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can there be multiple tapeworms in one gut? | if so (how) do they interact? can they mate? | there was a bbc doc about parasites on recently where dr michael mosley deliberately infested himself with tapeworms. he ended up with two or three in his guts, as far as i remember they didn't interact or mate (in fact, i'm not sure tapeworms are equipped for sexual reproduction). it was gross and awesome, hope you have iplayer wherever you are... _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03vrwj8"
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what exactly is going on in your muscles between weightlifting sets? | how is it that one can be idiomatically dying on the last rep of one set, and then after just a brief rest the first few reps of the next set come easily? | a few things. during quick high intensity movement nearing maximal effort your body builds up lactic acid as a metabolic by product. depending on your tolerance and training you may be able to build up more or less before exhaustion. once finished the body begins to clear the metabolic byproduct as efficiently as it can(with training this process becomes more efficient). also the first energy way your body produces atp for energy is via the phosphocreatine process. this is extremely quick and the bonds break quickly not relying on oxygen which is a longer process. depending on how long your rest is gives more time for phosphate ions to reestablish bonds with unused creatine ions. source: ^exercise physiologist | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the theoretical maximum to how many liters/second over a region of rain can fall during a storm? | there is a theoretical limit (though that varies depending on the temp other atmospheric conditions). and that theoretical limit is based on the density of water and laws of buoyancy as they pertain to water. its a pretty complex calculation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can we apply the laws of physics universally no matter which direction or reference of time we are observing? | for example, if we were to observe a glass bottle being broken in reverse, with all the shards reassembling to form the original bottle, do the laws of physics change? edit: to further clarify the question - **are there any equations or relationships in physics where the direction of time affects the observation, other than simply being say an inverse relationship?** | the question you are asking van be more stringently formulated as "is the laws of physics [t-symmetric](_url_2_). that turns out not to be the case, as the weak nuclear force is not t-symmetric. the next question is "what symmetries then hold". the current observations seems to indicate [cpt-symmetry](_url_1_), that is, the laws of nature should be the same if you reverse time, replace all particles with their anti-particle and look at the mirror image of the universe in stead. this implies that every breaking of t-symmetry must also break cp-symmetry, so t-symmetry breaking is often called [cp violation](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP_violation",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPT_symmetry",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-symmetry",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether's_theorem"
] | [
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missle fired on earth vs. space | on earth- if one were to fire a missle it would have to go from rest to some final velocity. this obviously requires the expenditure of energy- some of which is converted into heat, sound and light. however, if one were to fire that same missle in space- none of the energy can be converted into heat and sound since space is a vacuum. my question is: does the more 'efficient' conversion of energy to motion in space over ride the the fact that a missle fired on the earth would also have to contend with gravity and air resistance. that is, is it the loss of energy as heat and sound greater than the loss of energy due to gravity and air resistance? | first of all, even though the rocket produces no sound, the actions that produce the sound are still happening, thus this doesn't change energy expenditure. also heat can be produced in a vacuum (unless the rocket uses a fuel mixture that doesn't involve oxygen, in which case it probably won't be able to fire). the only real factors would be what you said later in your question, lack of air resistance and gravity. to give an example of how effective air resistance is at slowing an obect down is the fact that a human's terminal velocity in the earth's atmosphere is usually somewhere around 120 mph. so while a rocket will be considerably more aerodynamic than a human body, in space it will accelerate incredibly fast until it runs out of fuel. ~~maneuvering would be a whole different matter however, as all the software has been designed to maneuver in atmosphere.~~ see edit edit: hurr hurr wasn't thinking there | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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gravity question that stumped my grandpa... | alright, so imagine that earth had no atmosphere and was a perfect vacuum, or at least enough of a vacuum that atoms provided no noticeable friction. if you drop something from high enough, it will eventually stop accelerating and reach terminal velocity until it hits the ground. well say you are high up enough that whatever is dropped will have enough time to reach terminal velocity. you aim a gun straight down and shoot a bullet(disregarding the effects that the vacuum might have on the gun). it will obviously be going much faster than terminal velocity, but with no atmosphere to slow it, will it eventually slow down from it's original speed to terminal velocity, or keep going the speed at which it left the gun? i obviously don't have a clue. | the only reason items have a terminal velocity is that their acceleration due to gravity is balanced by their deceleration due to the air resistance they feel. no air, no resistance, no terminal velocity. so the bullet would continuously accelerate till it hit the ground. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes thorium and uranium nuclear "islands of stability" and technetium and promethium "trenches of instability"? | uranium and thorium have isotopes with half-lives significantly longer than the half-lives of other nuclides in the same mass range. and technetium and promethium just don't have any stable isotopes, while the other elements around them do. there is no simple explanation of the half-lives of nuclei. there is a complicated interplay of multiple forces which determines the structure and binding energies of nuclei. and the half-life for the decay of a given nuclide depends not only on the properties of that nuclide, but also on the properties of the daughter nuclides of all possible decay modes. so there's no straightforward answer to your question. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
why are links in chains always rectangular or oval shaped and almost never circular shaped? | efficiency. you want the chain to be long, yet flexible it at least one dimension. the minimum bending radius roughly defines the length of the links. making the links sphericalwill generally not achieve any increased strength or function, but will weigh more. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
using a personal welder at home with an ac wall power source. is the electrical welding arc still ac or has it been converted to dc? | welder/boilermaker here, it should say right on the front panel. ac, dc, or ac/dc. there's also a stamped tag on the back of most welding machines that gives you all the specifics for that machine. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how to calculate eigenvalues in the kirchhoff's thin plate model? | [deleted] | here i found 1 article and 1 book about your problem. i read some but i am just not completely sure if they are the right resources to look for. however, there is a huge part for your issue at the page of 15 in the book which is free by the nasa website. _url_0_ _url_1_ hope they help you. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19700009156.pdf",
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304911304_POSSIBILITIES_TO_USE_THE_EIGENFREQUENCIES_TO_IDENTIFY_COINS"
] | [
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which country has nationals from most other countries? | if the question is about the diversity of countries of origin of immigrants, then uk is the one. [facts about world immigration](_url_0_) according to this same list, the united arab emirates has the highest share of foreign-born people (84% of its population). however, it is difficult to be precise about this, since many countries do not include questions about ethnicity in their census. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/09/02/7-facts-about-world-migration/"
] | [
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|
thinking about quantum states when (un)observed, is there any truth to the old idiom "a watched pot never boils" on any level? | i was thinking about this the other day as i was watching my ramen water come to a boil. i was watching it for a what seemed like a couple minutes and there wasn't much change at all to the water, i turned away for a few seconds to get my glass of water (for drinking) and looked back and there were medium-large nucleation bubbles all along the bottom now. over the next minute or so a few would drift to the surface, as they do, but not much else happened. then my phone went off at the table leading me to retrieve it. when i returned a few dozen seconds later my water was at a rolling boil. so from my perspective, while observing the water it didn't really do much, when unobserved it progressed through the stages of coming to a boil. did my observing the pot actually affect the quantum state of the water to any degree at all, or is that old saying total rubbish? | you watching a pot of water doesn't have any impact. the effects are orders of magnitude different. there is no way for you to see what the individual molecules are doing. however what you are describing is like the quantum zeno effect. an atom or molecule can't undergo a transition if it is being watched because watching the particle collapses the wavefunction to its initial state so the probability doesn't become high enough to change state. it's kind of like watching a small child. if you keep an eye on him, he will always be near you, but if you stop looking then you will find him across the street. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Zeno_effect"
] | [
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radio wave contradiction | if radio waves travel at the speed of light, then why is there lag in walkie-talkies and radio stations? since it travels that fast, then no time should pass when the waves leave and enter transmitters. | the signals in your ethernet and fiber optic cables are also travelling at (effectively) the speed of light, but you still have a multiple-millisecond lag because your nic, router, modem, and the two dozen routers between you and your target all need time to, you know, *route*. any walkie-talkie i've ever used has at most had a similar few-millisecond lag, for what i can only imagine are similar reasons - button is pressed, audio input received, integrated circuit processes audio and outputs radio data, 'instantaneous' (you'll never notice lag here in walkie-talkie range) light-speed transmission between units occurs, radio input data received, integrated circuit processes data and outputs the audio. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is stephen hawking still relevant? | i've been wondering this for a while. it seems now, that most people agree that black holes do not actually suck stuff into them, but they instead attract stuff to their two dimensional surfaces. i know that mr. hawking did a lot of work with black holes but he seems to be wrong about his idea that information can be lost (he has even admitted to being wrong,) and i've read about his wave function of the universe theory and i don't know if it would be compatible with string theory or the holographic principle. i'm just wondering if someone could shed some light on that. is he doing anything to help further our understanding of nature? or is he just going around and giving talks? | his work on black hole thermodynamics and his effort to merge quantum mechanics and gravity, though maybe done more convincingly by unruh, are still relevant and very important. he's a very bright man and, in addition to doing some very good research, dedicated his life to becoming one of the greatest public educators in the history of science. you do him a great disservice by underestimating the importance of this contribution. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_W._York"
] | [
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] |
dear ask science: can you tell me how 1.5 superconductivity (linked) differs from the other two on a practical level? what application does this discovery have? | [](_url_0_) so i know about the type of superconductivity that allows levitation, that is type 1, where the object has to be super cooled with liquid helium or somesuch, and type 2 allows magnetic fields whereas type 1 does not, yes? can you give an example of type 1 and type 2 superconductivity applications, and then explain what sort of application 1.5 might be used for? | well, these crystals haven't actually been created yet; it's just a theoretical paper in physical review b. the main difference can be seen in figure 1 of the paper: in type 1, the meissner effect suddenly disappears when the magnetic field gets strong enough. in type 2, the effect slowly peters off above a certain point. in type 1.5, there's a partial but sudden drop, and then a petering off. what applications does this have compared to the other kinds? none really. but the hope every time a new class of superconductors is discovered (for instance, the recent discovery of pnictide superconductors) is that there will be a crystal within that class that will have a higher transition temperature. but these type 1.5 superconductors have yet to be fabricated. (as an aside, "what's the practical application of this" is every scientist's least favourite question. we do science for science!) | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-10-physicists-unveil-theory-kind-superconductivity.html"
] | [] | [
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how does the embryo ''knows'' the 3d structure of the organ that he will form by dividing?? | cells know how to differentiate based on their surroundings, which create a variety of different chemical environments depending on the placement of the cell in the developing embryo. for example, initially all cells are able to get nourishment and dispose of wastes easily, because they are on the exterior of a spherical form. a little later, some cells are on the inside and some are on the outside. cells on the inside experience a little more difficulty getting nutrients and getting rid of waste. this change in their chemical environment turns on some parts of dna and turns others off, and they begin to produce proteins that affect the other cells by turning different parts of dna on or off. so very early in the development, each cell is doing something either slightly different from its nearest neighbors, but very different from cells more distant. these changes accumulate and transform with the developing geometry of the embryo. here's [an article with more info](_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/a-blog-around-the-clock/2011/09/10/bio101-from-two-cells-to-many-cell-differentiation-and-embryonic-development/"
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|
