilton’s Economic Policy | Boundless US History
Headings: Hamilton’s Economic Policy
Hamilton’s Economic Policy
Hamilton’s Legacy
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Hamilton’s Political Vision
Background
Constitutional Convention and Ratification
Hamilton’s Programs
The National Bank
Opposition
Lasting Legacy
Hamilton’s Economic Policy
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Hamilton in Brief: Secretary of the Treasury
A Contested Repayment Strategy
The First National Bank
Other Economic Programs
Promoting Economic Development
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Financial Difficulties of a New Nation
Advances in Manufacturing
The Whiskey Rebellion
Content: Hamilton’s Programs
In the aftermath of ratification, George Washington became the first President of the United States in 1789 and appointed Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury. In his new role, Hamilton continued to expand on his interpretations of the Constitution to defend a series of proposed economic policies. The United States began to become mired in debt. In 1789, when Hamilton took up his post, the federal debt was more than $53 million, and the states had a combined debt of around $25 million. The United States had been unable to pay its debts in the 1780s and was therefore considered a credit risk by European countries. Credited today with creating the foundation for the U.S. financial system, Hamilton wrote three reports offering solutions to the economic crisis brought on by these problems. The first addressed public credit, the second addressed banking, and the third addressed raising revenue. The National Bank
In Hamilton’s vision of a strong central government, he demonstrated little sympathy for state autonomy or fear of excessive central authority. Instead, he believed that the United States should emulate Britain’s strong central political structure and encourage the growth of commerce, trade alliances, and manufacturing. In response to the debate over whether Congress had the authority to establish a national bank, for example, Hamilton wrote the Defense of the Constitutionality of the Bank, which forcefully argued that Congress could choose any means not explicitly prohibited by the Constitution to achieve a constitutional end—even if the means to this end were deemed unconstitutional.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/hamiltons-economic-policy/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1203358067#7_2475006866
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Title: Immigration | Boundless US History
Headings: Immigration
Immigration
Immigration to the United States
Key Points
Key Terms
Immigration in the Nineteenth Century
Immigration from Europe
The California Gold Rush
Immigration and Worker Exploitation
Irish Immigration
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Irish Immigrants
The Potato Famine
Discrimination and Assimilation
Effects on American Culture
German Immigration
Key Points
Key Terms
Immigration from Germany
Location of German Communities
German population in America, 1872
Politics and Role in Society
Nativism
Key Points
Key Terms
Anti-Immigration Sentiments
The Know-Nothings
The American Party
Immigrant Labor
Key Points
Key Terms
Immigrant Labor
The California Gold Rush
Exploitation and Discrimination
Content: Those Chinese who remained in the face of the growing hostility were often beaten and killed, and some Westerners made a sport of cutting off Chinese men’s queues, the long braids of hair worn down their backs. In 1882, Congress took up the power to restrict immigration by banning the further immigration of Chinese. Chinese gold miners in California: One impetus for immigration was the gold rush of 1849, which brought to California thousands of immigrants from Latin America, China, Australia, and Europe. Immigration and Worker Exploitation
As German and Irish immigrants poured into the United States in the decades preceding the Civil War, native-born laborers found themselves competing for jobs with new arrivals who were more likely to work longer hours for less pay. As a result, many wage workers in the North were largely hostile to immigration. In Lowell, Massachusetts, for example, the daughters of New England farmers encountered competition from the daughters of Irish farmers suffering the effects of the potato famine; these immigrant women were more likely to be exploited by employers, working for far less money and enduring worse conditions than native-born women. Male German and Irish immigrants also competed with native-born men. Germans, many of whom were skilled workers, took jobs in furniture making.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/immigration/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1203358067#8_2475009203
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Title: Immigration | Boundless US History
Headings: Immigration
Immigration
Immigration to the United States
Key Points
Key Terms
Immigration in the Nineteenth Century
Immigration from Europe
The California Gold Rush
Immigration and Worker Exploitation
Irish Immigration
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Irish Immigrants
The Potato Famine
Discrimination and Assimilation
Effects on American Culture
German Immigration
Key Points
Key Terms
Immigration from Germany
Location of German Communities
German population in America, 1872
Politics and Role in Society
Nativism
Key Points
Key Terms
Anti-Immigration Sentiments
The Know-Nothings
The American Party
Immigrant Labor
Key Points
Key Terms
Immigrant Labor
The California Gold Rush
Exploitation and Discrimination
Content: As a result, many wage workers in the North were largely hostile to immigration. In Lowell, Massachusetts, for example, the daughters of New England farmers encountered competition from the daughters of Irish farmers suffering the effects of the potato famine; these immigrant women were more likely to be exploited by employers, working for far less money and enduring worse conditions than native-born women. Male German and Irish immigrants also competed with native-born men. Germans, many of whom were skilled workers, took jobs in furniture making. The Irish provided a ready source of unskilled labor needed to lay railroad tracks and dig canals. American men with families to support grudgingly accepted low wages in order to keep their jobs. As work became increasingly deskilled, no worker was irreplaceable, and no one’s job was safe. Irish Immigration
A second wave of Irish Catholic immigration began in the 1840s following the potato famine in Ireland. Learning Objectives
Discuss the waves of Irish immigration into the United States
Key Takeaways
Key Points
The first wave of Irish immigration, which occurred before the American Revolution, consisted mostly of Protestants from Ulster who settled in the American interior.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/immigration/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1204892941#8_2476346886
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Title: The Jackson Administration | Boundless US History
Headings: The Jackson Administration
The Jackson Administration
The Jackson Presidency
Key Points
Key Terms
Jacksonian Democracy
The Philosophy
Expanded Suffrage
Manifest Destiny
Patronage
Strict Constructionism
Laissez-Faire Economics
Crises During Jackson’s Presidency
Opposition to the National Bank
Nullification Crisis
Assassination Attempt
Jackson and the Democratic Party
Key Points
Key Terms
The Rise of the Democratic Party
Values of the Democratic Party
Elections of the 1830s, 40s, and 50s
Young America
Jackson’s Appointments and Rivalries
Key Points
Key Terms
The Spoils System
Jackson’s Appointments
Reform of the Spoils System
Nullification
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Background
The Call for Nullification
Resolution
American Indian Policy and the Trail of Tears
Key Points
Key Terms
Indian Removal
Jacksonian Policy
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
The Trail of Tears
Resistance
Legacy
Enfranchisement and Its Limits
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Suffrage in the Time of Jacksonian Democracy
Disenfranchisement
The Dorr Rebellion
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction: The Dorr Rebellion
Precursors
Rebellion
Thomas Wilson Dorr and the People’s Convention
Two Governments
Attack on the Arsenal
A Second Convention
Dorr’s Fate
Content: As the Jacksonians consolidated power, they more often advocated for expanding federal power and presidential power in particular. Laissez-Faire Economics
Complementing a strict construction of the Constitution, the Jacksonians generally favored a hands-off approach to the economy, in contrast to the Whig program sponsoring modernization, railroads, banking, and economic growth. Crises During Jackson’s Presidency
Opposition to the National Bank
The Second Bank of the United States was authorized for a 20-year period during James Madison ‘s tenure in 1816. Due to his strict constructionist policies, Jackson worked to rescind the bank’s federal charter. Following Jefferson, Jackson supported an “agricultural republic” and felt the Bank improved the fortunes of an “elite circle” of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs at the expense of farmers and laborers. During his presidency, Jackson succeeded in vetoing the Bank’s 1832 re-charter by Congress and withdrawing U.S. funds in 1833. The U.S. Senate censured Jackson on March 28, 1834, for his actions removing U.S. funds from the Bank of the United States. When the Jacksonians achieved a majority in the Senate, the censure was expunged. Nullification Crisis
Another notable crisis during Jackson’s period in office was the Nullification Crisis, or Secession Crisis, of 1828–1832, which merged issues of sectional strife with disagreements over tariffs. Critics alleged that high tariffs (such as the “Tariff of Abominations”) on imports of common manufactured goods produced in Europe made those goods more expensive than ones from the northern United States, raising the prices paid by planters in the South.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-jackson-administration/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1205046652#2_2476443737
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Title: The Korean War | Boundless US History
Headings: The Korean War
The Korean War
The Military Implementation of Containment
Key Points
Key Terms
Containment and the Korean War
The Korean War
Key Points
Key Terms
Overview
U.S. Intervention
Casualties
Aftermath
The Armistice
Key Points
Key Terms
The 38th Parallel
Stalemate in Korea
Armistice and the DMZ
Results of the War
McCarthyism
Key Points
Key Terms
Origins of McCarthyism
McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare
Victims of McCarthyism
The End of McCarthyism
Korea, Communism, and the 1952 Election
Key Points
Key Terms
Election of 1952
Nominees
Campaigns
Results
Content: A United States policy using numerous strategies to prevent the spread of communism abroad. A component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, and Vietnam. It represented a middle-ground position between détente and rollback. Containment and the Korean War
Containment was the major Cold War policy of the United States and its allies to prevent the spread of communism abroad. This policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, Africa, and Vietnam. Containment represented a middle-ground position between detente (the easing of strained political relations) and rollback (forcing change in the major policies of a state, usually by replacing its ruling regime). It lets the opponent choose the place and time of any confrontation. During the Cold War it meant intervening to prevent the spread of Communism to new countries but not attacking nations that were already Communist. In line with this policy, the U.S. attempted to curb Soviet influence on the Korean Peninsula by occupying the southern part of that area. The area occupied by the U.S. became South Korea, while the other part became North Korea.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-korean-war/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1205220410#0_2476578584
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Title: The New Deal | Boundless US History
Headings: The New Deal
The New Deal
Launching the New Deal
Key Points
Key Terms
FDR and the Great Depression
First New Deal (1933–1934/35)
Second New Deal (1935–38)
The New Dealers
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Politics
The New Deal Coalition
New Dealers
Strengthening the Monetary System
Key Points
Key Terms
Financial Crisis
The Banking Reform
Monetary Reform
Agricultural Initiatives and Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Rural Areas
Agricultural Adjustment Acts (1933 and 1938)
Relief and Recovery Programs that Benefited Rural Areas
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Planting Crew, author unknown, 1939.
Industrial Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
National Industrial Recovery Act
National Recovery Administration
Criticism
Content: The New Deal | Boundless US History
The New Deal
Launching the New Deal
The New Deal was a series of economic programs and reforms designed to combat the consequences of the Great Depression in the United States. Learning Objectives
Identify the “3 Rs” of the New Deal
Key Takeaways
Key Points
In his acceptance speech for the Democratic nomination, Roosevelt promised “a new deal for the American people.” His New Deal agenda, initiated hours after he took over the office, was a series of programs that responded to the disastrous consequences of the Great Depression. No other president has achieved as much in his first 100 days of presidency as Roosevelt. With the collaboration of Congress, an unprecedented amount of legislation was passed at the time. Historians distinguish between the First New Deal (1933–34/35) and the Second New Deal (1935–38). The First New Deal (1933–34/35) was not a unified program. It dealt with diverse groups, from banking and railroads to industry, workers, and farming. The Second New Deal (1935–38) was more pro-labor/social reforms and anti-business. More long-term reforms and solutions to economic inequalities were proposed.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-new-deal/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1205220410#4_2476587056
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Title: The New Deal | Boundless US History
Headings: The New Deal
The New Deal
Launching the New Deal
Key Points
Key Terms
FDR and the Great Depression
First New Deal (1933–1934/35)
Second New Deal (1935–38)
The New Dealers
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Politics
The New Deal Coalition
New Dealers
Strengthening the Monetary System
Key Points
Key Terms
Financial Crisis
The Banking Reform
Monetary Reform
Agricultural Initiatives and Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Rural Areas
Agricultural Adjustment Acts (1933 and 1938)
Relief and Recovery Programs that Benefited Rural Areas
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Planting Crew, author unknown, 1939.
Industrial Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
National Industrial Recovery Act
National Recovery Administration
Criticism
Content: First New Deal: The first stage of Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s response to the Great Depression. Nearly all the programs and reforms were initiated in the first 100 days of FDR’s presidency. FDR and the Great Depression
On March 4, 1933, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the newly elected Democratic president, gave his inaugural speech in which he projected confidence, hope, and cautious optimism. Yet the U.S. economy was in the midst of the greatest crisis in the country’s history. The banking system was on the verge of total collapse, the unemployment rate reached nearly a quarter of the labor force, and farmers were destroying crops after their market value dropped dramatically. Although during the 1932 presidential campaign, Roosevelt had no clear idea what his New Deal agenda would entail, he took over the office ready to act. The New Deal was an unprecedented plan that envisioned large-scale programs and reforms designed to support struggling Americans, boost the economy, and prevent similar disasters in the future. A popular narrative presents the New Deal as a series of programs that responded to the Great Depression with “3 Rs”—relief, recovery, and reform. Relief was direct, immediate support for unemployed and poverty-stricken Americans.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-new-deal/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1205220410#5_2476589447
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Title: The New Deal | Boundless US History
Headings: The New Deal
The New Deal
Launching the New Deal
Key Points
Key Terms
FDR and the Great Depression
First New Deal (1933–1934/35)
Second New Deal (1935–38)
The New Dealers
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Politics
The New Deal Coalition
New Dealers
Strengthening the Monetary System
Key Points
Key Terms
Financial Crisis
The Banking Reform
Monetary Reform
Agricultural Initiatives and Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Rural Areas
Agricultural Adjustment Acts (1933 and 1938)
Relief and Recovery Programs that Benefited Rural Areas
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Planting Crew, author unknown, 1939.
