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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1163885118#2_2421358219
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Title: The Small and Large Intestines | Biology of Aging
Headings: The Small and Large Intestines
The Small and Large Intestines
The Small Intestine
Structure
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Rectum
Anal Canal
Anatomy
Teniae Coli, Haustra, and Epiploic Appendages
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
References
Content: From proximal (at the stomach) to distal, these are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The shortest region is the 25.4-cm (10-in) duodenum, which begins at the pyloric sphincter. Just past the pyloric sphincter, it bends posteriorly behind the peritoneum, becoming retroperitoneal, and then makes a C-shaped curve around the head of the pancreas before ascending anteriorly again to return to the peritoneal cavity and join the jejunum. The duodenum can therefore be subdivided into four segments: the superior, descending, horizontal, and ascending duodenum. Of particular interest is the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater). Located in the duodenal wall, the ampulla marks the transition from the anterior portion of the alimentary canal to the mid-region, and is where the bile duct (through which bile passes from the liver) and the main pancreatic duct (through which pancreatic juice passes from the pancreas) join. This ampulla opens into the duodenum at a tiny volcano-shaped structure called the major duodenal papilla. The hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi) regulates the flow of both bile and pancreatic juice from the ampulla into the duodenum. Small Intestine
The three regions of the small intestine are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-biologyofaging/chapter/the-small-and-large-intestines/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1163885118#3_2421360270
|
Title: The Small and Large Intestines | Biology of Aging
Headings: The Small and Large Intestines
The Small and Large Intestines
The Small Intestine
Structure
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Rectum
Anal Canal
Anatomy
Teniae Coli, Haustra, and Epiploic Appendages
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
References
Content: Of particular interest is the hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater). Located in the duodenal wall, the ampulla marks the transition from the anterior portion of the alimentary canal to the mid-region, and is where the bile duct (through which bile passes from the liver) and the main pancreatic duct (through which pancreatic juice passes from the pancreas) join. This ampulla opens into the duodenum at a tiny volcano-shaped structure called the major duodenal papilla. The hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi) regulates the flow of both bile and pancreatic juice from the ampulla into the duodenum. Small Intestine
The three regions of the small intestine are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The jejunum is about 0.9 meters (3 feet) long (in life) and runs from the duodenum to the ileum. Jejunum means “empty” in Latin and supposedly was so named by the ancient Greeks who noticed it was always empty at death. No clear demarcation exists between the jejunum and the final segment of the small intestine, the ileum. The ileum is the longest part of the small intestine, measuring about 1.8 meters (6 feet) in length. It is thicker, more vascular, and has more developed mucosal folds than the jejunum.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-biologyofaging/chapter/the-small-and-large-intestines/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1163885118#13_2421380028
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Title: The Small and Large Intestines | Biology of Aging
Headings: The Small and Large Intestines
The Small and Large Intestines
The Small Intestine
Structure
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
The Large Intestine
Structure
Subdivisions
Cecum
Colon
Rectum
Anal Canal
Anatomy
Teniae Coli, Haustra, and Epiploic Appendages
Bacterial Flora
Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine
Mechanical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
Absorption, Feces Formation, and Defecation
References
Content: The Large Intestine
The large intestine is the terminal part of the alimentary canal. The primary function of this organ is to finish absorption of nutrients and water, synthesize certain vitamins, form feces, and eliminate feces from the body. Structure
The large intestine runs from the appendix to the anus. It frames the small intestine on three sides. Despite its being about one-half as long as the small intestine, it is called large because it is more than twice the diameter of the small intestine, about 3 inches. Subdivisions
The large intestine is subdivided into four main regions: the cecum, the colon, the rectum, and the anus. The ileocecal valve, located at the opening between the ileum and the large intestine, controls the flow of chyme from the small intestine to the large intestine. Cecum
The first part of the large intestine is the cecum, a sac-like structure that is suspended inferior to the ileocecal valve. It is about 6 cm (2.4 in) long, receives the contents of the ileum, and continues the absorption of water and salts.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimer-biologyofaging/chapter/the-small-and-large-intestines/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1164829988#10_2422524099
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Title: Contemporary Issues in Federalism | Basics of American Politics
Headings: Contemporary Issues in Federalism
Contemporary Issues in Federalism
Learning Objectives
Contending Issues
Edith Windsor: Icon of the Marriage Equality Movement
Strategizing about New Issues
Content: What is more, marriage equality became a reality in a growing number of states as federal court after federal court overturned state constitutional bans on same-sex marriage. The Windsor case gave federal judges the moment of clarity from the U.S. Supreme Court that they needed. James Esseks, director of the American Civil Liberties Union ’s (ACLU) Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender & AIDS Project, summarizes the significance of the case as follows: “ Part of what’s gotten us to this exciting moment in American culture is not just Edie’s lawsuit but the story of her life. The love at the core of that story, as well as the injustice at its end, is part of what has moved America on this issue so profoundly.” [ 9]
In the final analysis, same-sex marriage is a protected constitutional right as decided by the U.S. Supreme Court, which took up the issue again when it heard Obergefell v. Hodges in 2015. What role do you feel the story of Edith Windsor played in reframing the debate over same-sex marriage? How do you think it changed the federal government’s view of its role in legislation regarding same-sex marriage relative to the role of the states? Following the Windsor decision, the number of states that recognized same-sex marriages increased rapidly, as illustrated in Figure 3. In 2015, marriage equality was recognized in thirty-six states plus Washington, DC, up from seventeen in 2013.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-tcc-ampolitics/chapter/contemporary-issues-in-federalism/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1165022821#1_2422729086
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Title: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values | SPCH 1311: Introduction to Speech Communication
Headings: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values
Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values
Content: 1] We also must keep in mind that this concept is not fixed or absolute; instead it changes as we grow and change across our lifetimes. One point of discussion useful for our study about ourselves as communicators is to examine our attitudes, beliefs, and values. These are all interrelated, and researchers have varying theories as to which comes first and which springs from another. We learn our values, beliefs, and attitudes through interaction with others. Table 3.1 “Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values” defines these terms and provides an example of each. Definition
Changeable? Example
Attitudes
Learned predispositions to a concept or object
Subject to change
I enjoyed the writing exercise in class today. Beliefs
Convictions or expressions of confidence
Can change over time
This course is important because I may use the communication skills I am learning in my career. Values
Ideals that guide our behavior
Generally long lasting
Effective communication is important.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atdcoursereview-speechcomm-1/chapter/attitudes-beliefs-and-values/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1165022821#2_2422730474
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Title: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values | SPCH 1311: Introduction to Speech Communication
Headings: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values
Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values
Content: Table 3.1 “Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values” defines these terms and provides an example of each. Definition
Changeable? Example
Attitudes
Learned predispositions to a concept or object
Subject to change
I enjoyed the writing exercise in class today. Beliefs
Convictions or expressions of confidence
Can change over time
This course is important because I may use the communication skills I am learning in my career. Values
Ideals that guide our behavior
Generally long lasting
Effective communication is important. An attitude is your immediate disposition toward a concept or an object. Attitudes can change easily and frequently. You may prefer vanilla while someone else prefers peppermint, but if someone tries to persuade you of how delicious peppermint is, you may be willing to try it and find that you like it better than vanilla. Beliefs are ideas based on our previous experiences and convictions and may not necessarily be based on logic or fact. You no doubt have beliefs on political, economic, and religious issues.
|
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atdcoursereview-speechcomm-1/chapter/attitudes-beliefs-and-values/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1165022821#3_2422731915
|
Title: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values | SPCH 1311: Introduction to Speech Communication
Headings: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values
Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values
Content: An attitude is your immediate disposition toward a concept or an object. Attitudes can change easily and frequently. You may prefer vanilla while someone else prefers peppermint, but if someone tries to persuade you of how delicious peppermint is, you may be willing to try it and find that you like it better than vanilla. Beliefs are ideas based on our previous experiences and convictions and may not necessarily be based on logic or fact. You no doubt have beliefs on political, economic, and religious issues. These beliefs may not have been formed through rigorous study, but you nevertheless hold them as important aspects of self. Beliefs often serve as a frame of reference through which we interpret our world. Although they can be changed, it often takes time or strong evidence to persuade someone to change a belief. Values are core concepts and ideas of what we consider good or bad, right or wrong, or what is worth the sacrifice. Our values are central to our self-image, what makes us who we are.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atdcoursereview-speechcomm-1/chapter/attitudes-beliefs-and-values/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1165022821#4_2422733320
|
Title: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values | SPCH 1311: Introduction to Speech Communication
Headings: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values
Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values
Content: These beliefs may not have been formed through rigorous study, but you nevertheless hold them as important aspects of self. Beliefs often serve as a frame of reference through which we interpret our world. Although they can be changed, it often takes time or strong evidence to persuade someone to change a belief. Values are core concepts and ideas of what we consider good or bad, right or wrong, or what is worth the sacrifice. Our values are central to our self-image, what makes us who we are. Like beliefs, our values may not be based on empirical research or rational thinking, but they are even more resistant to change than are beliefs. To undergo a change in values, a person may need to undergo a transformative life experience. For example, suppose you highly value the freedom to make personal decisions, including the freedom to choose whether or not to wear a helmet while driving a motorcycle. This value of individual choice is central to your way of thinking and you are unlikely to change this value. However, if your brother was driving a motorcycle without a helmet and suffered an accident that fractured his skull and left him with permanent brain damage, you might reconsider this value.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atdcoursereview-speechcomm-1/chapter/attitudes-beliefs-and-values/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1172374494#5_2434498924
|
Title: The Fetal Period | Boundless Anatomy and Physiology
Headings: The Fetal Period
The Fetal Period
Fetal Development
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Teratogens
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Characteristics of Teratogens
Example Teratogens
Prenatal Diagnostic Tests
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Prenatal Screening Overview
Invasive and Noninvasive Prenatal Screening
Determination of Gestational Age
Content: The heart, hands, feet, brain, and other organs are present, but are only at the beginning of development and have minimal operation. Week 11: Nearly all structures and organs are formed. Fingers and toes are separated and the genitals begin to take on the proper gender characteristics. Week 12: The digestive system and liver function. The pancreas makes insulin. Week 13: The fetus begins to get its nourishment from the placenta and the veins and organs are visible through the skin. Week 14:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/the-fetal-period/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1172503195#10_2434681929
|
Title: The Large Intestine | Boundless Anatomy and Physiology
Headings: The Large Intestine
The Large Intestine
Anatomy of the Large Intestine
Key Points
Key Terms
Function and Form of the Large Intestine
Differences Between Large and Small Intestine
Additional Structures
Histology of the Large Intestine
Key Points
Key Terms
Histology of the Large Intestine
Bacterial Flora
Key Points
Key Terms
Bacterial Flora
Bacteria and Vitamins
Bacteria and Antibodies
Digestive Processes of the Large Intestine
Key Points
Key Terms
Overview of the Large Intestine
Gut Flora
Gut Flora and Specialized Digestion
Fermentation
Absorption and Feces Formation in the Large Intestine
Key Points
Key Terms
Intestinal Bacteria
Water and Cellulose
Defecation Reflex
Key Points
Key Terms
Examples
Defecation
Content: Histology of the Large Intestine
Colon biopsy: Micrograph of a colon biopsy. The large intestine, or large bowel, is the last part of the digestive system in vertebrate animals. Its function is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food matter, and then to pass the useless waste material from the body. The large intestine consists of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal. It starts in the right iliac region of the pelvis, just at or below the right waist, where it is joined to the bottom end of the small intestine. From here it continues up the abdomen, across the width of the abdominal cavity, and then it turns downward, continuing to its endpoint at the anus. The large intestine differs in physical form from the small intestine in being much wider. The longitudinal layer of the muscularis is reduced to three strap-like structures known as the taeniae coli—bands of longitudinal muscle fibers, each about 1/5 in wide. These three bands start at the base of the appendix and extend from the cecum to the rectum.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/the-large-intestine/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1172791238#13_2435174453
|
Title: The Small Intestine | Boundless Anatomy and Physiology
Headings: The Small Intestine
The Small Intestine
Anatomy of the Small Intestine
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Small Intestine
The Villi
Histology of the Small Intestine
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Small Intestine’s Layers
Brunner’s Glands
Peyer’s Patches
Intestinal Villi
Digestive Processes of the Small Intestine
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
Content: The muscularis is a region of muscle adjacent to the submucosa membrane. It is responsible for gut movement, or peristalsis. It usually has two distinct layers of smooth muscle: circular and longitudinal. The submucosa is the layer of dense, irregular connective tissue or loose connective tissue that supports the mucosa, as well as joins the mucosa to the bulk of underlying smooth muscle. The mucosa is the innermost tissue layer of the small intestines, and is a mucous membrane that secretes digestive enzymes and hormones. The intestinal villi are part of the mucosa. The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level, but there are some important differences. The jejunum and ileum do not have Brunner’s glands in the submucosa, while the ileum has Peyer’s patches in the mucosa, but the duodenum and jejunum do not. Brunner’s Glands
Brunner’s glands (or duodenal glands) are compound tubular submucosal glands found in the duodenum.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/the-small-intestine/
|
msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1174122735#3_2436861149
|
Title: Modern Architecture | Boundless Art History
Headings: Modern Architecture
Modern Architecture
Modern Architecture
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Modernism
Frank Gehry
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
Frank Lloyd Wright
In the United States
Content: It would take the form of numerous movements, schools of design, and architectural styles, some in tension with one another, and often equally defying such classification. Chicago Modernism: Contrasts in modern architecture, as shown by adjacent high-rises in Chicago, Illinois. IBM Plaza (right), by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, is a later example of the clean rectilinear lines and glass of the international style, whereas Marina City (left), by his student Bertrand Goldberg, reflects a more sculptural mid-century modern aesthetic. The concept of modernism would be a central theme in these efforts. Gaining popularity after World War II, architectural modernism was adopted by many influential architects and architectural educators and continues as a dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the 21 st century. Modernism eventually generated reactions, most notably postmodernism which sought to preserve premodern elements, while neomodernism emerged as a reaction to postmodernism. Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist movement include Frank Lloyd Wright, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, and Alvar Aalto. Early Modernism
The Crystal Palace, 1851, was one of the first buildings to have vast amounts of glass supported by structural metal, foreshadowing trends in modernist architecture. There are multiple lenses through which the evolution of modern architecture may be viewed.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/modern-architecture-2/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1174122735#4_2436863147
|
Title: Modern Architecture | Boundless Art History
Headings: Modern Architecture
Modern Architecture
Modern Architecture
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Modernism
Frank Gehry
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
Frank Lloyd Wright
In the United States
Content: Gaining popularity after World War II, architectural modernism was adopted by many influential architects and architectural educators and continues as a dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate buildings into the 21 st century. Modernism eventually generated reactions, most notably postmodernism which sought to preserve premodern elements, while neomodernism emerged as a reaction to postmodernism. Notable architects important to the history and development of the modernist movement include Frank Lloyd Wright, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, and Alvar Aalto. Early Modernism
The Crystal Palace, 1851, was one of the first buildings to have vast amounts of glass supported by structural metal, foreshadowing trends in modernist architecture. There are multiple lenses through which the evolution of modern architecture may be viewed. Some historians see it as a social matter, closely tied to the project of modernity and thus the Enlightenment. Modern architecture developed, in their opinion, as a result of social and political revolutions. Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments. Still other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian and Edwardian architecture. Frank Gehry
Frank Owen Gehry (born Frank Owen Goldberg;
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/modern-architecture-2/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#0_2438374238
|
Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Mexican muralism can be defined as the mural painting that was used to promote nationalistic ideals as part of efforts to reunify the country under the post-Mexican Revolution government. Learning Objectives
Compare and contrast the works of Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Siqueiros. Key Takeaways
Key Points
At the end of the Mexican Revolution in 1921, the government commissioned the painting of public murals as a way of promoting the ideals of the Revolution to a largely illiterate public. The murals were meant to glorify the Mexican Revolution, promote the identity of Mexico as a mestizo nation—celebrating both indigenous and Spanish backgrounds—and to promote art as a public commodity, not only the province of a few wealthy collectors. While Mexican Muralism was intended to promote the ideals of a new post revolution government, the artists were given complete freedom, so the imagery and themes that were depicted varied from artist to artist. Common imagery in these murals include depictions of the revolution (both positive and negative), a technological and scientific future (Sequeiros in particular), scenes of everyday life and ancient Mexico (Rivera), the horrors of the war (Orozco), and a fear of technology (Orozco). Many of the muralists included elements of Marxism, highlighting the struggle of the working class against oppression. The three most influential muralists from the 20th century were Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Siqueiros; they are known as los tres grandes. The concept of murals to promote political messages carried over to the United States, and served as inspiration to the later Chicano Mural Movement.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#1_2438376672
|
Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: Common imagery in these murals include depictions of the revolution (both positive and negative), a technological and scientific future (Sequeiros in particular), scenes of everyday life and ancient Mexico (Rivera), the horrors of the war (Orozco), and a fear of technology (Orozco). Many of the muralists included elements of Marxism, highlighting the struggle of the working class against oppression. The three most influential muralists from the 20th century were Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Siqueiros; they are known as los tres grandes. The concept of murals to promote political messages carried over to the United States, and served as inspiration to the later Chicano Mural Movement. Key Terms
mestizo: A person of mixed ancestry, especially one of Spanish and Native American heritage. Mexican Revolution: A major armed struggle that started in 1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Diaz, and lasted for the better part of a decade until around 1920. Over time the Revolution changed from a revolt against the established order to a multisided civil war.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#2_2438378444
|
Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: Key Terms
mestizo: A person of mixed ancestry, especially one of Spanish and Native American heritage. Mexican Revolution: A major armed struggle that started in 1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Diaz, and lasted for the better part of a decade until around 1920. Over time the Revolution changed from a revolt against the established order to a multisided civil war. Mexican Muralism