how did tyrannosaurus drink water? | i tried to google the answer, but apparently the internet cannot take this question seriously. i am curious because apparently t-rex couldn't lean that far down due to a poor center of gravity, so how did this giant beast get liquid nourishment? one guess i had was that they lay on their sides like when they sleep, but seems super inconvenient and would leave the them vulnerable. if anyone has a real answer or theory to this it would be much appreciated. | t. rex probably drank like most birds, by bending down and taking a mouthful of water, then tilting its head back to allow the water to run down its throat. tyrannosaurus also has a ling and heavy tail that can be used as counter weight when it leans forward. | 48 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much power does the 49ers new stadium lose from it's massive solar panels being red? | as opposed to being black? | i can't find the specs, but consider the following: if the panels are red, then that means that the higher energy photons are being absorbed while red is being reflected. the photoelectric effect is energy dependent. it the photoelectric cells are not activated by red light, no matter how much red light falls on it, it won't generate a milliamp. in that scenario, reflecting the red light has no effect on the power output. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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just because something is a viable solution to a set of physics equations, does that mean it actually exists? | after watching interstellar and reading the wikipedia article on wormholes, two things stood out to me: 1) that they are a "a **hypothetical** topological feature of spacetime" and 2) that "the equations of the theory of general relativity have **valid** solutions that contain wormholes." [emphasis mine] does this mean they, wormholes, exist but haven't been observed and/or is it possible for a valid solution to a physics equation to not exist? | i can write down plenty of mathematically consistent theories which do not describe the universe. for example, our universe without electrons, or our universe without a higgs boson. i could write down our universe without a cosmological constant, or with a negative cosmological constant, or with vastly different values for the relative matter/radiation energy density which contribute to expansion. i could tune values of different dimensionless parameters (there are like 20 in the standard model). there have been plenty of examples of consistent theories which simply didn't end up describing our universe. and actually, while the gödel metric is a solution in general relativity, many people think it will **not** be a mathematically valid solution for whatever more general theory will replace gr someday, since it violates causality (this was basically einstein's original comment on being presented with gödel's work, see also the [chronology protection conjecture](_url_0_)). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_protection_conjecture"
] | [
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how can water fowl be in icy waters and not damage their legs from the cold? | from what i can see, ducks and geese don't seem to have much insulation against the cold on their legs. why don't their legs suffer damage when in freezing waters? | a system called countercurrent heat exchange. our body wants to retain heat, and it usually does so (among other ways) by restricting blood flow to the extremities. the internal organs' temperature is more important to the body and due to the increased surface area and closeness of the vessels to the skin, our hands and feet are prime places for the nice, warm blood from our core to lose heat. the more blood flows there, the more heat we lose; however, we need blood flow to keep our extremities alive and healthy. frostbite leads to extreme vasoconstriction, depriving extremities of nutrients and oxygen and causing rapid cell death. in many cold-weather animals, the warm blood from their heart runs down to their legs in the arterial system while the cold blood from their legs returns to the heart via the venous system. the vessels run in parallel, but in opposite directions, so are able to efficiently exchange heat, allowing the precious warmth from the arterial blood to get transferred to the returning venous blood before it becomes lost to the environment. this way, they still keep their body temperature up, but don't risk ischemic injury to the limbs. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is going on, geologically, in this satellite image from siberia? | i was messing around on google maps, and i came across [this very interesting formation in siberia](_url_1_). i have a few questions for the geologists in the crowd: 1. what is the composition of the red triangle in the center? 2. why are both rivers in this region so twisty? and why do there seem to be a few dozen dry "echoes" of each curve? ([detail](_url_0_)) 3. how old are these riverbeds and lakes? thanks for your time. | i am not familiar with this specific location, so i ask you to forgive my partial answers. hopefully this helps a little though. 1. no idea, sorry. it could be sand or soil colors, or i would guess it is a false color from the satellite image. you can look [here](_url_0_) to see why that might be the case. it could also be a seasonal plant, i really don't know. 2. these are pretty classic meandering rivers (one of the three major types of rivers in the world). the "echoes" of each curve are ridge & swale structures. they mark the past edges of the river. as meandering rivers cut/erode the outside of each bend, they deposit sediments on the inside of each bend, which over time migrates the bend outward (more and more twisty river). eventually, if it "bends" enough, the river can cut through the ridge and swale and create a relatively straight path for the river to follow. the old "bend" tends to get separated as oxbow lakes, until the river once again migrates out and assimilates it. you can see two oxbow lakes [here](_url_1_), with the ridge and swale structure inside the curve of each one. this is just how meandering rivers behave, although it's not usually preserved so beautifully as what you see in this location. 3. i can't directly answer this, but lakes that look like that are almost without question qlacial (kettle lakes) or permafrost (thermokarst lakes) in origin. in this specific location, they are almost certainly thermokarst lakes, since the last ice sheet did not really do much in this portion of siberia (and there is extensive permafrost there). you can see many of the same features (kettle lakes and thermokarst lakes) in minnesota, the [land of 10000 lakes](_url_3_) and [alaska](_url_2_). furthermore, this portion of siberia has very little going on tectonically, since it is located on the siberian craton: a region of very old and stable continental crust. so the landscape is likely very old in this location. but meandering rivers themselves fluctuate very rapidly relatively speaking, and thermokarst lakes are themselves ephemeral. if i recall correctly, a surprising amount of thermokarst lakes have been observed disappearing recently due to the loss of permafrost. so all these features are quite transient, but i can't give you an absolute age of any sort. | 4 | [] | [
"http://quantumschmantum.com/skitches/china_google_maps_-_Google_Maps-20121028-153513.png",
"https://maps.google.com/maps?q=china+google+maps&ll=67.932881,144.599304&spn=0.319362,1.454315&hnear=China&gl=us&t=h&z=10"
] | [
"https://maps.google.com/maps?q=siberia&hl=en&ll=67.971093,144.706335&spn=0.022696,0.071669&safe=off&hnear=Siberia&gl=us&t=h&z=14",
"https://maps.google.com/maps?q=siberia&hl=en&ll=67.916881,144.6175&spn=0.045498,0.143337&safe=off&hnear=Siberia&gl=us&t=h&z=13",
"https://maps.google.com/maps?q=china+google+maps&ll=65.778843,-156.285324&spn=0.1986,0.573349&hnear=China&gl=us&t=h&z=11",
"https://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&ll=46.685483,-93.520088&spn=0.166041,0.286674&t=k&z=12",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meander_scar",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meander"
] | [
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what is the mechanism by which ultrasound alters the catalytic rate of some enzymatic reactions? | i read some research discussing that ultrasound alters the rate of enzyme catalysis involved with biodiesel production, plant growth, and metabolism. now, ultrasound is known to have both a thermal and mechanical impact.. in some agricultural studies they discuss that alpha-amylase, a glycoside hydrolase class hydrolase, is energized by sonication. this may be involved with altering the growth and development of the plant at germination. however, if they sonicate a seed and later plant it ... and the seed does not exit dormancy immediately, ... then that implies that the energy stored in that enzyme is not purely thermal. perhaps it is stored in rotational modes? | that's new to me. looking at a couple of papers ([1](_url_2_), [2](_url_0_)), it there's an increase at lower power densities but a decrease at higher power ones. the higher power decrease would likely be denaturation due to the mechanical agitation, which isn't something uncommon (e.g. seen when whipping egg whites). from my curosry look around, it seems most of these experiments were done with barley grain, and not just the pure enzyme. they also seem to be measuring the concentrations, which is only an indirect measure of the catalytic turnover. most (all?) studies also seem to be the same people (yaldagard et al). i'm not saying it's wrong, but it seems a bit weak, and if the results are true, there could be other things besides the enzyme activity itself causing the result. (e.g. increasing the mobility of the bulky starch substrate molecules) amylase catalyzes hydrolysis and they tend to have a rather simple and straightforward [reaction mechanism](_url_3_). ([more detailed version](_url_1_)) while enzymes can store energy in things like large-scale conformational changes, i don't see any reason or need for it to do so here. it's not impossible for ultrasound to promote enzymatic reactions, but what i managed to find in this case wasn't enough to convince me that's what's happening here. (rotational modes quickly equilibrate with other thermal degrees of freedom, and are therefore normally considered part of the thermal energy, btw) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://profdoc.um.ac.ir/articles/a/1010971.pdf",
"http://www.glycoforum.gr.jp/science/word/gif9909/sa-b01-1.gif",
"http://profdoc.um.ac.ir/articles/a/203939.pdf",
"http://img207.imageshack.us/img207/9234/58434344.jpg"
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if a molecule can only have fixed energy levels then why is a boltzmann distribution a smooth curve? | hi, if a molecules energy level is quantized, why does a boltzmann distribution look like this: _url_0_ and not a linear distribution? | the maxwell-boltzmann distribution describes a classical ideal gas at equilibrium. the energies of a classical ideal gas are not quantized. even in the case of quantum gases (bose or fermi), the equilibrium distribution function for an ideal gas is a continuous function. the energy levels of a particle in a box are quantized, but in the limit where the box size goes to infinity, you have a continuous energy spectrum. | 24 | [] | [
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how does this phenomenon work? | the paomnnehal pweor of the hmuan mnid. aoccdrnig to a rscheearch as cmabrigde uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. the rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. | i remember there being a video of a guy breaking this "research" down and showing how simply made it was. first you note the number of 3/2/1 letter words that can't be scrambled. then you notice the sheer number of four letter words in the paragraph that, even if you stumble on for even a second, you need simply change two letters to get the word. finally, once you have those you're left with almost an entire sentence except one large word that is easily guessed through context. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
when fossils are found, do they account for "shrinkage" when making notes on dimensions? | i ask because i could be thinking about this wrong, but i would think that when a bone, or leaf, or any ancient piece of life that's been preserved in fossil form is found, it's been compressed significantly. after all, it was time and pressure that made it what it was, correct? so when a bone fossil is found that is 10 million years old and has a max length of 3 inches, is it safe to say that 10 million years ago that bone was slightly longer than 3 inches? also, when they find casts like [this](_url_0_) i would think the shrinkage is even more significant, because that is just mud and silt that filled the footprint, not even something hard like bone... no? | you describe what you've got - so if a brachiopod is 1.25 cm across, it's described as 1.25 cm across. - it is observable factual data. when you try to account for changes from the (unseen) creature to the observed fossil through such estimates as shrinkage, post-mortem degradation, diagenetic changes, etc - one rapidly leaves behind the world of factual data and travels to the land of hypothesis (albeit sometimes informed hypothesis). the largest deformation is usually not compaction but actual structural deformation. there are graphic algorythms to restore the aspect ratio of such fossils through substracting the deformation ellipsoid. see for instance: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [
"http://msnbcmedia1.msn.com/j/streams/2013/September/130925/8C9151538-130925-dino1photo-hmed-0925a-files.blocks_desktop_medium.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/faculty/RWA/programs/strainsim-v-3.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagenesis",
"http://petrifiedwoodmuseum.org/carbonization.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrification#Processes"
] | [
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] |
what is this organism? | i found this [potentially parasitic](_url_0_) organism on a vine that r/whatsthisplant has tentatively identified as family bignonaceae. however, nobody seems to recognize these anemone-looking things growing on the underside of the leaves. can anyone help me figure this out? | those are galls, growths formed by the host (bignona) in response to a (inb this case) indetermined parasite, which could be a fungus or some insect. those things are just casings produced by the host in response to the parasite. | 2 | [] | [
"http://quaoarpowerzoo.blogspot.com/2012/04/unknown-life-form.html"
] | [] | [
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could technologies like crispr eventually be able to change a person's sex and/or turn a person into an entirely new species of human after the changes have propagated through the entire body? | i've watched a few interviews, ted talks and debates about crispr and in them they've said that it can be used to change an organisms dna while the organism is still alive and the changes are permanent and 100% hereditary (*introducing one altered sexually reproducing insect into a population of insects will eventually propagate the altered dna throughout the entire species, which is supposed to be impossible*). crispr supposedly can alter several genes at once, is re-programmable and is easy to use. what are the limits of crispr-like technologies? | sounds like those ted talks oversimplified the situation. * crispr can change dna * this can happen *in vivo*, but delivery is difficult * the changes would only be hereditary if they occurred in the germ line * crispr theoretically could alter more than one gene at once, but typically it is designed for specificity, so altering a single gene. * crispr is very programmable * crispr is **relatively** easy to use, especially *in vitro* however: * crispr cannot delete whole chromosomes of dna * crispr is not 100% effective at breaking a gene (20-60%) * crispr is not 100% specific, and could break the wrong gene (less of a problem with nickase crispr) * crispr is not 100% effective at fixing a gene through homology directed repair (0.5-20%) * the *in vivo* delivery of crispr is currently neither specific nor efficient * development isn't always a process that is amenable to naturally 'restarting', so some changes to genes will not change the adult body the same way it would if they were changed from conception | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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units of dispersion | dispersion, omega=kv has units of inverse time. what does this mean? every x seconds a wave packet disperses a bit? seems kinda wishy washy help! | dispersion is not a physical variable; omega = kv is a "dispersion relationship," in that it tells you the relationship between the (angular) frequency of a wave (omega) and its wave vector (k). so why does this tell us about how waves disperse? if we have a wave packet, we can decompose it into a sum of waves of various frequencies. if those frequencies move at different speeds, that is, if omega/k is not the same for all of those frequencies, then the wave will disperse. having the dispersion relation also allows us to, given the initial wave, determine the wave's shape at later times. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is my stomach so smart at knowing when i drink? | hi, when i wake up in the middle of the night and i'm realllly thirsty, within a few seconds of my first big gulp, i no longer have that extreme thirst feeling. how does the water get absorbed that fast, change the chemiosmotic gradient surrounding the loop of henles, which in turn reduces adh secretion. it happens in literally a second. how can something be that fast? | _url_0_ > drinking stimulates mechanoreceptors in the mouth and pharynx. these peripheral receptors provide input to the hypothalamus and the sensation of thirst is attenuated. this occurs even before any reduction in plasma tonicity. this may be a safeguard against over-ingestion of water as there is an inevitable delay before the ingested water is absorbed and available to decrease plasma osmolality. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.anaesthesiamcq.com/FluidBook/fl5_5.php"