Industrial Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
National Industrial Recovery Act
National Recovery Administration
Criticism
Content: The banking system was on the verge of total collapse, the unemployment rate reached nearly a quarter of the labor force, and farmers were destroying crops after their market value dropped dramatically. Although during the 1932 presidential campaign, Roosevelt had no clear idea what his New Deal agenda would entail, he took over the office ready to act. The New Deal was an unprecedented plan that envisioned large-scale programs and reforms designed to support struggling Americans, boost the economy, and prevent similar disasters in the future. A popular narrative presents the New Deal as a series of programs that responded to the Great Depression with “3 Rs”—relief, recovery, and reform. Relief was direct, immediate support for unemployed and poverty-stricken Americans. Recovery meant bringing the economy back to the level of stability and prosperity. Reform entailed introducing measures that would prevent a similar crisis in the future. First New Deal (1933–1934/35)
No other president has been able to achieve as much as Roosevelt in his first 100 days of presidency. Nearly all the programs of the first stage of the New Deal were initiated at that time and executed within less than two years. Three expert advisers from Columbia University—Raymond Moley, Rexford Guy Tugwell, and Adolph A. Berle, Jr., formed Roosevelt’s “Brain Trust ” and greatly contributed to FDR’s initial response to the Great Depression.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-new-deal/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1205220410#6_2476592021
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Title: The New Deal | Boundless US History
Headings: The New Deal
The New Deal
Launching the New Deal
Key Points
Key Terms
FDR and the Great Depression
First New Deal (1933–1934/35)
Second New Deal (1935–38)
The New Dealers
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Politics
The New Deal Coalition
New Dealers
Strengthening the Monetary System
Key Points
Key Terms
Financial Crisis
The Banking Reform
Monetary Reform
Agricultural Initiatives and Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Rural Areas
Agricultural Adjustment Acts (1933 and 1938)
Relief and Recovery Programs that Benefited Rural Areas
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Planting Crew, author unknown, 1939.
Industrial Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
National Industrial Recovery Act
National Recovery Administration
Criticism
Content: Recovery meant bringing the economy back to the level of stability and prosperity. Reform entailed introducing measures that would prevent a similar crisis in the future. First New Deal (1933–1934/35)
No other president has been able to achieve as much as Roosevelt in his first 100 days of presidency. Nearly all the programs of the first stage of the New Deal were initiated at that time and executed within less than two years. Three expert advisers from Columbia University—Raymond Moley, Rexford Guy Tugwell, and Adolph A. Berle, Jr., formed Roosevelt’s “Brain Trust ” and greatly contributed to FDR’s initial response to the Great Depression. Although historians label it as the First New Deal, initiatives introduced in the first 100 days of Roosevelt’s presidency do not form a unified program. Instead, they were rather a bold response to what many saw as a war-like state of emergency. Some of the most important programs and reforms of the First New Deal were: Only 36 hours after taking the presidential oath, Roosevelt closed all the banks (the so-called Bank Holiday). The Emergency Banking Act followed the proclamation and enabled the government to close weak banks and reopen more stable banks.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-new-deal/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1205220410#12_2476605631
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Title: The New Deal | Boundless US History
Headings: The New Deal
The New Deal
Launching the New Deal
Key Points
Key Terms
FDR and the Great Depression
First New Deal (1933–1934/35)
Second New Deal (1935–38)
The New Dealers
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Politics
The New Deal Coalition
New Dealers
Strengthening the Monetary System
Key Points
Key Terms
Financial Crisis
The Banking Reform
Monetary Reform
Agricultural Initiatives and Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Rural Areas
Agricultural Adjustment Acts (1933 and 1938)
Relief and Recovery Programs that Benefited Rural Areas
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Planting Crew, author unknown, 1939.
Industrial Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
National Industrial Recovery Act
National Recovery Administration
Criticism
Content: known also as the Wagner Act), which established the National Labor Relations Board (1935). The NLRA supported the rights of workers to organize and bargain collectively. It also significantly curbed some of the practices that could harm the welfare of workers. The act remains a groundbreaking statute in United States labor law. The Works Progress Administration (1935) created millions of jobs by employing mostly unskilled men in massive public works projects (building bridges, parks, roads, etc.). The Social Security Act (1935) established the welfare system by providing financial support for dependent minors, the disabled, and the elderly. It also introduced unemployment insurance. The Housing Act (1937) provided funds for low-cost public housing for the poorest families. The Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) was the first federal law that included a national minimum wage and instituted the 40-hour week as the standard work week. A poster publicizing Social Security benefits, author unknown, late 1930s/early 1940s
The New Dealers
The New Deal Coalition consisted of interest groups and voting blocs that supported Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal policies.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-new-deal/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1205220410#13_2476607914
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Title: The New Deal | Boundless US History
Headings: The New Deal
The New Deal
Launching the New Deal
Key Points
Key Terms
FDR and the Great Depression
First New Deal (1933–1934/35)
Second New Deal (1935–38)
The New Dealers
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Politics
The New Deal Coalition
New Dealers
Strengthening the Monetary System
Key Points
Key Terms
Financial Crisis
The Banking Reform
Monetary Reform
Agricultural Initiatives and Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Rural Areas
Agricultural Adjustment Acts (1933 and 1938)
Relief and Recovery Programs that Benefited Rural Areas
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Planting Crew, author unknown, 1939.
Industrial Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
National Industrial Recovery Act
National Recovery Administration
Criticism
Content: The Social Security Act (1935) established the welfare system by providing financial support for dependent minors, the disabled, and the elderly. It also introduced unemployment insurance. The Housing Act (1937) provided funds for low-cost public housing for the poorest families. The Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) was the first federal law that included a national minimum wage and instituted the 40-hour week as the standard work week. A poster publicizing Social Security benefits, author unknown, late 1930s/early 1940s
The New Dealers
The New Deal Coalition consisted of interest groups and voting blocs that supported Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal policies. Learning Objectives
Identify the interest groups that made up the New Deal Coalition
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s response to the Great Depression realigned the American political landscape by attracting a more diverse and much wider base of voters to the Democratic Party. The New Deal Coalition emerged during the 1932 presidential election and solidified in the mid 1930s. It remained a hugely important political force well into the late 1960s. Roosevelt drew support from the urban working class (including what historians label as “ethnics”), city machines, labor unions, white rural voters, white Southerners, the white poor, and progressive intellectuals. African Americans also eventually joined the New Deal Coalition but did not support Roosevelt in the 1932 election.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-new-deal/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1205220410#14_2476610516
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Title: The New Deal | Boundless US History
Headings: The New Deal
The New Deal
Launching the New Deal
Key Points
Key Terms
FDR and the Great Depression
First New Deal (1933–1934/35)
Second New Deal (1935–38)
The New Dealers
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Politics
The New Deal Coalition
New Dealers
Strengthening the Monetary System
Key Points
Key Terms
Financial Crisis
The Banking Reform
Monetary Reform
Agricultural Initiatives and Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
The Great Depression and Rural Areas
Agricultural Adjustment Acts (1933 and 1938)
Relief and Recovery Programs that Benefited Rural Areas
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Planting Crew, author unknown, 1939.
Industrial Recovery
Key Points
Key Terms
National Industrial Recovery Act
National Recovery Administration
Criticism
Content: Learning Objectives
Identify the interest groups that made up the New Deal Coalition
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s response to the Great Depression realigned the American political landscape by attracting a more diverse and much wider base of voters to the Democratic Party. The New Deal Coalition emerged during the 1932 presidential election and solidified in the mid 1930s. It remained a hugely important political force well into the late 1960s. Roosevelt drew support from the urban working class (including what historians label as “ethnics”), city machines, labor unions, white rural voters, white Southerners, the white poor, and progressive intellectuals. African Americans also eventually joined the New Deal Coalition but did not support Roosevelt in the 1932 election. Roosevelt’s ” Brain Trust ” was a group of informal advisers that helped him develop New Deal policies. Together with politicians and experts who shaped and supported the New Deal, they are commonly referred to as “New Dealers.” Key Terms
New Dealer: A term used to refer to an expert, politician, or academic who shaped and supported Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s New Deal policies. Brain Trust:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-new-deal/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1205907753#13_2477145768
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Title: The Van Buren Administration | Boundless US History
Headings: The Van Buren Administration
The Van Buren Administration
The Politics of Slavery
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Slavery in the South
Abolitionism
Garrison and Immediate Emancipation
The Liberty Party
Southern Responses
The Panic of 1837
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction: The Panic of 1837
Causes
Economic Booms and Busts
Jackson’s Policies
Effects and Aftermath
Recovery
Content: Causes
Economic Booms and Busts
Growth of the U.S. economy during the Market Revolution produced an upsurge in investment in emerging financial sectors. These speculative investments were frequently made with borrowed funds, resulting in large-scale cycles of boom and bust in the early 1800s. The tremendous growth in the agricultural sector in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries encouraged land speculation, or the purchasing of land with the expectation that its value would continue to increase. Cotton, at first a small-scale crop in the South, boomed following Eli Whitney ‘s invention of the cotton gin in 1793. Raw cotton from southern plantations was shipped to textile mills in Britain, France, and, by the 1820s, New England. Millions also migrated to fertile farmlands of the Midwest, and new roads and waterways opened up new markets for western farm products. The U.S. government borrowed heavily to finance the War of 1812, which caused tremendous strain on the banks’ reserves of specie (gold and silver), leading to a suspension of specie payments in 1814. The suspension of the obligation to back transactions with hard currency spurred the establishment of new banks and the expansion of bank-note issues. This inflation of money encouraged unsustainable investments. Jackson’s Policies
The Panic of 1837 was influenced by the economic policies of President Jackson.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/the-van-buren-administration/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1206331672#0_2477423872
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Title: Byzantium: The New Rome | Boundless World History
Headings: Byzantium: The New Rome
Byzantium: The New Rome
Naming of the Byzantine Empire
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Nomenclature
The Eastern Roman Empire, Constantine the Great, and Byzantium
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Constantine the Great and the Beginning of Byzantium
Constantinople and Civil Reform
Constantine and Christianity
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Justinian and Theodora
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Byzantine Empire from Constantine to Justinian
Emperor Justinian I
Accomplishments in Byzantium
Theodora
Justinian’s Difficulties
The Justinian Code
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Legacy
Content: Byzantium: The New Rome | Boundless World History
Byzantium: The New Rome
Naming of the Byzantine Empire
While the Western Roman Empire fell, the Eastern Roman Empire, now known as the Byzantine Empire, thrived. Learning Objectives
Describe identifying characteristics of the Byzantine Empire
Key Takeaways
Key Points
While the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE, the Eastern Roman Empire, centered on the city of Constantinople, survived and thrived. After the Eastern Roman Empire’s much later fall in 1453 CE, western scholars began calling it the ” Byzantine Empire ” to emphasize its distinction from the earlier, Latin-speaking Roman Empire centered on Rome. The “Byzantine Empire” is now the standard term used among historians to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. Although the Byzantine Empire had a multi-ethnic character during most of its history and preserved Romano-Hellenistic traditions, it became identified with its increasingly predominant Greek element and its own unique cultural developments. Key Terms
Constantinople: Formerly Byzantium, the capital of the Byzantine Empire as established by its first emperor, Constantine the Great. ( Today the city is known as Istanbul.)