The era from 1930–1945 in Mexico is best marked by Mexican muralism. From the 1920s to 1970s a large number of murals with nationalistic, social, and political messages were created on public buildings, as part of efforts to reunify the country under the post-Mexican Revolution government. Mexican muralism started a tradition that continues to this day in Mexico. In 1921, after the end of the Mexican Revolution, José Vasconcelos was appointed to head the Secretaría de Educación Pública. At the time, most of the Mexican population was illiterate and the government needed a way to promote the ideals of the Mexican Revolution.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#3_2438380177
|
Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: Mexican Muralism
The era from 1930–1945 in Mexico is best marked by Mexican muralism. From the 1920s to 1970s a large number of murals with nationalistic, social, and political messages were created on public buildings, as part of efforts to reunify the country under the post-Mexican Revolution government. Mexican muralism started a tradition that continues to this day in Mexico. In 1921, after the end of the Mexican Revolution, José Vasconcelos was appointed to head the Secretaría de Educación Pública. At the time, most of the Mexican population was illiterate and the government needed a way to promote the ideals of the Mexican Revolution. Vasconcelos helped establish a government-backed mural program, hiring the country’s best artists, for this purpose. Similar to mural use in the pre-Hispanic and colonial periods, the purpose of these murals were not simply aesthetic, but social, to promote certain ideals. These ideals or principles were to glorify the Mexican Revolution and the identity of Mexico as a mestizo nation, with the indigenous promoted as well as the Spanish. The movement was strongest from the 1920s to the 1950s, which corresponded to the country’s transformation from a mostly rural and mostly illiterate society to an industrialized one. While today they are part of Mexico’s identity, at the time they were controversial, especially those with socialist messages plastered on centuries-old colonial buildings.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#4_2438382302
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Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: Vasconcelos helped establish a government-backed mural program, hiring the country’s best artists, for this purpose. Similar to mural use in the pre-Hispanic and colonial periods, the purpose of these murals were not simply aesthetic, but social, to promote certain ideals. These ideals or principles were to glorify the Mexican Revolution and the identity of Mexico as a mestizo nation, with the indigenous promoted as well as the Spanish. The movement was strongest from the 1920s to the 1950s, which corresponded to the country’s transformation from a mostly rural and mostly illiterate society to an industrialized one. While today they are part of Mexico’s identity, at the time they were controversial, especially those with socialist messages plastered on centuries-old colonial buildings. One of the basic underpinnings of the nascence of a post-revolutionary Mexican art was that it should be public, available to the citizenry, and above all not the province of a few wealthy collectors. The great societal upheaval, as well as a lack of relatively wealthy middle class to support the arts, made the concept possible, and on this the painters and the government agreed. Though commissioned by the government, the artists maintained complete freedom of expression; in addition to the original ideas of a reconstructed Mexico and the elevation of Mexico’s indigenous and rural identity, many of the muralists included elements of Marxism—especially the struggle of the working class against oppression. The murals, due to their locations and themes, took on a monumental status.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#5_2438384552
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Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: One of the basic underpinnings of the nascence of a post-revolutionary Mexican art was that it should be public, available to the citizenry, and above all not the province of a few wealthy collectors. The great societal upheaval, as well as a lack of relatively wealthy middle class to support the arts, made the concept possible, and on this the painters and the government agreed. Though commissioned by the government, the artists maintained complete freedom of expression; in addition to the original ideas of a reconstructed Mexico and the elevation of Mexico’s indigenous and rural identity, many of the muralists included elements of Marxism—especially the struggle of the working class against oppression. The murals, due to their locations and themes, took on a monumental status. Many were painted on the walls of colonial-era government buildings. Techniques included the revival of old techniques such as the fresco—painting on freshly plastered walls—and encaustic or hot wax painting. Others used mosaics and high-fire ceramics, as well as metal parts, and layers of cement. Los Tres Grandes
The three most influential muralists from the 20th century are Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Siqueiros, often referred to as los tres grandes (the three great ones). They believed that art was the highest form of human expression and a key force in social revolution.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#6_2438386606
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Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: Many were painted on the walls of colonial-era government buildings. Techniques included the revival of old techniques such as the fresco—painting on freshly plastered walls—and encaustic or hot wax painting. Others used mosaics and high-fire ceramics, as well as metal parts, and layers of cement. Los Tres Grandes
The three most influential muralists from the 20th century are Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Siqueiros, often referred to as los tres grandes (the three great ones). They believed that art was the highest form of human expression and a key force in social revolution. Their work defined the movement and created a mythology around the Mexican Revolution and the Mexican people, and promoted Marxist ideals, which are still influential to this day. At the time the works were painted, they also served as a form of catharsis over what the country had endured during the war. However, the three were quite different in their artistic expression. Rivera’s works were utopian and idealist, Orozco’s were critical and pessimistic, and the most radical were those of Siqueiros, which focused heavily on a scientific future. The differences among the three have much to do with how each experienced the Mexican Revolution.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#8_2438390273
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Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: Rivera was in Europe the entire time and did not fight. He never depicted the horrors of the war but what he perceived to be the social benefits from it. The other two did fight, and both expressed the horrors of war in their work. Diego Rivera
Of the three artists, Rivera was the most traditional in terms of painting styles, and he drew heavily from European modernism. His themes were Mexican, often scenes of everyday life and images of ancient Mexico. He originally painted this in bright colors in the European style, but modified it to more earthy tones to imitate indigenous murals. His greatest contribution is the promotion of Mexico’s indigenous past. Mural in the main stairwell of the National Palace by Diego Rivera: A leader in Mexican muralism, much of Rivera’s work was utopian and idealist. Jose Clemente Orozco
Orozco also began with a European style of expression.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#9_2438391809
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Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: He originally painted this in bright colors in the European style, but modified it to more earthy tones to imitate indigenous murals. His greatest contribution is the promotion of Mexico’s indigenous past. Mural in the main stairwell of the National Palace by Diego Rivera: A leader in Mexican muralism, much of Rivera’s work was utopian and idealist. Jose Clemente Orozco
Orozco also began with a European style of expression. However, his art developed into an angry denunciation of oppression especially by those he considered to be an evil and brutal ruling class. His work was somber and dire, with an emphasis on human suffering and a fear of the technology of the future. Unlike other artists, Orozco never glorified the Mexican Revolution, having fought in it, but rather depicted the horrors of this war. This caused many of his murals to be heavily criticized and even defaced. La gran legislación revolucionaria mexicana y la abolición de la esclavitud:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#11_2438395353
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Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: Orozco, one of the three great muralists of the 20th century, painted murals that were more critical and pessimistic that his peers. David Alfaro Siqueiros
Siqueiros was the youngest and most radical of the three, having joined the Venustiano Carranza army when he was 18 and who experienced the Revolution from the front lines. Although all three were communists, Siqueiros was the most dedicated, with his painting filled with portrayals of the proletarian masses. His work is also characterized with rapid, sweeping, bold lines and the use of modern enamels, machinery, and other elements related to technology. His radical politics made him unwelcome in Mexico and the United States, so he did much of his work in South America. His masterpiece is considered to be the Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros, located in Mexico City. Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros: Siquieros is known for his radical politics and murals, characterized by rapid, sweeping, bold lines. The Polyform Cultural Siqueiros is considered his masterpiece. Mexican muralism brought mural painting back to the forefront of Western art in the 20th century, and its influence spread abroad, especially to promote the idea of mural painting as a form to further social and political ideas.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175329779#12_2438397244
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Title: The Mexican Renaissance | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Mexican Renaissance
The Mexican Renaissance
Mexican Muralism
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mexican Muralism
Los Tres Grandes
Diego Rivera
Jose Clemente Orozco
David Alfaro Siqueiros
Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Frida Kahlo
Paintings
Influences
Artistic Legacy
Content: His masterpiece is considered to be the Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros, located in Mexico City. Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros: Siquieros is known for his radical politics and murals, characterized by rapid, sweeping, bold lines. The Polyform Cultural Siqueiros is considered his masterpiece. Mexican muralism brought mural painting back to the forefront of Western art in the 20th century, and its influence spread abroad, especially to promote the idea of mural painting as a form to further social and political ideas. The concept of a mural as a political message was transplanted to the United States, especially in the former Mexican territory of the Southwest, and served as inspiration to the later Chicano Mural Movement. Mexican Painting: Frida Kahlo
Frida Kahlo, a Mexican painter known especially for her self-portraits, has been celebrated internationally as emblematic of Mexican national and indigenous traditions, and by feminists for her uncompromising depiction of the female experience and form. Learning Objectives
Discuss the work of Frida Kahlo
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Marked by physical affliction due to a serious bus accident when she was 18, Kahlo spent a great deal of time in isolation, which is reflected in her work. Frida Kahlo’s work has variously been described as surrealist art, folk art, and naive art, none of which were satisfactory to the artist herself.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-mexican-renaissance/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1175377927#4_2438447488
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Title: The Ming Dynasty | Boundless Art History
Headings: The Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty
Painting under the Ming Dynasty
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Background: The Ming Dynasty
Painting Styles
Development
Early Ming Period (1368–1505)
Middle Ming Period (1465–1566)
Late Ming Period (1567–1644)
The Decorative Arts under the Ming Dynasty
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Overview: Decorative Arts in China
The Ming Dynasty
Architecture and Urban Planning under the Ming Dynasty
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Chinese Architecture and Urban Planning After 1279
Fengshui Geomancy
The Well-field System and Numerology
Beijing and the Forbidden City
Symbolic Design
Chinese Literati Expressionism under the Ming Dynasty
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Overview: The Southern School and Literati Painting
History
The Literati Style and Artists
Content: These new conditions led to the rise of the Wu School of painting, a somewhat subversive style that revived the ideal of the inspired scholar-painters in Ming China. Painting Styles
During the Ming Dynasty, Chinese painting developed greatly from the achievements of the earlier Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty. The painting techniques that were invented and developed before the Ming period became classical during this period. More colors were used in painting during the Ming Dynasty; seal brown, for example, became much more widely used, and sometimes even over-used. Many new painting skills and techniques were innovated and developed, and calligraphy was much more closely and perfectly combined with the art of painting. Chinese painting reached another climax in the mid- to late-Ming Dynasty, when many new schools were born and many outstanding masters emerged. Landscape in the Style of Yan Wengui by Dai Jin, hanging scroll, ink on paper (Early Ming Dynasty): Painting techniques that were invented and developed before the Ming period became classical during this period. This Chinese landscape painting uses the “atmospheric perspective” to show recession in space.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/the-ming-dynasty/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1176497058#8_2439793975
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Title: Bryophytes | Boundless Biology
Headings: Bryophytes
Bryophytes
Bryophytes
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Bryophytes
Liverworts and Hornworts
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Liverworts and Hornworts
Liverworts
Hornworts
Mosses
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mosses
Content: The gametophyte stage is the dominant stage in both liverworts and hornworts; however, liverwort sporophytes do not contain stomata, while hornwort sporophytes do. The life cycle of liverworts and hornworts follows alternation of generations: spores germinate into gametophytes, the zygote develops into a sporophyte that releases spores, and then spores produce new gametophytes. Liverworts develop short, small sporophytes, whereas hornworts develop long, slender sporophytes. To aid in spore dispersal, liverworts utilize elaters, whereas hornworts utilize pseudoelaters. Liverworts and hornworts can reproduce asexually through the fragmentation of leaves into gemmae that disperse and develop into gametophytes. Key Terms
alternation of generation: the life cycle of plants with a multicellular sporophyte, which is diploid, that alternates with a multicellular gametophyte, which is haploid
pseudoelater: single-celled structure that aids in spore dispersal
gemmae:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/bryophytes/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1176497058#9_2439795516
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Title: Bryophytes | Boundless Biology
Headings: Bryophytes
Bryophytes
Bryophytes
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Bryophytes
Liverworts and Hornworts
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Liverworts and Hornworts
Liverworts
Hornworts
Mosses
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mosses
Content: To aid in spore dispersal, liverworts utilize elaters, whereas hornworts utilize pseudoelaters. Liverworts and hornworts can reproduce asexually through the fragmentation of leaves into gemmae that disperse and develop into gametophytes. Key Terms
alternation of generation: the life cycle of plants with a multicellular sporophyte, which is diploid, that alternates with a multicellular gametophyte, which is haploid
pseudoelater: single-celled structure that aids in spore dispersal
gemmae: small, intact, complete pieces of plant that are produced in a cup on the surface of the thallus and develop into gametophytes through asexual reproduction
Liverworts and Hornworts
Liverworts
Liverworts (Hepaticophyta) are viewed as the plants most closely related to the ancestor that moved to land. Liverworts have colonized every terrestrial habitat on earth and diversified to more than 7000 existing species. Liverwort gametophytes (the dominant stage of the life cycle) form lobate green structures. The shape of these leaves are similar to the lobes of the liver; hence, providing the origin of the name given to the phylum.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/bryophytes/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1176497058#12_2439800165
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Title: Bryophytes | Boundless Biology
Headings: Bryophytes
Bryophytes
Bryophytes
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Bryophytes
Liverworts and Hornworts
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Liverworts and Hornworts
Liverworts
Hornworts
Mosses
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Mosses
Content: The organism in the photograph is in the dominant gametophyte stage. The liverwort’s life cycle begins with the release of haploid spores from the sporangium that developed on the sporophyte. Spores disseminated by wind or water germinate into flattened thalli gametophytes attached to the substrate by thin, single-celled filaments. Male and female gametangia develop on separate, individual plants. Once released, male gametes swim with the aid of their flagella to the female gametangium (the archegonium), and fertilization ensues. The zygote grows into a small sporophyte still attached to the parent gametophyte and develops spore-producing cells and elaters. The spore-producing cells undergo meiosis to form spores, which disperse (with the help of elaters), giving rise to new gametophytes. Thus, the life cycle of liverworts follows the pattern of alternation of generations. Liverwort Life Cycle: The life cycle of a typical liverwort follows the pattern of alternation of generations.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/bryophytes/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1180638518#12_2445686984
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Title: International Trade Agreements and Organizations | Boundless Business
Headings: International Trade Agreements and Organizations
International Trade Agreements and Organizations
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
Key Points
Key Terms
The European Union
Key Points
Key Terms
The European Union
The Euro
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Key Points
Key Terms
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
Key Points
Key Terms
The World Bank
Key Points
Key Terms
The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Key Points
Key Terms
Common Markets
Key Points
Key Terms
The Export-Import Bank of the United States
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: The EU is represented at the United Nations, the WTO, the G8 and the G-20. The Euro
The creation of a single European currency became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969. However, it was only with the advent of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 that member states were legally bound to start the monetary union. In 1999 the euro was duly launched by eleven of the then fifteen member states of the EU. It remained an accounting currency until 1 January 2002, when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone, which by then consisted of twelve member states. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states that have adopted the euro) has since grown to seventeen countries, the most recent being Estonia, which joined on 1 January 2011. All other EU member states, except Denmark and the United Kingdom, are legally bound to join the euro when the convergence criteria are met, however only a few countries have set target dates for accession. Sweden has circumvented the requirement to join the euro by not meeting the membership criteria. The euro is designed to help build a single market by easing travel of citizens and goods, eliminating exchange rate problems, providing price transparency, creating a single financial market, stabilizing prices, maintaining low interest rates, and providing a currency used internationally and protected against shocks by the large amount of internal trade within the eurozone. It is also intended as a political symbol of integration.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-business/chapter/international-trade-agreements-and-organizations/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1185033925#2_2452594290
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Title: Barriers to Entry: Reasons for Monopolies to Exist | Boundless Economics
Headings: Barriers to Entry: Reasons for Monopolies to Exist
Barriers to Entry: Reasons for Monopolies to Exist
Resource Control
Key Points
Key Terms
Economies of Scale and Network Externalities
Key Points
Key Terms
Government Action
Key Points
Key Terms
Monopoly Creation
Government-Granted Monopoly
Government Monopoly
Legal Barriers
Key Points
Key Terms
Copyright
Patent
Government Granted Monopoly
Natural Monopolies
Key Points
Key Terms
Cost Structure
Fixed Costs
Other Barriers to Entry
Key Points
Key Terms
Control Over Natural Resources
High Capital Requirements
Economies of Scale
Network Effects
Legal Barriers
Government Backing
Content: economic rent: The portion of income paid to a factor of production in excess of its opportunity cost. Control over natural resources that are critical to the production of a good is one source of monopoly power. Single ownership over a resource gives the owner of the resource the power to raise the market price of a good over marginal cost without losing customers to competitors. In other words, resource control allows the controller to charge economic rent. This is a classic outcome of imperfectly competitive markets. A classic example of a monopoly based on resource control is De Beers. De Beers Consolidated Mines were founded in 1888 in South Africa as an amalgamation of a number of individual diamond mining operations. De Beers had a monopoly over the production of diamonds for most of the 20th century, and it used its dominant position to manipulate the international diamond market. It convinced independent producers to join its single channel monopoly.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-economics/chapter/barriers-to-entry-reasons-for-monopolies-to-exist/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1185068601#7_2452637857
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Title: Barriers to Trade | Boundless Economics
Headings: Barriers to Trade
Barriers to Trade
Tariffs
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Types of Tariffs
Consequences of Levying a Tariff
Quotas
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Types of Quotas
Reasons to Implement Quotas
Consequences of Quotas
Other Barriers
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Specific Limitations to Trade
Customs and Administrative Procedures
Government Participation
Technical Barriers to Trade
Content: Consequences of Levying a Tariff
To see the effects of levying an import tariff, consider the example shown in. Assume that there is an import tax levied on a good in a domestic country, Home. The domestic supply of the good is represented by the diagonal supply curve, and world supply is perfectly elastic and represented by the horizontal line at P w P w. Before a tariff is levied, the domestic price is at P w P w, and the quantity demanded is at D D (with quantity S S provided domestically, and quantity D−S D − S imported). Effects of a Tariff: When a tariff is levied on imported goods, the domestic price of the good rises. This benefits domestic producers by increasing producer surplus, but domestic consumers see a small consumer surplus. When the tariff is imposed, the domestic price of the good rises to P t P t. Now, more of the good is provided domestically; instead of producing S S, it now produces S*. Imports of the good fall, from the quantity D−S D − S to the new quantity D*-S*. With the higher prices, domestic producers experience a gain in producer surplus (shown as area A).
