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why does electrical resistance occur? | how does it come that resistance occurs when electrons try to move through an atomlattice? what tries to stop them? do they collide with the atoms, and is this the reason why they cant move without resistance? please help im desperate :) | yes, this is the usual cause of electrical resistance. electrons colliding with atoms in the lattice, especially impurities, converts the energy of the electron into a "phonon", essentially a vibrational mode in the crystal. (i'm not too clear on how that works exactly, maybe someone can fill in the gaps.) that extra kinetic energy is measured as heat. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the highest electrical resistance possible? | most questions answer this in terms of conductive material such as aluminum vs. rubber etc. what about air? what about a vacuum? i recently bought corona dope for an electric fence project that was shorting out, and i was wondering wtf that stuff is made of that it stopped the shorts between two contacts that were arcing in just air. is this material more resistive than air? | do you mean resistance or resistivity? resistance isn't really a meaningful metric to rate a material. the limit is infinity, for anything. a #12 copper wire from here to mars is going to have one hell of a resistance. resistivity is probably what you mean. it's measured in ωm, ohm-metre. multiplying this by length and dividing by cross sectional area gives you the resistance of an actual setup, r = ρl/a. ωm × m / m^2 = ω. it's an actual measure of the material itself. as far as resistivities go, highest non-trivial one i'm aware of is teflon. we're talking about a billion times better than air, few billion better than rubber, and trillion times better than glass. a vacuum is perfect, it's infinite dc resistance. there's also some reportedly opposite of superconductors that might be a thing, superinsulators. however, that not quite the full story. as you might have noticed, i said air is better than rubber. but as you may also have noticed, we insulate overhead conductors with metres of air and can do the same with centimeters of rubbers. your corona dope comes into play here. i also said vacuums were perfect, but vacuum tube are also a thing. when you exceed certain situations, the resistivity of things vastly drops. one of which is dielectric breakdown. dielectrics (insulators) allow minimal charge to flow (high resistivity), but past a certain field strength they break down and thing start to ionize and then conduct really well. air for example take a field strength of 3 mv/m, which is high but not enough to stop arcing in some situations, especially with humidity or dust lowering it. rubbers are much higher, hence why rubber insulation can be much thinner than air seperation insulation. your corona dope is also doing this. the arcing air is broken down, it's a plasma. depsite air being an excellent insulator, air plasma is not. the corona dope may actually be a worse insulator than air, but that's not what matters. what matter is that it has a higher dielectric breakdown, it won't become plasma due to the voltage and instead will remain an insulator. look at your corona dope info, it doesn't say how many ω, or even ωm it is anywhere, it will say how many v/m it is. or more likely some smaller unit of distance like v/mm. what's the highest dielectric breakdown? a vacuum, but this time it isn't infinity. it's absurdly high, but past a certain point the electric field has so much energy it can create electron-positron pairs out of thin air (or i guess vacuum), which then are ripped apart by the field which means conduction. but again, i said vacuums have infinite resistivity and absurdly high dielectric strength, but vacuum tubes exist. how is your old crt tv doing this? well, another way is to simply eject electrons into a vacuum with heat, and then they can conduct quite easily as they can wip through a vacuum really easily with no resistance. so a vacuum with a hot electrode doesn't really have infinite resistance. it can actually have quite low resistance, though defintely not ohmic behavior. | 32 | [] | [] | [] | [
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bizarre phenomenon when viewing small light sources with long-sightedness. | i'm long-sighted, and so when i fully relax my eyes, i reach a point where nothing is in focus, and i've noticed something bizarre about the way i percieve small point light sources like leds. when i defocus like this, these lightsources "bloom" outwards, appearing larger, which seems to be a fairly unremarkable consequence of defocusing (presumably thanks to the light rays landing further apart on the retina than they should?). the weird phenomenon occurs when i look closely at ones of these "bloomed" leds, especially in a darkened room and with one eye closed to reduce variables and get rid of the distracting double that appears. when looking under these conditions, i can see the "bloom" very clearly, and i've tried playing about with it by partially covering it with my finger to see what happens. i've drawn [this rubbishy diagram](_url_0_) to try and demonstrate what *does* happen: the "bloom" appears to vanish from the opposite side to the finger, as well as the side that's covered up (it can be a bit fiddly to see this properly). this seems pretty unexpected to me, and i was wondering if anyone can explain precisely what's going on - it seems that somehow the blurred light that i percieve as being on the non-finger side of the led is actually being emitted by the finger-side. could this be something to do with the light not being focused on the retina? if so, it would seem to make more sense for short-sightedness, where the focus point is in front of rather than behind the retina, and the light rays cross over thus perhaps being "seen" in unexpected places. but this is just a vague idea, and it doesn't explain why this works for long-sightedness, and would also predict that the light would still appear *over* the finger, which doesn't seem to happen, although i may be wrong about this as it's quite hard to tell. anyway, i presume this effect would generalise to all long-sighted perception of objects, but it seems to be clearest with point light sources like leds. thanks! | not an answer but is the effect you're describing similar to when happens when you put your finger in front of the lens of a traditional flashlight? | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/ANN10.