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/byzantium-the-new-rome/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1206331672#1_2477426129
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Title: Byzantium: The New Rome | Boundless World History
Headings: Byzantium: The New Rome
Byzantium: The New Rome
Naming of the Byzantine Empire
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Nomenclature
The Eastern Roman Empire, Constantine the Great, and Byzantium
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Constantine the Great and the Beginning of Byzantium
Constantinople and Civil Reform
Constantine and Christianity
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Justinian and Theodora
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Byzantine Empire from Constantine to Justinian
Emperor Justinian I
Accomplishments in Byzantium
Theodora
Justinian’s Difficulties
The Justinian Code
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Legacy
Content: The “Byzantine Empire” is now the standard term used among historians to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. Although the Byzantine Empire had a multi-ethnic character during most of its history and preserved Romano-Hellenistic traditions, it became identified with its increasingly predominant Greek element and its own unique cultural developments. Key Terms
Constantinople: Formerly Byzantium, the capital of the Byzantine Empire as established by its first emperor, Constantine the Great. ( Today the city is known as Istanbul.) The Byzantine Empire, sometimes referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, originally founded as Byzantium ). It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE, and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. Both “Byzantine Empire” and “Eastern Roman Empire” are historiographical terms created after the end of the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire, and thought of themselves as Romans.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/byzantium-the-new-rome/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1206331672#2_2477428511
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Title: Byzantium: The New Rome | Boundless World History
Headings: Byzantium: The New Rome
Byzantium: The New Rome
Naming of the Byzantine Empire
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Nomenclature
The Eastern Roman Empire, Constantine the Great, and Byzantium
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Constantine the Great and the Beginning of Byzantium
Constantinople and Civil Reform
Constantine and Christianity
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Justinian and Theodora
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Byzantine Empire from Constantine to Justinian
Emperor Justinian I
Accomplishments in Byzantium
Theodora
Justinian’s Difficulties
The Justinian Code
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Legacy
Content: The Byzantine Empire, sometimes referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, originally founded as Byzantium ). It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE, and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. Both “Byzantine Empire” and “Eastern Roman Empire” are historiographical terms created after the end of the realm; its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire, and thought of themselves as Romans. Although the people living in the Eastern Roman Empire referred to themselves as Romans, they were distinguished by their Greek heritage, Orthodox Christianity, and their regional connections. Over time, the culture of the Eastern Roman Empire transformed. Greek replaced Latin as the language of the empire. Christianity became more important in daily life, although the culture’s pagan Roman past still exerted an influence. Several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire’s Greek east and Latin west divided.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/byzantium-the-new-rome/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1206331672#6_2477438751
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Title: Byzantium: The New Rome | Boundless World History
Headings: Byzantium: The New Rome
Byzantium: The New Rome
Naming of the Byzantine Empire
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Nomenclature
The Eastern Roman Empire, Constantine the Great, and Byzantium
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Constantine the Great and the Beginning of Byzantium
Constantinople and Civil Reform
Constantine and Christianity
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Justinian and Theodora
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Byzantine Empire from Constantine to Justinian
Emperor Justinian I
Accomplishments in Byzantium
Theodora
Justinian’s Difficulties
The Justinian Code
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Legacy
Content: A map of Constantinople, the capital and founding city of the Byzantine Empire, drawn in 1422 CE by Florentine cartographer Cristoforo Buondelmonti. This is the oldest surviving map of the city and the only one that predates the Turkish conquest of the city in 1453 CE. Nomenclature
The first use of the term “Byzantine” to label the later years of the Roman Empire was in 1557, when the German historian Hieronymus Wolf published his work, Corpus Historiæ Byzantinæ, a collection of historical sources. The term comes from “Byzantium,” the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantine’s capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. However, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the western world; calling it the “Byzantine Empire” helped to emphasize its differences from the earlier Latin-speaking Roman Empire, centered on Rome. The term “Byzantine” was also useful to the many western European states that also claimed to be the true successors of the Roman Empire, as it was used to delegitimize the claims of the Byzantines as true Romans. In modern times, the term “Byzantine” has also come to have a pejorative sense, used to describe things that are overly complex or arcane. “ Byzantine diplomacy” has come to mean excess use of trickery and behind-the-scenes manipulation.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/byzantium-the-new-rome/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1206331672#9_2477446419
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Title: Byzantium: The New Rome | Boundless World History
Headings: Byzantium: The New Rome
Byzantium: The New Rome
Naming of the Byzantine Empire
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Nomenclature
The Eastern Roman Empire, Constantine the Great, and Byzantium
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Constantine the Great and the Beginning of Byzantium
Constantinople and Civil Reform
Constantine and Christianity
The Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Justinian and Theodora
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Byzantine Empire from Constantine to Justinian
Emperor Justinian I
Accomplishments in Byzantium
Theodora
Justinian’s Difficulties
The Justinian Code
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Legacy
Content: Learning Objectives
Explain the role of Constantine in Byzantine Empire history
Key Takeaways
Key Points
The Byzantine Empire (the Eastern Roman Empire) was distinct from the Western Roman Empire in several ways; most importantly, the Byzantines were Christians and spoke Greek instead of Latin. The founder of the Byzantine Empire and its first emperor, Constantine the Great, moved the capital of the Roman Empire to the city of Byzantium in 330 CE, and renamed it Constantinople. Constantine the Great also legalized Christianity, which had previously been persecuted in the Roman Empire. Christianity would become a major element of Byzantine culture. Constantinople became the largest city in the empire and a major commercial center, while the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE. Key Terms
Germanic barbarians: An uncivilized or uncultured person, originally compared to the hellenistic Greco-Roman civilization; often associated with fighting or other such shows of strength. Christianity:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/byzantium-the-new-rome/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1207236744#12_2478158112
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Title: Native American Cultures in North America | Boundless World History
Headings: Native American Cultures in North America
Native American Cultures in North America
Great Basin Culture
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Language
Lifeways
Religion
Pacific Coast Culture
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Arts and Crafts
Religious and Social Ceremonies
Eastern Woodland Culture
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Woodland Period (1000–1 BCE)
Middle Woodland Period (1–500 CE)
Late Woodland Period (500–1000 CE)
Southwestern Culture
Key Points
Key Terms
Overview
Southwestern Agriculture
Family and Religion
Conclusion
Mississippian Culture
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Decline of the Mississippians
Content: A ceremony amongst certain American Indian peoples of the Pacific Coast in which gifts are bestowed upon guests and personal property is destroyed in a show of wealth and generosity. animism: The worldview that non-human entities—such as animals, plants, and inanimate
objects—possess a spiritual essence. The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were composed of many nations and tribal affiliations, each with distinctive cultural and political identities; but they shared certain beliefs, traditions, and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. These nations had time and energy to devote to the establishment of fine arts and crafts and to religious and social
ceremonies. The term “Northwest Coast”, or “North West Coast”, is used to refer to the groups of indigenous people residing along the coasts of British Columbia, Washington State, parts of Alaska, Oregon, and northern California. The Pacific Northwest Coast at one time had the most densely populated areas of indigenous people. The mild climate and abundant natural resources,
such as cedar and salmon, made possible the rise of a complex aboriginal culture. The indigenous people in this region practiced various forms of forest gardening and fire-stick farming in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plats continued to be available through the use of advanced farming techniques.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/native-american-cultures-in-north-america/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1207236744#13_2478160608
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Title: Native American Cultures in North America | Boundless World History
Headings: Native American Cultures in North America
Native American Cultures in North America
Great Basin Culture
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Language
Lifeways
Religion
Pacific Coast Culture
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Arts and Crafts
Religious and Social Ceremonies
Eastern Woodland Culture
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Woodland Period (1000–1 BCE)
Middle Woodland Period (1–500 CE)
Late Woodland Period (500–1000 CE)
Southwestern Culture
Key Points
Key Terms
Overview
Southwestern Agriculture
Family and Religion
Conclusion
Mississippian Culture
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Decline of the Mississippians
Content: These nations had time and energy to devote to the establishment of fine arts and crafts and to religious and social
ceremonies. The term “Northwest Coast”, or “North West Coast”, is used to refer to the groups of indigenous people residing along the coasts of British Columbia, Washington State, parts of Alaska, Oregon, and northern California. The Pacific Northwest Coast at one time had the most densely populated areas of indigenous people. The mild climate and abundant natural resources,
such as cedar and salmon, made possible the rise of a complex aboriginal culture. The indigenous people in this region practiced various forms of forest gardening and fire-stick farming in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands, ensuring that desired food and medicine plats continued to be available through the use of advanced farming techniques. Those involved in agricultural development would create low-intensity fires in order to prevent larger, catastrophic fires and sustain low-density agriculture in a loose rotation. This is what is known as permaculture, or any system of sustainable agriculture that renews natural resources and enriches local ecosystems. Arts and Crafts
One of the major cultural elements that began to flourish on the Pacific Northwest Coast was the use of music and other forms of arts and crafts. Although music varied in function and expression among indigenous tribes, there were cultural similarities. For example, some tribes used hand drums made of animal hides as their instrument of choice, while others used plank or log drums, along with whistlers, wood clappers, and rattles.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/native-american-cultures-in-north-america/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1208908659#3_2479383599
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Title: The Mongol Empire | Boundless World History
Headings: The Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire
Overview of the Mongol Empire
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Rise of the Mongol Empire
Impact
of the Pax Mongolica
The Empire Starts to Fragment
Content: During Europe’s High Middle Ages the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in history, began to emerge. The Mongol Empire began in the Central Asian steppes and lasted throughout the 13th and 14th centuries. At its greatest extent it included all of modern-day Mongolia, China, parts of Burma, Romania, Pakistan, Siberia, Ukraine, Belarus, Cilicia, Anatolia, Georgia, Armenia, Persia, Iraq, Central Asia, and much or all of Russia. Many additional countries became tributary states of the Mongol Empire. The empire unified the nomadic Mongol and Turkic tribes of historical Mongolia under the leadership of Genghis Khan, who was proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and then under his descendants, who sent invasions in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected the east with the west with an enforced Pax Mongolica, or Mongol Peace, allowing trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies to be disseminated and exchanged across Eurasia. Mongol invasions and conquests progressed over the next century, until 1300, by which time the vast empire covered much of Asia and Eastern Europe. Historians regard the Mongol raids and invasions as some of the deadliest and most terrifying conflicts in human history. The Mongols spread panic ahead of them and induced population displacement on an unprecedented scale.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-mongol-empire/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1208908659#4_2479385481
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Title: The Mongol Empire | Boundless World History
Headings: The Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire
Overview of the Mongol Empire
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Rise of the Mongol Empire
Impact
of the Pax Mongolica
The Empire Starts to Fragment
Content: The empire grew rapidly under his rule and then under his descendants, who sent invasions in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected the east with the west with an enforced Pax Mongolica, or Mongol Peace, allowing trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies to be disseminated and exchanged across Eurasia. Mongol invasions and conquests progressed over the next century, until 1300, by which time the vast empire covered much of Asia and Eastern Europe. Historians regard the Mongol raids and invasions as some of the deadliest and most terrifying conflicts in human history. The Mongols spread panic ahead of them and induced population displacement on an unprecedented scale. Impact
of the Pax Mongolica
The Pax Mongolica refers to the relative stabilization of the regions under Mongol control during the height of the empire in the 13th and 14th centuries. The Mongol rulers maintained peace and relative stability in such varied regions because they did not force subjects to adopt religious or cultural traditions. However, they still enforced a legal code known as the Yassa (Great Law), which stopped feudal disagreements at local levels and made outright disobedience a dubious prospect. It also ensured that it was easy to create an army in short time and gave the khans access to the daughters of local leaders. The Silk Road:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-mongol-empire/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1210599979#0_2481517308
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Title: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers | Business and the Legal Environment
Headings: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Learning Objectives
Why Have Administrative Agencies?
Why Regulate the Economy at All?
Ideal Conditions for a Free Market
History of Federal Agencies
Classification of Agencies
Powers of Agencies
The Constitution and Agencies
Key Takeaway
Exercises
Content: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers | Business and the Legal Environment
Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to: Explain the reasons why we have federal administrative agencies. Explain the difference between executive branch agencies and independent agencies. Describe the constitutional issue that questions whether administrative agencies could have authority to make enforceable rules that affect business. Why Have Administrative Agencies? The US Constitution mentions only three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial (Articles I, II, and III). There is no mention of agencies in the Constitution, even though federal agencies are sometimes referred to as “the fourth branch of government.”
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/buslegalenv/chapter/5-1-administrative-agencies-their-structure-and-powers/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1210599979#1_2481518844
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Title: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers | Business and the Legal Environment
Headings: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Learning Objectives
Why Have Administrative Agencies?
Why Regulate the Economy at All?
Ideal Conditions for a Free Market
History of Federal Agencies
Classification of Agencies
Powers of Agencies
The Constitution and Agencies
Key Takeaway
Exercises
Content: Describe the constitutional issue that questions whether administrative agencies could have authority to make enforceable rules that affect business. Why Have Administrative Agencies? The US Constitution mentions only three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial (Articles I, II, and III). There is no mention of agencies in the Constitution, even though federal agencies are sometimes referred to as “the fourth branch of government.” The Supreme Court has recognized the legitimacy of federal administrative agencies to make rules that have the same binding effect as statutes by Congress. Most commentators note that having agencies with rule-making power is a practical necessity: ( 1) Congress does not have the expertise or continuity to develop specialized knowledge in various areas (e.g., communications, the environment, aviation). ( 2) Because of this, it makes sense for Congress to set forth broad statutory guidance to an agency and delegate authority to the agency to propose rules that further the statutory purposes. ( 3) As long as Congress makes this delegating guidance sufficiently clear, it is not delegating improperly.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/buslegalenv/chapter/5-1-administrative-agencies-their-structure-and-powers/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1210599979#2_2481520729
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Title: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers | Business and the Legal Environment
Headings: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Learning Objectives
Why Have Administrative Agencies?
Why Regulate the Economy at All?
Ideal Conditions for a Free Market
History of Federal Agencies
Classification of Agencies
Powers of Agencies
The Constitution and Agencies
Key Takeaway
Exercises
Content: The Supreme Court has recognized the legitimacy of federal administrative agencies to make rules that have the same binding effect as statutes by Congress. Most commentators note that having agencies with rule-making power is a practical necessity: ( 1) Congress does not have the expertise or continuity to develop specialized knowledge in various areas (e.g., communications, the environment, aviation). ( 2) Because of this, it makes sense for Congress to set forth broad statutory guidance to an agency and delegate authority to the agency to propose rules that further the statutory purposes. ( 3) As long as Congress makes this delegating guidance sufficiently clear, it is not delegating improperly. If Congress’s guidelines are too vague or undefined, it is (in essence) giving away its constitutional power to some other group, and this it cannot do. Why Regulate the Economy at All? The market often does not work properly, as economists often note. Monopolies, for example, happen in the natural course of human events but are not always desirable. To fix this, well-conceived and objectively enforced competition law (what is called antitrust law in the United States) is needed.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/buslegalenv/chapter/5-1-administrative-agencies-their-structure-and-powers/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1210599979#10_2481538004
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Title: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers | Business and the Legal Environment
Headings: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Learning Objectives
Why Have Administrative Agencies?
Why Regulate the Economy at All?
Ideal Conditions for a Free Market
History of Federal Agencies
Classification of Agencies
Powers of Agencies
The Constitution and Agencies
Key Takeaway
Exercises
Content: On its own, for example, the market would not provide public goods such as education, a highway system, lighthouses, a military for defense. True laissez-faire capitalism—a market free from any regulation—would not try to deal with market imperfections and would also allow people to freely choose products, services, and other arrangements that historically have been deemed socially unacceptable. These would include making enforceable contracts for the sale and purchase of persons (slavery), sexual services, “street drugs” such as heroin or crack cocaine, votes for public office, grades for this course in business law, and even marriage partnership. Thus the free market in actual terms—and not in theory—consists of commerce legally constrained by what is economically desirable and by what is socially desirable as well. Public policy objectives in the social arena include ensuring equal opportunity in employment, protecting employees from unhealthy or unsafe work environments, preserving environmental quality and resources, and protecting consumers from unsafe products. Sometimes these objectives are met by giving individuals statutory rights that can be used in bringing a complaint (e.g., Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, for employment discrimination), and sometimes they are met by creating agencies with the right to investigate and monitor and enforce statutory law and regulations created to enforce such law (e.g., the Environmental Protection Agency, for bringing a lawsuit against a polluting company). History of Federal Agencies
Through the commerce clause in the US Constitution, Congress has the power to regulate trade between the states and with foreign nations. The earliest federal agency therefore dealt with trucking and railroads, to literally set the rules of the road for interstate commerce. The first federal agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), was created in 1887. Congress delegated to the ICC the power to enforce federal laws against railroad rate discrimination and other unfair pricing practices.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/buslegalenv/chapter/5-1-administrative-agencies-their-structure-and-powers/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1210599979#11_2481540815
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Title: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers | Business and the Legal Environment
Headings: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Learning Objectives
Why Have Administrative Agencies?
Why Regulate the Economy at All?
Ideal Conditions for a Free Market
History of Federal Agencies
Classification of Agencies
Powers of Agencies
The Constitution and Agencies
Key Takeaway
Exercises
Content: Sometimes these objectives are met by giving individuals statutory rights that can be used in bringing a complaint (e.g., Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, for employment discrimination), and sometimes they are met by creating agencies with the right to investigate and monitor and enforce statutory law and regulations created to enforce such law (e.g., the Environmental Protection Agency, for bringing a lawsuit against a polluting company). History of Federal Agencies
Through the commerce clause in the US Constitution, Congress has the power to regulate trade between the states and with foreign nations. The earliest federal agency therefore dealt with trucking and railroads, to literally set the rules of the road for interstate commerce. The first federal agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), was created in 1887. Congress delegated to the ICC the power to enforce federal laws against railroad rate discrimination and other unfair pricing practices. By the early part of this century, the ICC gained the power to fix rates. From the 1970s through 1995, however, Congress passed deregulatory measures, and the ICC was formally abolished in 1995, with its powers transferred to the Surface Transportation Board. Beginning with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in 1914, Congress has created numerous other agencies, many of them familiar actors in American government. Today more than eighty-five federal agencies have jurisdiction to regulate some form of private activity. Most were created since 1930, and more than a third since 1960.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/buslegalenv/chapter/5-1-administrative-agencies-their-structure-and-powers/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1210599979#12_2481543099
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Title: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers | Business and the Legal Environment
Headings: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Learning Objectives
Why Have Administrative Agencies?