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-economics/chapter/barriers-to-trade/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1186446187#4_2454764005
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Title: Progressive, Proportional, and Regressive Taxes | Boundless Economics
Headings: Progressive, Proportional, and Regressive Taxes
Progressive, Proportional, and Regressive Taxes
Comparing Marginal and Average Tax Rates
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Computing Taxes
Average and marginal tax rate
T/P = average tax rate
change in T/change in P = marginal tax rate
Types of Taxes
Progressive tax
Regressive tax
Proportional tax
Tax Incidence, Efficiency, and Fairness
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Example of Tax Incidence
Tax efficiency
Tax Incidence and Elasticity
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Inelastic Supply, Elastic Demand
Comparable Elasticities
Trading off Equity and Efficiency
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Horizontal Equity, Vertical Equity, and Taxes
Tax efficiency and tax equity
Content: a year, multi-year, or lifetime. Progressive taxes are imposed in an attempt to reduce the tax incidence of people with a lower ability-to-pay, as such taxes shift the incidence increasingly to those with a higher ability-to-pay. The opposite of a progressive tax is a regressive tax, where the relative tax rate or burden increases as an individual’s ability to pay it decreases. Progressive taxation: Graph demonstrates a progressive tax distribution on income that becomes regressive for top earners. Regressive tax
A regressive tax is a tax imposed in such a manner that the average tax rate decreases as the amount subject to taxation increases. “ Regressive” describes a distribution effect on income or expenditure, referring to the way the rate progresses from high to low, where the average tax rate exceeds the marginal tax rate. In terms of individual income and wealth, a regressive tax imposes a greater burden (relative to resources) on the poor than on the rich — there is an inverse relationship between the tax rate and the taxpayer’s ability to pay as measured by assets, consumption, or income. Proportional tax
A proportional tax is a tax imposed so that the tax rate is fixed, with no change as the taxable base amount increases or decreases. The amount of the tax is in proportion to the amount subject to taxation. “
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-economics/chapter/progressive-proportional-and-regressive-taxes/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1186446187#5_2454766548
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Title: Progressive, Proportional, and Regressive Taxes | Boundless Economics
Headings: Progressive, Proportional, and Regressive Taxes
Progressive, Proportional, and Regressive Taxes
Comparing Marginal and Average Tax Rates
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Computing Taxes
Average and marginal tax rate
T/P = average tax rate
change in T/change in P = marginal tax rate
Types of Taxes
Progressive tax
Regressive tax
Proportional tax
Tax Incidence, Efficiency, and Fairness
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Example of Tax Incidence
Tax efficiency
Tax Incidence and Elasticity
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Inelastic Supply, Elastic Demand
Comparable Elasticities
Trading off Equity and Efficiency
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Horizontal Equity, Vertical Equity, and Taxes
Tax efficiency and tax equity
Content: Regressive tax
A regressive tax is a tax imposed in such a manner that the average tax rate decreases as the amount subject to taxation increases. “ Regressive” describes a distribution effect on income or expenditure, referring to the way the rate progresses from high to low, where the average tax rate exceeds the marginal tax rate. In terms of individual income and wealth, a regressive tax imposes a greater burden (relative to resources) on the poor than on the rich — there is an inverse relationship between the tax rate and the taxpayer’s ability to pay as measured by assets, consumption, or income. Proportional tax
A proportional tax is a tax imposed so that the tax rate is fixed, with no change as the taxable base amount increases or decreases. The amount of the tax is in proportion to the amount subject to taxation. “ Proportional” describes a distribution effect on income or expenditure, referring to the way the rate remains consistent (does not progress from “low to high” or “high to low” as income or consumption changes), where the marginal tax rate is equal to the average tax rate. Tax Incidence, Efficiency, and Fairness
Tax incidence is the analysis of the effect of a particular tax on the distribution of economic welfare. Learning Objectives
Identify who bears the tax burden in various scenarios
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Tax incidence or tax burden does not depend on where the revenue is collected, but on the price elasticity of demand and price elasticity of supply. Tax incidence falls mostly upon the group that responds least to price (the group that has the most inelastic price-quantity curve). If the demand curve is inelastic relative to the supply curve the tax will be disproportionately borne by the buyer rather than the seller.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-economics/chapter/progressive-proportional-and-regressive-taxes/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1187901534#3_2456818009
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Title: Developing Leadership Skills | Boundless Management
Headings: Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Methods of Leadership Development
Formal Training
Developmental Job Assignment
360-Degree Feedback
Coaching
Self-directed Learning
Leadership Development Models
General Electric Model of Leadership Development
Content: While these are difficult to change, leadership is a set of behaviors and practices that can be learned through effort and experience. Leadership traits: Leadership traits can be broken down into 6 categories: Cognitive Capacities, Dispositional Attributes, Motives/Values, Social Capacities, Problem Solving Skills, Expertise & Knowledge. Successful leadership development is the result of three things: Individual learner characteristics, including willingness and ability to learn
The quality and nature of the leadership development program, including its structure and content
Opportunities to practice new skills and receive performance feedback
Methods of Leadership Development
Leader development takes place through multiple mechanisms: formal instruction, developmental job assignments, 360-degree feedback, executive coaching, and self-directed learning. These approaches may occur independently but are more effective in combination. Formal Training
Organizations often offer formal training programs to their leaders. Traditional styles provide leaders with required knowledge and skills in a particular area using coursework, practice, “overlearning” with rehearsals, and feedback (Kozlowski, 1998).
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/developing-leadership-skills/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1187901534#4_2456819897
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Title: Developing Leadership Skills | Boundless Management
Headings: Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Methods of Leadership Development
Formal Training
Developmental Job Assignment
360-Degree Feedback
Coaching
Self-directed Learning
Leadership Development Models
General Electric Model of Leadership Development
Content: Individual learner characteristics, including willingness and ability to learn
The quality and nature of the leadership development program, including its structure and content
Opportunities to practice new skills and receive performance feedback
Methods of Leadership Development
Leader development takes place through multiple mechanisms: formal instruction, developmental job assignments, 360-degree feedback, executive coaching, and self-directed learning. These approaches may occur independently but are more effective in combination. Formal Training
Organizations often offer formal training programs to their leaders. Traditional styles provide leaders with required knowledge and skills in a particular area using coursework, practice, “overlearning” with rehearsals, and feedback (Kozlowski, 1998). This traditional lecture-based classroom training is useful; however, its limitations include the question of a leader’s ability to transfer the information from a training environment to a work setting. Developmental Job Assignment
Following formal training, organizations can assign leaders to developmental jobs that target the newly acquired skills. A job that is developmental is one in which leaders learn, undergo personal change, and gain leadership skills resulting from the roles, responsibilities, and tasks involved in that job. Developmental job assignments are one of the most effective forms of leader development.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/developing-leadership-skills/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1187901534#5_2456822016
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Title: Developing Leadership Skills | Boundless Management
Headings: Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Methods of Leadership Development
Formal Training
Developmental Job Assignment
360-Degree Feedback
Coaching
Self-directed Learning
Leadership Development Models
General Electric Model of Leadership Development
Content: This traditional lecture-based classroom training is useful; however, its limitations include the question of a leader’s ability to transfer the information from a training environment to a work setting. Developmental Job Assignment
Following formal training, organizations can assign leaders to developmental jobs that target the newly acquired skills. A job that is developmental is one in which leaders learn, undergo personal change, and gain leadership skills resulting from the roles, responsibilities, and tasks involved in that job. Developmental job assignments are one of the most effective forms of leader development. A “stretch” or developmental assignment challenges leaders’ new skills and pushes them out of their comfort zone to operate in a more complex environment, one that involves new elements, problems, and dilemmas to resolve. 360-Degree Feedback
The 360-degree feedback approach is a necessary component of leader development that allows leaders to maximize learning opportunities from their current assignment. It systematically provides leaders with perceptions of their performance from a full circle of viewpoints, including subordinates, peers, superiors, and the leader’s own self- assessment. With information coming from so many different sources, the messages may be contradictory and difficult to interpret. However, when several different sources concur on a similar perspective, whether a strength or weakness, the clarity of the message increases.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/developing-leadership-skills/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1187901534#6_2456824189
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Title: Developing Leadership Skills | Boundless Management
Headings: Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Methods of Leadership Development
Formal Training
Developmental Job Assignment
360-Degree Feedback
Coaching
Self-directed Learning
Leadership Development Models
General Electric Model of Leadership Development
Content: A “stretch” or developmental assignment challenges leaders’ new skills and pushes them out of their comfort zone to operate in a more complex environment, one that involves new elements, problems, and dilemmas to resolve. 360-Degree Feedback
The 360-degree feedback approach is a necessary component of leader development that allows leaders to maximize learning opportunities from their current assignment. It systematically provides leaders with perceptions of their performance from a full circle of viewpoints, including subordinates, peers, superiors, and the leader’s own self- assessment. With information coming from so many different sources, the messages may be contradictory and difficult to interpret. However, when several different sources concur on a similar perspective, whether a strength or weakness, the clarity of the message increases. For this mechanism to be effective, the leader must accept feedback and be open and willing to make changes. Coaching is an effective way to facilitate 360-degree feedback and help effect change using open discussion. Coaching
Leadership coaching focuses on enhancing the leader’s effectiveness, along with the effectiveness of the team and organization. It involves an intense, one-on-one relationship aimed at imparting important lessons through assessment, challenge, and support. Although the goal of coaching is sometimes to correct a fault, it is used more and more to help already successful leaders move to the next level of increased responsibilities and new and complex challenges.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/developing-leadership-skills/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1187901534#8_2456828507
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Title: Developing Leadership Skills | Boundless Management
Headings: Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Methods of Leadership Development
Formal Training
Developmental Job Assignment
360-Degree Feedback
Coaching
Self-directed Learning
Leadership Development Models
General Electric Model of Leadership Development
Content: Coaching aims to move leaders toward measurable goals that contribute to individual and organizational growth. Self-directed Learning
Using self-directed learning, individual leaders teach themselves new skills by selecting areas for development, choosing learning avenues, and identifying resources. This type of development is a self-paced process that aims not only to acquire new skills but also to gain a broader perspective on leadership responsibilities and what it takes to succeed as a leader. Leadership Development Models
McCauley, Van Veslor, and Ruderman (2010) described a two-part model for developing leaders. The first part identifies three elements that combine to make developmental experiences stronger: assessment, challenge, and support. Assessment lets leaders know where they stand in areas of strengths, current performance level, and developmental needs. Challenging experiences are ones that stretch leaders’ ability to work outside of their comfort zone, develop new skills and abilities, and provide important opportunities to learn. Support—which comes in the form of bosses, co-workers, friends, family, coaches, and mentors—enables leaders to handle the struggle of developing. The second part of the leader-development model illustrates that the development process involves a variety of developmental experiences and the ability to learn from them.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/developing-leadership-skills/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1187901534#9_2456830566
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Title: Developing Leadership Skills | Boundless Management
Headings: Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Methods of Leadership Development
Formal Training
Developmental Job Assignment
360-Degree Feedback
Coaching
Self-directed Learning
Leadership Development Models
General Electric Model of Leadership Development
Content: assessment, challenge, and support. Assessment lets leaders know where they stand in areas of strengths, current performance level, and developmental needs. Challenging experiences are ones that stretch leaders’ ability to work outside of their comfort zone, develop new skills and abilities, and provide important opportunities to learn. Support—which comes in the form of bosses, co-workers, friends, family, coaches, and mentors—enables leaders to handle the struggle of developing. The second part of the leader-development model illustrates that the development process involves a variety of developmental experiences and the ability to learn from them. These experiences and the ability to learn also have an impact on each other: leaders with a high ability to learn from experience will seek out developmental experiences, and through these experiences leaders increase their ability to learn. The leader-development process is rooted in a particular leadership context, which includes elements such as age, culture, economic conditions, population gender, organizational purpose and mission, and business strategy. This environment molds the leader development process. Along with assessment, challenge and support, leadership contexts are important aspects of the leader-development model.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/developing-leadership-skills/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1187901534#10_2456832540
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Title: Developing Leadership Skills | Boundless Management
Headings: Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Developing Leadership Skills
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Methods of Leadership Development
Formal Training
Developmental Job Assignment
360-Degree Feedback
Coaching
Self-directed Learning
Leadership Development Models
General Electric Model of Leadership Development
Content: These experiences and the ability to learn also have an impact on each other: leaders with a high ability to learn from experience will seek out developmental experiences, and through these experiences leaders increase their ability to learn. The leader-development process is rooted in a particular leadership context, which includes elements such as age, culture, economic conditions, population gender, organizational purpose and mission, and business strategy. This environment molds the leader development process. Along with assessment, challenge and support, leadership contexts are important aspects of the leader-development model. General Electric Model of Leadership Development
Another well-known model of leadership development is used by the General Electric Corporation. Managers with high potential are identified early in their careers. Their development is monitored and planned to include a variety of job placements to develop skills and experience, a rigorous performance-evaluation process, and formal training programs at the corporate leadership center in Crotonville, New York. For top managers, the CEO leads some of the training; the CEO also reviews performance evaluations for high-potential managers during site visits to the various subsidiary divisions.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/developing-leadership-skills/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1187985336#9_2456965092
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Title: Globalization | Boundless Management