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how much force would be needed for blown air to hold back falling water? | the pressure at the cut face of the water is proportional to depth, and you can find it in any unit as a function of depth [here](_url_0_). the pressure exerted from the blowing air must be equal or greater at every location. in real life, you can't control the airspeed in a way that exactly exerts the same pressure as the pressure gradient in the water itself, but if you can get the force from air to equal the maximum pressure in the water, then it will hold the water back (but not in a neat "slice"). it would be more technically correct to find the drag force on droplets of water, and use the corresponding air velocity, but for small areas like in the diagram, you could assume that you have a nozzle with constant exit velocity and make the force of the air equal the force corresponding to worst-case pressure. so, if the pipe has a .25-meter diameter, and your air nozzle was also .25-meters in diameter, then you could use the equation: f = mass flow rate * velocity = density * area of nozzle * velocity^2 dividing by area, you have: pressure = density * velocity^2 so then just set this pressure (average pressure exerted by air in nozzle) equal to the maxiumum hydrostatic pressure. use the density and velocity of the air in the stream. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.calctool.org/CALC/other/games/depth_press"
] | [
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|
the siberian hole - could it have been caused by the permafrost melting? | i know there seems to be little data and a lot of speculation, but [with this giant hole in siberia](_url_0_) is it at least possible that the chasm opened up because of the permafrost melting? it also seems like the area is scorched - leading a lot of people to speculate that it was caused by some explosion. but that hole looks a lot like [the pictures i've seen from alaska permafrost melting](_url_2_). thoughts? edit: i'm convinced it is a failed [pingo (known as an ognip)](_url_1_). | the structure is probably a collapsed pingo. pingoes are relatively long-lived uplifted masses of mud and peat overlying repeatingly freezing water. the expansion of the ice causes the overburden to lift, and rupture, and flip. melt that lump of ice qnd you'll get a structure which resembles that hole *a lot*. have a look at the pics on this page, and you'll see what i mean (especially the one on the lower left): (_url_0_) | 14 | [] | [
"http://sploid.gizmodo.com/new-footage-of-mysterious-giant-siberian-hole-as-scient-1606452428?utm_campaign=socialflow_gizmodo_facebook&utm_source=gizmodo_facebook&utm_medium=socialflow",
"http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/A-level/AQA/Year%2012/Cold%20environs/Periglaciation/Periglacial%20landforms.htm",
"http://northern.org/media-library/photos/arctic/western-arctic-national-petroleum-reserve-alaska/permafrost-melting-at-colville-river-bluff-c-alice-bailey/image"
] | [
"http://www.arctic.uoguelph.ca/cpe/environments/land/features/freeze-thaw/pingoes.htm"
] | [
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could we upset the balance of the earth by mining on one side and building on the other? | so i live in australia where we have a big mining industry. there are massive amounts of earth being removed and then things like iron ore are exported. hearing something about the mines the other day got me thinking, if resources are mined out of one part of the planet and sent off somewhere else where they are used for building, could this have an effect on the balance of earth and its rotation? i.e. redistributing the weight from one side of earth to the other. i understand anything we've done so far probably wouldn't have any effect but is it theoretically possible? even if it is just by a small amount? | any effect would be ridiculously small. [this neat xkcd what-if](_url_2_) answers what would happen if the earth's entire population were in one place and jumped, which is a similar idea. the earth's crust is about 35 km deep, (less than 10km under the oceans), while the earth is over 6300 km in radius. [the deepest humans have ever dug](_url_1_) isn't even 12.5 km deep, so we're not even close to digging through the crust. even if we did dig through the crust and move all of it to the one side of the planet, that's less than one two hundredth of the way down! and then there's the fact that the mantle and core are far more dense than the crust. in short, any effect we could have even if we tried would be very small. on a similar note, [if you took the entire asteroid belt and put it on the moon](_url_0_), it would only increase the moon's mass by about 4%. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt#Characteristics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kola_Superdeep_Borehole",
"http://what-if.xkcd.com/8/",
"http://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/03/news/dams-for-water-supply-are-altering-earth-s-orbit-expert-says.html"
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is there any truth to the lore that drinking orange juice helps you beat the common cold, and if so, what exactly does the oj do to help? | barely. vitamin c is important for many systems in the body, including your immune system. somewhere, somebody got the idea that superdoses of vitamin c would 'boost' your immune system. [the evidence](_url_0_) is pretty weak. check out that link for more information. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17636648",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=vitamin%20c%20cold&"
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|