Why Regulate the Economy at All?
Ideal Conditions for a Free Market
History of Federal Agencies
Classification of Agencies
Powers of Agencies
The Constitution and Agencies
Key Takeaway
Exercises
Content: By the early part of this century, the ICC gained the power to fix rates. From the 1970s through 1995, however, Congress passed deregulatory measures, and the ICC was formally abolished in 1995, with its powers transferred to the Surface Transportation Board. Beginning with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in 1914, Congress has created numerous other agencies, many of them familiar actors in American government. Today more than eighty-five federal agencies have jurisdiction to regulate some form of private activity. Most were created since 1930, and more than a third since 1960. A similar growth has occurred at the state level. Most states now have dozens of regulatory agencies, many of them overlapping in function with the federal bodies. Classification of Agencies
Independent agencies are different from federal executive departments and other executive agencies by their structural and functional characteristics. Most executive departments have a single director, administrator, or secretary appointed by the president of the United States. Independent agencies almost always have a commission or board consisting of five to seven members who share power over the agency.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/buslegalenv/chapter/5-1-administrative-agencies-their-structure-and-powers/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1210599979#13_2481545001
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Title: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers | Business and the Legal Environment
Headings: Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Administrative Agencies: Their Structure and Powers
Learning Objectives
Why Have Administrative Agencies?
Why Regulate the Economy at All?
Ideal Conditions for a Free Market
History of Federal Agencies
Classification of Agencies
Powers of Agencies
The Constitution and Agencies
Key Takeaway
Exercises
Content: A similar growth has occurred at the state level. Most states now have dozens of regulatory agencies, many of them overlapping in function with the federal bodies. Classification of Agencies
Independent agencies are different from federal executive departments and other executive agencies by their structural and functional characteristics. Most executive departments have a single director, administrator, or secretary appointed by the president of the United States. Independent agencies almost always have a commission or board consisting of five to seven members who share power over the agency. The president appoints the commissioners or board subject to Senate confirmation, but they often serve with staggered terms and often for longer terms than a usual four-year presidential term. They cannot be removed except for “good cause.” This means that most presidents will not get to appoint all the commissioners of a given independent agency. Most independent agencies have a statutory requirement of bipartisan membership on
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/buslegalenv/chapter/5-1-administrative-agencies-their-structure-and-powers/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1212835857#5_2486091253
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Title: Gender Socialization | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Gender Socialization
Gender Socialization
Brief
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Terms
Full Text
Content: As children get older, gender stereotypes become more apparent in styles of dress and choice of leisure activities. Boys and girls who do not conform to gender stereotypes are usually ostracized by same-age peers for being different. This can lead to negative effects, such as lower self-esteem. In Western contexts, gender socialization is frequently viewed as a binary, or a concept that is exclusively comprised of two parts. In other words, individuals are socialized into conceiving of their gender as either masculine (male) or feminine (female). However, some individuals do not fall into the gender binary. For example, individuals that identify as transgender have a gender identity that does not match their assigned sex. For example, they may have been assigned male at birth because they have a penis, and a gender identity that is feminine. Individuals that identify as genderqueer have a gender identity that challenges classifications of masculine and feminine, and may identify as somewhere other than male and female, in between male and female, a combination of male and female, or a third (or forth, or fifth, etc.) gender altogether.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cochise-sociology-os/chapter/gender-socialization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1212893909#0_2486211219
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Title: The Feminist Perspective | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: The Feminist Perspective
The Feminist Perspective
Brief
Full Text
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Terms
Content: The Feminist Perspective | Introduction to Sociology
The Feminist Perspective
Brief
Feminist theory analyzes gender stratification through the intersection of gender, race, and class. Full Text
Learning Objectives
Explain gender stratification from the feminist perspective
Key Takeaways
Gender stratification occurs when gender differences give men greater privilege and power over women, transgender and gender-non-conforming people. Feminist theory uses the conflict approach to examine the reinforcement of gender roles and inequalities, highlighting the role of patriarchy in maintaining the oppression of women. Feminism focuses on the theory of patriarchy as a system of power that organizes society into a complex of relationships based on the assertion of male supremacy. Intersectionality suggests that various forms of oppression– such as racism, classism, and sexism — are interrelated to form a system of oppression in which various forms of discrimination intersect. The theory was first highlighted by Kimberlé Krenshaw. Intersectionality suggests that various biological, social, and cultural categories– including gender, race, class, and ethnicity — interact and contribute towards systematic social inequality. Therefore, various forms of oppression do not act independently but are interrelated. Mary Ann Weathers drew attention to the ways in which white women face a different form of discrimination than working class women of color, who additionally must fight racism and class oppression. Key Terms
Patriarchy – The dominance of men in social or cultural systems.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cochise-sociology-os/chapter/the-feminist-perspective/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1213603324#0_2487659898
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Title: Gender Inequality | Cultural Anthropology
Headings: Gender Inequality
Gender Inequality
Gender roles in parenting and marriage
Gender inequality in relationships
Attempts in equalizing household work
Gender inequalities in relation to technology
Structural marginalization
Gender stereotypes
Biological fertilization stereotypes
Sexism and discrimination
Notes and references
Content: Gender Inequality | Cultural Anthropology
Gender Inequality
Gender inequality refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender. It arises from differences in socially constructed gender roles. Gender systems are often dichotomous and hierarchical; gender binary systems may reflect the inequalities that manifest in numerous dimensions of daily life. Gender inequality stems from distinctions, whether empirically grounded or socially constructed. Gender roles in parenting and marriage
Sigmund Freud suggested that biology determines gender identity through identification with either the mother or father. While some might agree with Freud, others argue that the development of the gendered self is not completely determined by biology, but rather the interactions that one has with the primary caregiver (s). According to the non-Freudian view, gender roles develop through internalization and identification during childhood. From birth, parents interact differently with children depending on their sex, and through this interaction parents can instill different values or traits in their children on the basis of what is normative for their sex. This internalization of gender norms can be seen through the example of which types of toys parents typically give to their children (“feminine” toys such as dolls often reinforce interaction, nurturing, and closeness, “masculine” toys such as cars or fake guns often reinforce independence, competitiveness, and aggression).
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/culturalanthropology/chapter/gender-inequality/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1213618413#0_2487694898
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Title: Gender Role | Cultural Anthropology
Headings: Gender Role
Gender Role
Background
References
Content: Gender Role | Cultural Anthropology
Gender Role
A gender role is a set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on their actual or perceived sex. These are usually centered around opposing conceptions of femininity and masculinity, although there are myriad exceptions and variations. The specifics regarding these gendered expectations may vary substantially among cultures, while other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures. There is ongoing debate as to what extent gender roles and their variations are biologically determined, and to what extent they are socially constructed. Various groups have led efforts to change aspects of prevailing gender roles that they believe are oppressive or inaccurate, most notably the feminist movement. The term ‘gender role’ was first coined by John Money in 1955 during the course of his study of intersex individuals to describe the manners in which these individuals express their status as a male or female, in a situation where no clear biological assignment exists. Background
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender roles as “socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women”. However debate continues as to what extent gender and its roles are socially constructed (i.e. non-biologically influenced), and to what extent “socially constructed” may be considered synonymous with “arbitrary” or “malleable”. Therefore, a concise authoritative definition of gender roles or gender itself is elusive. Some systems of classification, unlike the WHO, are non-binary or gender queer, listing multiple possible genders including transgender and intersex as distinct categories.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/culturalanthropology/chapter/gender-role/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1213618413#1_2487697080
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Title: Gender Role | Cultural Anthropology
Headings: Gender Role
Gender Role
Background
References
Content: The term ‘gender role’ was first coined by John Money in 1955 during the course of his study of intersex individuals to describe the manners in which these individuals express their status as a male or female, in a situation where no clear biological assignment exists. Background
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender roles as “socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women”. However debate continues as to what extent gender and its roles are socially constructed (i.e. non-biologically influenced), and to what extent “socially constructed” may be considered synonymous with “arbitrary” or “malleable”. Therefore, a concise authoritative definition of gender roles or gender itself is elusive. Some systems of classification, unlike the WHO, are non-binary or gender queer, listing multiple possible genders including transgender and intersex as distinct categories. Gender roles are culturally specific, and while most cultures distinguish only two (boy and girl or man and woman), others recognize more. Androgyny, for example, has been proposed as a third gender. Other societies have claimed to see more than five genders, and some non-Western societies have three genders – man, woman and third gender. Some individuals (not necessarily being from such a culture) identify with no gender at all. Gender role – defined as referring in some sense to cultural expectations according to an understood gender classification – should not be confused with gender identity, the internal sense of one’s own gender, which may or may not align with categories offered by societal norms.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/culturalanthropology/chapter/gender-role/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1213618413#2_2487699137
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Title: Gender Role | Cultural Anthropology
Headings: Gender Role
Gender Role
Background
References
Content: Gender roles are culturally specific, and while most cultures distinguish only two (boy and girl or man and woman), others recognize more. Androgyny, for example, has been proposed as a third gender. Other societies have claimed to see more than five genders, and some non-Western societies have three genders – man, woman and third gender. Some individuals (not necessarily being from such a culture) identify with no gender at all. Gender role – defined as referring in some sense to cultural expectations according to an understood gender classification – should not be confused with gender identity, the internal sense of one’s own gender, which may or may not align with categories offered by societal norms. The point at which these internalized gender identities become externalized into a set of expectations is the genesis of a gender role. Gender roles are usually referenced in a pejorative sense, as an institution that restricts freedom of behavior and expression, or are used as a basis for discrimination. Because of the prevailing gender role of general subordination, women were not granted the right to vote in many parts of the world until the 19th or 20th centuries, some well into the 21st. Women throughout the world, in myriad respects, do not enjoy full freedom and protection under the law. Contrariwise because of the prevailing perception of men as primarily breadwinners, they are seldom afforded the benefit of paternity leave.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/culturalanthropology/chapter/gender-role/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1214299380#5_2488911789
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Title: Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity | Anatomy and Physiology II
Headings: Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity
Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity
Learning Objectives
Structure of Cardiac Muscle
Conduction System of the Heart
Sinoatrial (SA) Node
Atrioventricular (AV) Node
Atrioventricular Bundle (Bundle of His), Bundle Branches, and Purkinje Fibers
Membrane Potentials and Ion Movement in Cardiac Conductive Cells
Action Potential Review: What is a Stable resting Membrane Potential?
review of a Neuronal action Potential
Why do SA node cardiocytes lack a stable resting membrane potential?
Membrane Potentials and Ion Movement in Cardiac Contractile Cells
Calcium Ions
Comparative Rates of Conduction System Firing
Electrocardiogram
Everyday Connection: ECG Abnormalities
Everyday Connection: External Automated Defibrillators
Cardiac Muscle Metabolism
Chapter Review
Self Check
19.2 Exercise 11.
Critical Thinking Questions
Glossary
Content: T (transverse) tubules penetrate from the surface plasma membrane, the sarcolemma, to the interior of the cell, allowing the electrical impulse to reach the interior. The T tubules are only found at the Z discs, whereas in skeletal muscle, they are found at the junction of the A and I bands. Therefore, there are one-half as many T tubules in cardiac muscle as in skeletal muscle. In addition, the sarcoplasmic reticulum stores few calcium ions, so most of the calcium ions must come from outside the cells. The result is a slower onset of contraction. Mitochondria are plentiful, providing energy for the contractions of the heart. Typically, cardiomyocytes have a single, central nucleus, but two or more nuclei may be found in some cells. Cardiac muscle cells branch freely. A junction between two adjoining cells is marked by a critical structure called an intercalated disc, which helps support the synchronized contraction of the muscle by allowing ions to travel between the sarcolemmas of neighboring cells. As a result, if one cell has an action potential, enough ions will travel through the intercalated discs to permit all connected cells to also reach threshold and have action potentials.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cuny-kbcc-ap2/chapter/cardiac-muscle-and-electrical-activity/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1214610318#2_2489322612
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Title: The Small and Large Intestines | Anatomy and Physiology II
Headings: The Small and Large Intestines
The Small and Large Intestines
Learning Objectives
The Small Intestine
Structure
Histology
Structure versus function: the absorptive surface of the small Intestine
Circular folds
Villi
Microvilli
Intestinal Glands
Intestinal Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Bile salts: hydrogen bonding and emulsification
Figure 5. Emulsification of fats by bile salts
Disorders of the Small Intestine: Lactose Intolerance
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Rectum
Anal Canal
Histology
Anatomy
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
Chapter Review
Self Check
23.5 Exercise 33.
Critical Thinking Questions
Glossary
References
Content: Not only is this where most digestion occurs, it is also where practically all absorption occurs. The longest part of the alimentary canal, the small intestine is about 3.05 meters (10 feet) long in a living person (but about twice as long in a cadaver due to the loss of muscle tone). Since this makes it about five times longer than the large intestine, you might wonder why it is called “small.” In fact, its name derives from its relatively smaller diameter of only about 2.54 cm (1 in), compared with 7.62 cm (3 in) for the large intestine. As we’ll see shortly, in addition to its length, the folds and projections of the lining of the small intestine work to give it an enormous surface area, which is approximately 200 m 2, more than 100 times the surface area of your skin. This large surface area is necessary for complex processes of digestion and absorption that occur within it. Structure
The coiled tube of the small intestine is subdivided into three regions. From proximal (at the stomach) to distal, these are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The shortest region is the 25.4-cm (10-in) duodenum, which begins at the pyloric sphincter. Just past the pyloric sphincter, it bends posteriorly behind the peritoneum, becoming retroperitoneal, and then makes a C-shaped curve around the head of the pancreas before ascending anteriorly again to return to the peritoneal cavity and join the jejunum.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cuny-kbcc-ap2/chapter/the-small-and-large-intestines/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1214610318#3_2489325229
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Title: The Small and Large Intestines | Anatomy and Physiology II
Headings: The Small and Large Intestines
The Small and Large Intestines
Learning Objectives
The Small Intestine
Structure
Histology
Structure versus function: the absorptive surface of the small Intestine
Circular folds
Villi
Microvilli
Intestinal Glands
Intestinal Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Bile salts: hydrogen bonding and emulsification