Headings: Globalization
Globalization
Defining Globalization
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Benefits of Globalization
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Good in Globalization
Political
Cultural
Ethical
Economic
Complications of Globalization
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Consequences of Globalization
Political
Cultural
Economic
Ethical
Content: The international exchange of both goods and ideas has resulted in an ever-increasing opportunity for people to explore and appreciate the diversity of world culture. While the negative consequences of globalization are undeniable, it’s important to acknowledge the positive consequences of globalization as well. The Good in Globalization
The argument in support of globalization is multifaceted, involving complex political, cultural, economic, and ethical factors. Let’s briefly touch upon each of these categories and explore the ways in which they may be perceived as beneficial. Political
The central pillar in political globalization is the ever-increasing need to cooperate. It is clear that through the proverbial shrinking of the world, countries and cultures are brought together to facilitate international agreement. The creation and existence of the United Nations, for example, has been called one of the classic examples of political globalization. The United Nations Headquarters in New York City
Cultural
Along similar lines, the “shrinking of the world” has allowed individuals across the globe to explore new cultures either via travel or through local exposure to international art, music, religion, theater, TV, movies, and countless other cultural outlets and perspectives. Ethical
While there are ethical concerns associated with globalization, there are ethical benefits as well. International awareness carries with it, for example, the opportunity for nations and organizations to address human rights injustices committed across the globe.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/globalization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1188165976#4_2457214490
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Title: Managing Group Decision Making | Boundless Management
Headings: Managing Group Decision Making
Managing Group Decision Making
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Advantages of Group Decision Making
Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
Diffusion of Responsibility
Lower Efficiency
Groupthink
The Manager’s Role in Group Decisions
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Employee Involvement in Decision Making
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Techniques for Reaching a Group Consensus
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: When a group makes a decision collectively, its judgment can be keener than that of any of its members. Through discussion, questioning, and collaboration, group members can identify more complete and robust solutions and recommendations. The sharing of information among group members is another advantage of the group decision-making process. Group decisions take into account a broader scope of information since each group member may contribute unique information and expertise. Sharing information can increase understanding, clarify issues, and facilitate movement toward a collective decision. Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
Diffusion of Responsibility
One possible disadvantage of group decision making is that it can create a diffusion of responsibility that results in a lack of accountability for outcomes. In a sense, if everyone is responsible for a decision, then no one is. Moreover, group decisions can make it easier for members to deny personal responsibility and blame others for bad decisions. Lower Efficiency
Group decisions can also be less efficient than those made by an individual. Group decisions can take additional time because there is the requirement of participation, discussion, and coordination among group members.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/managing-group-decision-making/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1188165976#5_2457216666
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Title: Managing Group Decision Making | Boundless Management
Headings: Managing Group Decision Making
Managing Group Decision Making
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Advantages of Group Decision Making
Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
Diffusion of Responsibility
Lower Efficiency
Groupthink
The Manager’s Role in Group Decisions
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Employee Involvement in Decision Making
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Techniques for Reaching a Group Consensus
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
Diffusion of Responsibility
One possible disadvantage of group decision making is that it can create a diffusion of responsibility that results in a lack of accountability for outcomes. In a sense, if everyone is responsible for a decision, then no one is. Moreover, group decisions can make it easier for members to deny personal responsibility and blame others for bad decisions. Lower Efficiency
Group decisions can also be less efficient than those made by an individual. Group decisions can take additional time because there is the requirement of participation, discussion, and coordination among group members. Without good facilitation and structure, meetings can get bogged down in trivial details that may matter a lot to one person but not to the others. Groupthink
One of the greatest inhibitors of effective group decision making is groupthink. Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. By isolating themselves from outside influences and actively suppressing dissenting viewpoints in the interest of minimizing conflict, group members reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints. Loyalty to the group requires individuals to avoid raising controversial issues or alternative solutions, and there is a loss of individual creativity, uniqueness, and independent thinking.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/managing-group-decision-making/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1188196118#10_2457294484
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Title: Motivating an Organization | Boundless Management
Headings: Motivating an Organization
Motivating an Organization
The Importance of Motivation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Motivation in the Workplace
Internal and External Motivation
Perspectives on Motivation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Needs-Oriented Theories
Hierarchy of Needs
Need for Achievement Theory
Cognition-Oriented Theories
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Behavior-Oriented Theories
Job-Oriented Theories
Two-Factor Theory
Work Engagement Theory
Content: Motivation in the workplace is primarily concerned with improving employees’ focus, often through pursuing positive incentives and avoiding negative ones. Theories of motivation are of course rooted in psychology. An individual must direct their attention toward a task, generate the necessary effort to achieve that task, and persist in working toward it despite potential distractions. Various theories have attempted to identify the factors that contribute to effective employee motivation, most of which are easily divided into four broad categories: Needs-oriented theories
Cognition-oriented theories
Behavior-oriented theories
Job-oriented theories
Needs-Oriented Theories
At its most basic, motivation can be defined as the fulfillment of various human needs. These needs can encompass a range of human desires, from basic, tangible needs of survival to complex, emotional needs surrounding an individual’s psychological well-being. Hierarchy of Needs
The most well-known example of a needs-oriented theory of motivation is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow postulated that needs should be fulfilled in a particular scaffolded order, with food, water, and shelter in the bottom, most fundamental two tiers and intangible needs such as fulfillment, self-esteem, and a sense of belonging in the upper three tiers. While this framework makes a certain amount of logical sense, critics have noted that there have been minimal data that suggest employees strive to satisfy needs in the workplace in accordance with this hierarchical framework. But the fundamental idea behind Maslow’s model is that individuals have various tangible and intangible desires that can be leveraged in the use of motivational incentives.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/motivating-an-organization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1188196118#11_2457297047
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Title: Motivating an Organization | Boundless Management
Headings: Motivating an Organization
Motivating an Organization
The Importance of Motivation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Motivation in the Workplace
Internal and External Motivation
Perspectives on Motivation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Needs-Oriented Theories
Hierarchy of Needs
Need for Achievement Theory
Cognition-Oriented Theories
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Behavior-Oriented Theories
Job-Oriented Theories
Two-Factor Theory
Work Engagement Theory
Content: These needs can encompass a range of human desires, from basic, tangible needs of survival to complex, emotional needs surrounding an individual’s psychological well-being. Hierarchy of Needs
The most well-known example of a needs-oriented theory of motivation is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow postulated that needs should be fulfilled in a particular scaffolded order, with food, water, and shelter in the bottom, most fundamental two tiers and intangible needs such as fulfillment, self-esteem, and a sense of belonging in the upper three tiers. While this framework makes a certain amount of logical sense, critics have noted that there have been minimal data that suggest employees strive to satisfy needs in the workplace in accordance with this hierarchical framework. But the fundamental idea behind Maslow’s model is that individuals have various tangible and intangible desires that can be leveraged in the use of motivational incentives. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs postulates that need must be fulfilled in a hierarchical order, from basic needs such as food and water to more intangible needs such as self-esteem and a sense of belonging. Need for Achievement Theory
Atkinson and McClelland proposed the Need for Achievement Theory, which highlights three particular needs in the context of the workplace: achievement, authority, and affiliation. Atkinson and McClelland hypothesized that every individual has a need for all three of these intangible segments of fulfillment but that most individuals lean more toward one of the three.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/motivating-an-organization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1188196118#12_2457299472
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Title: Motivating an Organization | Boundless Management
Headings: Motivating an Organization
Motivating an Organization
The Importance of Motivation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Motivation in the Workplace
Internal and External Motivation
Perspectives on Motivation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Needs-Oriented Theories
Hierarchy of Needs
Need for Achievement Theory
Cognition-Oriented Theories
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Behavior-Oriented Theories
Job-Oriented Theories
Two-Factor Theory
Work Engagement Theory
Content: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs postulates that need must be fulfilled in a hierarchical order, from basic needs such as food and water to more intangible needs such as self-esteem and a sense of belonging. Need for Achievement Theory
Atkinson and McClelland proposed the Need for Achievement Theory, which highlights three particular needs in the context of the workplace: achievement, authority, and affiliation. Atkinson and McClelland hypothesized that every individual has a need for all three of these intangible segments of fulfillment but that most individuals lean more toward one of the three. For example, a salesman with a quota to fulfill would be best paired with an achievement-oriented manager, as such a goal-oriented approach toward, for example, a specific number of sales would be highly motivating. Cognition-Oriented Theories
Cognition-oriented theories generally revolve around expectations and deriving equitable compensation for a given effort or outcome. There are two main cognition-oriented theories: equity theory and expectancy theory. Equity Theory
Equity Theory is based on the basic concept of exchange.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-management/chapter/motivating-an-organization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1188885799#7_2458332161
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Title: Influences of Personality on the Consumer Decision Process | Boundless Marketing
Headings: Influences of Personality on the Consumer Decision Process
Influences of Personality on the Consumer Decision Process
Perception
Key Points
Key Terms
Perception
Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Widely Recognized Motivational Theories
Learning
Key Points
Key Terms
David Kolb’s model
Attitude
Key Points
Key Terms
Lifestyle
Key Points
Key Terms
Shaping Public Policy and Educating Consumers
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: External influences include culture, sub-culture, locality, royalty, ethnicity, family, social class, past experience reference groups, lifestyle, and market mix factors. An individual’s motivation, perception, attitude, and beliefs are considered psychological factors. Key Terms
External, or extrinsic Motivation: The performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, which then contradicts intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic Motivation: The incentive to undertake an activity based on the expected enjoyment of the activity itself, rather than external benefits that might result. motivation: The psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviors. Consumer behavior is strongly influenced by many internal and external factors, including: Internal conditions:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-marketing/chapter/influences-of-personality-on-the-consumer-decision-process/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1190567620#6_2460274323
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Title: Commonly Used Antimicrobial Drugs | Boundless Microbiology
Headings: Commonly Used Antimicrobial Drugs
Commonly Used Antimicrobial Drugs
Synthetic Antimicrobial Drugs
Key Points
Key Terms
Naturally Occurring Antimicrobial Drugs: Antibiotics
Key Points
Key Terms
Beta-Lactam Antibiotics: Penicillins and Cephalosporins
Key Points
Key Terms
Antibiotics from Prokaryotes
Key Points
Key Terms
Antimycobacterial Antibiotics
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: Sulfonamide or sulphonamide is the basis of several groups of drugs. The original antibacterial sulfonamides (sometimes called sulfa drugs or sulpha drugs) are synthetic antimicrobial agents that contain the sulfonamide group. Some sulfonamides are also devoid of antibacterial activity, e.g., the anticonvulsant sultiame. The sulfonylureas and thiazide diuretics are newer drug groups based on the antibacterial sulfonamides. Sulfa allergies are common, and medications containing sulfonamides are prescribed carefully. It is important to make a distinction between sulfa drugs and other sulfur-containing drugs and additives, such as sulfates and sulfites, which are chemically unrelated to the sulfonamide group and do not cause the same hypersensitivity reactions seen in the sulfonamides. In bacteria, antibacterial sulfonamides act as competitive inhibitors of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase (DHPS), an enzyme involved in folate synthesis. As such, the microorganism will be “starved” of folate and die. The sulfonamide chemical moiety is also present in other medications that are not antimicrobials, including thiazide diuretics (including hydrochlorothiazide, metolazone, and indapamide, among others), loop diuretics (including furosemide, bumetanide, and torsemide), sulfonylureas (including glipizide, glyburide, among others), and some COX-2 inhibitors (e.g., celecoxib), and acetazolamide. Naturally Occurring Antimicrobial Drugs:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-microbiology/chapter/commonly-used-antimicrobial-drugs/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1191301187#15_2461006664
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Title: Helminthic Diseases of the Digestive System | Boundless Microbiology
Headings: Helminthic Diseases of the Digestive System
Helminthic Diseases of the Digestive System
Tapeworms
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Taenia solium
Taenia saginata
Diphyllobothrium spp.
Hydatid Disease
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Nematodes
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Ascariasis
Enterobius
Content: However, if symptoms develop, it may present in the form of pain or discomfort due to the growing cysts in the upper abdominal regions. Additionally, rupture of fluid within the cysts can result in various medical issues including allergic reactions or death. Nematodes
Nematodes, or roundworms, are capable of exhibiting parasitic behavior. Learning Objectives
Compare and contrast mechanisms of infection for the parasitic nematodes: Ascaris lumbricoides and Enterobius
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Parasitic nematodes often contain specific body structures which promote parasitic behaviors such as ridges, rings or bristles that allow for attachment. Two major types of roundworms that commonly infect humans include Ascaris and Enterobious. Ascariasis is a disease that is caused by the parasitic roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides and is transmitted by ingesting food contaminated with Ascaris eggs. Enterobius, referred to as pinworm, causes enterobiasis and is commonly found in the intestine of children. The entire life cycle of the pinworm occurs within the human gastrointestinal tract. Key Terms
visceral:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-microbiology/chapter/helminthic-diseases-of-the-digestive-system/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1191301187#16_2461008493
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Title: Helminthic Diseases of the Digestive System | Boundless Microbiology
Headings: Helminthic Diseases of the Digestive System
Helminthic Diseases of the Digestive System
Tapeworms
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Taenia solium
Taenia saginata
Diphyllobothrium spp.