in 1978, a man was struck by a particle accelerator beam and survived. a curious side effect of the accident is that the left half of his face is paralyzed, and "does not age". how is this possible? | the man is anatoli bugorski ([here](_url_0_) is the article ([source](_url_1_))). my question is, what exactly could the accident have triggered biologically to have completely halted the aging process on the left half of his face? and as a followup question, could a controlled dose of radiation possibly prevent/reverse aging in the future? | i think this depends highly on the definition of "age". considering that a face is said to be "aging" when lines and wrinkles appear, i would suspect that the paralyzed side of his face doesn't "age" because it doesn't move. wrinkles form from repeated stretching and relaxation of the skin. as the skin loses it's plasticity with age, wrinkles appear at points of stress and movement. no movement means no wrinkles. | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.cynical-c.com/2007/04/26/anatoli-bugorski-the-man-who-survived-a-beam-from-a-particle-accelerator/",
"http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/5.12/science.html"
] | [] | [
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if you fell into a black hole, wouldn't you cook you due to severely blue-shifted light? | this is assuming, of course that you're falling into a black hole big enough that the tidal forces aren't ripping you apart as well. | there is an ongoing "controversy" in the world of quantum gravity as to whether you encounter a "firewall" as you fall into a black hole. the mechanism of the firewall isn't blueshifted external radiation, but has to do with hawking radiation and entanglement. the wikipedia page isn't that good, [this](_url_0_) looks better. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://owlcation.com/stem/What-is-the-Firewall-Paradox"
] | [
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how does a superfluid have a viscosity of 0? if you held some in your palm would it flow through you (temperature notwithstanding)? | contrary to the conventional notions on what constitutes a superfluid, 'zero viscosity' is not achievable in the so-called 'superfluid' state of helium 4, or 'he-ii'. in practice, there is always a very low but finite value in the bulk shear viscosity, about 13 micropoise, which occurs somewhere between 1 to 1.5 k . as temperature is lowered below the lambda transition point, the viscosity drops quickly to the point where it is so low that it becomes difficult to measure. but at some point there is a marked increase in the shear viscosity with further decreasing temperature. this occurs despite the fact that the normal fluid density component that gives rise to both viscosity and finite entropy is rapidly decreasing with temperature. so one would ordinarily expect the the viscosity would go to zero only as t goes to zero. what appears to happen instead is an effect from the increasing mean free path of the collective states associated with the diminishing normal fluid component. these states become limited by the physical dimensions of the viscometer itself, and the true 'bulk' viscosity is no longer measurable, and the 'effective viscosity' becomes independent of the mean free path. this leads to the observed increase in the effective shear viscosity as temperature goes to zero. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are "eye floaters" and why do they seem move away when you look at them? | eye floaters are stuff suspended in the aqueous humor of your eyeball: detached pieces of small blood vessels, connective tissue, and the like from the inner surface of the eye. think of them as boogers of the inner eye. they seem to move for two contradictory reasons: 1) because they're suspended in the high viscosity aqueous humor so when your eyeball moves, they stay roughly in place while the scene projected on your retina forming your field of view moves. and 2) because the aqueous humor is a liquid, they do move around, but slowly, especially after your have moved your eyes, and the liquid in the eye sloshes a bit. so they will be seen to be moving against your visual field. sometimes both of these effects will be going on at the same time | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does a cochlear implant work? | i plan on taking a woman out who is getting a doctorate in the subject and would like to know how it works! | don't pretend to know what you are talking about, she will smell your bullshit from a mile away. that said, here is a general description. the device consists of a microphone, electronic processing, and electrode. the electrode has several terminals (the more terminals, the better the device). the electrode looks like a long thin wire with terminals distributed along the length (---o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o). during implantation, the electrode is inserted into the cochlea. cochlea's sense different sound frequencies at different position in their spiral, so the region in contact with a given terminal corresponds to a small range of frequencies. the incoming sound is picked up by the microphone, split into different frequency bands (one band for each terminal), and each band is sent to it's corresponding terminal. the signal from the terminals is transduced by the neurons in the cochlea and interpreted by the auditory centers of the brain. -source: i'm a biomedical engineer | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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faith rodgers recently accused r. kelly of knowingly infecting her with herpes. is there a way to prove *he* infected her, based on blood (or other) tests? | assuming you could test both parties, and both *were* infected; would it be possible to compare the virus from party a to the virus from party b and say one infected the other? could you show direction of transmission (using number of mutations, maybe)? | yes! determining a virus' origin is possible thanks to relatively new sequencing technologies. viruses (especially ones with rna genomes) have a higher mutation rate than humans or plants, because they replicate faster and their genome replication machinery makes more errors. within a patient, there will be many different variants of a virus because it mutates over time. older sequencing technology made it difficult to recognize all of these different variants because it required a sample of dna where every molecule looked exactly the same. now, we have