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how does the brain control the body? | to be more precise, how do the electronic signals that the brain sends out work? what is the difference between a signal to contract your triceps, and a signal to move your tongue? because the signal are electronic, can they be intercepted and identified as signals(transferring them to information) by a computer? i really do not know where to tag this.(neuroscience/computing i guess.) edit: in retrospect, the title is a bit too simplified. my apologies. | it sounds like you are asking how nerves work. the nervous system is immensely complex, but we understand *how* signals are transmitted quite well. signals are "electric" only in a sense... there is no electricity. an electric current relies on an electropotential difference to drive movement of electrons, and the nerves rely on something similar. read up on the action potential, which is how nerves carry signals. imagine the nerve as a tube... there are pumps in the membrane that pump charged ions in & out of the nerve creating an electropotential difference. this is fundamental to nerve function, and that's where the electrical analogy comes from. each peripheral nerve originates in a specific spot at the brain or spinal cord and travels to a target tissue (ie. an organ or muscle). when you want to activate the triceps, you activate the triceps nerve. we can record the electrical activity of nerves using **electromyography (emg)**. the typical heart recording you would see in a movie or hospital tv show right before the flatline is an emg recording of the *electrical* activity of the entire heart muscle... this can be recorded from any muscle. each muscle has hundreds of nerve axons that supply it... the above example records from all of them. but we can insert very small electrodes *into* the muscle to record even from a single axon. hope this helps. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do stimulants increase cellular metabolism? | caffeine? methylphenidate? amphetamines? | the rate of cellular metabolism is mainly controlled by[ thyroid hormone](_url_2_). stimulants will increase cellular metabolism in some places indirectly. * cardiac cells need to work harder since they are being stimulated to increase the heart rate. * renal cells in the kidney will work harder because they are now filtering more blood per unit time because the heart is pumping faster. there are more examples i am sure but these jumped to my mind first. if you are asking because you are considering stimulants for weight loss then might i suggest [/r/fitness](_url_1_) or [/r/loseit](_url_0_) for healthier options. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/loseit",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/fitness",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid_hormone#Function"
] | [
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if one square mile received exactly an inch of rain, how much water is that? same question with kilometers. | there are 63360 inches in a mile. so 63360 in x 63360 in x 1 in = 4014489600 in^3 = 1.738 x10^7 gallons which is about 1/5 of the volume carried in a super tanker. source: [wolfram alpha](_url_0_) i'll let you figure out the answer in a km^2. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/"
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|
if humans began eating raw meat again, would our appendix eventually begin to function as it did all those years ago? | no. a selective pressure for survival before reproduction is required to pass on a trait from one generation to the next. so unless the only thing around was raw meat, and only a subset of people with the ability to live on raw meat survived, then that attribute would be passed on. but anyway, the appendix is thought to have originally functioned to help digest cellulose from plants, not meat. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if you randomly sampled an area that had not been regularly mown, would you expect a higher or lower diversity of plants? | ^ title ^ | areas that generally get mowed are usually artificial lawns or fields that generally have a monoculture of one grass species. in that case, mowing is likely to decrease diversity, because bigger flowering plants (dandelions and such) are going to take longer to establish themselves. however, if you were looking at something like a prairie, [the intermediate disturbance hypothesis plays a part in diversity](_url_0_), though according to the abstract, it's less cut and dried than in the marine environments i'm more familiar with. the gist of the idea though is that areas that are constantly disturbed and areas that are never disturbed have lower diversity, since the former will be dominated by fast-growing plants and the latter will be dominated by more competitive, slow-growing plants. areas with a relatively "intermediate" amount of disturbance will have a greater variety of species. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00044784"
] | [
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] |
what physical action do the rods do in your eyes? | if the cones in our eyes receive color and fire off little color chemicals depending on what we see, what physical action do the rods do (responsible for light/dark perception)? | both your rods and cones contain pigments which are triggered by light hitting them and this in turn (eventually) triggers a response in the optic nerves. in the case of your cones these pigments respond only when light of the correct wavelengths strikes, and you have 3 types of cones; s-cones, m-cones and l-cones responding to blue, green and red light respectively (with a little overlap). your rod cells on the other hand also have such pigments but they respond to any ligh striking them and the cells aren't differentiated to detect just one set of wavelengths/colours. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
if co2's sublimation point is -78.5c, and the coldest temperature recorded in the antarctic was -89c, would there have been cardice on the ground as well as regular snow/ice? were there any observations made about this? | arguably the lowest recorded temperature is actually [92ºc](_url_2_) observed via infrared satellite imagery. theoretically, a [large amount of dry ice](_url_1_) should be observable to the landsat satellites, but earth's atmosphere doesn't have enough co2 for significant accumulation. [the last askscience](_url_0_) thread has a better explanation of the chemistry than i could ever give. for historical perspective, the -89ºc minimum was recorded by station personnel at the soviet union's vostok station in 1983. the temperature measurement has been [verified](_url_3_) but there doesn't seem to be any further records on the event. this isn't surprising given the limited resources likely available to the station crew; dry ice doesn't look any different from regular snow and ice, especially in the middle of the night, so the only way to differentiate would be with chemical or spectral analysis. vostok *is* primarily an ice coring station, but it's also very small so they likely don't have much in the way of testing equipment, especially back in the early 80s. (ice cores are shipped back to mainland institutes for analysis.) so given the extreme temperature and limited resources, vostok wouldn't have made observations of co2 even if there was a significant accumulation. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/14oeqe/is_a_rain_snow_of_carbon_dioxide_possible_in/",
"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2005JE002531",
"https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/nasa-usgs-landsat-8-satellite-pinpoints-coldest-spots-on-earth",
"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2009JD012104"
] | [
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|
why does leaving the avocado pit in guacamole keep it fresh? | i would think that the process of mashing the avocado flesh to make guacamole would destroy any fibers that connect it to the pit, yet putting the pit in guacamole makes it last longer. why? | it's a myth. whenever you cut into the avocado, you activate an enzyme, polyphenol oxidase, which causes the monophenols in the avocado to hydroxylate to polyphenols. using an acid, like lime juice will slow or stop the oxidation. leaving pits in the guac will do little to nothing - it does block airflow to the dip that is directly in contact with the seed, so that area may not brown as much or as fast, but generally, the pit just doesn't do anything. edit: also, see [this](_url_0_) for a little more info. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2210/does-leaving-the-avocado-pit-in-the-guacamole-keep-the-stuff-from-turning-brown"
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] |
how does rogue planets become rogue? | great question! rogue planets may be a natural part of planet formation. while our ideas on how planets form are incomplete, i'll base this answer off of one of the most evidence-supported models, the so-called [nice model](_url_0_) (like nice, france -- not like "oh, that's a nice model"). at the end of star formation, a swirling disk of gas and dust is orbiting the star, which first through intermolecular forces and later by gravity coalesces to form planets. the planets can get pretty big while the gas is still clearing, and that straggling gas can lead the planets to shift around a bit before all of the gas clears. in the shifting process, planets can give each other gravitational pushes (i.e. hit resonances), leading to ejections of planets from solar systems. some astronomers have shown that it's even [possible that a fifth giant planet existed in the outer solar system in our past, but was ejected early in the solar system's history](_url_1_). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011AJ....142..152L",
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApJ...742L..22N",
"http://vimeo.com/11993047"
] | [
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|
why don't atoms emit bremsstrahlung? | bremsstrahlung is the radiation caused by a charged particle decelerating. since atoms are made of charged particles, why don't they emit radiation when they are decelerated? | [they do.](_url_0_) since they are overall neutral, the emitted radiation is is weaker (for experts, the radiation is due to higher multipole moments), but it's still there for exactly the reason you say. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremsstrahlung#Polarizational_bremsstrahlung"
] | [
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is running out of resources on earth inevitable? how do we know? | ethylene vinyl acetate is an important raw material used in the manufacture of solar panels (and a *lot* of other things). ethylene is one of its precursors, and that's derived from petroleum. so, yes, we still need oil to produce solar panels. on the bright side, the carbon in petroleum used for plastics, etc. mostly does not wind up in the atmosphere. arguably, one of the reasons to stop burning petroleum as fuel is that the stuff has so many other uses. as for moving to alternative energy sources, there are still some big problems to solve. solar and wind power are very clean sources of energy, but they're not available all the time, or even predictably. we do not yet have the ability to store electricity on the scale that would be necessary to rely entirely on wind and solar. petroleum derived fuels remain extremely dense in energy compared to batteries. this is why electric vehicles are only now beginning to become mainstream, but commercial electric air travel is still a ways off. battery and capacitor technologies are improving rapidly though. will we encounter a critical shortage of *something* in the near future though? that's a really tough question to answer. it's economics. human demand for resources is growing, but is it still growing exponentially? will this growth taper off or accelerate? will key improvements in technology come at the right times? will we take advantage of them in time if they do? if you're just worried about fossil fuels... some are speculating that the current glut of oil on the market caused by opec is an attempt to squeeze out both expensive sources of oil *and* alternative energy to ensure we stay hooked on saudi oil. if so, that suggests opec countries have significant reserves. why sell oil at $40 a barrel for years if you don't have a *lot* of oil left? given what we now know about climate change, there's probably more oil left in the ground than we can really afford to burn as fuel. that may be the real limiting factor. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is leftover in an atom smasher? | i basically understand how a collider works. but what happens to all the leftover particles, quarks, etc. do they just dissipate? would you eventually get build up that needs to be cleaned? do they just float freely around inside the collider? is it vacuumed out through ventilation? i would think after several years there would be some visible material left over. | the exotic particles created in a particle collider are all very short-lived, and they decay like a radioactive atom into other particles, eventually stable ones. so far all the particles we know of decay into protons, neutrons, electrons, neutrinos, and photons very quickly, so there is no accumulation. one thing that happens though is that when these particles hit the beam line, detectors, and anything else around, they can make them radioactive. it's enough radioactivity that it has to be dealt with. edit: it is hoped that the lhc will produce dark matter as well. if so, the dark matter would also be stable, but would not accumulate inside the accelerator and instead fly off into space, like the neutrinos. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when i "start" two balls in a newton's cradle, why does it reflect with two balls on the other side instead of just the last ball with twice as much kinetic energy? | because both energy and momentum are conserved. energy is quadratic in velocity and momentum is linear. if the energy of two balls went into one ball, the resulting velocity would only be 1.4x the original, meaning momentum would be lost. momentum can't be lost, so that can't happen (at least not without something else getting involved). | 70 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does air pressure work? | i'm unable to comprehend how air pressure varies as it does, given a stable altitude. i was just looking at my pressurenet history over the past 3 days, and it varies between 970 and 1010 mbar without any clear pattern over daytime / temperature. how come surrounding air doesn't just rush in to fill low pressure zones and normalise the pressure equally? | keep in mind is that the earth is not a small container of gas under stable conditions. the earth's rotation, the presence of oceans and other large bodies of water, sunlight, and the large size of earth as a system provide more than enough factors to keep things interesting. also remember that pressure, volume, density, and temperature are all coupled when it comes to gasses. _url_0_ so, to tie all of this together, if earth were a boring, non-rotating, sphere of rock with relatively little elevation change in the depths of space (and somehow still had an atmosphere) then yes, pressure would settle rather nicely. this of course isn't the case- the earth's rotation churns up the mixture adding kinetic energy, sunlight beats down distorting the temperature, water can evaporate into the atmosphere creating variations in density and the ratios between gasses in air, and so on and so forth. the end result? we're taking a stab at the underlying reasons behind weather! hopefully that answers your question. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_gas_law"