Hydatid Disease
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Nematodes
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Ascariasis
Enterobius
Content: Two major types of roundworms that commonly infect humans include Ascaris and Enterobious. Ascariasis is a disease that is caused by the parasitic roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides and is transmitted by ingesting food contaminated with Ascaris eggs. Enterobius, referred to as pinworm, causes enterobiasis and is commonly found in the intestine of children. The entire life cycle of the pinworm occurs within the human gastrointestinal tract. Key Terms
visceral: of or relating to the viscera – the internal organs of the body
nematode: A small invertebrate animal of the phylum Nematoda. Nematodes, or roundworms, are the most diverse phylum of pseudocoelomates and one of the most diverse animal phyla. Nematodes are characterized by the presence of a tubular digestive system with openings at both ends. They can be found in various ecosystems ranging from the polar regions to the tropics, fresh to marine water and various terrestrial environments ranging from mountains, deserts and oceanic floors.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-microbiology/chapter/helminthic-diseases-of-the-digestive-system/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1194602750#0_2465773836
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Title: Education Policy | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Education Policy
Education Policy
Education Policy
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Education Policy
The Department of Education
Current Challenges for Education
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Contemporary Education Issues
Curriculum issues
Attainment
Racial Achievement Gap
Evolution in Kansas
Sex education
Textbook review and adoption
Affirmative action
Control
The No Child Left Behind Act
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
No Child Left Behind Act
Provisions of the Act
Increased accountability
Criticisms of standardized testing under NCLB
“Gaming” the system
Content: Education Policy | Boundless Political Science
Education Policy
Education Policy
Education policy refers to the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation of education systems. Learning Objectives
Discuss the institutions and issues relevant to current education policy in the United States and the sources of education policy evaluation and analysis
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Examples of areas subject to debate in education policy include school size, class size, school choice, school privatization, teaching methods, curricular content, and graduation requirements. Unlike the systems of most other countries, education in the United States is highly decentralized, and the federal government and Department of Education are not heavily involved in determining curricula or educational standards (with the recent exception of the No Child Left Behind Act). Key Terms
Department of Education: The Department of Education is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government. The primary functions of the Department of Education are to “establish policy for, administer and coordinate -most federal assistance to education, collect data on US schools, and to enforce federal educational laws regarding privacy and civil rights. “ Education policy: the principles and government policy-making in the educational sphere, as well as the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation of education systems
Education policy: Education policy refers to the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation of education systems. Education Policy
Education policy refers to the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation of education systems.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/education-policy/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1194745936#2_2465932762
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Title: Fiscal Federalism | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Fiscal Federalism
Fiscal Federalism
The New Deal
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The New Deal
The First and Second New Deals
Political Realignment
Federal Grants and National Efforts to Influence the States
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Federal Grants
Types of Grants
Criticisms
Federal Mandates
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: The New Deal
The New Deal was a series of economic programs enacted in the U.S. between 1933 and 1936 that involved presidential executive orders passed by Congress during the first term of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The programs were a response to the Great Depression. They focused on the “3 Rs”: relief, recovery, and reform. Relief was offered to the unemployed and poor; recovery was intended to bring the economy to normal levels; and system reform was hoped would prevent a repeat depression. Before the New Deal, deposits at banks were not insured against loss. When thousands of banks faced bankruptcy, many people lost all their savings. There was no national safety net, no public unemployment insurance, and no Social Security.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/fiscal-federalism/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1195175224#0_2466322143
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Title: Media Bias | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Media Bias
Media Bias
Media Bias
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
History of Bias in Mass Media
Types of Bias
Efforts to Correct Bias
Content: Media Bias | Boundless Political Science
Media Bias
Media Bias
Media bias is the bias of journalists and news producers in the selection of events and stories that are reported, and how they are covered. Learning Objectives
Summarize the different types of bias affecting journalism and various attempts to correct them
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Political bias has been a feature of the mass media since its birth following the invention of the printing press. Historians have found that publishers often served the interests of powerful social groups. Like newspapers, the broadcast media—radio and television—have been used as a mechanism for propaganda from their earliest days, a tendency made more pronounced by the initial ownership of the broadcast spectrum by national governments. The most commonly discussed forms of bias occur when the media support or attack a particular political party, candidate, or ideology; however, other common forms of bias exist, including advertising bias, corporate bias, mainstream bias, sensationalism, and concision bias. A technique used to avoid bias is the round table, an adversarial format in which representatives of opposing views comment on an issue. This approach theoretically allows diverse views to appear in the media. Another technique used to avoid bias is disclosure of affiliations that may be considered a possible conflict of interest. This is especially apparent when a news organization is reporting a story with some relevancy to the news organization itself or to its ownership individuals or conglomerate.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/media-bias/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1195175224#4_2466328308
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Title: Media Bias | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Media Bias
Media Bias
Media Bias
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
History of Bias in Mass Media
Types of Bias
Efforts to Correct Bias
Content: Introduction
Media bias is the bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media, concerning the selection of events and stories that are reported, and how they are covered. The term “media bias” implies a pervasive or widespread bias contravening the standards of journalism, rather than the perspective of an individual journalist or article. The direction and degree of media bias in various countries is widely disputed. Practical limitations to media neutrality include the inability of journalists to report all available stories and facts, and the requirement that selected facts be linked into a coherent narrative. Because it is impossible to report everything, selectivity is inevitable. Government influence, including overt and covert censorship, biases the media in some countries, for example North Korea and Burma. Market forces that result in a biased presentation include the ownership of the news source, concentration of media ownership, the selection of staff, the preferences of an intended audience, and pressure from advertisers. History of Bias in Mass Media
Political bias has been a feature of the mass media since its birth following the invention of the printing press. The expense of early printing equipment restricted media production to a limited number of people. Historians have found that publishers often served the interests of powerful social groups.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/media-bias/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1195175224#9_2466337063
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Title: Media Bias | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Media Bias
Media Bias
Media Bias
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
History of Bias in Mass Media
Types of Bias
Efforts to Correct Bias
Content: mainstream bias refers to a tendency to report what everyone else is reporting, and to avoid stories that will offend anyone. Sensationalism is a type of editorial bias in mass media in which events and topics in news stories and pieces are over-hyped to increase viewership or readership numbers. Sensationalism may include reporting about generally insignificant matters and events that don’t influence overall society, as well as biased presentations of newsworthy topics in a sensationalist, trivial, or tabloid manner. Examples include press coverage about the Bill Clinton/Monica Lewinsky scandal, Casey Anthony Trial, Tonya Harding’s role in the attack of Nancy Kerrigan, the Elian Gonzalez affair, and the O.J. Simpson murder case. Finally, concision bias refers to a tendency to report views that can be summarized succinctly, crowding out more unconventional views that take time to explain. Efforts to Correct Bias
A technique used to avoid bias is the round table, an adversarial format in which representatives of opposing views comment on an issue. This approach theoretically allows diverse views to appear in the media. However, the person organizing the report still has the responsibility to choose people who really represent the breadth of opinion, to ask them non-prejudicial questions, and to edit or arbitrate their comments fairly. When done carelessly, a point/counterpoint can be just as unfair as a simple biased report, by suggesting that the “losing” side lost on its merits. Another technique used to avoid bias is the disclosure of affiliations that may be considered a possible conflict of interest.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/media-bias/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1195175224#10_2466339165
|
Title: Media Bias | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Media Bias
Media Bias
Media Bias
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
History of Bias in Mass Media
Types of Bias
Efforts to Correct Bias
Content: Efforts to Correct Bias
A technique used to avoid bias is the round table, an adversarial format in which representatives of opposing views comment on an issue. This approach theoretically allows diverse views to appear in the media. However, the person organizing the report still has the responsibility to choose people who really represent the breadth of opinion, to ask them non-prejudicial questions, and to edit or arbitrate their comments fairly. When done carelessly, a point/counterpoint can be just as unfair as a simple biased report, by suggesting that the “losing” side lost on its merits. Another technique used to avoid bias is the disclosure of affiliations that may be considered a possible conflict of interest. This is especially apparent when a news organization is reporting a story with some relevancy to the news organization itself or to its ownership individuals or conglomerate. Often this disclosure is mandated by the laws or regulations pertaining to stocks and securities. Commentators on news stories involving stocks are often required to disclose any ownership interest in those corporations or in its competitors. CC licensed content, Shared previously
Curation and Revision. Provided by:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/media-bias/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1195926418#13_2467068910
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Title: The Organization of Bureaucracy | Boundless Political Science
Headings: The Organization of Bureaucracy
The Organization of Bureaucracy
Cabinet Departments
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Structure of the Cabinet Departments
History of the Cabinet
The Line of Succession
Independent Agencies
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Regulatory Commissions
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: The Secretary of Veterans Affairs coordinates programs and benefits for veterans
Homeland Security: The Secretary of Homeland Security is responsible for domestic security measures
In addition to the secretaries of the established executive departments, there are some cabinet-level officers who are the heads of independent executive agencies. These agencies do not answer to the president directly and, therefore, there are no executive departments strictly speaking. Still, their heads are considered high ranking advisors to the president. These cabinet-level officers include the vice president, the chief of staff, the director of the Office of Management and Budget, the administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, the trade representative, the ambassador to the United Nations, the chairman of the Council of Economic Advisors, and the administrator of the Small Business Administration. Department of Justice Seal: The attorney general is the head of the Department of Justice, and is a prominent cabinet member. Independent Agencies
Independent executive agencies operate as regulatory and service agencies to oversee federal government functions. Learning Objectives
Differentiate between executive agencies and executive departments
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Executive agencies operate as services and/or regulatory agencies and are distinct because they exist independently from other executive departments. In executive agencies, the president can terminate people’s positions only if there is proof of removal according to statutory provisions.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/the-organization-of-bureaucracy/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196390170#2_2467443138
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Title: Voter Turnout | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Voter Turnout
Voter Turnout
Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Voter Turnout
Reasons for Voting
The Significance of Voter Turnout
Factors Affecting Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Reasons for Decline
Low Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Measuring Turnout
Trends of Decreasing Turnout
International Differences.
Attempts to Improve Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Compulsory Voting
Salience
Ease of Voting
The Effect of Low Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Implications of High and Low Voter Turnout
Voter Turnout across the World
Content: electoral college: A body of electors empowered to elect someone to a particular office
Voter Turnout
Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election. After increasing for many decades, there has been a trend of decreasing voter turnout in most established democracies since the 1960s. Certain factors are leading to the decrease in the number of voters such as disenchantment, indifference, or contentment. Another contributor to lower overall turnout, is the larger percentage of the population who are simply not eligible to vote; non-citizens, incarcerated and non-self-registered individuals. Despite significant study of the issue, scholars are divided on reasons for the decline. Its cause has been attributed to a wide array of economic, demographic, cultural, technological, and institutional factors. There have been many efforts to increase turnout and encourage voting. Reasons for Voting
In any large election the chance of any one vote determining the outcome is low.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/voter-turnout/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196390170#4_2467446986
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Title: Voter Turnout | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Voter Turnout
Voter Turnout
Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Voter Turnout
Reasons for Voting
The Significance of Voter Turnout
Factors Affecting Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Reasons for Decline
Low Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Measuring Turnout
Trends of Decreasing Turnout
International Differences.
Attempts to Improve Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Compulsory Voting
Salience
Ease of Voting
The Effect of Low Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Implications of High and Low Voter Turnout
Voter Turnout across the World
Content: Some studies show that a single vote in a voting scheme such as the Electoral College in the United States has an even lower chance of determining the outcome. The Electoral College is an example of an indirect election, consisting of 538 electors who officially elect the President and Vice President of the United States. The number of electors is equal to the total voting membership of the United States Congress, 435 Representatives and 100 Senators, plus three electors from the District of Columbia. Other studies claim that the Electoral College actually increases voting power. Electoral College: The Electoral College map shows the results of the 2008 U.S. presidential election. Senator Barack Obama (D-IL) won the popular vote in 28 states and the District of Columbia (denoted in blue) to capture 365 electoral votes. Senator John McCain (R-AZ) won the popular vote in 22 states (denoted in red) to capture 173 electoral votes. Nebraska split its electoral vote when Senator Obama won the electoral vote from Nebraska’s 2nd congressional district; the state’s other four electoral votes went to Senator McCain.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/voter-turnout/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196390170#5_2467449006
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Title: Voter Turnout | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Voter Turnout
Voter Turnout
Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Voter Turnout
Reasons for Voting
The Significance of Voter Turnout
Factors Affecting Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Reasons for Decline
Low Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Measuring Turnout
Trends of Decreasing Turnout
International Differences.
Attempts to Improve Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Compulsory Voting
Salience
Ease of Voting
The Effect of Low Voter Turnout
Key Points
Key Terms
Implications of High and Low Voter Turnout
Voter Turnout across the World
Content: The Electoral College map shows the results of the 2008 U.S. presidential election. Senator Barack Obama (D-IL) won the popular vote in 28 states and the District of Columbia (denoted in blue) to capture 365 electoral votes. Senator John McCain (R-AZ) won the popular vote in 22 states (denoted in red) to capture 173 electoral votes. Nebraska split its electoral vote when Senator Obama won the electoral vote from Nebraska’s 2nd congressional district; the state’s other four electoral votes went to Senator McCain. Voter Turnout in the United States: Graph of Voter turnout in the United States presidential elections from 1824 to 2008. The Significance of Voter Turnout
High voter turnout is desirable, though the issue is still debated among political scientists and economists specializing in public choice. A high turnout is generally seen as evidence of the legitimacy of the current system. Dictators have often fabricated high turnouts in showcase elections for this purpose.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/voter-turnout/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196426133#6_2467484930
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Title: Voting as Political Participation | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Voting as Political Participation
Voting as Political Participation
Voting as Political Participation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Voting
Voter Registration: The First Step to Participation
Voter Turnout
Other Forms of Political Participation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Contacting Public Officials
Donating Money, Time, and Resources to a Campaign
Running for Office
Participating by Protesting
Being a Part of Civil Society
Participating in Support Activities
Symbolic Participation and Symbolic Non-Participation
Content: Beginning in the 1980s, some states, including Maine, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, made it possible for people to register on Election Day. Turnout in states that have Election Day registration averages ten points higher than in the rest of the country. The United States is one of the few democracies that requires citizens to register themselves rather than having the government take responsibility for automatically registering them. Significant steps have been taken to make registration easier, and to ensure more people can participate in elections. In 1993, Congress passed the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, also known as the “motor voter” law, allowing citizens to register at motor vehicle and social service offices. “ Motor voter’s” success in increasing the ranks of registered voters differs by state depending on how well the program is publicized and executed. Voter registration also has increased as a result of online registration. Rock the Vote (RTV), a nonpartisan youth mobilization organization, established the first online voter registration initiative in 1992 with official backing from the Congressional Internet Caucus. RTV registered over 2 million new voters in 1992, 80% of whom cast a ballot, and signed up over 2.5 million voters in 2008. Voter Turnout
Over 90 percent of Americans agree with the principle that citizens have a duty to vote.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/voting-as-political-participation/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196426133#10_2467493146
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Title: Voting as Political Participation | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Voting as Political Participation
Voting as Political Participation
Voting as Political Participation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Voting
Voter Registration: The First Step to Participation
Voter Turnout
Other Forms of Political Participation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Contacting Public Officials
Donating Money, Time, and Resources to a Campaign
Running for Office
Participating by Protesting
Being a Part of Civil Society
Participating in Support Activities
Symbolic Participation and Symbolic Non-Participation
Content: Voter turnout in presidential elections is generally higher than for lower-level contests; usually more than half the eligible voters cast a ballot. Voter Turnout by Sex and Age (2008): This is a chart illustrating voter turnout by sex and age for the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election using data from the U.S. Census Bureau. Notice the higher turnout rates for women, and for older people. Voter turnout in the current era has not fluctuated much since voting participation during universal suffrage in 1920. Forty-nine percent of the voting-age public cast a ballot in the 1924 presidential contest, the same percentage as in 1996. Turnout in presidential elections in the 1960s was over 60 percent. More voters were mobilized during this period of political upheaval and people focused on issues of race relations, social welfare, and the Vietnam War. Turnout was lower in the 1980s and 1990s, when the political climate was less tumultuous.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/voting-as-political-participation/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196426133#11_2467494996
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Title: Voting as Political Participation | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Voting as Political Participation
Voting as Political Participation
Voting as Political Participation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Voting
Voter Registration: The First Step to Participation
Voter Turnout
Other Forms of Political Participation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Contacting Public Officials
Donating Money, Time, and Resources to a Campaign
Running for Office
Participating by Protesting
Being a Part of Civil Society
Participating in Support Activities
Symbolic Participation and Symbolic Non-Participation
Content: Voter turnout in the current era has not fluctuated much since voting participation during universal suffrage in 1920. Forty-nine percent of the voting-age public cast a ballot in the 1924 presidential contest, the same percentage as in 1996. Turnout in presidential elections in the 1960s was over 60 percent. More voters were mobilized during this period of political upheaval and people focused on issues of race relations, social welfare, and the Vietnam War. Turnout was lower in the 1980s and 1990s, when the political climate was less tumultuous. There has been a steady increase in turnout since the 2000 presidential election, in which 51 percent of the voting-age public cast a ballot. Turnout in the 2008 election was greater than usual, at 57 percent. 2008 Election: Participation in the 2008 presidential election was greater than usual, as people were motivated by the open race and the candidate choices. Other Forms of Political Participation
Besides voting, there are many other ways to take part in politics, each involving varying amounts of skill, time, and resources.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/voting-as-political-participation/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196426133#12_2467496993
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Title: Voting as Political Participation | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Voting as Political Participation
Voting as Political Participation
Voting as Political Participation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Voting
Voter Registration: The First Step to Participation
Voter Turnout
Other Forms of Political Participation
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Contacting Public Officials
Donating Money, Time, and Resources to a Campaign
Running for Office
Participating by Protesting
Being a Part of Civil Society
Participating in Support Activities
Symbolic Participation and Symbolic Non-Participation
Content: There has been a steady increase in turnout since the 2000 presidential election, in which 51 percent of the voting-age public cast a ballot. Turnout in the 2008 election was greater than usual, at 57 percent. 2008 Election: Participation in the 2008 presidential election was greater than usual, as people were motivated by the open race and the candidate choices. Other Forms of Political Participation
Besides voting, there are many other ways to take part in politics, each involving varying amounts of skill, time, and resources. Learning Objectives
Describe several different ways in which citizens can participate in the political process
Key Takeaways
Key Points
New media and technology, such as social networking sites, blogs, online campaign donations, have provided new avenues for political organization and participation. Citizens can participate in civil society, which is an important part of political participation, through activities like volunteering, attending events associated with causes (like a sporting event or a concert), or joining an interest group or civic organization. Citizens can also protest, riot, or refuse to vote to demonstrate dissatisfaction with certain elements of their political system. Citizens also participate in politics by being directly involved in campaigns. Citizens can run for office themselves, donate money or time to candidates, or discuss political issues and campaigns with friends and family.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/voting-as-political-participation/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196502707#13_2467603586
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Title: Why People Vote | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Why People Vote
Why People Vote
Socioeconomic Factors
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Income and Voting
Education and Voting
Occupation and Voting
Additional Factors: Gender, Age, Religion, Race, and Ethnicity
Key Points
Key Terms
Age and Political Participation
Gender and Political Participation
Race, Ethnicity, and Voting: African Americans
Race, Ethnicity and Voting: Latinos
Race, Ethnicity, and Voting: Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders
Religious Convictions and Voting
Party Identification
Key Points
Key Terms
Party Self-Identification
Party Identity: A Fixed Social Identity?
Party Identity: A Changing Choice?
Increase in Independents
Groups and Party Identification
Strong Party Identification and Voting Patterns
Political Ideology
Key Points
Key Terms
Voting Based on Ideology
Conservatives and Liberals
Moderates
Libertarians
Typological Groups
The Candidates
Key Points
Key Terms
Partisan Dealignment
Candidates’ Images and Voting
Policy Preferences
Key Points
Key Terms
Issue Voting
Complications with Issue Voting
Licenses and Attributions
Content: Historically, young people have been less likely to vote as they often lack the money and time to participate. However, the youth vote has been on the rise: turnout among 18 to 24-year-olds was at 36 percent in 2000, but this rose to 47 percent in 2004 and 51 percent in 2008. This rise in youth vote is partly a result of voter registration and mobilization efforts by groups like Rock the Vote. An important factor in the increase of younger voters in 2008 was the greater appeal of a younger, non-white candidate in Barack Obama. According to the Pew Research Center, 66% of voters under 30 chose Obama in 2008. New technology, especially the internet, is also making it easier for candidates to reach the youth. Websites such as Facebook and YouTube not only allow students acquire information about the polls, but also allow them to share their excitement over the polls and candidates. Gender and Political Participation
Political scientists and journalists often talk about the gender gap in participation, which assumes women lag behind men in their rates of political engagement. However, the gender gap is closing for some forms of participation, such as voting.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/why-people-vote/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196502707#14_2467606155
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Title: Why People Vote | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Why People Vote
Why People Vote
Socioeconomic Factors
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Income and Voting
Education and Voting
Occupation and Voting
Additional Factors: Gender, Age, Religion, Race, and Ethnicity
Key Points
Key Terms
Age and Political Participation
Gender and Political Participation
Race, Ethnicity, and Voting: African Americans
Race, Ethnicity and Voting: Latinos
Race, Ethnicity, and Voting: Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders
Religious Convictions and Voting
Party Identification
Key Points
Key Terms
Party Self-Identification
Party Identity: A Fixed Social Identity?