Figure 5. Emulsification of fats by bile salts
Disorders of the Small Intestine: Lactose Intolerance
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Rectum
Anal Canal
Histology
Anatomy
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
Chapter Review
Self Check
23.5 Exercise 33.
Critical Thinking Questions
Glossary
References
Content: This large surface area is necessary for complex processes of digestion and absorption that occur within it. Structure
The coiled tube of the small intestine is subdivided into three regions. From proximal (at the stomach) to distal, these are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The shortest region is the 25.4-cm (10-in) duodenum, which begins at the pyloric sphincter. Just past the pyloric sphincter, it bends posteriorly behind the peritoneum, becoming retroperitoneal, and then makes a C-shaped curve around the head of the pancreas before ascending anteriorly again to return to the peritoneal cavity and join the jejunum. The duodenum can therefore be subdivided into four segments: the superior, descending, horizontal, and ascending duodenum. Of particular interest is the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater). Located in the duodenal wall, the ampulla marks the transition from the anterior portion of the alimentary canal to the mid-region, and is where the bile duct (through which bile passes from the liver) and the main pancreatic duct (through which pancreatic juice passes from the pancreas) join. This ampulla opens into the duodenum at a tiny volcano-shaped structure called the major duodenal papilla.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cuny-kbcc-ap2/chapter/the-small-and-large-intestines/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1214610318#4_2489327648
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Title: The Small and Large Intestines | Anatomy and Physiology II
Headings: The Small and Large Intestines
The Small and Large Intestines
Learning Objectives
The Small Intestine
Structure
Histology
Structure versus function: the absorptive surface of the small Intestine
Circular folds
Villi
Microvilli
Intestinal Glands
Intestinal Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Bile salts: hydrogen bonding and emulsification
Figure 5. Emulsification of fats by bile salts
Disorders of the Small Intestine: Lactose Intolerance
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Rectum
Anal Canal
Histology
Anatomy
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
Chapter Review
Self Check
23.5 Exercise 33.
Critical Thinking Questions
Glossary
References
Content: The duodenum can therefore be subdivided into four segments: the superior, descending, horizontal, and ascending duodenum. Of particular interest is the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater). Located in the duodenal wall, the ampulla marks the transition from the anterior portion of the alimentary canal to the mid-region, and is where the bile duct (through which bile passes from the liver) and the main pancreatic duct (through which pancreatic juice passes from the pancreas) join. This ampulla opens into the duodenum at a tiny volcano-shaped structure called the major duodenal papilla. The hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi) regulates the flow of both bile and pancreatic juice from the ampulla into the duodenum. Figure 1. The three regions of the small intestine are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The jejunum is about 0.9 meters (3 feet) long (in life) and runs from the duodenum to the ileum. Jejunum means “empty” in Latin and supposedly was so named by the ancient Greeks who noticed it was always empty at death.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cuny-kbcc-ap2/chapter/the-small-and-large-intestines/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1214610318#5_2489329897
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Title: The Small and Large Intestines | Anatomy and Physiology II
Headings: The Small and Large Intestines
The Small and Large Intestines
Learning Objectives
The Small Intestine
Structure
Histology
Structure versus function: the absorptive surface of the small Intestine
Circular folds
Villi
Microvilli
Intestinal Glands
Intestinal Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Bile salts: hydrogen bonding and emulsification
Figure 5. Emulsification of fats by bile salts
Disorders of the Small Intestine: Lactose Intolerance
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Rectum
Anal Canal
Histology
Anatomy
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
Chapter Review
Self Check
23.5 Exercise 33.
Critical Thinking Questions
Glossary
References
Content: The hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi) regulates the flow of both bile and pancreatic juice from the ampulla into the duodenum. Figure 1. The three regions of the small intestine are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The jejunum is about 0.9 meters (3 feet) long (in life) and runs from the duodenum to the ileum. Jejunum means “empty” in Latin and supposedly was so named by the ancient Greeks who noticed it was always empty at death. No clear demarcation exists between the jejunum and the final segment of the small intestine, the ileum. The ileum is the longest part of the small intestine, measuring about 1.8 meters (6 feet) in length. It is thicker, more vascular, and has more developed mucosal folds than the jejunum. The ileum joins the cecum, the first portion of the large intestine, at the ileocecal sphincter (or valve). The jejunum and ileum are tethered to the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/cuny-kbcc-ap2/chapter/the-small-and-large-intestines/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1220580593#9_2502650697
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Title: Critical Theories Paradigm | Introduction to Communication
Headings: Critical Theories Paradigm
Critical Theories Paradigm
Communication Theory Now
The Need for Critical Theories
Origins of Critical Theories in Communication
Critical Theories in Action
Strengths
Weaknesses
Content: In matters of social justice and scientific truth alike, the legitimation of that power is based on optimizing the system’s performance—efficiency” (27). A third major influence on the development of the Critical Theories Paradigm comes from feminist theories. Feminist theories explore power structures that create and recreate gendered differentiations in societies (Foss & Foss; Dervin; MacKinnon). Critical feminist theories contend that gender relations are often oppressive to both men and women, and that they support an institution based on patriarchal values. Thus, critical feminist theories challenge dominant assumptions and practices of gender in ways that foster more equal and egalitarian forms of communication and social structures in society. When discussing feminism and feminist theories we refer to a set of multiple and diverse theories. Feminist theories include a wide range of philosophical arguments, economic structures, and political viewpoints. Some of these include Marxist feminism, which focuses on the division of labor as a source of gender inequality, and liberal feminism, which asserts that men and women should have equal status in the culture—such as voting rights, educational and professional opportunities, and equal pay.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introductiontocommunication/chapter/critical-theories-paradigm/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1220580593#10_2502652498
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Title: Critical Theories Paradigm | Introduction to Communication
Headings: Critical Theories Paradigm
Critical Theories Paradigm
Communication Theory Now
The Need for Critical Theories
Origins of Critical Theories in Communication
Critical Theories in Action
Strengths
Weaknesses
Content: Critical feminist theories contend that gender relations are often oppressive to both men and women, and that they support an institution based on patriarchal values. Thus, critical feminist theories challenge dominant assumptions and practices of gender in ways that foster more equal and egalitarian forms of communication and social structures in society. When discussing feminism and feminist theories we refer to a set of multiple and diverse theories. Feminist theories include a wide range of philosophical arguments, economic structures, and political viewpoints. Some of these include Marxist feminism, which focuses on the division of labor as a source of gender inequality, and liberal feminism, which asserts that men and women should have equal status in the culture—such as voting rights, educational and professional opportunities, and equal pay. Eco-feminism recognizes that all parts of the universe are interconnected and that oppression of women and other minorities is analogous to the oppression of the natural environment such as in the cutting down of natural forests to meet consumer demands for paper goods, or the killing of animals for the eating of meat. Critical Theories in Action
Whether we listen to music on our phones, watch TV, go to the movies, or read a magazine, most of us consume media. Have you ever stopped to think about who puts together those messages? Have you wondered what their goals might be and why they want to send the messages they do? One way we can use critical theories is to examine who owns what media to determine what they are trying to accomplish (Croteau & Hoynes).
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introductiontocommunication/chapter/critical-theories-paradigm/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1220699534#15_2502908432
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Title: Rhetorical Methodologies | Introduction to Communication
Headings:
Rhetorical Methodologies
Steps for Doing Rhetorical Research
Types of Methods for Rhetorical Criticism
Case In Point
Rhetorical Methods In Action
Outcomes of Rhetorical Methodologies
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Feminist Criticism. Most feminist perspectives share the basic assumptions that women are routinely oppressed by patriarchy, women’s experiences are different then men’s, and women’s perspectives are not equally incorporated into our culture (Foss). We can use feminist rhetorical research to help us determine the degree to which women’s perspectives are both absent and/or discredited in rhetorical acts. Thus, feminist rhetorical research, “is the analysis of rhetoric to discover how the rhetorical construction of gender is used as a means for oppression and how that process can be challenged and resisted” (Foss, 168). Although many think of “women” in reference to feminism, it is important to note that many men consider themselves feminists and that feminism is concerned with oppression of all forms—race, class, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, and gender. Ideological Criticism. Ideology is a collection of values, beliefs, or ethics that influence modes of behavior for a group or culture. Rhetorical scholars interested in understanding a culture’s values often use ideological methods. Ideologies are complex and multifaceted, and ideological methods draw from diverse schools of thought such as Marxism, feminism, structuralism, deconstructionism, and postmodernism.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introductiontocommunication/chapter/rhetorical-methodologies/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1223563727#11_2509318661
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Title: Reading: Purpose of Art | Art Appreciation
Headings: Reading: Purpose of Art
Reading: Purpose of Art
Non-motivated Functions of Art
Motivated Functions of Art
Content: Spray-paint graffiti on a wall in Rome
Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stenciled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism). Art for social causes. Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of autism, cancer, human trafficking, and a variety of other topics, such as ocean conservation, human rights in Darfur, murdered and missing Aboriginal women, elder abuse, and pollution. Trashion, using trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as Marina DeBris is one example of using art to raise awareness about pollution. Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/masteryart1/chapter/oer-1-2/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1224101466#1_2510234863
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Title: Archaea | Microbiology
Headings: Archaea
Archaea
Learning Objectives
Crenarchaeota
Think about It
Euryarchaeota
Think about It
Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: The genomes of Archaea are larger and more complex than those of bacteria. Domain Archaea is as diverse as domain Bacteria, and its representatives can be found in any habitat. Some archaea are mesophiles, and many are extremophiles, preferring extreme hot or cold, extreme salinity, or other conditions that are hostile to most other forms of life on earth. Their metabolism is adapted to the harsh environments, and they can perform methanogenesis, for example, which bacteria and eukaryotes cannot. The size and complexity of the archaeal genome makes it difficult to classify. Most taxonomists agree that within the Archaea, there are currently five major phyla: Crenarchaeota, Euryarchaeota, Korarchaeota, Nanoarchaeota, and Thaumarchaeota. There are likely many other archaeal groups that have not yet been systematically studied and classified. With few exceptions, archaea are not present in the human microbiota, and none are currently known to be associated with infectious diseases in humans, animals, plants, or microorganisms. However, many play important roles in the environment and may thus have an indirect impact on human health.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/archaea/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1224101466#2_2510236467
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Title: Archaea | Microbiology
Headings: Archaea
Archaea
Learning Objectives
Crenarchaeota
Think about It
Euryarchaeota
Think about It
Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: Most taxonomists agree that within the Archaea, there are currently five major phyla: Crenarchaeota, Euryarchaeota, Korarchaeota, Nanoarchaeota, and Thaumarchaeota. There are likely many other archaeal groups that have not yet been systematically studied and classified. With few exceptions, archaea are not present in the human microbiota, and none are currently known to be associated with infectious diseases in humans, animals, plants, or microorganisms. However, many play important roles in the environment and may thus have an indirect impact on human health. Crenarchaeota
Crenarchaeota is a class of Archaea that is extremely diverse, containing genera and species that differ vastly in their morphology and requirements for growth. All Crenarchaeota are aquatic organisms, and they are thought to be the most abundant microorganisms in the oceans. Most, but not all, Crenarchaeota are hyperthermophiles; some of them (notably, the genus Pyrolobus) are able to grow at temperatures up to 113 °C. [ 1]
Figure 1.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/archaea/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1224101466#10_2510248043
|
Title: Archaea | Microbiology
Headings: Archaea
Archaea
Learning Objectives
Crenarchaeota
Think about It
Euryarchaeota
Think about It
Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: One remarkable feature of these organisms is that they perform photosynthesis using the protein bacteriorhodopsin, which gives them, and the bodies of water they inhabit, a beautiful purple color (Figure 2). Figure 2. Halobacteria growing in these salt ponds gives them a distinct purple color. ( credit: modification of work by Tony Hisgett)
Notable species of Halobacteria include Halobacterium salinarum, which may be the oldest living organism on earth; scientists have isolated its DNA from fossils that are 250 million years old. [ 5] Another species, Haloferax volcanii, shows a very sophisticated system of ion exchange, which enables it to balance the concentration of salts at high temperatures. Think about It
Where do Halobacteria live? Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Archaea are not known to cause any disease in humans, animals, plants, bacteria, or in other archaea. Although this makes sense for the extremophiles, not all archaea live in extreme environments.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/archaea/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1224101466#11_2510249493
|
Title: Archaea | Microbiology
Headings: Archaea
Archaea
Learning Objectives
Crenarchaeota
Think about It
Euryarchaeota
Think about It
Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: scientists have isolated its DNA from fossils that are 250 million years old. [ 5] Another species, Haloferax volcanii, shows a very sophisticated system of ion exchange, which enables it to balance the concentration of salts at high temperatures. Think about It
Where do Halobacteria live? Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Archaea are not known to cause any disease in humans, animals, plants, bacteria, or in other archaea. Although this makes sense for the extremophiles, not all archaea live in extreme environments. Many genera and species of Archaea are mesophiles, so they can live in human and animal microbiomes, although they rarely do. As we have learned, some methanogens exist in the human gastrointestinal tract. Yet we have no reliable evidence pointing to any archaean as the causative agent of any human disease. Still, scientists have attempted to find links between human disease and archaea. For example, in 2004, Lepp et al.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/archaea/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1224101466#12_2510250909
|
Title: Archaea | Microbiology
Headings: Archaea
Archaea
Learning Objectives
Crenarchaeota
Think about It
Euryarchaeota
Think about It
Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: Many genera and species of Archaea are mesophiles, so they can live in human and animal microbiomes, although they rarely do. As we have learned, some methanogens exist in the human gastrointestinal tract. Yet we have no reliable evidence pointing to any archaean as the causative agent of any human disease. Still, scientists have attempted to find links between human disease and archaea. For example, in 2004, Lepp et al. presented evidence that an archaean called Methanobrevibacter oralis inhabits the gums of patients with periodontal disease. The authors suggested that the activity of these methanogens causes the disease. [ 6] However, it was subsequently shown that there was no causal relationship between M. oralis and periodontitis. It seems more likely that periodontal disease causes an enlargement of anaerobic regions in the mouth that are subsequently populated by M. oralis. [ 7]
There remains no good answer as to why archaea do not seem to be pathogenic, but scientists continue to speculate and hope to find the answer.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/archaea/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1224101466#13_2510252410
|
Title: Archaea | Microbiology
Headings: Archaea
Archaea
Learning Objectives
Crenarchaeota
Think about It
Euryarchaeota
Think about It
Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: presented evidence that an archaean called Methanobrevibacter oralis inhabits the gums of patients with periodontal disease. The authors suggested that the activity of these methanogens causes the disease. [ 6] However, it was subsequently shown that there was no causal relationship between M. oralis and periodontitis. It seems more likely that periodontal disease causes an enlargement of anaerobic regions in the mouth that are subsequently populated by M. oralis. [ 7]
There remains no good answer as to why archaea do not seem to be pathogenic, but scientists continue to speculate and hope to find the answer. Key Concepts and Summary
Archaea are unicellular, prokaryotic microorganisms that differ from bacteria in their genetics, biochemistry, and ecology. Some archaea are extremophiles, living in environments with extremely high or low temperatures, or extreme salinity. Only archaea are known to produce methane. Methane-producing archaea are called methanogens. Halophilic archaea prefer a concentration of salt close to saturation and perform photosynthesis using bacteriorhodopsin.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/archaea/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1224101466#14_2510253968
|
Title: Archaea | Microbiology
Headings: Archaea
Archaea
Learning Objectives
Crenarchaeota
Think about It
Euryarchaeota
Think about It
Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: Key Concepts and Summary
Archaea are unicellular, prokaryotic microorganisms that differ from bacteria in their genetics, biochemistry, and ecology. Some archaea are extremophiles, living in environments with extremely high or low temperatures, or extreme salinity. Only archaea are known to produce methane. Methane-producing archaea are called methanogens. Halophilic archaea prefer a concentration of salt close to saturation and perform photosynthesis using bacteriorhodopsin. Some archaea, based on fossil evidence, are among the oldest organisms on earth. Archaea do not live in great numbers in human microbiomes and are not known to cause disease. Multiple Choice
Archaea and Bacteria are most similar in terms of their ________. genetics
cell wall structure
ecology
unicellular structure
Show Answer
Answer d. Archaea and Bacteria are most similar in terms of their unicellular structure. Which of the following is true of archaea that produce methane?