technology, called next\-generation sequencing, that can sequence a single molecule of dna so each different variant of the virus will show up. using the same tools that evolutionary biologists use to predict evolution of animals or plants, the pooled sequencing data can be used to predict what the original virus in the patient "looked" like. if you compare that ancestral virus to the viruses in the alleged donor as well as a bunch of unrelated strains, you should be able to tell if the virus was transmitted between the two people. you can also use the amount of variation between the viruses in someone to know how long they've been infected (to ensure that faith rodgers didn't actually give hsv to r. kelly). a cool example of this is the case of richard schmidt. he was a doctor in louisiana who injected his ex (a nurse at the same hospital) with a blood sample from one of his hiv positive patients, which he claimed was vitamin b. when she got hiv, she had her ex\-husband and past boyfriends get tested and none of them had it. one of schmidt's patients had gotten blood drawn but it was never sent to the lab. the hiv that she had was sequenced, tested against 32 different strains as well as the hiv from schmidt's patient and now schmidt is serving 50 years for second degree murder. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5482559/"
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dinosaurs in space (as ejecta)? | i read that the crater at chicxulub is over 110 miles in diameter. i can't find estimates of the mass of ejecta sent into space at escape velocity. what would the math be to determine how much of it was dinosaur? given current biomass per square kilometer, and assuming the volume of escape-velocity ejecta can be found, what are the chances? additional questions: if a dinosaur did make it into space, what would the overall likelihood of it remaining in our solar system and not impacting another body for 65 million years be? would it be recognizable or would exposure destroy it? | ignoring the calculation to figure out what percent of the ejected matter had dino-origins, you should be aware that the ejecta gets completely fucked for a variety of reasons. i can think of 3 main sources: 1. heat and speed of the projectile, as well as heating of the air underneath the projectile by compression during descent, transfers a lot of energy to the material that will be ejected. 2. the impact event itself produces very high accelerations. ejecta will experience a massive shockwave and high g-forces. 3. after accelerating, the material ejected from the surface has to pass upward through the atmosphere, being heated during its ascent in the same manner as the projectile was during its descent. you might be inclined to think, "well, maybe something on the ground can survive the really really high temperatures if it's only exposed to them for a split second, before it's whisked away like the kids that get abducted by peter pan?" i'll put all of these scenarios aside for a second and i'm going to focus on that last point for a second. i'll take a guess that the largest meteor that can survive falling to the earth without burning up entirely is roughly the same size as the largest ejecta that can survive being chucked up. this makes sense; if something falls into the atmosphere really really fast and heats up, then something ejected really really fast is going to basically experience the same phenomena in reverse. the minimum size limit for a meteor to survive descent through the atmosphere (or equivalently, the maximum limit for almost complete burn-up), is about 25 m in length. so how big were the dinosaurs that were around during the chicxulub impact (65 million years ago that caused the cretaceous extinction event)? well, trex and tricerotops are two examples. trex was 5 meters tall, and 15 meters head to tail, so it's too small. tricerotops was smaller, about 9 meters long and 3 meters tall. okay, so they were probably too small. what was the biggest dinosaur that may have lived on the yucatan peninsula in mexico, the site of the chicxulub impact? the biggest i can find (by googling headlines for "largest ever dinosaur discovered in mexico") is alamosaurus, which was actually discovered in new mexico (close enough) in 1922. they were common in the late cretaceous (spot on again), and were 16 m head to tail and 6 m tall. i'm still going to bet that the mighty alamosaurus would be incinerated before it made it out of the atmosphere. what about an aquatic dinosaur? the largest marine dinosaur in the cretaceous that i know of is of the family pliosauroidea, but is again about the size of the alamosaur (and looks a lot like the fabled loch ness monster too, or the pokemon lapras, since it was based on this dinosaur). so i think it's pretty safe so say that there are probably no dinostronauts in the solar system, but that's not to say that dinosaur matter hasn't been strewed through space- at least in fragments anyway. in fact, this is one semi-plausible explanation for the origin of life on earth. if life couldn't have begun via abiogenesis on earth, perhaps it could have been seeded by biological ejecta from other planets, whose life was crushed in an impact event much like chicxulub. it's not impossible, and this theory has a great name, which is why i want to mention it. it's called panspermia, and its evidence includes fragments of a meteor that may have been ejected from mars and may contain primitive martian microbes, and science fiction novels. bottom line- i wouldn't be surprised if there's plenty of dinosaur bits in orbit, but they were probably cooked to a crisp before they made it there. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicxulub_crater",
"http://impact.ese.ic.ac.uk/ImpactEffects/Chicxulub.html"
] | [