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simple questions regarding air pressure? | ## 📷 not sure if i understand air pressure properly can someone correct my statements below if they are wrong... 1. air pressure is caused by air's instrinsic property of wanting to expand (much like water but it expands at a much faster rate). 2. cold air expands slower than warm air thus cold air has a lower pressure than hot air. 3. in an experiment where you place an air balloon with in a fridge, the balloon becomes flaccid and deflates due to a decrease in the air's activity; however, when it returns to room temperature, the balloon eventually returns to its original shape; that i understand, however my problem is that within the fridge doesn't the external pressure decreases due to its coldness and this balance of temperature within and without would achieve a pressure equilibrium in & out of the balloon and would leave the balloon inflated? someone correct the way i think about this. thanks | 1. air pressure is caused by air molecules bouncing off of surfaces. water pressure is also bouncing off surfaces but because water has significantly less compressibility it can't be "pressurized" the same way air can. 2. cold air moves slower than warm air which means that it both hits surfaces less frequently and with less force(slower molecule=less force) 3. most fridges are designed to equalize pressure between the inside and the outside so that the door will be easy to open (as sealing the door and having lower pressure inside would make the door not want to open). because the fridge air pressure is roughly the same as outside air when the air in the balloon cools it is reduces in pressure which cause it to reduce in volume. if you were to put a balloon inside an airtight jar or similar container and then put that inside a fridge it would be less likely to shrink (the rubber of the balloon will shrink a little bit when chilled). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in the history of life on earth, around when did the first fart occur, and what would the organism that dealt it have been like? | i'm thinking it would be the first animal to have a gastrointestinal tract, but maybe i'm wrong. | it sounds like a purile question, and it kind of is... but there's actually some research on this! some that made it into the academic research literature and other evidence crowdsourced as anecdata from academic biologists on twitter. see hashtag [#doesitfart](_url_4_). article on [gizmodo](_url_1_) and [google spreadsheet](_url_5_) **mammals** on the list: fart **birds**: do not fart [[lack the microbiome for it](_url_3_)] **reptiles**: fart **fish**: fart [especially herring, [who use flatulence to communicate](_url_2_)] **molluscs** (ammonites, whelks, blue mussels, oysters): do not fart **insects/arthropods**: mixed, some yes, some no [[actual real article in pnas](_url_0_) on 110 species] so, farts seem to have a more complex history than mere existence of a gi tract, though finding out exactly what that is would require a more rigorous study. farting appears to have been gained or lost during evolution more than once (see birds and insect evidence), and may be linked to anatomy, microbiota, diet, and who knows what else? | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/91/12/5441.full.pdf",
"http://gizmodo.com/brilliant-scientists-are-compiling-a-database-of-fartin-1791019159",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/11/1110_031110_herringfarts.html",
"http://www.popsci.com/environment/article/2009-05/it-true-birds-cant-fart",
"https://twitter.com/hashtag/DoesItFart?src=hash&lang=en",
"https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/19gMMn4Wmw3BNLWMojEy7kgrjnjVB2JlMSwd1s-nYyUc/edit#gid=0"
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hierarchy of publications | they serve very different purposes. for up to date cutting edge information on a specific thing, you can't beat a paper. for providing an overview and explanation of a fundamental principal books are able to agglomerate more information in more detail, which makes accessing the information a lot easier than trying to pore through the many and various journal articles that originally developed and evolved those concepts. phd theses are an interesting case, in that they can be an excellent window into a very particular problem. if the work is any good though, you would still want to see the paper(s) that resulted. the thesis is often better at giving more detail to the methodology. the other thing theses can be useful for is the lit-review section if you're new to a topic area. nationality really doesn't come into it. although quality of journal and publication can. in many fields there are a number of vanity press journals which authors can pay to get published in, but which have a very poor or absent peer review process. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
could you pull a boat while on it? | in a hypothetical situation, if you were on a wooden boat and tied some rope to one end and stood on the other side, jumped as high as you could while pulling the rope, would the boat move towards the way you pulled it? | yes. you and the tie point of the boat would move towards each other. if you were in a boat that weighs as much as you do and you pulled the rope one meter, you'd go backwards half a meter, and the boat would go forwards half a meter, not accounting for friction. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is heat transfered between separate phases? is it more than just radiation? | i am currently doing my master's degree in theoretical and physical chemistry. during a lecture in which miniaturization and the resulting difficulties in temperature control played a role, my prof casually just drops the following line: ***while convective and conductive transport of heat is certainly possible and happening in the liquid and the solid, on the meeting point of both, only radiation matters.*** ^(roughly translated) is this true? wouldn't this mean that, the same heat transfer would occur in * between the surface of a solid and the surface of a liquid, separated only by a vacuum * the same system but without the gap? this baffled my to a surprising degree, is just seems so unintuitive to me! is anybody able to confirm what he said or explain the real mechanisms at work? | although phonon transfer (the mechanism of thermal conduction) is not perfect at phase-change interfaces because of some scattering and reflection, conduction still occurs. (the degree of conduction inhibition, or thermal resistance at the interface, is quantified by the so-called [kapitza resistance](_url_0_).) additionally, heat transfer can occur via a phase change (termed the [moving-boundary or stefan problem](_url_1_)) and via electron movement. i agree with the other poster that you should ask your professor for clarification. perhaps in this specific scenario all other heat transfer mechanisms---except for radiation---were negligible? | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interfacial_thermal_resistance",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_problem"
] | [
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how does the brain absorb nutrients/oxygen? | i was thinking how one might keep a brain alive without it actually being fed by the standard array of blood vessels supplied in the body. the brain already sits in cerebrospinal fluid, protected from actually coming in contact with blood via the blood/brain barrier. does the brain simply "take up" the things it needs from the csf? is there any research that uses "live" naked brains fed by csf or csf-like fluid? | first, you should read up on [blood-brain barrier](_url_2_), and understand that it's not like a straight border around the [dura mater](_url_1_). the brain also doesn't float around in the csf unattached to anything. blood vessels go into the brain - and that's how it's fed. the blood-brain barrier describes the junctions of the capillaries within the brain, and makes the distinction that these capillary junctions are different from those found elsewhere. a capillary bed still feeds the brain tissue - it is just a lot more selective than normal capillaries. if blood vessels don't go into the brain... what do you think a [hemorrhagic stroke](_url_0_) is? | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhagic_stroke#Hemorrhagic",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dura_mater",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_brain_barrier"
] | [
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] |
can magnets really increase your furnaces efficiency? | while at home hardware i saw a product that claimed to increase your furnaces efficiency up to 15% by simply clipping a magnet on your incoming gas line. i'm pretty skeptical when i see claims like this so i checked the packaging and there was not a single word to explain how it worked. i was able to find their website _url_0_ and there was a little bit of info on there but it sounded pretty weak. this is copied from their website: - all fossil fuels contain hydrogen in two distinct forms: ortho- and para-hydrogen in a 3:1 ratio - ortho associates more freely with oxygen and is therefore more combustible - the get green system targets the para-hydrogen and energizes them to form ortho-hydrogen, thus creating more efficient combustion can anyone verify if magnets can do what they claim here or is this product just 150$ waste of money? | [hydrogen spin isomers](_url_0_) are molecular hydrogen. hydrogen that is part of a larger molecule is not in either of these states. even if you were burning straight hydrogen in your furnace, a magnet wouldn't do anything. alignment has essentially nothing to do with such reactions, and the two spin isomers behave [asymptotically similarly](_url_1_) at strangely enough, the two spin isomers do in fact have different chemical reactivity. _url_2_ if that's not a coincidence, a phenomenal amount of wasted research went into this bullshit claim. this is a very interesting find. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.yourhomeinstallations.ca/you-have-a-choice/#2"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_isomers_of_hydrogen",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ortho-para_H2_energies.jpg",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00268977700101861"
] | [
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i'm substitute teaching at the moment, in an "inner-city school" and losing all faith in humanity. what can i use to inspire these kids, or at least set them on their way? what will our future be? | sadly if they're not naturally curious about the world by time they're in 9th or 10th grade [talking 14-16 years old for foreigners here...] you're shit out of luck. you can try the usual tactics like explaining that people who think for a living tend to have nicer lives/etc, but that usually fails because they assume "i can never have that life so why bother trying." best you can do is at the start of the semester/year begin each lesson with questions. instead of just dumping knowledge on them force them to be investigators. get confrontational with them when they don't participate. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://staff.tuhsd.k12.az.us/gfoster/standard/demobio.htm",
"http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/education/rocket/BottleRocket/about.htm",
"http://neuron.illinois.edu/curriculum/guppy.php",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRw4ZRqmxOc&feature=related"
] | [
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|
does it cost my body more energy to heat itself up, or cool itself off? | heating your body up would require a lot of movement/exercise which requires a lot of energy. sweating, on the other hand, doesn't require as much energy. sweat glands release sweat that evaporates which takes heat with it. i'm an engineering student, not a biologist, so i wouldn't consider myself a reliable source. but from what i do know about chemistry and thermodynamics, i'm fairly confident i'm right. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is in the bottle in this gif? | _url_0_ what sort of gas is in here? | while it's hard to say considering that most flammable gasses are colorless, it appears to be an example of a type of experiment called a "whoosher bottle", named so because of the sound made when the flame wooshes out of the top. in that experiment, either denatured or isopropyl alcohol is used as the fuel. the bottle is then spun around the long axis (like the way the bottle would roll if it was going down a hill) until the alcohol is completely evaporated. oxygen is added, and then a match is lit causing the entire mixture to burn. | 4 | [] | [
"http://chzgifs.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/funny-gifs-the-whole-jar-burn.gif"
] | [] | [
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] |
if i have a huge nose and my wife has a small nose and we have kids, will one nose type pass down -- will he "have [his/her] nose"? will the nose shape average between the two sizes, balancing them out? how does this work? | this is really a matter of [mendelian](_url_1_) genetics. essentially, your child's phentoype (the physical manifestation of their genes) will be dependent on the genes received from you and your wife. now, when it comes to phenotype things can get rather complicated, some traits are determined with a single gene, while others may be expressed through multiple ones. in genetics you have the concept of recessive and dominant alleles (genetic traits). what this means is that if one form of the gene is present, it can sometimes override the other form. sometimes both genes can be activated, and the physical results will be a blending of the two. for example, skin color is expressed from a number of genes, and that is how you get such a wide variance. as far as your nose question is concerned, i'm not entirely sure, it could be dictated by numerous genes and thus makes it hard to predict. as a side note, before gregor mendel many people did believe in blending inheritance, which is significantly closer to reality then other hypotheses at the time, like [homoculi](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homonculi",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance"
] | [
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|