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/archaea/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1224101466#15_2510255395
|
Title: Archaea | Microbiology
Headings: Archaea
Archaea
Learning Objectives
Crenarchaeota
Think about It
Euryarchaeota
Think about It
Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: Some archaea, based on fossil evidence, are among the oldest organisms on earth. Archaea do not live in great numbers in human microbiomes and are not known to cause disease. Multiple Choice
Archaea and Bacteria are most similar in terms of their ________. genetics
cell wall structure
ecology
unicellular structure
Show Answer
Answer d. Archaea and Bacteria are most similar in terms of their unicellular structure. Which of the following is true of archaea that produce methane? They reduce carbon dioxide in the presence of nitrogen. They live in the most extreme environments. They are always anaerobes. They have been discovered on Mars. Show Answer
Answer b. They live in the most extreme environments.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/archaea/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1224101466#18_2510259015
|
Title: Archaea | Microbiology
Headings: Archaea
Archaea
Learning Objectives
Crenarchaeota
Think about It
Euryarchaeota
Think about It
Finding a Link Between Archaea and Disease
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: It oxidizes sulfur and produces sulfuric acid. ________ was once thought to be the cause of periodontal disease, but, more recently, the causal relationship between this archaean and the disease was not confirmed. Show Answer
Methanobrevibacter oralis was once thought to be the cause of periodontal disease, but, more recently, the causal relationship between this archaean and the disease was not confirmed. Think about It
What accounts for the purple color in salt ponds inhabited by halophilic archaea? What evidence supports the hypothesis that some archaea live on Mars? What is the connection between this methane bog and archaea? (credit: Chad Skeers)
E. Blochl et al." Pyrolobus fumani, gen. and sp.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/archaea/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1225616991#1_2511998473
|
Title: Parasitic Helminths | Microbiology
Headings: Parasitic Helminths
Parasitic Helminths
Learning Objectives
Nematoda (Roundworms)
Clinical Focus: Anthony, Part 2
Think about It
Platyhelminths (Flatworms)
Think about It
Food for Worms?
Eradicating the Guinea Worm
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: However, the parasitic species often have limited digestive tracts, nervous systems, and locomotor abilities. Parasitic forms may have complex reproductive cycles with several different life stages and more than one type of host. Some are monoecious, having both male and female reproductive organs in a single individual, while others are dioecious, each having either male or female reproductive organs. Nematoda (Roundworms)
Figure 1. A micrograph of the nematode Enterobius vermicularis, also known as the pinworm. ( credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Phylum Nematoda (the roundworms) is a diverse group containing more than 15,000 species, of which several are important human parasites (Figure 1). These unsegmented worms have a full digestive system even when parasitic. Some are common intestinal parasites, and their eggs can sometimes be identified in feces or around the anus of infected individuals. Ascaris lumbricoides is the largest nematode intestinal parasite found in humans;
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/parasitic-helminths/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1225616991#2_2512000071
|
Title: Parasitic Helminths | Microbiology
Headings: Parasitic Helminths
Parasitic Helminths
Learning Objectives
Nematoda (Roundworms)
Clinical Focus: Anthony, Part 2
Think about It
Platyhelminths (Flatworms)
Think about It
Food for Worms?
Eradicating the Guinea Worm
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Phylum Nematoda (the roundworms) is a diverse group containing more than 15,000 species, of which several are important human parasites (Figure 1). These unsegmented worms have a full digestive system even when parasitic. Some are common intestinal parasites, and their eggs can sometimes be identified in feces or around the anus of infected individuals. Ascaris lumbricoides is the largest nematode intestinal parasite found in humans; females may reach lengths greater than 1 meter. A. lumbricoides is also very widespread, even in developed nations, although it is now a relatively uncommon problem in the United States. It may cause symptoms ranging from relatively mild (such as a cough and mild abdominal pain) to severe (such as intestinal blockage and impaired growth). Of all nematode infections in the United States, pinworm (caused by Enterobius vermicularis) is the most common. Pinworm causes sleeplessness and itching around the anus, where the female worms lay their eggs during the night.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/parasitic-helminths/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1225616991#9_2512010672
|
Title: Parasitic Helminths | Microbiology
Headings: Parasitic Helminths
Parasitic Helminths
Learning Objectives
Nematoda (Roundworms)
Clinical Focus: Anthony, Part 2
Think about It
Platyhelminths (Flatworms)
Think about It
Food for Worms?
Eradicating the Guinea Worm
Key Concepts and Summary
Multiple Choice
Fill in the Blank
Think about It
Content: Think about It
What is the most common nematode infection in the United States? Platyhelminths (Flatworms)
Phylum Platyhelminthes (the platyhelminths) are flatworms. This group includes the flukes, tapeworms, and the turbellarians, which include planarians. The flukes and tapeworms are medically important parasites (Figure 2). Figure 2. Phylum Platyhelminthes is divided into four classes. ( a) Class Turbellaria includes the Bedford’s flatworm ( Pseudobiceros bedfordi ), which is about 8–10 cm long. ( b) The parasitic class Monogenea includes Dactylogyrus spp. Worms in this genus are commonly called gill flukes. The specimen pictured here is about 0.2 mm long and has two anchors, indicated by arrows, that it uses to latch onto the gills of host fish. (
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/parasitic-helminths/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1226959858#5_2514097156
|
Title: Prenatal Development | Introduction to Psychology
Headings: Prenatal Development
Prenatal Development
Learning Objectives
Prenatal Development
Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2)
Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8)
Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40)
Prenatal Influences
What Do You Think? Should Women Who Use Drugs During Pregnancy Be Arrested and Jailed?
Infancy
Link to Learning
Think It Over
Glossary
Content: Now blood vessels grow, forming the placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord. Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. During the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function. The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain. Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40)
When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the “tail” begins to disappear. From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible.
|
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/msstate-waymaker-psychology/chapter/stages-of-development/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1226959858#6_2514098747
|
Title: Prenatal Development | Introduction to Psychology
Headings: Prenatal Development
Prenatal Development
Learning Objectives
Prenatal Development
Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2)
Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8)
Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40)
Prenatal Influences
What Do You Think? Should Women Who Use Drugs During Pregnancy Be Arrested and Jailed?
Infancy
Link to Learning
Think It Over
Glossary
Content: Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40)
When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the “tail” begins to disappear. From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. By the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1.4 pounds. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs, such as the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside of the mother’s womb. Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks 16 to 28. Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/msstate-waymaker-psychology/chapter/stages-of-development/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1228125848#8_2515491162
|
Title: Chamber Music | Music Appreciation
Headings:
Chamber Music
Musical Ensemble
Classical Chamber Music
Duets
Listen: Duet
Trio
Listen: Trio
Quartets
Strings
Listen: Quartet
Wind
Quintets
Listen: Quintet
Sextet
Listen: Sextet
Septet
Choral Groups
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Wind
A woodwind quartet usually features a flute, an oboe, a clarinet and a bassoon. A brass quartet features two trumpets, a trombone and a tuba. A wind quartet features a horn, a flute, an oboe and a bassoon. A lower wind quartet features a tuba, a bassoon, a bass clarinet and a trombone. A saxophone quartet consists of a soprano saxophone, an alto saxophone, a tenor saxophone, and a baritone saxophone. Quintets
The string quintet is a common type of group. It is similar to the string quartet, but with an additional viola, cello, or more rarely, the addition of a double bass.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/musicappreciation_with_theory/chapter/chamber-music/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1228125848#9_2515492474
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Title: Chamber Music | Music Appreciation
Headings:
Chamber Music
Musical Ensemble
Classical Chamber Music
Duets
Listen: Duet
Trio
Listen: Trio
Quartets
Strings
Listen: Quartet
Wind
Quintets
Listen: Quintet
Sextet
Listen: Sextet
Septet
Choral Groups
Content: A wind quartet features a horn, a flute, an oboe and a bassoon. A lower wind quartet features a tuba, a bassoon, a bass clarinet and a trombone. A saxophone quartet consists of a soprano saxophone, an alto saxophone, a tenor saxophone, and a baritone saxophone. Quintets
The string quintet is a common type of group. It is similar to the string quartet, but with an additional viola, cello, or more rarely, the addition of a double bass. Terms such as “piano quintet” or “clarinet quintet” frequently refer to a string quartet plus a fifth instrument. Mozart’s “Clarinet Quintet” is similarly a piece written for an ensemble consisting of two violins, a viola, a cello, and a clarinet—the last being the exceptional addition to a “normal” string quartet. Listen: Quintet
Listen to the following wind quintet by Carl Nielsen: YouTube
Art Of Sound And Vision
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Carl Nielsen - Wind Quintet, Op.43 - Berlin Philharmonic Wind Quintet
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/musicappreciation_with_theory/chapter/chamber-music/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1228125848#10_2515494066
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Title: Chamber Music | Music Appreciation
Headings:
Chamber Music
Musical Ensemble
Classical Chamber Music
Duets
Listen: Duet
Trio
Listen: Trio
Quartets
Strings
Listen: Quartet
Wind
Quintets
Listen: Quintet
Sextet
Listen: Sextet
Septet
Choral Groups
Content: Terms such as “piano quintet” or “clarinet quintet” frequently refer to a string quartet plus a fifth instrument. Mozart’s “Clarinet Quintet” is similarly a piece written for an ensemble consisting of two violins, a viola, a cello, and a clarinet—the last being the exceptional addition to a “normal” string quartet. Listen: Quintet
Listen to the following wind quintet by Carl Nielsen: YouTube
Art Of Sound And Vision
19.4K subscribers
Subscribe
Carl Nielsen - Wind Quintet, Op.43 - Berlin Philharmonic Wind Quintet
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Some other quintets in classical music are the wind quintet, usually consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn;
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/musicappreciation_with_theory/chapter/chamber-music/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1228125848#12_2515497324
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Title: Chamber Music | Music Appreciation
Headings:
Chamber Music
Musical Ensemble
Classical Chamber Music
Duets
Listen: Duet
Trio
Listen: Trio
Quartets
Strings
Listen: Quartet
Wind
Quintets
Listen: Quintet
Sextet
Listen: Sextet
Septet
Choral Groups
Content: the brass quintet, consisting of two trumpets, one french horn, a trombone, and a tuba; and the reed quintet, consisting of an oboe, a soprano clarinet, a saxophone, a bass clarinet, and a bassoon. Sextet
A sextet (or hexad) is a formation containing exactly six members. It is commonly associated with vocal or musical instrument groups, but can be applied to any situation where six similar or related objects are considered a single unit. Many musical compositions are named for the number of musicians for which they are written. If a piece is written for six performers, it may be called a “sextet.” Steve Reich’s “Sextet” is written for six percussionists. Listen: Sextet
In the following clip you can hear co-winners of the 2012 Ackerman Competition perform Francis Poulenc’s Sextet for Piano and Woodwind Quintet, Op. 100.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/musicappreciation_with_theory/chapter/chamber-music/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1228125848#18_2515505466
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Title: Chamber Music | Music Appreciation
Headings:
Chamber Music
Musical Ensemble
Classical Chamber Music
Duets
Listen: Duet
Trio
Listen: Trio
Quartets
Strings
Listen: Quartet
Wind
Quintets
Listen: Quintet
Sextet
Listen: Sextet
Septet
Choral Groups
Content: thus one speaks of the “woodwind choir” of an orchestra, or different “choirs” of voices and/or instruments in a polychoral composition. In typical eighteenth- to twenty-first-century oratorios and masses, chorus or choir is usually understood to imply more than one singer per part, in contrast to the quartet of soloists also featured in these works. Choirs can sing with or without instrumental accompaniment. Singing without accompaniment is called a cappella singing (although the American Choral Directors Association discourages this usage in favor of “unaccompanied,” since a cappella denotes singing “as in the chapel” and much unaccompanied music today is secular). Accompanying instruments vary widely, from only one to a full orchestra; for rehearsals a piano or organ accompaniment is often used, even if a different instrumentation is planned for performance, or if the choir is rehearsing unaccompanied music. Choirs can contain all male (tenors, baritones, basses) or female (sopranos and altos) voices or be, soprano, alto, tenor, bass sometimes called SATB. CC licensed content, Shared previously
Quartet. Provided by: Wikipedia.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/musicappreciation_with_theory/chapter/chamber-music/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1228294059#4_2515877511
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Title: Orchestral Instruments | Music Appreciation
Headings: Orchestral Instruments
Orchestral Instruments
Introduction
The Sections of the Orchestra
Strings
Woodwinds
Brass
Percussion
Content: It has a very low sound. Woodwinds
Classical oboe with seven keys, following improvements in the Baroque oboe from the mid-eighteenth century. The woodwind members of the orchestra are the flute, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon. There can be two, three, or four, of any of these woodwinds in an orchestra, depending on the size of the orchestra and the piece being played. All of the modern orchestral woodwinds are played by blowing into them and fingering different notes using keys that cover various holes. Most, but not all, are made of wood and have at least one piece of reed in the mouthpiece. You may be surprised that the saxophone is not here. This is the one instrument that is always found in bands and wind ensembles, but only very rarely plays in the orchestra. Although flutes may be made of wood, the orchestral flute is usually made of metal. It also does not have a reed.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/musicappreciation_with_theory/chapter/orchestral-instruments/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1237273506#13_2532798437
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Title: Challenges Facing the Elderly | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Challenges Facing the Elderly
Challenges Facing the Elderly
Learning Objectives
Poverty
Ageism
Mistreatment and Abuse
The National Center on Elder Abuse encourages people to watch for these signs of mistreatment. (Chart courtesy of National Center on Elder Abuse)
World War II Veterans
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
ageism
elder abuse
gerontocracy
senescence
Further Research
References
Content: When ageism is reflected in the workplace, in healthcare, and in assisted-living facilities, the effects of discrimination can be more severe. Ageism can make older people fear losing a job, feel dismissed by a doctor, or feel a lack of power and control in their daily living situations. In early societies, the elderly were respected and revered. Many preindustrial societies observed gerontocracy, a type of social structure wherein the power is held by a society’s oldest members. In some countries today, the elderly still have influence and power and their vast knowledge is respected. Reverence for the elderly is still a part of some cultures, but it has changed in many places because of social factors. In many modern nations, however, industrialization contributed to the diminished social standing of the elderly. Today wealth, power, and prestige are also held by those in younger age brackets. The average age of corporate executives was fifty-nine years old in 1980. In 2008, the average age had lowered to fifty-four years old (Stuart 2008).