Party Identity: A Changing Choice?
Increase in Independents
Groups and Party Identification
Strong Party Identification and Voting Patterns
Political Ideology
Key Points
Key Terms
Voting Based on Ideology
Conservatives and Liberals
Moderates
Libertarians
Typological Groups
The Candidates
Key Points
Key Terms
Partisan Dealignment
Candidates’ Images and Voting
Policy Preferences
Key Points
Key Terms
Issue Voting
Complications with Issue Voting
Licenses and Attributions
Content: According to the Pew Research Center, 66% of voters under 30 chose Obama in 2008. New technology, especially the internet, is also making it easier for candidates to reach the youth. Websites such as Facebook and YouTube not only allow students acquire information about the polls, but also allow them to share their excitement over the polls and candidates. Gender and Political Participation
Political scientists and journalists often talk about the gender gap in participation, which assumes women lag behind men in their rates of political engagement. However, the gender gap is closing for some forms of participation, such as voting. Since 1986, women have exceeded the turnout rate for men in presidential elections; 66 percent of women cast a ballot in 2008 compared with 62 percent of men. This may be due to the political prominence of issues of importance to women, such as abortion, education, and child welfare. Race, Ethnicity, and Voting: African Americans
Participation and voting differs among members of racial and ethnic groups.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/why-people-vote/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196502707#15_2467608600
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Title: Why People Vote | Boundless Political Science
Headings: Why People Vote
Why People Vote
Socioeconomic Factors
Key Points
Key Terms
Introduction
Income and Voting
Education and Voting
Occupation and Voting
Additional Factors: Gender, Age, Religion, Race, and Ethnicity
Key Points
Key Terms
Age and Political Participation
Gender and Political Participation
Race, Ethnicity, and Voting: African Americans
Race, Ethnicity and Voting: Latinos
Race, Ethnicity, and Voting: Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders
Religious Convictions and Voting
Party Identification
Key Points
Key Terms
Party Self-Identification
Party Identity: A Fixed Social Identity?
Party Identity: A Changing Choice?
Increase in Independents
Groups and Party Identification
Strong Party Identification and Voting Patterns
Political Ideology
Key Points
Key Terms
Voting Based on Ideology
Conservatives and Liberals
Moderates
Libertarians
Typological Groups
The Candidates
Key Points
Key Terms
Partisan Dealignment
Candidates’ Images and Voting
Policy Preferences
Key Points
Key Terms
Issue Voting
Complications with Issue Voting
Licenses and Attributions
Content: Since 1986, women have exceeded the turnout rate for men in presidential elections; 66 percent of women cast a ballot in 2008 compared with 62 percent of men. This may be due to the political prominence of issues of importance to women, such as abortion, education, and child welfare. Race, Ethnicity, and Voting: African Americans
Participation and voting differs among members of racial and ethnic groups. Discriminatory practices kept the turnout rate of African-Americans low until after the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Poll taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation kept black voters from the polls. Eventually, civil rights protests and litigation eliminated many barriers to voting. Today, black citizens vote at least as often as white citizens who share the same socioeconomic status. Collectively, African Americans are more involved in the American political process than other minority groups in the United States, indicated by the highest level of voter registration and participation in elections among these groups in 2004.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-politicalscience/chapter/why-people-vote/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196795923#3_2467997491
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Title: Classical Conditioning | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning: Pavlov
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Famous Study
Neurological Response to Conditioning
Behaviorism and Other Research
Applications of Classical Conditioning to Human Behavior
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Watson’s “Little Albert” Experiment
Classical Conditioning in Humans
Behavioral Therapies
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
Content: Through his research, he established the theory of classical conditioning. Ivan Pavlov: Pavlov is known for his studies in classical conditioning, which have been influential in understanding learning. Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus (CS) becomes associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus (US) in order to produce a behavioral response known as a conditioned response (CR). The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus is usually a biologically significant stimulus such as food or pain that elicits an unconditioned response (UR) from the start. The conditioned stimulus is usually neutral and produces no particular response at first, but after conditioning it elicits the conditioned response. Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus. When presented with the conditioned stimulus alone, the individual would show a weaker and weaker response, and finally no response. In classical-conditioning terms, there is a gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned response.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/classical-conditioning/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196976337#0_2468273712
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Title: Gender | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Gender
Gender
Gender and Sociology
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Roles
Gender Socialization
Sexism and Gender-Role Enforcement
Gender as a Spectrum and Transgender Identities
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Gender Spectrum and Gender Continuum
Transgender Identities
Development of Gender Identity
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Identity
Gender Identity Development
Factors that Influence Gender Identity
Gender-Schema Theory
Queer Theory
Content: Gender | Boundless Psychology
Gender
Gender and Sociology
From birth, children are assigned a gender and are socialized to conform to certain gender roles based on their biological sex. Learning Objectives
Explain how gender roles shape individual behavior and how society punishes those who don’t conform
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Gender roles are based on norms, or standards, created by society. In the U.S., masculine roles are usually associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles are associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination. Gender socialization begins at birth and occurs through four major agents of socialization: family, education, peer groups, and mass media. Repeated socialization over time leads men and women into a false sense that they are acting naturally, rather than following a socially constructed role. The attitudes and expectations surrounding gender roles are typically based not on any inherent or natural gender differences, but on stereotypes about the attitudes, traits, or behavior patterns of women or men. Gender stereotypes form the basis of sexism, or the prejudiced beliefs that value males over females. Transgender, genderqueer, and other nonconforming-gender people face discrimination, oppression, and violence for not adhering to society’s traditional gender roles. Key Terms
gender roles:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/gender/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196976337#3_2468279225
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Title: Gender | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Gender
Gender
Gender and Sociology
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Roles
Gender Socialization
Sexism and Gender-Role Enforcement
Gender as a Spectrum and Transgender Identities
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Gender Spectrum and Gender Continuum
Transgender Identities
Development of Gender Identity
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Identity
Gender Identity Development
Factors that Influence Gender Identity
Gender-Schema Theory
Queer Theory
Content: socialization: The process of learning one’s culture and how to live within it; the way people adopt ideas about social roles from other members of their society. ” Sex ” refers to physical or physiological differences between males, females, and intersex persons, including both their primary and secondary sex characteristics. “ Gender,” on the other hand, refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with a given sex. When babies are born, they are assigned a gender based on their biological sex—male babies are assigned as boys, female babies are assigned as girls, and intersex babies are usually relegated into one category or another. Scholars generally regard gender as a social construct, meaning that it does not exist naturally but is instead a concept that is created by cultural and societal norms. From birth, children are socialized to conform to certain gender roles based on their biological sex and the gender to which they are assigned. Gender Roles
As we grow, we learn how to behave from those around us. In this socialization process, children are introduced to certain roles that are typically linked to their biological sex.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/gender/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196976337#4_2468281219
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Title: Gender | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Gender
Gender
Gender and Sociology
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Roles
Gender Socialization
Sexism and Gender-Role Enforcement
Gender as a Spectrum and Transgender Identities
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Gender Spectrum and Gender Continuum
Transgender Identities
Development of Gender Identity
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Identity
Gender Identity Development
Factors that Influence Gender Identity
Gender-Schema Theory
Queer Theory
Content: When babies are born, they are assigned a gender based on their biological sex—male babies are assigned as boys, female babies are assigned as girls, and intersex babies are usually relegated into one category or another. Scholars generally regard gender as a social construct, meaning that it does not exist naturally but is instead a concept that is created by cultural and societal norms. From birth, children are socialized to conform to certain gender roles based on their biological sex and the gender to which they are assigned. Gender Roles
As we grow, we learn how to behave from those around us. In this socialization process, children are introduced to certain roles that are typically linked to their biological sex. The term “gender role” refers to society’s concept of how men and women are expected to act and behave. Gender roles are based on norms, or standards, created by society. In American culture, masculine roles have traditionally been associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles have traditionally been associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination. Gender roles: The term “gender role” refers to society’s concept of how men and women are expected to act.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/gender/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1196976337#5_2468283282
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Title: Gender | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Gender
Gender
Gender and Sociology
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Roles
Gender Socialization
Sexism and Gender-Role Enforcement
Gender as a Spectrum and Transgender Identities
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Gender Spectrum and Gender Continuum
Transgender Identities
Development of Gender Identity
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Identity
Gender Identity Development
Factors that Influence Gender Identity
Gender-Schema Theory
Queer Theory
Content: The term “gender role” refers to society’s concept of how men and women are expected to act and behave. Gender roles are based on norms, or standards, created by society. In American culture, masculine roles have traditionally been associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles have traditionally been associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination. Gender roles: The term “gender role” refers to society’s concept of how men and women are expected to act. Gender Socialization
The socialization process in which children learn these gender roles begins at birth. Today, our society is quick to outfit male infants in blue and girls in pink, even applying these color-coded gender labels while a baby is in the womb. It is interesting to note that these color associations with gender have not always been what they are today. Up until the beginning of the 20th century, pink was actually more associated with boys, while blue was more associated with girls—illustrating how socially constructed these associations really are. Gender socialization occurs through four major agents:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/gender/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1197223570#9_2468617257
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Title: Introduction to Gender and Sexuality | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Introduction to Gender and Sexuality
Introduction to Gender and Sexuality
Defining Sex, Gender, and Sexuality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Sex
Gender
Cultural Variations of Gender
Sexuality
The Standard Model of the Terms
Content: Gender identity is a person’s sense of self as a member of a particular gender. Individuals who identify with a role that corresponds to the sex assigned to them at birth (for example, they were born with male sex characteristics, were assigned as a boy, and identify today as a boy or man) are cisgender. Those who identify with a role that is different from their biological sex (for example, they were born with male sex characteristics, were assigned as a boy, but identify today as a girl, woman, or some other gender altogether) are often referred to as transgender. The term “transgender” encompasses a wide range of possible identities, including agender, genderfluid, genderqueer, two-spirit (for many indigenous people), androgynous, and many others. The continuum of sex and gender: Those who identify with a gender that is different from their biological sex are called transgender. Cultural Variations of Gender
Since the term “sex” refers to biological or physical distinctions, characteristics of sex will not vary significantly between different human societies. For example, persons of the female sex, in general, regardless of culture, will eventually menstruate and develop breasts that can lactate. Characteristics of gender, on the other hand, may vary greatly between different societies. For example, in American culture, it is considered feminine (or a trait of the female gender) to wear a dress or skirt.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-gender-and-sexuality/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1197223570#10_2468619282
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Title: Introduction to Gender and Sexuality | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Introduction to Gender and Sexuality
Introduction to Gender and Sexuality
Defining Sex, Gender, and Sexuality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Sex
Gender
Cultural Variations of Gender
Sexuality
The Standard Model of the Terms
Content: Those who identify with a gender that is different from their biological sex are called transgender. Cultural Variations of Gender
Since the term “sex” refers to biological or physical distinctions, characteristics of sex will not vary significantly between different human societies. For example, persons of the female sex, in general, regardless of culture, will eventually menstruate and develop breasts that can lactate. Characteristics of gender, on the other hand, may vary greatly between different societies. For example, in American culture, it is considered feminine (or a trait of the female gender) to wear a dress or skirt. However, in many Middle Eastern, Asian, and African cultures, dresses or skirts (often referred to as sarongs, robes, or gowns) can be considered masculine. Similarly, the kilt worn by a Scottish male does not make him appear feminine in his culture. Sexuality
“Human sexuality” refers to people’s sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well as their capacity to have erotic experiences and responses. People’s sexual orientation is their emotional and sexual attraction to particular sexes or genders, which often shapes their sexuality. Sexuality may be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways, including thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles, and relationships.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-gender-and-sexuality/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1197378972#0_2468886318
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Title: Introduction to Personality | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Introduction to Personality
Introduction to Personality
Defining Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Philosophical Roots
Approaches to Studying Personality
Genetics, the Brain, and Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Biological Perspective on Personality
Temperament
Genetics and Personality
The Brain and Personality
Phineas Gage: A Case Study
Strengths of the Biological Perspective
Limitations of the Biological Perspective
Influences of Culture and Gender on Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Culture and Personality
Gender and Personality
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: Introduction to Personality | Boundless Psychology
Introduction to Personality
Defining Personality
Personality is the unique combination of patterns that influence behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion in a human being. Learning Objectives
Trace the history of the field of personality psychology
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Personality is the combination of behavior, emotion, motivation, and thought patterns that define an individual. Personality psychology attempts to study similarities and differences in these patterns among different people and groups. The study of personality began with Hippocrates’ theory of humorism, which argued that personality traits are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids (“ humors ”) of the body. Modern personality psychology is heavily influenced by these early philosophical roots and attempts to identify which components—such as free will, heredity, or universality—are most influential in shaping human personality. There are many approaches to the modern psychological study of personality, including the psychodynamic, neo-Freudian, learning, humanistic, biological, trait, and cultural perspectives. Key Terms
humor: In an old usage, one of four fluids that were believed to control the health and mood of the human body. psychodynamic: An approach to psychology that emphasizes the systematic study of the unconscious psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how these might relate to early experience.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-personality/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1197378972#1_2468888890
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Title: Introduction to Personality | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Introduction to Personality
Introduction to Personality
Defining Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Philosophical Roots
Approaches to Studying Personality
Genetics, the Brain, and Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Biological Perspective on Personality
Temperament
Genetics and Personality
The Brain and Personality
Phineas Gage: A Case Study
Strengths of the Biological Perspective
Limitations of the Biological Perspective
Influences of Culture and Gender on Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Culture and Personality
Gender and Personality
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: There are many approaches to the modern psychological study of personality, including the psychodynamic, neo-Freudian, learning, humanistic, biological, trait, and cultural perspectives. Key Terms
humor: In an old usage, one of four fluids that were believed to control the health and mood of the human body. psychodynamic: An approach to psychology that emphasizes the systematic study of the unconscious psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how these might relate to early experience. An individual’s personality is the combination of traits and patterns that influence their behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion. It drives individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways; in essence, it is what makes each individual unique. Over time, these patterns strongly influence personal expectations, perceptions, values, and attitudes. Personality psychology is the study of human personality and how it varies among individuals and populations.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-personality/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1197378972#6_2468899870
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Title: Introduction to Personality | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Introduction to Personality
Introduction to Personality
Defining Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Philosophical Roots
Approaches to Studying Personality
Genetics, the Brain, and Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Biological Perspective on Personality
Temperament
Genetics and Personality
The Brain and Personality
Phineas Gage: A Case Study
Strengths of the Biological Perspective
Limitations of the Biological Perspective
Influences of Culture and Gender on Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Culture and Personality
Gender and Personality
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: Are individuals generally more alike (similar to each other) or different (unique) in nature? Active versus reactive: Is human behavior passively shaped by environmental factors, or are humans more active in this role? Optimistic versus pessimistic: Are humans integral in the changing of their own personalities (for instance, can they learn and change through human interaction and intervention)? Approaches to Studying Personality
Research into these five philosophical questions has branched into several different approaches to studying personality. The major theories include the psychodynamic, neo-Freudian, learning (or behaviorist), humanistic, biological, trait (or dispositional), and cultural perspectives. Psychodynamic theory, originating with Sigmund Freud, posits that human behavior is the result of the interaction among various components of the mind (the id, ego, and superego) and that personality develops according to a series of psychosexual developmental stages. Sigmund Freud: Sigmund Freud advanced a psychodynamic view of human personality that implicated the id, ego, and superego as the main determinants of individual differences in personality.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-personality/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1197378972#9_2468907085
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Title: Introduction to Personality | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Introduction to Personality
Introduction to Personality
Defining Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Philosophical Roots