is there a healthiest position to sleep in? | what i mean is if sleeping on either your back middle or side is any less effective than others. | i asked my gp this question recently and he told me the 'recovery' position that i learned in first aid. it's basically on the side, back slightly curled with knees bent and arms folded(i usually am on my right side, left hand under pillow, right arm straight out). this is apparently the least restrictive position in terms of bloodflow. i've heard elsewhere if you are not in this position you will move about during sleep to prevent clots which seems plausible. i would like to add a question to op, something that only just occured to me; surface density. soft or hard, which is better? :) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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relativistic velocities and black holes | if an object is moving close enough to c, such that its energy density is enough to form a black hole under normal conditions, would it collapse into a black hole as observed by a stationary observer? also from the frame of reference of the object, what will happen to the rest of the universe (moving close to c relative to it)? | everything is already moving that fast in another reference frame; say that of a neutrino zipping past something. what matters is the density in its own rest frame. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can the universe be modeled as a fluid? | i know some things normally considered solids or gases, when viewed at the proper scale can be modeled as fluids. can the same be done for the universe as a whole? | sort of. general relativity has a lot in common with fluid mechanics, because the quantity represents the forces acting on a fluid, the stress tensor, is a non-relativistic version of the quantity that represents the distribution of energy that dictates how spacetime curves. i'm sorry if that was hard to comprehend, i was having a hard time trying to describe it. anyway, einstein's equation says that the curvature of spacetime is equivalent to the stress-energy tensor, and the stress-energy tensor can embody fluid properties. some solutions of einstein's equations are cosmological, meaning they attempt to describe the geometry of the entire universe rather than just, let's say, locally around a star. so, you can treat the stress-energy tensors in cosmological solutions as fluids representing the universe. one such example is [here](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v64/i19/p2219_1"
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are there any examples of an animal species (non human) that exhibit some form of altruism? | altruism in biology is not the same as philosophical altruism. just about every action an animal takes is for it's own benefit; to increase fitness. fitness is the amount of genetic material an organism can pass to future generations, not how physically "fit" the animal is. the examples i see in wikipedia revolve largely around social animals, now why do social animals do this? it's because they're likely closely related to the individual they're helping. by helping a family member (sibling for example) i am indirectly increasing my own fitness because my siblings share half (roughly, assuming the same parents) of my dna. this means all my nieces and nephews share roughly 1/4 of my dna which is half as much as my children. a little math example i learned in class a while back. there's a bird in a flock with 6 of his other siblings, he see's a hunter. if he gives out a warning call he will die, but save all of his siblings, where none might survive if he stays quite. each sibling will have have two children if he survives, and he would normally have 2 himself. this means that every sibling he saves nets him 2 nephews/nieces where he normally wouldn't have any. his own children's relation to him is 0.5 * # of children (2) = 1. a fitness of one for not calling out and running away. his own nephew/niece's relation to him 0.25 * # of children of sibling (2 * 6) = 3. a fitness of 3 for calling out and warning of a predator. it's important to note that by saving his siblings they must have children where they normally wouldn't, otherwise it's not worth it. by saving his six sibling's he's increasing his fitness by a large amount. that's what the animal world is like at the end of the day; maximizing how much of your genetic material makes it to the following generations. those who have the highest fitness, will in turn have children that have the highest fitness. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism_%28biology%29"
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|
is there really a huge ocean of water in the center of the earth or is this just bad reporting? | wow, that time article is a particularly egregious example of a misleading discussion of a scientific paper. i just finished giving the science article a quick read and a few salient details to keep in mind: (1) this is not free water, as pointed out by u/fireflycities, it is bound in a hydrous phase of [ringwoodite](_url_0_), which is the high pressure form of olivine, the most common mineral in the mantle. (2) based on their estimates, this area of the mantle may contain ringwoodite with 1 weight percent water. i repeat, 1.0 weight percent. (3) there is no discussion of water being squeezed or sweated out of the ringwoodite in the article. what they're talking about is a small (1-5%) of partial melt being produced in this region of the mantle because of the hydration. i strongly suspect that the author of the paper was misquoted in the time piece, notice that only the "almost as it's sweating" is the part in quotes, not the part about the water being extracted. what is happening is preferential melting of the hydrous ringwoodite, but this is producing liquid ringwoodite/olivine, not free water. don't get me wrong, this is a really cool result as it does demonstrate that there is a relatively large amount of water in the mantle (1 weight percent is a small amount but you have to remember the sheer enormity of the volume of material being discussed). this is important, as pointed out in the otherwise terrible time article, because there has been a lot of debate recently about the whether there was enough water initially in the materials that accreted to form the earth to be the source of the majority of the surface water on earth (and this result bolsters that claim). additionally, the presence of even a small amount of partial melt has dramatic implications for the mechanical properties of this layer in the mantle, which in turn has implications for how we model mantle processes and how they relate to the surface (tectonics). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringwoodite",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/344/6189/1265.short"
] | [
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|
what effect do beta2 agonists have on the retina? | beta2 agonists are broncodilators, what effect do they carry inside the eye? vasodilation? vasoconstriction? i am just curious if any brilliant people can help shed somelight on this as i cant find information on its effect on the eye. & #x200b; hard question- | awesome question, you’re right that the research about this kinda sucks. if you are good at interpreting/understanding research articles then check this out, if not then i’ll cover the details below so don’t worry: _url_0_ generally, research of this nature is done using model organisms, in the case of this study it is rats. here the beta-2 adrenoceptor agonist they used is salbutamol which is commonly used in asthma inhalers. the study found that salbutamol increased the diameter of retinal arterioles and decreased the mean arterial pressure. this means that it caused vasodilation of the blood vessels in the retina. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28160015/"
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is there a material that is cloth like, but hardens when struck or electrified like the cape in dark knight? | transducers are materials that convert one form of energy to another. piezoelectric materials are found in many everyday items and they convert kinetic energy to electrical energy. when a piezoelectric material is deformed, it creates a charge (like flintless lighters, a piezoelectric material is struck by a spring loaded hammer and causes a bolt of electricity to be produced and sparks the flame). it also works in reverse, such as piezoelectric speakers (those cheap little buzzers) where a alternating voltage is applied to make the piezoelectric material expand in contract at an audible frequency. i'm not sure if the manufacturing processes are available to make material like batmans cape as of yet, but scientifically it is possible | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencebob.com/blog/?p=608"
] | [
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|
what is an expression for the flux of a conservative force field through or along the boundary of a mobius strip? | if a mobius strip is constructed from a single closed loop, is there an analytic expression for the flux; through the surface enclosed by the loop, or for a path following the loop? so this would be to calculate the work done moving through a conservative force field along a path which is the outline defining a mobius strip. thanks | a flux integral of some vector field **f** through a surface is defined as the integral of < **f**, **n** the boundary of the mobius strip is one-dimensional and thus trivially orientable. so if **f** represents some force field, then the line integral of **f** along the boundary still makes sense and is equal to the work done on the particle. it seems your problem is that you see a closed loop and want to apply stokes's theorem to express the work done as some surface integral. but stokes's theorem requires that the surface whose boundary is the loop to be orientable. in general, a closed loop is not necessarily the boundary of some orientable surface. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do blood pressure lowering medicines help in lowering performance anxiety? is the main cause of the anxiety (or stress in general) high blood pressure? | so people with naturally lower blood pressure are less prone to stress, and vice versa? | one of the mechanisms through which anxiety has its effect on the body is activation of the sympathetic nervous system (sns). sympathetic activation also raises blood pressure by increasing heart rate and contractility (which is a part of the feeling of anxiety). a particular class of drugs used to treat high blood pressure (β-blockers) acts by blocking the receptors for the neurotransmitters of the sns. as such it can also inhibit some of the manifestations of anxiety because they share a pathway. note that although activation of the sns is commonly known as the 'fight or flight' response, there is a constant basal sympathetic tone that contributes to the above mentioned effects. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/social-anxiety-disorder/basics/treatment/con-20032524"
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when you crack a towel like a whip the tip breaks the sound barrier, what effect would using a bigger, heavier object be? ie. a steel cable | edit: suppose the steel cable is 1000x larger than a usual whip. would the shock have noticeable affects on earth? | a louder crack. whips depend on an exchange of mass for velocity with a constant momentum along a loop. as the whip narrows, the mass decreases along the loop, which forces the velocity higher and higher until it breaks the sound barrier. a longer, heavier whip swung *at the same speed* will break the sound barrier more easily and quickly | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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any pharmacologist type people here? how are drugs developed when we don't know their mechanisms of action? | something that bugs me...a lot...is studying various drugs and then looking for their mechanism of action, only to have it pop up with "the mechanism of action is unknown for this drug." wait, what? seriously? then how was it developed? i know a lot of drugs are based off substances extracted from herbs and the like to be more potent, and that's understandable that they might not know the moa of those drugs, they just know it works from years of trial and error, but when you have new drugs coming out on the market that go 'yah, we don't know how this drug actually works', then how on earth did they even synthesize that drug if they didn't have some idea of what they were trying to do with it? do they just take the run-off of some other experiment and go 'let's stick this in a rat with a heart condition and see if it helps' or, where do they get the idea to try x drug in y situation if they don't even know what the drug does? | development begins by first creating an assay that replicates the necessary steps of the targeted process. you then trial a library of thousands of compound varieties against your assay and look for the desired effect. after finding lead hits, you make slight variations to the chemistry of the promising molecule and keep trialling until you have the profile you're looking for. shotgun approach. you don't need to know how it works right away, just that it has the intended effect. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the environmental factors in average height - can we force people to the upper bounds of their height "potential"? | or does height potential even exist? i guess i'm looking for any studies about whether environmental circumstances that require height (in humans) have shown an increase in average height for people of that community, or something to that effect. this came up in my head because i thought about the possibility of having two households, one with tables, shelves, and counters that required a much higher reach. would a child who had the challenge of higher counters/tables/shelves in their house end up growing taller to adapt to that environment than an equivalent being in the other house? | this [european journal of human genetics paper](_url_0_) describes methods of predicting an individual's height. generally speaking, present-day humans in developed areas are pretty close to their "maximum heights" based upon genetics. there were significant periods during which malnutrition resulted in an overall decrease in average height. an individual's height is strongly predicted by the genetics of their parents. thus, beyond good nutrition and avoiding toxins (and being exposed to [excess human growth hormone](_url_1_)), height is pretty much fixed at birth. natural selection doesn't work to alter the traits of a single individual, but rather an entire species. putting a child in a house with tall shelving would be obnoxious, but not make them grow any taller. if you made every house have tall shelving, and let children who did not grow tall enough to reach food starve to death before they could reproduce, you could create evolutionary pressure to change the average height of humans, i suppose. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v17/n8/full/ejhg20095a.html",
"http://adc.bmj.com/content/46/250/745.abstract"
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do uv sanitizing wands really work and if so, how? | uv radiation damages the dna of cells. the idea is to hurt them to a point that prevents them from being able to replicate efficiently, not to simply kill them off the first go. uv radiation however is only good for surfaces and only ok for water sources (need more intensity/time to do the same effect). for damaging cells within the bulk of an item, high energy x-rays, gamma rays, and electron beams can be used (and are used very often for sterilizing foods and medical equipment). the best part of it all is that you can package an item, and then without even opening it up, sterilize the contents! | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what's the name of the cognitive bias that makes you care more about things that directly pertain to you? | and therefore less about things that are far away from you, that you can't directly perceive. | this could be related to the idea of the [availability heuristic](_url_0_) which is that we are biased by things that come to mind more easily or which occurred more recently. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Availability_heuristic"