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/challenges-facing-the-elderly/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1237273506#14_2532800206
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Title: Challenges Facing the Elderly | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Challenges Facing the Elderly
Challenges Facing the Elderly
Learning Objectives
Poverty
Ageism
Mistreatment and Abuse
The National Center on Elder Abuse encourages people to watch for these signs of mistreatment. (Chart courtesy of National Center on Elder Abuse)
World War II Veterans
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
ageism
elder abuse
gerontocracy
senescence
Further Research
References
Content: Reverence for the elderly is still a part of some cultures, but it has changed in many places because of social factors. In many modern nations, however, industrialization contributed to the diminished social standing of the elderly. Today wealth, power, and prestige are also held by those in younger age brackets. The average age of corporate executives was fifty-nine years old in 1980. In 2008, the average age had lowered to fifty-four years old (Stuart 2008). Some older members of the workforce felt threatened by this trend and grew concerned that younger employees in higher level positions would push them out of the job market. Rapid advancements in technology and media have required new skill sets that older members of the workforce are less likely to have. Changes happened not only in the workplace but also at home. In agrarian societies, a married couple cared for their aging parents. The oldest members of the family contributed to the household by doing chores, cooking, and helping with child care.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/challenges-facing-the-elderly/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1237273506#15_2532801933
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Title: Challenges Facing the Elderly | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Challenges Facing the Elderly
Challenges Facing the Elderly
Learning Objectives
Poverty
Ageism
Mistreatment and Abuse
The National Center on Elder Abuse encourages people to watch for these signs of mistreatment. (Chart courtesy of National Center on Elder Abuse)
World War II Veterans
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
ageism
elder abuse
gerontocracy
senescence
Further Research
References
Content: Some older members of the workforce felt threatened by this trend and grew concerned that younger employees in higher level positions would push them out of the job market. Rapid advancements in technology and media have required new skill sets that older members of the workforce are less likely to have. Changes happened not only in the workplace but also at home. In agrarian societies, a married couple cared for their aging parents. The oldest members of the family contributed to the household by doing chores, cooking, and helping with child care. As economies shifted from agrarian to industrial, younger generations moved to cities to work in factories. The elderly began to be seen as an expensive burden. They did not have the strength and stamina to work outside the home. What began during industrialization, a trend toward older people living apart from their grown children, has become commonplace. Mistreatment and Abuse
Mistreatment and abuse of the elderly is a major social problem.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/challenges-facing-the-elderly/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1237819649#14_2533550616
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Title: Theoretical Perspectives on Aging | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Theoretical Perspectives on Aging
Theoretical Perspectives on Aging
Learning Objectives
Functionalism
The Graying of American Prisons
Conflict Perspective
Symbolic Interactionism
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
activity theory
age stratification theory
continuity theory
disengagement theory
exchange theory
gerotranscendence
modernization theory
selective optimization with compensation theory
subculture of aging theory
Further Research
References
Content: While there is more care available to certain segments of the senior community, it must be noted that the financial resources available to the aging can vary tremendously by race, social class, and gender. There are three classic theories of aging within the conflict perspective. Modernization theory (Cowgill and Holmes 1972) suggests that the primary cause of the elderly losing power and influence in society are the parallel forces of industrialization and modernization. As societies modernize, the status of elders decreases, and they are increasingly likely to experience social exclusion. Before industrialization, strong social norms bound the younger generation to care for the older. Now, as societies industrialize, the nuclear family replaces the extended family. Societies become increasingly individualistic, and norms regarding the care of older people change. In an individualistic industrial society, caring for an elderly relative is seen as a voluntary obligation that may be ignored without fear of social censure. The central reasoning of modernization theory is that as long as the extended family is the standard family, as in preindustrial economies, elders will have a place in society and a clearly defined role. As societies modernize, the elderly, unable to work outside of the home, have less to offer economically and are seen as a burden.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/theoretical-perspectives-on-aging/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#0_2534059839
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to: Understand the difference between senior age groups (young-old, middle-old, and old-old)
Describe the “graying of the United States” as the population experiences increased life expectancies
Examine aging as a global issue
Think of U.S. movies and television shows you have watched recently. Did any of them feature older actors and actresses? What roles did they play? How were these older actors portrayed? Were they cast as main characters in a love story? Or were they cast as grouchy old people? Many media portrayals of the elderly reflect negative cultural attitudes toward aging.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#1_2534061247
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: What roles did they play? How were these older actors portrayed? Were they cast as main characters in a love story? Or were they cast as grouchy old people? Many media portrayals of the elderly reflect negative cultural attitudes toward aging. In the United States, society tends to glorify youth and associate it with beauty and sexuality. In comedies, the elderly are often associated with grumpiness or hostility. Rarely do the roles of older people convey the fullness of life experienced by seniors—as employees, lovers, or the myriad roles they have in real life. What values does this reflect? One hindrance to society’s fuller understanding of aging is that people rarely understand the process of aging until they reach old age themselves. (
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#2_2534062642
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: In the United States, society tends to glorify youth and associate it with beauty and sexuality. In comedies, the elderly are often associated with grumpiness or hostility. Rarely do the roles of older people convey the fullness of life experienced by seniors—as employees, lovers, or the myriad roles they have in real life. What values does this reflect? One hindrance to society’s fuller understanding of aging is that people rarely understand the process of aging until they reach old age themselves. ( As opposed to childhood, for instance, which we can all look back on.) Therefore, myths and assumptions about the elderly and aging are common. Many stereotypes exist surrounding the realities of being an older adult. While individuals often encounter stereotypes associated with race and gender and are thus more likely to think critically about them, many people accept age stereotypes without question (Levy 2002). Each culture has a certain set of expectations and assumptions about aging, all of which are part of our socialization.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#3_2534064331
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: As opposed to childhood, for instance, which we can all look back on.) Therefore, myths and assumptions about the elderly and aging are common. Many stereotypes exist surrounding the realities of being an older adult. While individuals often encounter stereotypes associated with race and gender and are thus more likely to think critically about them, many people accept age stereotypes without question (Levy 2002). Each culture has a certain set of expectations and assumptions about aging, all of which are part of our socialization. While the landmarks of maturing into adulthood are a source of pride, signs of natural aging can be cause for shame or embarrassment. Some people try to fight off the appearance of aging with cosmetic surgery. Although many seniors report that their lives are more satisfying than ever, and their self-esteem is stronger than when they were young, they are still subject to cultural attitudes that make them feel invisible and devalued. Gerontology is a field of science that seeks to understand the process of aging and the challenges encountered as seniors grow older. Gerontologists investigate age, aging, and the aged.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#4_2534066128
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: While the landmarks of maturing into adulthood are a source of pride, signs of natural aging can be cause for shame or embarrassment. Some people try to fight off the appearance of aging with cosmetic surgery. Although many seniors report that their lives are more satisfying than ever, and their self-esteem is stronger than when they were young, they are still subject to cultural attitudes that make them feel invisible and devalued. Gerontology is a field of science that seeks to understand the process of aging and the challenges encountered as seniors grow older. Gerontologists investigate age, aging, and the aged. Gerontologists study what it is like to be an older adult in a society and the ways that aging affects members of a society. As a multidisciplinary field, gerontology includes the work of medical and biological scientists, social scientists, and even financial and economic scholars. Social gerontology refers to a specialized field of gerontology that examines the social (and sociological) aspects of aging. Researchers focus on developing a broad understanding of the experiences of people at specific ages, such as mental and physical wellbeing, plus age-specific concerns such as the process of dying. Social gerontologists work as social researchers, counselors, community organizers, and service providers for older adults.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#5_2534068118
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: Gerontologists study what it is like to be an older adult in a society and the ways that aging affects members of a society. As a multidisciplinary field, gerontology includes the work of medical and biological scientists, social scientists, and even financial and economic scholars. Social gerontology refers to a specialized field of gerontology that examines the social (and sociological) aspects of aging. Researchers focus on developing a broad understanding of the experiences of people at specific ages, such as mental and physical wellbeing, plus age-specific concerns such as the process of dying. Social gerontologists work as social researchers, counselors, community organizers, and service providers for older adults. Because of their specialization, social gerontologists are in a strong position to advocate for older adults. Scholars in these disciplines have learned that “aging” reflects not only the physiological process of growing older but also our attitudes and beliefs about the aging process. You’ve likely seen online calculators that promise to determine your “real age” as opposed to your chronological age. These ads target the notion that people may “feel” a different age than their actual years. Some sixty-year-olds feel frail and elderly, while some eighty-year-olds feel sprightly.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#6_2534070105
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: Because of their specialization, social gerontologists are in a strong position to advocate for older adults. Scholars in these disciplines have learned that “aging” reflects not only the physiological process of growing older but also our attitudes and beliefs about the aging process. You’ve likely seen online calculators that promise to determine your “real age” as opposed to your chronological age. These ads target the notion that people may “feel” a different age than their actual years. Some sixty-year-olds feel frail and elderly, while some eighty-year-olds feel sprightly. Equally revealing is that as people grow older they define “old age” in terms of greater years than their current age (Logan 1992). Many people want to postpone old age and regard it as a phase that will never arrive. Some older adults even succumb to stereotyping their own age group (Rothbaum 1983). In the United States, the experience of being elderly has changed greatly over the past century. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, many U.S. households were home to multigenerational families, and the experiences and wisdom of elders was respected.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#7_2534071923
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: Equally revealing is that as people grow older they define “old age” in terms of greater years than their current age (Logan 1992). Many people want to postpone old age and regard it as a phase that will never arrive. Some older adults even succumb to stereotyping their own age group (Rothbaum 1983). In the United States, the experience of being elderly has changed greatly over the past century. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, many U.S. households were home to multigenerational families, and the experiences and wisdom of elders was respected. They offered wisdom and support to their children and often helped raise their grandchildren (Sweetser 1984). Multigenerational U.S. families began to decline after World War II, and their numbers reached a low point around 1980, but they are on the rise again. In fact, a 2010 Pew Research Center analysis of census data found that multigenerational families in the United States have now reached a record high. The 2008 census data indicated that 49 million U.S. families, 16.1 percent of the country’s total population, live in a family household with at least two adult generations—or a grandparent and at least one other generation. Attitudes toward the elderly have also been affected by large societal changes that have happened over the past 100 years.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#8_2534073891
|
Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: They offered wisdom and support to their children and often helped raise their grandchildren (Sweetser 1984). Multigenerational U.S. families began to decline after World War II, and their numbers reached a low point around 1980, but they are on the rise again. In fact, a 2010 Pew Research Center analysis of census data found that multigenerational families in the United States have now reached a record high. The 2008 census data indicated that 49 million U.S. families, 16.1 percent of the country’s total population, live in a family household with at least two adult generations—or a grandparent and at least one other generation. Attitudes toward the elderly have also been affected by large societal changes that have happened over the past 100 years. Researchers believe industrialization and modernization have contributed greatly to lowering the power, influence, and prestige the elderly once held. The elderly have both benefitted and suffered from these rapid social changes. In modern societies, a strong economy created new levels of prosperity for many people. Healthcare has become more widely accessible, and medicine has advanced, which allows the elderly to live longer. However, older people are not as essential to the economic survival of their families and communities as they were in the past.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#9_2534075857
|
Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: Researchers believe industrialization and modernization have contributed greatly to lowering the power, influence, and prestige the elderly once held. The elderly have both benefitted and suffered from these rapid social changes. In modern societies, a strong economy created new levels of prosperity for many people. Healthcare has become more widely accessible, and medicine has advanced, which allows the elderly to live longer. However, older people are not as essential to the economic survival of their families and communities as they were in the past. Studying Aging Populations
How old is this woman? In modern U.S. society, appearance is not a reliable indicator of age. In addition to genetic differences, health habits, hair dyes, Botox, and the like make traditional signs of aging increasingly unreliable. ( Photo courtesy of the Sean and Lauren Spectacular/flickr)
Since its creation in 1790, the U.S. Census Bureau has been tracking age in the population. Age is an important factor to analyze with accompanying demographic figures, such as income and health.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#12_2534081093
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: This median age has been increasing, which indicates the population as a whole is growing older. A cohort is a group of people who share a statistical or demographic trait. People belonging to the same age cohort were born in the same time frame. Understanding a population’s age composition can point to certain social and cultural factors and help governments and societies plan for future social and economic challenges. Sociological studies on aging might help explain the difference between Native American age cohorts and the general population. While Native American societies have a strong tradition of revering their elders, they also have a lower life expectancy because of lack of access to healthcare and high levels of mercury in fish, which is a traditional part of their diet. Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
In the United States, all people over eighteen years old are considered adults, but there is a large difference between a person who is twenty-one years old and a person who is forty-five years old. More specific breakdowns, such as “young adult” and “middle-aged adult,” are helpful. In the same way, groupings are helpful in understanding the elderly.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#13_2534082957
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: While Native American societies have a strong tradition of revering their elders, they also have a lower life expectancy because of lack of access to healthcare and high levels of mercury in fish, which is a traditional part of their diet. Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
In the United States, all people over eighteen years old are considered adults, but there is a large difference between a person who is twenty-one years old and a person who is forty-five years old. More specific breakdowns, such as “young adult” and “middle-aged adult,” are helpful. In the same way, groupings are helpful in understanding the elderly. The elderly are often lumped together to include everyone over the age of sixty-five. But a sixty-five-year-old’s experience of life is much different from a ninety-year-old’s. The United States’ older adult population can be divided into three life-stage subgroups: the young-old (approximately sixty-five to seventy-four years old), the middle-old (ages seventy-five to eighty-four years old), and the old-old (over age eighty-five). Today’s young-old age group is generally happier, healthier, and financially better off than the young-old of previous generations.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#14_2534084852
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: The elderly are often lumped together to include everyone over the age of sixty-five. But a sixty-five-year-old’s experience of life is much different from a ninety-year-old’s. The United States’ older adult population can be divided into three life-stage subgroups: the young-old (approximately sixty-five to seventy-four years old), the middle-old (ages seventy-five to eighty-four years old), and the old-old (over age eighty-five). Today’s young-old age group is generally happier, healthier, and financially better off than the young-old of previous generations. In the United States, people are better able to prepare for aging because resources are more widely available. Also, many people are making proactive quality-of-life decisions about their old age while they are still young. In the past, family members made care decisions when an elderly person reached a health crisis, often leaving the elderly person with little choice about what would happen. The elderly are now able to choose housing, for example, that allows them some independence while still providing care when it is needed. Living wills, retirement planning, and medical power of attorney are other concerns that are increasingly handled in advance.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1238163005#15_2534086737
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Title: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society | Introduction to Sociology
Headings: Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Who Are the Elderly? Aging in Society
Learning Objectives
Studying Aging Populations
Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
The Graying of the United States
Baby Boomers
Aging around the World
Summary
Question #1
Short Answer
Glossary
Further Research
References
Content: In the United States, people are better able to prepare for aging because resources are more widely available. Also, many people are making proactive quality-of-life decisions about their old age while they are still young. In the past, family members made care decisions when an elderly person reached a health crisis, often leaving the elderly person with little choice about what would happen. The elderly are now able to choose housing, for example, that allows them some independence while still providing care when it is needed. Living wills, retirement planning, and medical power of attorney are other concerns that are increasingly handled in advance. The Graying of the United States
As senior citizens begin to make up a larger percentage of the United States, the organizations supporting them grow stronger. ( Photo courtesy of Congressman George Miller/flickr)
What does it mean to be elderly? Some define it as an issue of physical health, while others simply define it by chronological age. The U.S. government, for example, typically classifies people aged sixty-five years old as elderly, at which point citizens are eligible for federal benefits such as Social Security and Medicare. The World Health Organization has no standard, other than noting that sixty-five years old is the commonly accepted definition in most core nations, but it suggests a cut-off somewhere between fifty and fifty-five years old for semi-peripheral nations, such as those in Africa (World Health Organization 2012).