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is adding two images in image space the same as doing so in frequency space? | hey there. i have some doubts regarding image algebra. first, as the title says, is adding (or subtracting) two images in frequency space the same as doing it in image space? by frequency space i mean fourier domain. one particular example is, if i obtain the low-frequency components of an image, if i subtract that image with its original, do i get the high-frequency components? or is that only true if i perform the subtraction in frequency space? second, i was having a discussion with a friend about addition between images. he says that addition of images is the same as the mean of the two images, which i think it's not correct. well, mean involves a division that addition does not have. but, is he right? is it the same (mean and addition) if we force normalization of the images along the process? thanks a lot! | first: yes. the fourier transform preserves linear operations, so addition and subtraction act the same in both the image domain and the fourier domain. your specific example is fine in both domains. second: the sum of multiple images and the mean of multiple images are clearly different, because of the division operation, as you say. because the division step is just a constant (the number of images), it's a linear operation and doesn't affect anything in terms of the fourier properties of the combined image. it's just a scaling term; if you don't care about the absolute magnitude of the image values (i.e., they're not constrained to be 8-bit numbers or anything like that), then it doesn't really matter if you do the division or not. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do people digest less when they have the runs? | so, if somebody eats some food that gives them insta-diarrhea, does their body have time to absorb the nutrients/use the calories of that food or does is pass through less digested? in an extreme case: if someone had chronic diarrhea (and for the thought experiment's sake, lets ignore the dehydration issue), would they still be getting the same amount of calories as someone with a regular stool? | you lose a lot of nutrients when you have 'the runs' mainly because bacterial infections which cause the symptom of 'the runs' alter cellular pathways such as the camp pathway in gut epithelia, which in the short form, leads to efflux of water out of your cells and into the lumen (hole) of your gut. this 'washing out' effect aids in the movement of bacteria out of the host and also moves nutrients along with it. mainly though your body loses electrolytes and water. so drink plenty of isotonic drinks and water. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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(physics and chemistry) in density functional theory, the ks formulation derivation usually involves a lagrange multiplier portion, what is the purpose of this step? | so i can follow the hohenberg kohn theorems e = e[n(r)] and e0[n(r)] = min < h > over n(r) in a lot of derivations of the kohn sham equations, i see some steps involving the lagrange multiplier method, but since we do not know how to write < t > explicitly as a functional of the density, it doesnt work out. this is done for both an electron non-interacting and interacting systems to show that they have the same form. the related se equations are the ks equations. 1. what is the purpose of the lagrange multiplier portion of the derivation? 2. is the ks formulation just an perturbation-esque expansion with the non-interacting system as the starting point? 3. is whole exchange correlation functional just a consequence of sweeping everything we dont understand into one pile (the portion of the kinetic energy missed by the non-interacting system, the election-electron self-interacting portion, the quantum election-electron interacting bits (having to do with electron being a fermion), etc)? 4. how does the ks equations guaranteed an energy minimized electron density? (i think this is probably somewhat off topic, because this is probably related to variation calculus) | i am a chemist who has only dabbled in dft, so i am not a good source, but this post is 13 hours old so i thought i'd add my understanding in case it helps. 1. to introduce the n-electron constraint. lagrange multipliers are not the only way to introduce constraints, but it is a simple and commonly used method. 2. i believe so, yes. but not all aspects of the expansion are based on small perturbations - there are some assumptions and a lot of the success of dft relies on kinda miraculous (in my opinion as a poorly informed chemist) cancellations between different approximations. 3. the kinetic energy issue is not considered an exchange-correlation effect in wave-function based methods (such as hf). however, it turns out that if you group the kinetic energy "error" term with the exchange-correlation there are some approximations to both terms combined that are surprisingly good. 4. are you asking why a minimum state exists? i believe it follows from the idea that a minimum state exists for the full wave function and there must be an associated density, so assuming that you can calculate the energy of a density correctly then there must be a minimized-energy density. in fact, i do believe one of the big issues in ks is that it doesn't always reproduce degeneracy correctly. for example, dz^2 orbitals and dxy/dyz/dxz orbitals tend to have slightly different energy even when they should be the same. many of the derivations i have seen also tend to skip over the impacts of the basis set, but choosing a bad basis set can cause significant issues as well. in my understanding the ks formulation isn't so much a method in and of itself, but rather a way to show that density-based functional theory *can* produce correct answers (with the massive assumption that "good" approximations to the exchange-correlation effects exist). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it called a molecular dipole moment? | a science teacher was saying that it is completely unrelated to the way the term moment is otherwise used in physics. is this so? moment seems to be used somewhat broadly, but i must be misunderstanding something if it is completely unrelated to other ways the term is used. for example, the two closest things from wikipedia on [moment (physics)](_url_0_) is > in principle it is defined as the perpendicular distance from a point to a line or a surface. and > the principle of moments is if an object is balanced then the sum of the clockwise moments about a pivot is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same pivot. so simplifying, i thought it was called a dipole moment because it describes the range of motion of the molecule. could somebody clarify this termonology for me? | a dipole in an electrical field experiences a torque (tau = **p** x **e** , where p is the dipole moment and e is the field). it's "moment" in the sense that "moment" is another word for "torque". | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_\\(physics\\)"