Approaches to Studying Personality
Genetics, the Brain, and Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Biological Perspective on Personality
Temperament
Genetics and Personality
The Brain and Personality
Phineas Gage: A Case Study
Strengths of the Biological Perspective
Limitations of the Biological Perspective
Influences of Culture and Gender on Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Culture and Personality
Gender and Personality
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: Biological approaches focus on the role of genetics and the brain in shaping personality. Related to this, evolutionary theories explore how variation in individual personalities variance may be rooted in natural selection. Trait theorists believe personality can be conceptualized as a set of common traits, or characteristic ways of behaving, that every individual exhibits to some degree. In this view, such personality traits are different from person to person but within an individual are stable over time and place. With any of these theories, it is important to keep in mind that the culture in which we live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes our personalities. Western ideas about personality are not necessarily applicable to other cultures, and there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Genetics, the Brain, and Personality
The biological perspective on personality emphasizes the influence of the brain and genetic factors on personality. Learning Objectives
Discuss the relationship between genetics and personality development
Key Takeaways
Key Points
The biological perspective on personality focuses on why or how personality traits manifest through biology and investigates the links between personality, DNA, and processes in the brain. In psychology, ” temperament ” refers to the personality tendencies that we show at birth (and that are therefore biologically determined). After birth, environmental factors and maturation interact with a child’s temperament to shape their personality.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-personality/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1197378972#10_2468909708
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Title: Introduction to Personality | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Introduction to Personality
Introduction to Personality
Defining Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Early Philosophical Roots
Approaches to Studying Personality
Genetics, the Brain, and Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Biological Perspective on Personality
Temperament
Genetics and Personality
The Brain and Personality
Phineas Gage: A Case Study
Strengths of the Biological Perspective
Limitations of the Biological Perspective
Influences of Culture and Gender on Personality
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Culture and Personality
Gender and Personality
Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context
Content: Western ideas about personality are not necessarily applicable to other cultures, and there is evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Genetics, the Brain, and Personality
The biological perspective on personality emphasizes the influence of the brain and genetic factors on personality. Learning Objectives
Discuss the relationship between genetics and personality development
Key Takeaways
Key Points
The biological perspective on personality focuses on why or how personality traits manifest through biology and investigates the links between personality, DNA, and processes in the brain. In psychology, ” temperament ” refers to the personality tendencies that we show at birth (and that are therefore biologically determined). After birth, environmental factors and maturation interact with a child’s temperament to shape their personality. The field of behavioral genetics focuses on the relationship between genes and behavior. Research from twin studies suggests that some aspects of our personalities are largely controlled by genetics. The biological approach to personality has also identified areas and pathways within the brain, as well as various hormones and neurotransmitters, that are associated with the development of personality. One of the first documented cases that demonstrated the link between personality and the brain was that of Phineas Gage, who underwent a drastic personality change after a brain injury. Key Terms
temperament:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-personality/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1198251128#14_2470057096
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Title: The Scientific Method | Boundless Psychology
Headings: The Scientific Method
The Scientific Method
Psychology and the Scientific Method: From Theory to Conclusion
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Basic Principles of the Scientific Method
The Basic Steps of the Scientific Method
Example of the Scientific Method
Why the Scientific Method Is Important for Psychology
Content: Refine the hypothesis: My toaster is broken. From this point, the process would be repeated with a refined hypothesis. Why the Scientific Method Is Important for Psychology
The use of the scientific method is one of the main features that separates modern psychology from earlier philosophical inquiries about the mind. Compared to chemistry, physics, and other “natural sciences,” psychology has long been considered one of the “social sciences” because of the subjective nature of the things it seeks to study. Many of the concepts that psychologists are interested in—such as aspects of the human mind, behavior, and emotions—are subjective and cannot be directly measured. Psychologists often rely instead on behavioral observations and self-reported data, which are considered by some to be illegitimate or lacking in methodological rigor. Applying the scientific method to psychology, therefore, helps to standardize the approach to understanding its very different types of information. The scientific method allows psychological data to be replicated and confirmed in many instances, under different circumstances, and by a variety of researchers. Through replication of experiments, new generations of psychologists can reduce errors and broaden the applicability of theories.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/the-scientific-method/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1198477502#9_2470220867
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Title: Theories of Motivation | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Theories of Motivation
Theories of Motivation
Evolutionary Theory of Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Genetic Fitness
Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
Optimization Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Key Points
Key Terms
Motivation and Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Love/Belonging Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-Actualization
Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Drives and Homeostasis
Drive-Reduction Theory
Primary and Secondary Drives
Drive-Reduction Theory and Learning
Critiques of Drive-Reduction Theory
Arousal Theory of Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
The Reward System
Optimal Levels of Arousal
Temperament and Motivation
Incentive Theory of Motivation and Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation
Incentive Theory and the Effects of Extrinsic Motivation
The Cognitive and Achievement Approaches to Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Achievement Motivation
Mastery and Performance Goals
Cognitive Dissonance
Temporal Motivation Theory
Key Points
Key Terms
Examples of Temporal Motivation Theory
Content: A mother’s protection of her baby, fondness for sugar, and hunting prey were among the human behaviors proposed as true instincts during James’ era. This view—that human behavior is driven by instincts—received a fair amount of criticism because of the undeniable role of learning in shaping all sorts of human behavior. Optimization Theory
Optimization theory is related to evolutionary theory, and is concerned with assessing the success of a behavior. It attempts to identify behavioral strategies that offer the highest return under a given set of conditions using a cost/benefit analysis. In this context, success or fitness is judged by considering the number of offspring that the individual performing the behavior would contribute to the next generation. Optimization theory states that individuals would be motivated to adopt strategies that allow them to consume the most energy (e.g., to maximize their food intake) while expending the least amount of energy (e.g., to minimize their exercise output). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s theory is based on the premise that humans are motivated by needs that are hierarchically ranked. Learning Objectives
Explain Maslow’s hierarchy and the needs that fuel each level
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs defines motivation as the process of satisfying certain needs that are required for long-term survival and development. There are some needs that are basic to all human beings, and in their absence, nothing else matters. As we satisfy these basic needs, they no longer serve as motivators and we begin to satisfy higher-order needs.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/theories-of-motivation/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1198477502#12_2470229047
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Title: Theories of Motivation | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Theories of Motivation
Theories of Motivation
Evolutionary Theory of Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Genetic Fitness
Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
Optimization Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Key Points
Key Terms
Motivation and Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Love/Belonging Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-Actualization
Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Drives and Homeostasis
Drive-Reduction Theory
Primary and Secondary Drives
Drive-Reduction Theory and Learning
Critiques of Drive-Reduction Theory
Arousal Theory of Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
The Reward System
Optimal Levels of Arousal
Temperament and Motivation
Incentive Theory of Motivation and Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation
Incentive Theory and the Effects of Extrinsic Motivation
The Cognitive and Achievement Approaches to Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Achievement Motivation
Mastery and Performance Goals
Cognitive Dissonance
Temporal Motivation Theory
Key Points
Key Terms
Examples of Temporal Motivation Theory
Content: humanistic: Of or pertaining to a psychological perspective, starting in the mid-20th century, that emphasizes individuals’ inherent drive toward self-actualization, realizing and expressing one’s own capabilities, and creativity. mastery: The act or process of becoming an expert in something. We all think of ourselves as having various needs—the need for food, for example, or the need for companionship—that influence our choices and behaviors. This idea also underlies some theories of motivation. In 1943, Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs that spans the spectrum of motives, ranging from the biological to the individual to the social. Motivation and Needs
Maslow’s theory defines motivation as the process of satisfying certain needs that are required for long-term development. According to Maslow, a need is a relatively lasting condition or feeling that requires relief or satisfaction, and it tends to influence action over the long term. Some needs (like hunger) may decrease when satisfied, while others (like curiosity) may not.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/theories-of-motivation/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1198477502#13_2470231563
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Title: Theories of Motivation | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Theories of Motivation
Theories of Motivation
Evolutionary Theory of Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Genetic Fitness
Evolutionary Perspective on Motivation
Optimization Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Key Points
Key Terms
Motivation and Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Love/Belonging Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-Actualization
Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Drives and Homeostasis
Drive-Reduction Theory
Primary and Secondary Drives
Drive-Reduction Theory and Learning
Critiques of Drive-Reduction Theory
Arousal Theory of Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
The Reward System
Optimal Levels of Arousal
Temperament and Motivation
Incentive Theory of Motivation and Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation
Incentive Theory and the Effects of Extrinsic Motivation
The Cognitive and Achievement Approaches to Motivation
Key Points
Key Terms
Achievement Motivation
Mastery and Performance Goals
Cognitive Dissonance
Temporal Motivation Theory
Key Points
Key Terms
Examples of Temporal Motivation Theory
Content: This idea also underlies some theories of motivation. In 1943, Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs that spans the spectrum of motives, ranging from the biological to the individual to the social. Motivation and Needs
Maslow’s theory defines motivation as the process of satisfying certain needs that are required for long-term development. According to Maslow, a need is a relatively lasting condition or feeling that requires relief or satisfaction, and it tends to influence action over the long term. Some needs (like hunger) may decrease when satisfied, while others (like curiosity) may not. Maslow’s Hierarchy
Maslow’s theory is based on a simple premise: human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked. There are some needs that are basic to all human beings, and in their absence, nothing else matters. We are ruled by these needs until they are satisfied. After we satisfy our basic needs, they no longer serve as motivators and we can begin to satisfy higher-order needs.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/theories-of-motivation/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1198574150#0_2470314933
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Title: Types of Research Studies | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Types of Research Studies
Types of Research Studies
Descriptive Research
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Case Studies
Correlational Research
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Positive and Negative Correlations
Correlational Strength
Statistical Significance
Benefits of Correlational Research
Limitations of Correlational Research
Experimental Research
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Independent and Dependent Variables
Experimental Design
Experimental Design: Important Principles
Control Groups
Random Assignment
Blinding and Experimenter Bias
Counterbalancing
Strengths and Weaknesses of Experimental Research
Content: Types of Research Studies | Boundless Psychology
Types of Research Studies
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research refers to the measurement of behaviors and attributes through observation rather than through experimental testing. Learning Objectives
Explain when descriptive research is useful
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Descriptive studies do not test specific relationships between factors; however, they provide information about behaviors and attributes with the goal of reaching a better understanding of a given topic. Descriptive research is a useful method of gathering information about rare phenomena that could not be reproduced in a laboratory or about subjects that are not well understood. Descriptive research has the advantage of studying individuals in their natural environment, free from the influence of an experiment ‘s artificial construct. The most common type of descriptive research is the case study, which provides an in-depth analysis of a specific person, group, or phenomenon. While their findings cannot be generalized to the overall population, case studies can provide important information for future research. Key Terms
case study: Research performed in detail on a single individual, group, incident, or community, as opposed to (for example) a sample of the whole population. hypothesis:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/types-of-research-studies/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1198574150#2_2470319374
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Title: Types of Research Studies | Boundless Psychology
Headings: Types of Research Studies
Types of Research Studies
Descriptive Research
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Case Studies
Correlational Research
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Positive and Negative Correlations
Correlational Strength
Statistical Significance
Benefits of Correlational Research
Limitations of Correlational Research
Experimental Research
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Independent and Dependent Variables
Experimental Design
Experimental Design: Important Principles
Control Groups
Random Assignment
Blinding and Experimenter Bias
Counterbalancing
Strengths and Weaknesses of Experimental Research
Content: A tentative conjecture explaining an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further observation and/or experimentation. Research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables are called descriptive studies. These studies are used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured. In the early stages of research it might be difficult to form a hypothesis, especially when there is not any existing literature in the area. In these situations designing an experiment would be premature, as the question of interest is not yet clearly defined as a hypothesis. Often a researcher will begin with a non-experimental approach, such as a descriptive study, to gather more information about the topic before designing an experiment or correlational study to address a specific hypothesis. Descriptive research is distinct from correlational research, in which psychologists formally test whether a relationship exists between two or more variables. Experimental research goes a step further beyond descriptive and correlational research and randomly assigns people to different conditions, using hypothesis testing to make inferences about how these conditions affect behavior. Correlational and experimental research both typically use hypothesis testing, whereas descriptive research does not. Descriptive Research:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/types-of-research-studies/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1199079098#11_2470779961
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Title: Elements of Social Interaction | Boundless Sociology
Headings: Elements of Social Interaction
Elements of Social Interaction
Social Status
Key Points
Key Terms
Role Theory
Key Points
Key Terms
Role Conflict
Key Points
Key Terms
Culture
Key Points
Key Terms
Social Class
Key Points
Key Terms
Groups
Key Points
Key Terms
Social Institutions
Key Points
Key Terms
Social Networks
Key Points
Key Terms
Shape and Size
Small World Phenomenon
Virtual Worlds
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: Thus, social stratification is demonstrated by economic class and the cultural preferences that it engenders. Role Theory
Role theory argues that human behavior is guided by expectations held both by the individual and by others in the community. Learning Objectives
Explain how the development and fulfillment of particular roles within society (both occupational and relational) relates to a person’s behavior
Key Takeaways
Key Points
A role is a set of rules or norms that function as plans or blueprints to guide behavior within a particular society. Roles can be occupational or relational. An occupational role relates to a person’s individual function (for example, a profession). A relational role governs how the individual behaves towards others (for example, being a father or a boss). Role theory is structural functionalist in that it seeks to explain human behavior by looking at what social function is fulfilled by holding a given role. Role theory suggests that a substantial proportion of observable, day-to-day behavior is simply people carrying out roles and negotiating which role to prioritize. Once you understand someone’s role and which of their many roles they are prioritizing, you can predict how they are going to behave. Key Terms
self-neglect:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/elements-of-social-interaction/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1199263310#6_2470975898
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Title: Gender and Socialization | Boundless Sociology
Headings: Gender and Socialization
Gender and Socialization
Gender Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
The Social Construction of Gender
Key Points
Key Terms
Social Constructionism
Judith Butler and Gender Performativity
Gender Identity in Everyday Life
Key Points
Key Terms
Cisgender and Transgender
Causes of Confusion in Gender Identity
Gender Identities and Law
Gender Identities across Cultures
Gender Roles in the U.S.
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender and Social Role Theory
Gender Roles in the United States
Nuclear Family Models
Current Trends
The Cross-Cultural Perspective
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Roles in Sweden
Gender Roles In Chile
Gender Roles in Japan
Childhood Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Adolescent Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Identity Development
Self-Concept
Sense of Identity
Self-Esteem
Relationships
Peers
Romance and Sexual Activity
Gender Differences in Social Interaction
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Differences in Social Interaction
Communication and Gender Cultures
Communication Styles
Content: For example, girls are expected to be clean and quiet, while boys are messy and loud. As children get older, gender stereotypes become more apparent in styles of dress and choice of leisure activities. Boys and girls who do not conform to gender stereotypes are usually ostracized by same-age peers for being different. This can lead to negative effects, such as lower self-esteem. In Western contexts, gender socialization operates as a binary, or a concept that is exclusively comprised of two parts. In other words, individuals are socialized into conceiving of their gender as either masculine (male) or feminine (female). Identities are therefore normatively constructed along this single parameter. However, some individuals do not feel that they fall into the gender binary and they choose to question or challenge the male-masculine / female-feminine binary. For example, individuals that identify as transgender feel that their gender identity does not match their biological sex. Individuals that identify as genderqueer challenge classifications of masculine and feminine, and may identify as somewhere other than male and female, in between male and female, a combination of male and female, or a third (or forth, or fifth, etc.)
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/gender-and-socialization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1199263310#7_2470978487
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Title: Gender and Socialization | Boundless Sociology
Headings: Gender and Socialization
Gender and Socialization
Gender Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
The Social Construction of Gender
Key Points
Key Terms
Social Constructionism
Judith Butler and Gender Performativity
Gender Identity in Everyday Life
Key Points
Key Terms
Cisgender and Transgender
Causes of Confusion in Gender Identity
Gender Identities and Law
Gender Identities across Cultures
Gender Roles in the U.S.