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/who-are-the-elderly-aging-in-society/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1240356616#5_2537397869
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Title: Language | Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology
Headings: Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology
Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology
Language
Linda Light, California State University, Long Beach
Learning Objectives
THE IMPORTANCE OF HUMAN LANGUAGE TO HUMAN CULTURE
THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF LANGUAGE
Language Acquisition in Childhood
The Gesture Call System and Non-Verbal Human Communication
Kinesics
Proxemics
Paralanguage
HUMAN LANGUAGE COMPARED WITH THE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS OF OTHER SPECIES
Hockett’s Design Features
UNIVERSALS OF LANGUAGE
DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS: STRUCTURES OF LANGUAGE
The Sounds of Language: Phonemes
The Units That Carry Meaning: Morphemes
The Structure of Phrases and Sentences: Syntax
Conveying Meaning in Language: Semantics and Pragmatics
LANGUAGE VARIATION: SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Languages Versus Dialects
How Does Language Variation Develop?
What Is a “Standard” Variety of a Language?
Linguistic Relativity: The Whorf Hypothesis
LANGUAGE IN ITS SOCIAL SETTINGS: LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY
Social Class
Ethnicity
Language and Gender
The Deaf Culture and Signed Languages
LANGUAGE CHANGE: HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
GLOBALIZATION AND LANGUAGE
Language Shift, Language Maintenance, and Language Death
Revitalization of Indigenous Languages
How Is the Digital Age Changing Communication?
discussion questions
Glossary
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Content: In fact, human language can be considered a culture’s most important feature since complex human culture could not exist without language and language could not exist without culture. They are inseparable because language encodes culture and provides the means through which culture is shared and passed from one generation to the next. Humans think in language and do all cultural activities using language. It surrounds our every waking and sleeping moments, although we do not usually think about its importance. For that matter, humans do not think about their immersion in culture either, much as fish, if they were endowed with intelligence, would not think much about the water that surrounds them. Without language and culture, humans would be just another great ape. Anthropologists must have skills in linguistics so they can learn the languages and cultures of the people they study. All human languages are symbolic systems that make use of symbols to convey meaning. A symbol is anything that serves to refer to something else, but has a meaning that cannot be guessed because there is no obvious connection between the symbol and its referent. This feature of human language is called arbitrariness.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-culturalanthropology/chapter/language/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1240707508#0_2537637732
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Title: Nursing Theory | Transitions to Professional Nursing Practice
Headings: Nursing Theory
Nursing Theory
Theory Attributes
Concept
Theory
Model
Theoretical Framework
Assumption
Proposition
Metaparadigm
Two Types of Nursing Theories
Grand Theory
Middle-Range Theory
Nursing Theory and Research
Nursing Theory for Policy Creation
Nursing Theory and Personal Nursing Philosophy
Content: Nursing Theory | Transitions to Professional Nursing Practice
Nursing Theory
The overarching goal of nursing theories is to define what nursing is, how and why nurses do what they do, and to provide a framework for making decisions. This chapter will review the different levels of nursing theory, evaluate the assumptions made by different nursing theorists, and learn how to apply nursing theory to practice situations. The primary purpose of creating nursing theories are to guide nursing practice. Nursing theory can be integrated into any nursing setting, such as a hospital or community-based clinic. Theories can also be integrated into specific clinical settings, such as labor and delivery. Theories are beneficial to nursing practice in numerous ways. When nurses incorporate theory into personal nursing practice, it allows for creativity and implementation of innovative interventions. Many nursing behaviors are based on theory, such as caring and patient education. Nursing theory helps nurses organize their care
The first step to understanding nursing theory is to understand the attributes of a theory. The list below shares the attributes found in every nursing theory, and while uncommon, some theories may not share assumptions depending on the year they were created.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-delhi-professionalnursing/chapter/nursing-theory/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1242489604#0_2540433396
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Title: Historical Bias | World Civilization
Headings: Historical Bias
Historical Bias
Learning Objective
Key Points
TermS
Eurocentrism
Bias in Historical Writing
Bias in the Teaching of History
Sources
Content: Historical Bias | World Civilization
Historical Bias
Learning Objective
Identify some examples of historical bias
Key Points
Regardless of whether they are conscious or learned implicitly within cultural contexts, biases have been part of historical investigation since the ancient beginnings of the discipline. As such, history provides an excellent example of how biases change, evolve, and even disappear. Early attempts to make history an empirical, objective discipline (most notably by Voltaire) did not find many followers. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, European historians only strengthened their biases. As Europe gradually dominated the world through the self-imposed mission to colonize nearly all the other continents, Eurocentrism prevailed in history. Even within the Eurocentric perspective, not all Europeans were equal; Western historians largely ignored aspects of history, such as class, gender, or ethnicity. Until the rapid development of social history in the 1960s and 1970s, mainstream Western historical narratives focused on political and military history, while cultural or social history was written mostly from the perspective of the elites. The biased approach to history-writing transferred also to history-teaching. From the origins of national mass schooling systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/historical-bias/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1242489604#1_2540435237
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Title: Historical Bias | World Civilization
Headings: Historical Bias
Historical Bias
Learning Objective
Key Points
TermS
Eurocentrism
Bias in Historical Writing
Bias in the Teaching of History
Sources
Content: Even within the Eurocentric perspective, not all Europeans were equal; Western historians largely ignored aspects of history, such as class, gender, or ethnicity. Until the rapid development of social history in the 1960s and 1970s, mainstream Western historical narratives focused on political and military history, while cultural or social history was written mostly from the perspective of the elites. The biased approach to history-writing transferred also to history-teaching. From the origins of national mass schooling systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. History textbooks in most countries have been tools to foster nationalism and patriotism and to promote the most favorable version of national history. Germany attempts to be an example of how to remove nationalistic narratives from history education. The history curriculum in Germany is characterized by a transnational perspective that emphasizes the all-European heritage, minimizes the idea of national pride, and fosters the notion of civil society centered on democracy, human rights, and peace. Despite progress and increased focus on groups that have been traditionally excluded from mainstream historical narratives (people of color, women, the working class, the poor, the disabled, LGBTQI-identified people, etc.), bias remains a component of historical investigation.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/historical-bias/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1242489604#2_2540437080
|
Title: Historical Bias | World Civilization
Headings: Historical Bias
Historical Bias
Learning Objective
Key Points
TermS
Eurocentrism
Bias in Historical Writing
Bias in the Teaching of History
Sources
Content: History textbooks in most countries have been tools to foster nationalism and patriotism and to promote the most favorable version of national history. Germany attempts to be an example of how to remove nationalistic narratives from history education. The history curriculum in Germany is characterized by a transnational perspective that emphasizes the all-European heritage, minimizes the idea of national pride, and fosters the notion of civil society centered on democracy, human rights, and peace. Despite progress and increased focus on groups that have been traditionally excluded from mainstream historical narratives (people of color, women, the working class, the poor, the disabled, LGBTQI-identified people, etc.), bias remains a component of historical investigation. TermS
Eurocentrism
The practice of viewing the world from a European or generally Western perspective with an implied belief in the pre-eminence of Western culture. It may also be used to describe a view centered on the history or eminence of white people. The term was coined in the 1980s, referring to the notion of European exceptionalism and other Western equivalents, such as American exceptionalism. Bias in Historical Writing
Bias is an inclination or outlook to present or hold a partial perspective, often accompanied by a refusal to consider the possible merits of alternative points of view. Regardless of whether conscious or learned implicitly within cultural contexts, biases have been part of historical investigation since the ancient beginnings of the discipline.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/historical-bias/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1242489604#3_2540439073
|
Title: Historical Bias | World Civilization
Headings: Historical Bias
Historical Bias
Learning Objective
Key Points
TermS
Eurocentrism
Bias in Historical Writing
Bias in the Teaching of History
Sources
Content: TermS
Eurocentrism
The practice of viewing the world from a European or generally Western perspective with an implied belief in the pre-eminence of Western culture. It may also be used to describe a view centered on the history or eminence of white people. The term was coined in the 1980s, referring to the notion of European exceptionalism and other Western equivalents, such as American exceptionalism. Bias in Historical Writing
Bias is an inclination or outlook to present or hold a partial perspective, often accompanied by a refusal to consider the possible merits of alternative points of view. Regardless of whether conscious or learned implicitly within cultural contexts, biases have been part of historical investigation since the ancient beginnings of the discipline. As such, history provides an excellent example of how biases change, evolve, and even disappear. History as a modern academic discipline based on empirical methods (in this case, studying primary sources in order to reconstruct the past based on available evidence), rose to prominence during the Age of Enlightenment. Voltaire, a French author and thinker, is credited to have developed a fresh outlook on history that broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events and emphasized customs, social history (the history of ordinary people) and achievements in the arts and sciences. His Essay on Customs traced the progress of world civilization in a universal context, thereby rejecting both nationalism and the traditional Christian frame of reference. Voltaire was also the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks and emphasizing economics, culture, and political history.
|
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/historical-bias/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1242489604#4_2540441252
|
Title: Historical Bias | World Civilization
Headings: Historical Bias
Historical Bias
Learning Objective
Key Points
TermS
Eurocentrism
Bias in Historical Writing
Bias in the Teaching of History
Sources
Content: As such, history provides an excellent example of how biases change, evolve, and even disappear. History as a modern academic discipline based on empirical methods (in this case, studying primary sources in order to reconstruct the past based on available evidence), rose to prominence during the Age of Enlightenment. Voltaire, a French author and thinker, is credited to have developed a fresh outlook on history that broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events and emphasized customs, social history (the history of ordinary people) and achievements in the arts and sciences. His Essay on Customs traced the progress of world civilization in a universal context, thereby rejecting both nationalism and the traditional Christian frame of reference. Voltaire was also the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks and emphasizing economics, culture, and political history. He was the first to emphasize the debt of medieval culture to Middle Eastern civilization. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the Catholic Church over the ages—
a topic that was Voltaire’s life-long intellectual interest. Voltaire’s early attempts to make history an empirical, objective discipline did not find many followers. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, European historians only strengthened their biases. As Europe gradually benefited from the ongoing scientific progress and dominated the world in the self-imposed mission to colonize nearly all other continents, Eurocentrism prevailed in history.
|
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/historical-bias/
|
msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1242489604#5_2540443401
|
Title: Historical Bias | World Civilization
Headings: Historical Bias
Historical Bias
Learning Objective
Key Points
TermS
Eurocentrism
Bias in Historical Writing
Bias in the Teaching of History
Sources
Content: He was the first to emphasize the debt of medieval culture to Middle Eastern civilization. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the Catholic Church over the ages—
a topic that was Voltaire’s life-long intellectual interest. Voltaire’s early attempts to make history an empirical, objective discipline did not find many followers. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, European historians only strengthened their biases. As Europe gradually benefited from the ongoing scientific progress and dominated the world in the self-imposed mission to colonize nearly all other continents, Eurocentrism prevailed in history. The practice of viewing and presenting the world from a European or generally Western perspective, with an implied belief in the pre-eminence of Western culture, dominated among European historians who contrasted the progressively mechanized character of European culture with traditional hunting, farming and herding societies in many of the areas of the world being newly conquered and colonized. These included the Americas, Asia, Africa and, later, the Pacific and Australasia. Many European writers of this time construed the history of Europe as paradigmatic for the rest of the world. Other cultures were identified as having reached a stage that Europe itself had already passed: primitive hunter-gatherer, farming, early civilization, feudalism and modern liberal-capitalism.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldcivilization/chapter/historical-bias/
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