] | [] | [
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why is direction of dipole moment from - to + ? | i know that this is the convectional sign. but you do not simply put it from - to + . i would like an exact answer | the dipole moment of a charge distribution is defined to be the integral of ρ(**r**) **r** d^(3)r. take a simple charge distribution, a single point charge q at location **r***_0_*. the charge density is then q δ^(3)(**r**-**r***_0_*). so the dipole moment vector is just **d** = q **r***_0_*, a vector which points toward the charge if q so the dipole moment points toward positive charge and away from negative charge. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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to what extent are single-cell behaviors understood? | forgive my ignorance, i only took one microbiology class 10 years ago at a community college, but i took one important lesson from it: there's nothing magic about how cells work, it's purely chemistry. question motivated by [this gif of a white blood cell](_url_0_) from the front page. it's a single cell, but it's clearly actively pursuing an invader (obviously not unique, some single-celled organisms also do this.) what is driving a cell to do this? is this "low level" life scale still too "high level" for a straight-forward chemical explanation? more generally, what are the current mysteries/research fronts on the biochemistry of simple organisms? | the cell is driven by chemotaxis and chemoattractants. we know quite a bit about quite a bit. why [here is a grad students dissertation pdf over 100 pages long just detailing neutrophil motility (what we're probably witnessing in the .gif)](_url_0_) -formylated peptides generated by bacteria and mitochondria proteins; breakdown products from complement activation, e.g. the anaphylatoxin c5a and c3a; cellular products, e.g. leukotriene b4 (ltb4); and the platelet activating factor (paf). some components of the ecm, cellular adhesion molecules, and released cytoskeletal fragments also play an im portant role in the chemotactic response. the complexity, redundancy, and cross talk between neutrophil signaling pathways makes it very difficult to dissect the specific subcellular events operating during chemotaxis. | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/sAwiP.gif"
] | [
"http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:21048/FULLTEXT01.pdf",
"http://idynomics.org/",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304380008004390"
] | [
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how do scientists determine how much calorie a person needs? | do they actually measure all the energy expenditure a person goes through? how about the energy our organs, like the kidney, use? also, when scientist say i should eat 2000 calories a day, does that take into account how efficient my body absorbs the energy? it seems obvious a fair amount of energy remain in our excrement. | baseline recommendations are largely informed by the intake of healthy people with stable weights. when exact energy expenditures are important, researchers measure the amount of carbon dioxide exhaled. (this isn't really practical on a long-term basis.) assuming a stable ph-- and it better be pretty stable, or else you're in serious trouble-- carbon dioxide is only excreted in your breath, and it is only created by burning calories. little energy remains in our excrement, but it depends on your diet. if you eat a lot of refined sugar, you should be getting 100%, but if you eat a lot of newspaper, you won't be getting too much. _url_0_ suggests we lose about 10% of the energy in our food. this is assuming somebody healthy. various disease processes can affect this-- probably most commonly, bile blocked by cirrhosis would lead to dramatically reduced absorption of fat. since actual recommendations are based on intake rather than strict measurements, fecal loss is already accounted for in these measurements. if you want to measure the loss in feces, you do bomb calorimetry, whereby you burn your poop and see how much heat it makes. in the us, i am unfamiliar with any scientists making any recommendations about how many calories one should eat, because it is so dependent on activity level. a professional athlete that somehow maintained their normal activity level would starve on a 2000 calorie diet. instead, the recommendations that i am familiar with are that if you have a healthy bmi, a stable weight, and are otherwise healthy, you should eat exactly as many calories as you do eat. 2000 calorie diets are not offered as recommendations, but as examples, because they're representative of the caloric intake of a large number of people. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23647171"
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does body orientation affect how blood flows through the brain? | for example, if i am lying on my right side, will the right half of my brain receive more blood flow. if so, does this result in any cognitive changes? | we use this strategy sometimes in asymmetric lung injury. when one lung is disproportionately injured relative to the other, in critically ill patients one of the strategies is to put the "good lung down". i think this is more of a physiologic concept than something that has actually been demonstrated, but theoretically it preferentially directs blood (via gravity) to the lung with better gas exchange. there's nothing that i know of that translates to different cognitive outcomes for what you're referring to. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone please explain the science behind why we ground/earth electrical currents? | i understand that it is to prevent the buildup of static but how does the earth act as a conductor? when i get out of the car wearing my slippers i will shock myself when i touch the gate but when i'm barefoot it does not happen. are the bricks beneath me a good enough conductor to remove/absorb the static from me? | someone better may come along, but... the main reason to ground circuits in most cases is for safety reasons. you are typically protected from electrical components in an appliance by electrical insulation. it's dangerous to play with live wires, right? well those same wires run straight into the appliances that you touch with your hands. insulation keeps that electrical current isolated to the places it should be. but what if the insulation fails? maybe the appliance was physically damaged. maybe it wasn't made well or wore over time. maybe a lightening strike caused higher than normal voltage. then the appliance might become dangerous. electricity moves along the path of least resistance. if you are touching the appliance, or perhaps even just too close to it, it is possible that you might be part of this path. or maybe there's some other object nearby in the path which might catch fire under an electrical current. these situations aren't good. to minimize such dangers, we "ground" things. we connect a wire to the part that should normally be safe- to the parts that are normally isolated from the current, and we send the wire into the ground. wires are great conductors of course, and the ground is like a giant electrical reservoir. so now if the insulation fails, the path of least resistance will be the wire/ground. rather than shocking you, or setting something on fire, the electrical current is directed to the ground. make sense? the same thing applies with static electricity, though you're generally more concerned about damaging things than you are about safety. if you work on sensitive electronics for example, static electricity can cause damage to those components. by grounding yourself and your tools, static electricity will flow to the ground (which doesn't have to be the actual ground...) rather than through those electronics. as for your car question... this is different. the bricks are not acting as a ground. the thing is that, when barefoot, you have less static electricity in the first place. slippers are very good at picking up static electricity. so when you touch the car, all of that electricity jumps to the body of the car. when you go barefoot, you don't pick up much charge. so when you touch the car you simply don't have much electricity to give off, if any. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nachi.org/images08/grounding-rod-clamp.jpg",
"http://www.fluke.com/fluke/uses/comunidad/fluke-news-plus/articlecategories/electrical/leakagebasics",
"https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/construction/electrical_incidents/gfci.html",
"http://standards.ieee.org/about/nesc/",
"http://www.tangible-technology.com/power/p2/7_outlet_wiring.jpg",
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/172939/if-the-earth-is-a-good-conductor-of-electricity-why-dont-people-get-electrocut"
] | [
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is 2 considered an identity element for the sequence of all hyperoperations? | i was just thinking about this. 2 tertrated by 2 = 2^2 = 4, and the pattern seems to extend indefinitley in both directions - except for successor, but that operation is one-bit whereas the others are all two-bit, and all two bit hyperoperators seem to follow this pattern. | can you be a bit more precise with your question? if you have any operation with two inputs and one output (with everything living in the same set, i.e. takes two integers to another integer), then an identity is defined to be something that take every other element to itself. that is, if & is my operation (so if & was exponentiation, then 2 & 3 = 8), an identity would be some number that i'll call e such that for all other numbers a, e & a = a & e = a. the number 2 does not satisfy this for exponentiation, as you wrote, since 2^(2) = 4, which is not equal to 2. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperoperation#Definition"
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how much saliva do we swallow per day? are there calories in saliva? | saliva is about 99% water, and i think the only thing significantly calorific in saliva would be mucins - the proteins that make it sticky. but it's like wallpaper paste, and doesn't take much to do the trick: mucins are only present at around 2mg/ml. [see here] ( _url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://iadr.confex.com/iadr/2003Goteborg/techprogram/abstract_32191.htm"
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|
where does the energy go in a zero optical path difference in interferometry? | hi everyone ! i am currently preparing an exam on optical engineering and am wondering what happens with the energy in a situation where interference is destructive and there is no energy arriving at the detector. the configuration is a michelson interferometer. & #x200b; | in a michelson interferometer, if there's destructive interference going toward the detector, there's constructive interference going back toward the source. that is, the light energy goes right back where it came from, the interferometer behaves like a plain mirror. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen if a critical wire/cable that spanned the atlantic/pacific ocean was severed? how would it be fixed? | this happens every few years, actually. sometimes it's due to a natural phenomenon like an earthquake, but more often it's due to people. fishing trawlers drag nets that can snag cable (unless it's buried), and governments have occasionally cut strategic cable links on purpose. you can determine the location of the break by [sending a signal down the cable and comparing it to its reflection](_url_0_). at that point, you'd have to send out a specially equipped ship. the ship would pull up one end of the broken cable, splice a new, longer, segment to it, and let it drop back down the seabed. after that, the ship would pull up the remaining broken end, and splice the other end of the new middle segment. ...so the cable will be longer than it originally was. to splice optical fiber together, you have to cut off, polish and clean the fiber ends (to ensure that there wasn't an uneven break), and then there's a machine which will carefully melt the two fiber ends together. you'd need to insulate the splice as best as you could. since undersea cables are usually large, with a number of structural supporting elements and insulation of varying types, plus multiple optical fibers, i wouldn't be surprised if there was specialized equipment to handle splices. ...alternatively, you could lay a new cable, but that tends to be quite expensive. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread-spectrum_time-domain_reflectometry"