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why do so many electronic devices have transformers (or "power supply bricks") at the end of the cord where they plug into the wall/power strip, rather than in the middle of the cord? | so many devices, from my computer to my phone charger to my wifi router, have massive bricks at the part where they plug into the wall, and wind up covering other outlets. i'm probably not the only person who's been frustrated by this. i know it's possible to not do this, since other devices, like my xbox or macbook, have transformers in the middle of the cord, with another bit of cord that plugs into one socket and doesn't block anything else. why don't all devices do this? | because it's cheaper, requiring less heavy gauge copper. the copper used in that section of wire from the outlet to the the x-box power brick is enough to make a transformer all in itself. the only reason that the x-box power transformer is in the middle of the wire is because it is too heavy and doesn't meet ul standards being so heavy on the outlet. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone please explain me the phenomena of photo- oxidation? | a polymer is often a covalent bond structure. to deteriorate or to oxide the polymer requires breaking those bonds so that they will react with atmospheric oxygen or ozone. the spontaneous cleavage of covalent bonds is very slow because the free radicals formed in homolytic fission are very unstable - this means a high activation energy and thus a slow reaction. this is severely facilitated by the absorption of photons that excite the atoms. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the minimum velocity an electron needs to escape through a vacuum after entering the conduction band of the metal electrode? | from the conduction band minimum, to get to the vacuum level an electron needs to gain an amount of energy called the electron affinity. this is a different value for each material, and in fact is a surface property, so it can be different for different crystal faces or chemical terminations of the same material. generally speaking, it is on the order of an ev or two. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what part of the brain is the reward center? is it possible to feel the 'reward sense' at the wrong time? | this is actually a pretty good summary of the "reward system" in the vertebrate brain, according to the current neuroscience community: _url_0_. as with pretty much any cognitive function, there is more than one region of the brain, and many different types of neurons, involved to produce "reward", or the recognition of a stimulus as positive. for your second question, i guess it depends on what you mean by "the wrong time." many addictive drugs, most notably stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine, act in part by amplifying dopamine signaling in the brain--one of the same neurotransmitters that is important for signaling in some of the brain regions involved in reward detection. this is part of what makes these drugs pleasurable and addictive, although they aren't actually signaling something good happening to your body, and in fact are often causing damage. they are effectively hijacking your ability to detect reward. this is a more philosophical answer, but one of the interesting things about the brain is its capacity for parallel processing of stimuli. we aren't good at focusing our conscious attention on multiple things at once, but our brains do constantly detect and even respond to different stimuli at the same time. so it seems neurologically feasible that the brain could process both pleasure and a negative emotion at the same time, and in fact there is some support for this in psychology literature as well: _url_1_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system",
"http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/100/6/1095/"
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|
how does a region being open or closed affect the calculation or value of an integral over that region? | looking through my textbooks i haven't seen any difference in the treatment of an integral over an open region. when i asked the professor about it he said "because it's finite on the boundary, we can safely ignore it", but when pressed he couldn't direct me to any justification of this statement. how do we justify ignoring it in this case? in what case would it make a difference? | it typically doesn't, although it depends on the measure and the set you're integrating over. for the lebesgue measure, most well-behaved sets have measure zero boundaries, so integrals over them are zero, but that's not always the case. usually when derivatives are involved in the integrand, you'd like to restrict the integral to an open set, because derivatives aren't defined (in the rigorous classical sense) on boundaries. i'm still not sure why you're puzzled about it. do you have an example where the openness or closedness of the set is specified but you're not sure why? you're asking me how he justifies ignoring the boundary in "this case" but you haven't told me what "this case" is. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what were the first computers used for? what would they and/or could they calculate that could't be calculated before? | what could these first computers do that humans couldn't do? why did companies and governments buy them? for example, computers in this video of the history of computers: _url_0_ | the first electronic computers were developed around the time of world war ii and were used for military purposes like decrypting encoded transmissions and calculating projectile trajectories. they didn't do anything that couldn't have been done by hand, they just did it much more quickly and reliably making the calculations practical to perform. | 15 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4diPtsUv3sg"
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is the space in the middle of a tuning fork silent? | if both ends of the fork are resonating at the same frequency and they're created in phase, would they destructively interfere, making the space between silent? | no not necessarily. between the two tuning forks you are creating a standing wave, the equation of which is described by [this formula](_url_0_). the amplitude of the wave is only zero at the nodes, i.e. where sink(kx)=0. to find out where this happens, you just have to solve the equation above, i.e. kx=n*pi, where n is an integer. note that the wavevector, k, is related to the temporal frequency by the speed of sound (c): w/k=c. | 7 | [] | [] | [
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time dilation equation help? | ok, firstly this is my first ever reddit post, i have read the rules etc and i hope it goes well. i'm currently reading a book about quantum physics and other related fields, and the author mentioned time dilation as you approach the speed of light (special relativity i believe?). the author also noted that as you reach ~87%, time slows by ~50%. i looked up the equation to do with these, but i could not understand it one bit. could someone please explain to me in a fairly simple way how speed correlates to time dilation, and if possible, put the equation with the comments so that i could work out what happens at different speeds? thank you in advence. | [this equation?](_url_0_) it's pretty straitforward. you plug v into that equation with the known value of the speed of light, and it gives you a bigger and bigger number as v gets closer to c. for v greater than or equal to c, the number doesn't make sense. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/math/4/7/e/47e8332a19266ef9eb7998cdc43b7827.png"
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can pythons and boas breed? | i know pythons lay eggs and boas (generally) give birth to live young. wondering if they are able to breed or if their dna is too different to allow it. | pythons and boas are different families, so more distantly related to one another than say, wolves and coyotes or domestic cats and servals which can produce fertile offspring. it would be similar to a cat breeding with a hyena or a human breeding with a gibbon. i looked into this some time ago and could not find any examples of animals in different families successfully breeding, but hard to say its impossible. but most likely its not possible for them to successfully produce offspring, and if they were able to achieve it, the offspring would almost certainly be sterile. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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feyman's multiple path formulation of quantum physics | will someone please help me understand feyman’s multiple path formulation of quantum theory? consider the double slit experiment . as i understand feynman’s theory, a particle goes from the source to the screen by all possible paths, and these various paths constructively or destructively interfere with one another. on repeated trials, this leads to the interference pattern on the screen. the possible paths include everything, including round trip excursions to distance stars (although these may be highly improbable). my first question concerns the times of arrival on the screen associated the paths – they must be vastly different due to the speed of light, no? if my understanding is correct, we observe experimentally only the results of the more direct paths because the long distance indirect ones are very improbable. but i still have problems understanding how alternative paths can interfere with one another. i can see it in the mathematics, but cannot form a mental image of it. the idea of multiple nearby worlds seems to offer an "explanation", but is there another explanation? is my understanding so far correct? thanks for your help. | given you brought up feynman i'll just quote a phrase often attributed to him: "if you think you understand quantum mechanics, you don't understand quantum mechanics" this is more of a philosophical than a scientific question in some ways. feynman didn't suggest that there was a different result to the double slit experiment, only that this was another way of viewing it. to be honest, in some ways it always seemed somewhat absurd to me while i was studying at school, and then it also seemed absurd when i was studying at university and it still seems a bit crazy now. perhaps i'm not being of much help. all i can say is that the mathematics works and produces the correct answer, and that our brains have evolved to deal with medium sized objects (of the order of .1mm to 100m) moving at moderately sized speeds (say .001 to 100 m/s). when we get to the quantum scale our brains aren't really equipped to draw clear mental pictures that work well with our normal understanding of the world. and all physics deals in is models of reality, not actual descriptions of reality. edit: i'm sure someone else can come up with a better explanation that i have done. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is thermohaline circulation theory wrong and does this mean all the climate change models based on a flawed assumption? | _url_0_ this study seems to suggest that scientists had it wrong about the thermohaline circulation and that most of the floats put into the current ended up floating out of it. my understanding was that this was the assumption that many very complicated climate models held this as one of the major assumptions. | i strongly disagree this study from 2009: this study helped to refine how exactly amoc behaves. no tracer experiments, be they floats, drifters or buoys ever present data that looks like the simplified [ocean circulation patterns](_url_0_) one might find in an introductory text. real data looks far more complicated, but in general results in overall patterns such as those. this is true for surface and subsurface circulation. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v459/n7244/full/nature07979.html"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ocean_surface_currents.jpg"
] | [
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to what extent does our knowledge of the electrochemistry of our brain support or contradict the idea of free will? | hi all, from the askscience help i *think* questions about determinism are still ok - if not, sorry. so...my understanding is that we can currently predict the results of simple electrical and chemical reactions. if we know the initial conditions and the properties of the materials involved we can predict the outcomes, and it would be fair to say that if we don't interfere with the process/chemicals reactions they will take place as predicted..once they are in motion, without outside interference they continue in a logical, predictably way. if our brains consist of electrical signals and chemicals, does the same hold true? (even just in theory - and even if it's on a scale we can't currently hope to examine or predict?) are there schools of though on this? i can see how this falls down because the brain isn't a closed system and it's constantly recieving new information via our senses, but if we could limit (or control) the sensory input then isn't our brain just a super-complex chemical reaction, where the electrochemical outcomes (and therefore thoughts, actions and decisions) are inevitable based on the current electrochemical state of the brain? or do we know for certain that our brain operates in a manner which can never be predicted, and has this helped our understanding of choice and free will? | this is both a scientific and philosophical problem, and we'll need a better understanding of both the question (the language and the meanings of words used to pose it), as well as neuroscience, in order to answer it. to begin with, you have to state your question much more precisely. "free will" has too many meanings. free of what, exactly? free of knowledge about outcome? free of natural physical laws? free of your prior convictions and behaviors? all of these things (and many more) matter, because the answer changes depending on what is being asked. obviously, we cannot make a choice that doesn't occur to us at the time of the choice was made. things that occur to us depend upon our prior knowledge and experience, they don't magically appear out of nothing. so "free will" isn't free in some absolute sense, it depends on your context, which includes prior knowledge and experiences. there are many other such constraints on "free will", even in the philosophical sense. this is why "free will" is really not a great term to use. if you expect useful answers, you must narrow it down and state the question more precisely. in a wider sense, you could reduce it down to physical determinism. you could ask whether those principles apply, and if they do, how? this does **not** equate to "free will" in a philosophical sense, because there are many connotations of "free will" that are perfectly consistent with physical determinism. the only way to avoid physical determinism in the usual sense is through phenomena that happen at a quantum level. there is no evidence that any such phenomena happen in the brain in a way that affects what we call "free will". however, there are plenty of theories, for example: * hameroff, s. r. (2007). the brain is both neurocomputer and quantum computer. cognitive science, 31(6), 1035-45. doi:10.1080/03640210701704004 * georgiev, d. (2009). remarks on the number of tubulin dimers per neuron and implications for hameroff-penrose orch or. nature precedings, 13-15. nature publishing group. * lewis, e. r., & macgregor, r. j. (2006). on indeterminism, chaos, and small number particle systems in the brain. journal of integrative neuroscience, 5(2), 223-247. these are not mainstream theories - they are like the stuff put out by many theoretical physicists - stuff that kinda sorta fits into mainstream science but doesn't have much (or any) experimental support. if you could show quantum indeterminism in the brain, **and** provide some plausible biological mechanism how this might work out in making choices, then it could address questions about the determinism of free will. however, none of this has been done yet. moving away from the quantum stuff, there is the interesting question of the **perception of free will**, which is quite separate from the question of whether free will exists. in our own minds, we often feel that our decisions are free. i can get up and go brew a cup of coffee right now, or i may decide not to. i feel that this choice is up to me, and i could freely choose either. this is the **perception** of free will, and this is a question not just of biology, but psychology as well. there is some work by neuroscientists that addresses questions of this sort, for example: * bem, d. j. (2011). feeling the future: experimental evidence for anomalous retroactive influences on cognition and affect. journal of personality and social psychology, 100(3), 407-25. doi:10.1037/a0021524 * eagleman, d. m., & holcombe, a. o. (2002). causality and the perception of time. trends in cognitive sciences, 6(8), 323-325. * haggard, p., clark, s., & kalogeras, j. (2002). voluntary action and conscious awareness. nature neuroscience, 5(4), 382-5. doi:10.1038/nn827 * libet, b. (1999). how does conscious experience arise? the neural time factor. brain research bulletin, 50(5-6), 339-40. * libet, b. (2003). can conscious experience affect brain activity? journal of consciousness studies, 10(12), 24–28. imprint academic. i would recommend reading some of those papers, specially the seminal work by libet, which is quoted extensively and further developed by the others. in brief, they argue that we may form decisions, make choices *before* we are aware of having made the choice. so "free will" may in fact not be the act of freely choosing whether or not to perform an action, but rather a post-processing of a choice already made, which may include modifying or refining it, or even **not** acting upon it by making **another** "free will" choice that impedes or negates the first. the situation is pretty complex. i don't think we are even at the point of knowing which is the right question to ask. it may be that "free will" works in some way that isn't like what people intuitively understand by the term. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where do we get will power from? is there a brain region or a chemical associated with increased or diminished will power? | i'm in my late 30's, and recently have found that my will power with regard to staying in shape is a lot higher than it has ever been. there are obvious psychological reasons why really feeling my mortality (something that apparently happens around this age) will cause me to add value to a project like maintaining my health, but every time i really tried to commit to making such changes earlier in my life, my body and brain just felt like they were fighting over it a lot more...as in, my body's visceral craving to sit around and eat a ton of pizza trumped my brain's logical understanding of what that meant for my fitness level without even trying when i was 25; now, it's an even fight, maybe even one that the brain has a slight advantage in. obviously, any split between the brain and body is spurious, but i feel more prepared to fight the good fight against my most dangerous cravings now than i ever have before, and i'm curious as to what is happening to make me feel this way (and what i can do to increase that will power, if possible). | as you say, the willpower you're describing is not, strictly physiologically speaking, a "brain vs body" issue. your body (including the brain) sends chemical and neuronal signals to your conscious mind to indicate a need to eat, sleep, etc. unless those signals are unusually strong--eg you haven't slept in days, and are apt to fall over asleep at any time without being aware of it--they are integrated into conscious awareness along with all other things in one's conscious mind, eg the knowledge that it would be beneficial to get some exercise. the frontal lobes, which are responsible for executive functioning, make use of that conscious information and decide what to do: keep eating, get up and go for a walk, formulate a month-long exercise plan, budget money for the gym, etc etc. it's a deeper question as to what, at a particular point in your life, changed your assessment of factors to favor exercise. as you state a conscious and perhaps also unconscious motivation to avoid death has become more salient, and there could by any number of reasons why--perhaps you know someone who has died, or had a recent illness or injury, or any number of other contributors. however one thing that may work in your favor now as opposed to in your early 20s is that your brain has now completed the process of synaptic pruning (cutting back connections between nerve cells). this has been shown to result in less risk-taking behavior; perhaps overeating and not exercising is now perceived by you as risk-taking in a long-term sense whereas it was not before. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would a typical modern adult human who'd never seen or heard of a snake before instinctively know it was dangerous and which end to be worried about? | i think that's the whole question, but please ask any questions for clarification. | monkeys are instinctively afraid of snakes, even captive-born monkeys that have never seen one (_url_0_) but i can't find a source for apes. however, the part of the brain in the macaques that responded so strongly to the snake images is conserved across primate species, including humans. i'd say it's likely. edit: link was borked, fixed now | 616 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/110/47/19000",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2013/10/did-snakes-help-build-primate-brain",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/10/1004_snakefears.html"
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are galactic filaments the amplified version of the quantum fluctuations that took place at the beginning of the universe? | here are the filaments in question: _url_0_ when the universe was at sizes comparable to the planck length, would quantum mechanics have dominated the energy (and therefore matter) distribution to form the galactic filaments we have today? is this what the fabric of the universe looked like at the quantum level? | that's the idea, yes. these structures have the same origin as the hot and cold spots on the [cosmic microwave background](_url_0_) as well - the galactic filaments look a lot clumpier and less uniform because they formed much later than the cmb was emitted, after overdense regions of matter had time to collapse under their own gravity. these quantum fluctuations probably wouldn't have been generated at the planck scale, actually, but shortly thereafter, during the era of [cosmic inflation](_url_1_). during this period, the expansion of the universe didn't slow down under its own gravity, but rather expanded at an accelerating rate. this meant that the quantum fluctuations in the density of matter were quickly blown up to be much larger than the size of the observable universe, and so they were "frozen in" to the cosmos. billions of years later, as the universe expanded at a more sedate pace, these fluctuations would become observable again, and the denser regions would collapse to form the cosmic structure you pointed out. why is inflation the important thing, rather than the planck scale? if the universe were expanding but decelerating then (and remember, because of gravity, we normally expect it to decelerate), then these quantum fluctuations would die down before they could expand to any appreciable size. but physics works a bit differently in an expanding universe, so that the fluctuations expand more quickly than the size of the observable universe can grow. this leads to them being frozen in. so the key is accelerated expansion. **by the way**: we have a lot of *circumstantial* evidence for inflation (most notably, the predictions inflation makes agree beautifully with the hot and cold spots of the cmb), but there are rumors that the "smoking gun" signal of inflation has been detected, and will be announced *on monday*. ([see here](_url_2_).) so far it's a rumor, but if true it would be one of the most important discoveries in the history of cosmology! | 2 | [] | [
"http://scienceblogs.com/startswithabang/files/2011/01/cosmic_web_3.jpeg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background#All-sky_map",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation_(cosmology)",
"http://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/14/gravitational-waves-big-bang-universe-bicep"
] | [
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how common is prion resistance/immunity in humans? | i have general anxiety disorder, and recently i have been losing sleep over a prion phobia. so, how common is genetic resistance to prion disorders in humans? specifically, my family is of southern chinese background, and i would like to know if prion resistance would be common in a typical southern chinese genotype. thank you. | unless you're genetically related to a particularly small tribe of cannibals from papua new guinea, there's a very very low likelihood that you have any sort of immunity or even basic resistance to a prion disease. not to mention there are multiple types of infectious prions and you would need an adaptation for each one in order to be completely immune. this is unfortunately not going to ease your anxiety, but at least medical science does have treatments for that. | 65 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how would a compressional wave in a fluid interact with a toroidal vortex? | i'm interested in learning something about how a fluid might behave if a toroidal vortex flow were produced, like one that a dolphin or scuba diver might produce with an air bubble, and a compressional wave, propagating along the rotational axis of the vortex, were to superimpose. my intuition says that there would be compression of the torus and possibly some kind of reflection in a certain scheme, the scheme would depend on the geometry of the ring and the wavelength of the compression wave. thoughts? edit: [here's a drawing of what i was thinking if it helps clarify.](_url_0_) | here's the paper you'll want to read: _url_0_ there's more papers out there; "shock-vortex interaction" seems to be the keyword. tl;dr: for a strong enough vortex, the wave may be partially reflected. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/E6qRvf8.png"
] | [
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is there such a thing as a "bad dog"? (assuming the owner is a good person) | are all dogs truly good, innocent creatures if they are domesticated by a good owner? this question is for domestic dogs...not wolves and other wild dogs. | yeah. just like you can have human sociopaths, you can have canine sociopaths too. this is the only reason i'd ever consider buying a purebred dog; their personalities tend to be a lot more predictable. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would an alien civilization have the same mathematical formulas than us? | assuming that they are as advanced as us (more or less). my friend told me a week ago that we can not understand the universe using mathematics because the numbers are given or measured by humans. i told him about the different systems of length and that the only thing that matter is the relationship between the numbers, and now this question is in my mind. | since science has no way of answering this short of being contacted by aliens, would you say that your question is along the lines of "are mathematical formulas described in a framework-independent fashion?" | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if a perfect vacuum were to be placed in between two plates of a capacitor, wouldn't the displacement field and capacitance be zero, meaning the dielectric constant is zero? can a dielectric constant ever be less than 1? | it would seem that an electric/displacement field energy can only be stored in the interaction between molecules - but what if there are no molecules in a volume? if a dielectric constant could be less than 1, wouldn't that make the speed of light higher than the standard 3 x 10^8 m/s? what are some other ramifications of this possibility? note: i am a grad student in electromagnetics/electrical engineering, so i understand a lot of the macro/mathematical theory but very little of the theoretical and quantum physics! | the dielectric constant of a vacuum is 1. the energy is stored because there is charge built up on both plates and thus there is an electric field in the vacuum between them. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i created enough mirror molecules to compose a cell or an oraganism in the same way as the normal version would it survive and function properly? | intuition says the mirror molecules wouldn't work like they do in normal organisms, then again if all the molucules composing it are right handed instead of left it might. right? | there is no actual difference in the chemistry of a 'right' or 'left' handed molecule. they behave exactly the same chemically. sugars and proteins have what's called a 'chiral centre' which basically means that a molecule can be right or left handed at that centre. most of the molecules we make have several chiral centres, so they arent simply right or left handed. biological function relies on the shape of sugars and proteins, so if you suddenly switched their handedness, you change the shape their molecules entirely, and change their chemistry entirely, making them very nun-functional. (think of ripley walking through that room with the clones, only much, much worse). if you wanted to switch the symmetry of proteins etc, you'd have to create life from scratch and then there's no reason it wouldn't work. tldr: symmetry cooperates to from a shape to give function, messing it gives something totally new and non-functional | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a simple formula approximating gr correction to newtonian gravity? | by observation of the precession of the orbit of mercury, and the angle of deflection of starlight, einstein's general relativity approach made a slight mathemtical correction to the simple g m m over r\^2 treatment of gravitational force re distance. though the diff is nonzero everywhere, it's negligible except fairly close to a massive body. (1) is there a fairly simple down-and-dirty *approximation* for the difference that could be added to the newtonian formula?--ie, "plus some percentage that changes with distance?" (2) couldn't the newtonian formula still apply by making the "2" exponent a somewhat more complicated exponent--perhaps turning the force graph-parabola into into a (very similar) hyperbola? | the simplest approximation of general relativity that deviates minimally from what would be expected from newtonian gravity is called the *weak field approximation*. in this approximation, we assume that gravitational fields are weak and velocities are slow. in particular, this means: 1. φ < < c^(2) 2. v < < c the metric that describes spacetime can then suitably be approximated as: where φ is the usual newtonian potential. this weak field approximation is typically a good approximation for regions exterior to massive objects, such as planets and stars. ---- with regards to perihelion shift, no approximations are needed beyond some mild assumptions that the *exact* schwarzschild metric is valid outside the gravitating mass. this is more or less true and is about as mild as saying that the newtonian gravitational potential outside a gravitating mass is the usual v(r) = -gm/r. in this *exact* model, trajectories for massive particles can be worked out as we can derive an equation for these trajectories of the form in pure newtonian gravity, the effective potential for the radial coordinate is (the first term is the gravitational potential and the second term is the centrifugal potential. the parameter l is the angular momentum of the particle and μ = mm/(m+m) is the reduced mass of the two-body system.) in general relativity, the effective potential has one extra term: (there is another subtlety here, which is not too important. normally, the equation of motion would be m(dr/dt)^(2)/2 + u(r) = e. but in the relativistic two-body problem, e is replaced with e^(2)/(2mc^(2)) - mc^(2)/2. other than a relabeling of the energy, the mathematics are the same.) so the difference between the effective potentials in newtonian and relativistic gravity is a term proportional to -1/r^(3). this term is typically only relevant for strong gravitational fields. the only planet in our solar system for which this term is significantly non-negligible is mercury. it is this term that is responsible for perihelion shift. --- there are other post-newtonian effects as well. for the interior of a star, the weak field metric is no longer appropriate, but we can use the interior shcwarschild metric and then make approximations such as "pressure is smaller compared to the mass density". in pure newtonian gravity, the field inside a massive star is given by the poisson equation: where ρ is the mass density. the first correction from relativity gives the slightly different equation: where p is the pressure. in this post-newtonian limit, the equation for the pressure still satisfies the usual hydrostatic equilibrium equation: the general picture is that the addition of the term p/c^(2) in the poisson equation for the gravitational potential tends to steepen the pressure gradient relative to what we would expect from pure newtonian theory. this means that a star needs *stronger* internal forces in gr than in newtonian gravity to stay in equilibrium. it's harder for a relativistic star to stay in equilibrium than it is for a newtonian star to do the same because the pressure contributes to the gravity. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do animals evolve to have certain patterns on their body? | on the front page i saw an owl with fake eyes on the back of the head, as the feathers on the back of the head are of a different colour, resembling an eye. how did it evolve to have those specific patterns? | the commonly accepted theory of evolution will tell you that some time in the past, an owl, maybe even a few ; were born with a special pattern of coloured features on the back of their heads (a mutation). those specific owls did benefit somehow from having that pattern : less likely to be attacked from behind by other owls or birds for example. this slight edge gave them an advantage over other "normal" owls. e.g : spending less time fighting and more time hunting = more food, winning more fights over other birds or competitors because they wouldn't get attacked from behind or confused them for a long enough moment to flee, being more reckognizable by other owls from the same species,... this special feature would slowly lead to being a better mate for owls of the other sex and would finally lead them to have more offspring which itself would spread that advantage and so on, until it becomes a wide spread feature among owls and other "less efficient" owls would die out or be more and more excluded. all in all, this is not a conscious choice from the owls and it explains complex color patterns or forms in other living forms, such as flowers looking like female insects or insects having very adapted camouflages. it's "only" a product of natural selection. other theories exist, some have been debunked or are simply not reflecting reality. yet, some changes or behaviours can be conscious or semi-conscious in animals and it will influence their lives further. there is a great deal of literature about fishes turning from a sex in to another when needed or animal such as octopuses learning from other individuals. it is a fascinating subject which blends genetics, behaviour analysis, ecology and so on. thanks for your interesting question! | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
are there any machining methods that produce nanometer accuracy? | hello, i had originally asked in /r/askreddit and someone suggested that i try here. is there anyway to machine a piece of metal that will be accurate to within 10 nanometers? what is the tightest tolerance that current machining methods can produce? if thickness of material matters, lets assume that it is 1 inch thick. | accurate in what way? flatness ? depth? you have to be specific when talking about tolerances. dimensions edge-to-edge are different from surface parallelism and roughness. in any case, the most accurate class of [gauge blocks](_url_0_) are +-50nm. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_block#Grades",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_lithography",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_ultraviolet_lithography",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron-beam_lithography",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_turning"
] | [
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why not a solar kite instead of a space elevator | for a space elevator you have to be way out past geostationary orbit right? and thats a problem seeing as the length and required strength are beyond our materials capabilities, but what about a solar kite at one of the poles, couldnt you get like 2 or 3 solid months of lifting stuff into space and not have to have such a long string? *edit : if geostationary is 22000 miles then it could stay out there permanently. *2 something like this _url_0_ | it's an interesting idea. there would be all kinds of stablity issues, but these are merely engineering problems. there main problem is once you got a payload up to the kite, it wouldn't have any orbit velocity and would still be bound to earth's gravity. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/j0uu6"
] | [] | [
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if i set up a convex lens or a concave lens in a medium that has a higher refractive index than the countercurrent of their (lens') content, would they have the opposite effect of what they did before? | they would indeed. if you look at the formula for thin lenses derived with the refractive indices of the lens (m_l) and medium (m_m), then you find 1/f = (n_l - n_m)/n_m (1/r_1 - 1/r_2) here f is the focal length and r_1 and r_2 are the radii of curvature of the first and second surface of the (thin!) lens. usually this is derived for air and n_m is taken as 1 (close enough not to make a difference w.r.t. lens materials of glass with typical refractive indices between 1.3 and 1.8). from the full form you see that if you get a positive focal length in air, it changes sign if n_m > n_l, and vice versa. this makes a convex lens into a concave one and vice versa. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i'm attempting to build a magnetoplasmadynamic thruster and need help with creating an ignition circuit. | i know this question sounds rather outlandish, but here's the issue i'm running into. i know that the typical approach to this problem is to use a high voltage ac source and run that across a spark gap; however i was wondering if there was another way of going about ionizing the propellant (in my case argon). the catch is that the ionization method can't cost significantly more than building a standard high voltage ac source circuit (maybe triple the price at most, so about $500). now it's important to keep in mind that i'm doing this on a small scale and that's why i can't just incorporate my ignition circuit into the thruster itself. i plan to build a capacitor bank as a source for both my thruster nozzle and the ignition circuit. so the crux of my question is: how do i ionize argon without using a stupid amount of voltage? | older (and today's low-end) tig welders use "strike-start" to create the initial arc (in the argon shield gas), which is then maintained by a low dc voltage. by striking the point of the tungsten electrode across the surface to be welded (sort of like a match) then pulling it away, you are initially creating a very small gap that ionises easily. as the gap increases, the arc remains. for the welders i used, the open-circuit voltage was 48-volts, but this will work with a 12-volt car battery. this is a manual process unfortunately (with a little diy-magic you could automate it), but extremely cheap to implement! once the arc is started and you are at a sufficient distance, you could fire up your thruster circuit. **edit**: i should have mentioned that once an arc is started in a welding argon mix, very little voltage is required to maintain it. also, the arc gap is generally only a couple of millimetres while you are tig welding, and will lengthen to a few centimetres before it "goes out". use a current source so you can clamp your starter arc to a low current until you dump your capacitor. this low current arc will also help you retain those handy and non-replaceable retinal cells. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much do we hear and how much does our brain interpolate? | for example: if i hear a song through the wall of room just loudly enough to make out the bass line or maybe a few parts of the melody, my brain will start adding in the words and the rest of the song. i can walk in and my brain is right on time with the correct lyrics. also, if someone is talking to me, and if i can't see their mouth or expression sometimes the words are lost or confused. i've had my hearing checked and its fine, but i wonder how much our brain interpolates from context and/or memory. if someone turns away while i'm talking to them, does my brain start guessing what they're saying? i'm sorry if the question isn't the most well formed, but i'm grasping at the concept as it is. | there is a very substantial amount of processing going on between your ears and your consciousness. using visual cues to modify the audio data stream (mcgurk effect, etc) is just one way this happens. a great amount of sound goes into our ears, and a relatively small amount makes it to our consciousness. there are a lot of noisemakers in our world and few of them are of interest to us at any particular time. so we just don't hear most of what we're hearing. what we hear consciously depends very much on what we're trying to hear and/or what we expect to hear. think of the time when someone in the room says "did you hear that?" about a sound you didn't hear. "hear what?" you ask, and they describe the sound. and then the sound happens again and now you hear it. well, now you heard it consciously. you heard it previously, your brain just didn't know it was interested in that sound and so it was filtered out. along the same lines, if you get a new piece of stereo equipment and you're expecting it to sound a certain way, it tends to sound that way. similarly, if someone whose opinion you trust points out a piece of music that they really like, it increases your affinity for it. some may deny this happens or think that if it does it means you're weak, but i think it's a great and useful thing. much of the data from your ears is used by your unconscious to keep tabs on your surroundings. your hearing gives you an innate sense of where the nearest walls and objects are with respect to your location. when we step into a room where sound does not bounce off of walls (an anechoic chamber) we feel disoriented, sometimes even dizzy. this data never makes it to our consciousness because there's no advantage in having that happen. one of the most amazing things about our hearing is that we are able to hear sounds of interest that are at levels *below ambient*. our audio processing is so advanced, we can literally pick out speech or some other pattern that is buried in louder sounds. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-lN8vWm3m0"
] | [
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askscience: can i catch the same cold twice? | my so insists that the slightest variation on a cold and your body will get infected with the cold again, and we could pass the same cold back and forth. is this true? | it is important to note that [hundreds of viruses](_url_0_) are responsible for what we call the common cold. even if you gained immunity to one virus, there are still a lot more than can cause the same symptoms. mutations in a virus can affect your immunity. cross reactivity of antibodies may mean no symptoms, reduced symptoms, or full symptoms. this is why getting the flu shot is good every year. even if the three strains predicted are wrong, the cross reactivity gives you hope of having a more minor illness. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/antibiotic-use/uri/colds.html"
] | [
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can you catch the same cold twice? | yes. and this probably happens all the time. the first time you catch a cold (virus) its completely new to you, and your body has to go through a complicated process of analysing the viruses proteins for specific markers (antigens) which it can then use to eradicate the virus from your system through antibodies or killing viral-infected cells. this is your adaptive immune response and its primary cells are b cells and t cells. these cells produce many copies of themselves during a primary infection, but once the virus is gone only a few remain. these are called memory cells. thus the second time you get infected these memory cells, particularly memory b cells will recognise the viruses antigen and generate a polyclonal immune response (they activate t-follicular helper cells by presenting the antigen and then begin to divide and produce large amounts of antibodies). this massive release of antibodies (and the speed at which your body can provide them) mean you never notice you got the same cold again. _url_0_ also, you can get slightly mutated versions of the same virus but i don't think that counts. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://textbookofbacteriology.net/Secondaryresponse.jpeg"
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|
reviewing an article for a paper i'm writing and this seems incorrect to me. it's not my field so can someone confirm or deny it? i can't imagine that there aren't too many confounders to make that statement so assuredly. | > the most convincing studies of a casual effect of malnutrition on intelligence are derived from identical (mz) twins born with different birth weights. such differences are generally attributed to reduced blood flow from the placenta to one twin leading to a reduced supply of nutrients, retarded growth and small size at birth. since the twin pairs are genetically identical and experience the same family environment the only difference between them lies in nutrition received in the uterus. the question is whether the twin experiencing the nutritional deprivation indexed by low birth weight has impaired intelligence later in life. edit: my concern with the quote is as follows: the general article is about improved nutrition leading to increasing iq scores. in an attempt to prove that better nutrition causes higher iq, they argue the above. my concern is that it i'm unsure whether the *only* effects of reduced blood flow from the placenta is decreased nutrition. i would assume that it would also lead to other issues (reduced oxygen?) that would impact development, therefore making the point significantly less persuasive. | irrespective of whatever they might have *meant* to say, this proposition is clearly false. they certainly need to tone it down. i'm also puzzled by the lack of any citations in the paragraph (?). the two are related in that as soon as you admit that nutrition is *not* the only difference then the conclusion [that nutrition affects iq] becomes one of induction rather than deduction, and you need to start thinking about supplying some corroborating evidence (which may or may not exist..) i think you would be entirely in the right to criticise the above heavily as it currently stands, and would encourage them to rewrite or remove. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.campus-klinik-bochum.de/pdf/Effects_of_reducing_uterine_blood_flow.pdf",
"http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/siegle/research/Correlation/Intelligence.pdf"
] | [
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are wavelengths and cycles the same thing? | can i measure frequency with wavelengths per second instead of cycles per second? i'm just starting to learn about physics and i'm confusing the terminology between vibrations and waves a lot, and it's the only part that confuses me. | wavelength is a length measurement. so wavelengths per second would be a speed, the speed the wave travels at. frequency is sitting in one position in space and over time counting how many times the wave passes by you; perhaps how many peaks per second, or how many valleys per second. wavelength is sitting in one position in time and measuring the distances between the waves in space; so many meters between peaks or valleys. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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