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender and Social Role Theory
Gender Roles in the United States
Nuclear Family Models
Current Trends
The Cross-Cultural Perspective
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Roles in Sweden
Gender Roles In Chile
Gender Roles in Japan
Childhood Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Adolescent Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Identity Development
Self-Concept
Sense of Identity
Self-Esteem
Relationships
Peers
Romance and Sexual Activity
Gender Differences in Social Interaction
Key Points
Key Terms
Gender Differences in Social Interaction
Communication and Gender Cultures
Communication Styles
Content: In other words, individuals are socialized into conceiving of their gender as either masculine (male) or feminine (female). Identities are therefore normatively constructed along this single parameter. However, some individuals do not feel that they fall into the gender binary and they choose to question or challenge the male-masculine / female-feminine binary. For example, individuals that identify as transgender feel that their gender identity does not match their biological sex. Individuals that identify as genderqueer challenge classifications of masculine and feminine, and may identify as somewhere other than male and female, in between male and female, a combination of male and female, or a third (or forth, or fifth, etc.) gender altogether. These identities demonstrate the fluidity of gender, which is so frequently thought to be biological and immutable. Gender fluidity also shows how gender norms are learned and either accepted or rejected by the socialized individual. The Social Construction of Gender
Social constructivists propose that there is no inherent truth to gender; it is constructed by social expectations and gender performance.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/gender-and-socialization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1199704244#10_2471366398
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Title: Recent Changes in Family Structure | Boundless Sociology
Headings: Recent Changes in Family Structure
Recent Changes in Family Structure
The Decline of the Traditional Family
Key Points
Key Terms
One Parent Households
Cohabitation
Same- Sex Unions
Childfree Couples
Change in Marriage Rate
Key Points
Key Terms
Marriage Rates in the United States
Marriage Trends
Unmarried Mothers
Key Points
Key Terms
The “Sandwich Generation” and Elder Care
Key Points
Key Terms
Elderly Care in the United States
The Sandwich Generation
Childless Couples
Key Points
Key Terms
Childless Couples
Factors Involved in Voluntary Childlessness
Social Attitudes to Remaining Childless
Organizations and Political Activism
Change in Household Size
Key Points
Key Terms
Shared Houses
Group Homes
Boarding Houses
Single Room Occupancy
Women in the Labor Force
Key Points
Key Terms
Barriers to Equal Participation
Access to Education and Training
Access to Capital
Discrimination within Occupations
Feminization of the Workplace
Content: a ritual officially celebrating the beginning of a marriage. Marriage Laws: The legal requirements that determine the validity of a marriage. Marriage is a social union or legal contract between people, called spouses, that creates kinship. The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but is usually an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged. Such a union is often formalized through a wedding ceremony. Marriage Rates in the United States
Marriage laws have changed over the course of United States history, including the removal of bans on interracial marriage. In the twenty-first century, laws have been passed enabling same-sex marriages in several states. According to the United States Census Bureau, 2,077,000 marriages occurred in the United States in 2009. The median age for the first marriage of an American has increased in recent years;
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/recent-changes-in-family-structure/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1200094412#5_2471729915
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Title: Sociological Perspectives on Gender Stratification | Boundless Sociology
Headings: Sociological Perspectives on Gender Stratification
Sociological Perspectives on Gender Stratification
The Functionalist Perspective
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Conflict Perspective
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
The Interactionist Perspective
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Interactionism
Goffman and Control
Symbolic Interactionism
Gender as Performance
The Feminist Perspective
Learning Objectives
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: This view has been criticized for reifying, rather than reflecting, gender roles. While gender roles, according to the functionalist perspective, are beneficial in that they contribute to stable social relations, many argue that gender roles are discriminatory and should not be upheld. The feminist movement, which was on the rise at the same time that functionalism began to decline, takes the position that functionalism neglects the suppression of women within the family structure. A Female Indian Construction: While the structural-functionalist perspective argues that gender inequalities exist as a form of the division of labor, the photograph above clearly illustrates that women need not be restricted to certain activities. The Conflict Perspective
Conflict theory suggests that men, as the dominant gender, subordinate women in order to maintain power and privilege in society. Learning Objectives
Describe gender from the view of the conflict perpective
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Conflict theory asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between genders. Frederich Engels compared the family structure to the relationship between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, suggesting that women had less power than men in the household because they were dependent on them for wages. Men, like any other group with a power or wealth advantage in Conflict Theory, fought to maintain their control over resources (in this case, political and economic power). Conflict between the two groups caused things like the Women’s Suffrage Movement and was responsible for social change.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/sociological-perspectives-on-gender-stratification/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1200692685#5_2472299210
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Title: The Role of Socialization | Boundless Sociology
Headings: The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Three Goals of Socialization
Nature vs. Nurture: A False Debate
Key Points
Key Terms
Sociobiology
Key Points
Key Terms
Deprivation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Isolation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Feral Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Depictions of Feral Children
Feral Children in Reality
Examples of Feral Children
Institutionalized Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: Second, socialization teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform certain social roles—occupational roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions such as marriage and parenthood. Third, socialization cultivates shared sources of meaning and value. Through socialization, people learn to identify what is important and valued within a particular culture. The term “socialization” refers to a general process, but socialization always takes place in specific contexts. Socialization is culturally specific: people in different cultures are socialized differently, to hold different beliefs and values, and to behave in different ways. Sociologists try to understand socialization, but they do not rank different schemes of socialization as good or bad; they study practices of socialization to determine why people behave the way that they do. Nature vs. Nurture: A False Debate
Is nature (an individual’s innate qualities) or nurture (personal experience) more important in determining physical and behavioral traits?
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-role-of-socialization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1200692685#12_2472311983
|
Title: The Role of Socialization | Boundless Sociology
Headings: The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Three Goals of Socialization
Nature vs. Nurture: A False Debate
Key Points
Key Terms
Sociobiology
Key Points
Key Terms
Deprivation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Isolation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Feral Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Depictions of Feral Children
Feral Children in Reality
Examples of Feral Children
Institutionalized Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: However, sample sizes are usually small, so generalization of the results must be done with caution. The nature versus nurture debate conjures deep philosophical questions about free will and determinism. The “nature” side may be criticized for implying that we behave in ways in which we are naturally inclined, rather than in ways we choose. Similarly, the “nurture” side may be criticized for implying that we behave in ways determined by our environment, not ourselves. Of course, sociologists point out that our environment is, at least in part, a social creation. Sociobiology
Sociobiology examines and explains social behavior based on biological evolution. Learning Objectives
Discuss the concept of sociobiology in relation to natural selection and Charles Darwin, as well as genetics and instinctive behaviors
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Sociobiologists believe that human behavior, like nonhuman animal behavior, can be partly explained as the outcome of natural selection. Sociobiologists are interested in instinctive, or intuitive behavior, and in explaining the similarities, rather than the differences, between cultures. Many critics draw an intellectual link between sociobiology and biological determinism, the belief that most human differences can be traced to specific genes rather than differences in culture or social environments. Key Terms
biological determinism:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-role-of-socialization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1200692685#13_2472314188
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Title: The Role of Socialization | Boundless Sociology
Headings: The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Three Goals of Socialization
Nature vs. Nurture: A False Debate
Key Points
Key Terms
Sociobiology
Key Points
Key Terms
Deprivation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Isolation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Feral Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Depictions of Feral Children
Feral Children in Reality
Examples of Feral Children
Institutionalized Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: Sociobiology
Sociobiology examines and explains social behavior based on biological evolution. Learning Objectives
Discuss the concept of sociobiology in relation to natural selection and Charles Darwin, as well as genetics and instinctive behaviors
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Sociobiologists believe that human behavior, like nonhuman animal behavior, can be partly explained as the outcome of natural selection. Sociobiologists are interested in instinctive, or intuitive behavior, and in explaining the similarities, rather than the differences, between cultures. Many critics draw an intellectual link between sociobiology and biological determinism, the belief that most human differences can be traced to specific genes rather than differences in culture or social environments. Key Terms
biological determinism: The hypothesis that biological factors such as an organism’s genes (as opposed to social or environmental factors) determine psychological and behavioral traits. natural selection: A process by which heritable traits conferring survival and reproductive advantage to individuals, or related individuals, tend to be passed on to succeeding generations and become more frequent in a population, whereas other less favorable traits tend to become eliminated. sociobiology: The science that applies the principles of evolutionary biology to the study of social behavior in both humans and animals.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-role-of-socialization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1200692685#14_2472316402
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Title: The Role of Socialization | Boundless Sociology
Headings: The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Three Goals of Socialization
Nature vs. Nurture: A False Debate
Key Points
Key Terms
Sociobiology
Key Points
Key Terms
Deprivation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Isolation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Feral Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Depictions of Feral Children
Feral Children in Reality
Examples of Feral Children
Institutionalized Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: The hypothesis that biological factors such as an organism’s genes (as opposed to social or environmental factors) determine psychological and behavioral traits. natural selection: A process by which heritable traits conferring survival and reproductive advantage to individuals, or related individuals, tend to be passed on to succeeding generations and become more frequent in a population, whereas other less favorable traits tend to become eliminated. sociobiology: The science that applies the principles of evolutionary biology to the study of social behavior in both humans and animals. Sociobiology is a field of scientific study which is based on the assumption that social behavior has resulted from evolution. It attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context. Often considered a branch of biology and sociology, it also draws from ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics, and other disciplines. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is very closely allied to the fields of Darwinian anthropology, human behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology. While the term “sociobiology” can be traced to the 1940s, the concept didn’t gain major recognition until 1975 with the publication of Edward O. Wilson’s book, Sociobiology:
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-role-of-socialization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1200692685#15_2472318527
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Title: The Role of Socialization | Boundless Sociology
Headings: The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Three Goals of Socialization
Nature vs. Nurture: A False Debate
Key Points
Key Terms
Sociobiology
Key Points
Key Terms
Deprivation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Isolation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Feral Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Depictions of Feral Children
Feral Children in Reality
Examples of Feral Children
Institutionalized Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: Sociobiology is a field of scientific study which is based on the assumption that social behavior has resulted from evolution. It attempts to explain and examine social behavior within that context. Often considered a branch of biology and sociology, it also draws from ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics, and other disciplines. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is very closely allied to the fields of Darwinian anthropology, human behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology. While the term “sociobiology” can be traced to the 1940s, the concept didn’t gain major recognition until 1975 with the publication of Edward O. Wilson’s book, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Edward O. Wilson: E. O. Wilson is a central figure in the history of sociobiology. Sociobiologists believe that human behavior, like nonhuman animal behavior, can be partly explained as the outcome of natural selection. They contend that in order to fully understand behavior, it must be analyzed in terms of evolutionary considerations.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-role-of-socialization/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1200692685#16_2472320410
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Title: The Role of Socialization | Boundless Sociology
Headings: The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Three Goals of Socialization
Nature vs. Nurture: A False Debate
Key Points
Key Terms
Sociobiology
Key Points
Key Terms
Deprivation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Isolation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Feral Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Depictions of Feral Children
Feral Children in Reality
Examples of Feral Children
Institutionalized Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: The New Synthesis. Edward O. Wilson: E. O. Wilson is a central figure in the history of sociobiology. Sociobiologists believe that human behavior, like nonhuman animal behavior, can be partly explained as the outcome of natural selection. They contend that in order to fully understand behavior, it must be analyzed in terms of evolutionary considerations. Natural selection is fundamental to evolutionary theory. Variants of hereditary traits, which increase an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce, are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations. Thus, inherited behavioral mechanisms that allowed an organism a greater chance of surviving and reproducing in the past are more likely to survive in present organisms. Following this evolutionary logic, sociobiologists are interested in how behavior can be explained as a result of selective pressures in the history of a species. Thus, they are often interested in instinctive, or intuitive behavior, and in explaining the similarities, rather than the differences, between cultures.
|
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-role-of-socialization/
|
msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1200692685#17_2472322261
|
Title: The Role of Socialization | Boundless Sociology
Headings: The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
The Role of Socialization
Key Points
Key Terms
Three Goals of Socialization
Nature vs. Nurture: A False Debate
Key Points
Key Terms
Sociobiology
Key Points
Key Terms
Deprivation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Isolation and Development
Key Points
Key Terms
Feral Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Depictions of Feral Children
Feral Children in Reality
Examples of Feral Children
Institutionalized Children
Key Points
Key Terms
Content: Natural selection is fundamental to evolutionary theory. Variants of hereditary traits, which increase an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce, are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations. Thus, inherited behavioral mechanisms that allowed an organism a greater chance of surviving and reproducing in the past are more likely to survive in present organisms. Following this evolutionary logic, sociobiologists are interested in how behavior can be explained as a result of selective pressures in the history of a species. Thus, they are often interested in instinctive, or intuitive behavior, and in explaining the similarities, rather than the differences, between cultures. Sociobiologists reason that common behaviors likely evolved over time because they made individuals who exhibited those behaviors more likely to survive and reproduce. Many critics draw an intellectual link between sociobiology and biological determinism, the belief that most human differences can be traced to specific genes rath
|
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/the-role-of-socialization/
|
msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1201287489#5_2472850532
|
Title: Urbanization and the Development of Cities | Boundless Sociology
Headings: Urbanization and the Development of Cities
Urbanization and the Development of Cities
The Earliest Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
The Formation of Cities
Preindustrial Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
Cities as Political Centers
Trade Routes
Industrial Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
The Structure of Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
Urban Structure Models
Grid
Concentric Ring Model
Sectoral
Multiple Nuclei
Irregular Pattern
Alternate Uses of “Urban Structure”
The Process of Urbanization
Key Points
Key Terms
Urbanization and rural flight
Economic and Environmental Effects of Urbanization
Suburbanization and Counterurbanization
U.S. Urban Patterns
Key Points
Key Terms
The Rural Rebound
Key Points
Key Terms
Suburbanization
White Flight
Models of Urban Growth
Key Points
Key Terms
Growth Machine Theory
Urban Sprawl
Urban Decay
BROKEN WINDOWS
RESPONSES TO DECAY
Content: The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic Revolution, with the spread of agriculture. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and settle near others who lived by agricultural production. Agriculture yielded more food, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. Farming led to dense, settled populations, and food surpluses that required storage and could facilitate trade. These conditions seem to be important prerequisites for city life. Many theorists hypothesize that agriculture preceded the development of cities and led to their growth. A good environment and strong social organization are two necessities for the formation of a successful city. A good environment includes clean water and a favorable climate for growing crops and agriculture. A strong sense of social organization helps a newly formed city work together in times of need, and it allows people to develop various functions to assist in the future development of the city (for example, farmer or merchant). Without these two common features, as well as advanced agricultural technology, a newly formed city is not likely to succeed.
|
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/urbanization-and-the-development-of-cities/
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msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1201287489#13_2472869680
|
Title: Urbanization and the Development of Cities | Boundless Sociology
Headings: Urbanization and the Development of Cities
Urbanization and the Development of Cities
The Earliest Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
The Formation of Cities
Preindustrial Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
Cities as Political Centers
Trade Routes
Industrial Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
The Structure of Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
Urban Structure Models
Grid
Concentric Ring Model
Sectoral
Multiple Nuclei
Irregular Pattern
Alternate Uses of “Urban Structure”
The Process of Urbanization
Key Points
Key Terms
Urbanization and rural flight
Economic and Environmental Effects of Urbanization
Suburbanization and Counterurbanization
U.S. Urban Patterns
Key Points
Key Terms
The Rural Rebound
Key Points
Key Terms
Suburbanization
White Flight
Models of Urban Growth
Key Points
Key Terms
Growth Machine Theory
Urban Sprawl
Urban Decay
BROKEN WINDOWS
RESPONSES TO DECAY
Content: By the early 19 th century, London had become the largest city in the world with a population of over a million, while Paris rivaled the well-developed regional capital cities of Baghdad, Beijing, Istanbul, and Kyoto. But most towns remained far smaller places—in 1500 only about two dozen places in the world contained more than 100,000 inhabitants. As late as 1700 there were fewer than 40, a figure which would rise thereafter to 300 in 1900. A small city of the early modern period might have contained as few as 10,000 inhabitants. Industrial Cities
During the industrial era, cities grew rapidly and became centers of population growth and production. Learning Objectives
Discuss the problems urbanization created for newly formed cities
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Rapid growth brought urban problems, and industrial-era cities were rife with dangers to health and safety. Poor sanitation and communicable diseases were among the greatest causes of death among urban working class populations. In the 19th century, better sanitation led to improved health conditions. Key Terms
industrial cities: Rapid growth brought urban problems, and industrial-era cities were rife with dangers to health and safety.
|
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/urbanization-and-the-development-of-cities/
|
msmarco_v2.1_doc_14_1201287489#14_2472872126
|
Title: Urbanization and the Development of Cities | Boundless Sociology
Headings: Urbanization and the Development of Cities
Urbanization and the Development of Cities
The Earliest Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
The Formation of Cities
Preindustrial Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
Cities as Political Centers
Trade Routes
Industrial Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
The Structure of Cities
Key Points
Key Terms
Urban Structure Models
Grid
Concentric Ring Model
Sectoral
Multiple Nuclei
Irregular Pattern
Alternate Uses of “Urban Structure”
The Process of Urbanization
Key Points
Key Terms
Urbanization and rural flight
Economic and Environmental Effects of Urbanization
Suburbanization and Counterurbanization
U.S. Urban Patterns
Key Points
Key Terms
The Rural Rebound
Key Points
Key Terms
Suburbanization
White Flight
Models of Urban Growth
Key Points
Key Terms
Growth Machine Theory
Urban Sprawl
Urban Decay
BROKEN WINDOWS
RESPONSES TO DECAY
Content: Learning Objectives
Discuss the problems urbanization created for newly formed cities
Key Takeaways
Key Points
Rapid growth brought urban problems, and industrial-era cities were rife with dangers to health and safety. Poor sanitation and communicable diseases were among the greatest causes of death among urban working class populations. In the 19th century, better sanitation led to improved health conditions. Key Terms
industrial cities: Rapid growth brought urban problems, and industrial-era cities were rife with dangers to health and safety. Quickly expanding industrial cities could be quite deadly, full of contaminated water and air, and communicable diseases. industrial era: During the industrial era, cities grew rapidly and became centers of population and production. Slum in Glasgow, 1871: An example of slum life in an industrial city.
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https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/urbanization-and-the-development-of-cities/
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