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|
is there a way to take a pile of dirt and separate it into its molecularly pure constituents? | hi, amateur idiot here, wondering if it's possible to start with something like a pile of dirt and then separate through a variety of processes every part of it out so that in the end you had a small pile of cao, cu ions, fe ions, that sort of thing. i understand that there are some methods used in mining for extracting specific constituents, but i'm not really familiar with what that actually means operationally. it sounds like it'd make a great hobby at the very least! | in general it would be possible, but there isn't going to be a catch-all answer for how to do it, and it would almost certainly involve a number of different steps. there are loads of different techniques for separating chemical compounds from one another (and these varied techniques generally account for a large portion of the equipment found in industrial chemical plants). what equipment is necessary is entirely dependent on what is present in the dirt, and, of course, not all dirt is the same. also, note that it's pretty much impossible to get a pile of ions. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does your body know to start blood clotting? | simply put, how does your body know when to clot blood? i've tried reading some explanations of the "coagulation cascade" but i can't make much sense of it without some biochemistry classes. the blood running through your arteries, veins, and capillaries can't clot for obvious reasons, it would be unhealthy and potentially deadly. however, as soon as there is a cut or damage to this system a normal body responds with immediate clotting mechanisms. how does it do this? how can it so rapidly and effectively differentiate between "normal" and "abnormal?" as a side question, how does this explain hemophilia? | your blood vessels are lined with cells called endothelial cells. these cells are what the blood is in direct contact with usually. they do not express a certain protein which is called "tissue factor", which most other tissues in the body express. thus, blood does not come into contact with this protein unless they are outside of the vessel and encountering non-endothelial cells. this would only happen in the context of a cut vessel. this encounter causes a protein in the blood to bind to tissue factor, forming a complex than activates a cascade of various proteins. the "cascade" process serves to amplify the coagulation with a few molecules activating a lot of molecules which activate a lot more molecules, etc. in addition, when platelets come in contact with the collagen that normally underlies the vessels (which again, they wouldn't contact unless the vessel is damaged), they become "activated," which helps them call more platelets to the scene and aggregate. hemophilia is a term encompassing a few different bleeding disorders. generally, hemophilia occurs when your body can't make one of the proteins ("clotting factors") that make up the cascade. there are several clotting factors more commonly affected than others. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://faculty.stcc.edu/AandP/AP/AP2pages/Units18to20/blood/damage.htm"
] | [
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what do non-english cultures traditionally use as variables in math? | in american we are taught to use x an y as variables when solving algebraic equations. what do other cultures use? i would assume most of the english speaking cultures use x and y as well, though feel free to correct me if i'm wrong. i'm specifically interested in non-western cultures. | in china, the notations are mostly the same. see for example [an exam to enter university](_url_1_). specific characters appear when you use text to describe a problem, often in elementary classes. in that case, characters are taken from the traditional [celestial stem](_url_2_) system: 甲、乙、丙、丁. you can find an example [here](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://cq.aoshu.com/e/20110715/4e1fdd24d9a68.shtml",
"http://gaokao.eol.cn/sx_2888/20130109/t20130109_891912.shtml",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_stem"
] | [
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are there any cases of uncontrolled cell division that are beneficial? not necessarily for a permanent time, but has it ever solved a problem? | uncontrolled is universally bad. it has to be turned on and off successfully. controlled but plentiful is a wonderful thing for developmental biology, and some tissues that constantly regenerate (intestine, epithelium). further, overriding the "off" switch can be good for growing neurons after a stroke and is being looked at as a potential avenue for regenerative therapy post brain injury or disease. so, maybe uncontrolled cell division being beneficial isn't a thing, but being able to turn on and turn off cell division is an excellent thing. does that help? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
from one of my students: "does biology use mathematics?" | we were having a discussion today and some how this question came out of it. my gut reaction, being a math teacher, of course was "yes!" since we modeled population growths in differential equations but to be plainly honest, i have only taken math and physical science classes in college, not exactly life science classes. this question is not for biology 101, but for basically the whole field. so i toss the question to you askscience, in hopes of motivating some great students! | oh yes, there is plenty of math in the biological sciences. first, there is a lot of statistics especially in the analysis of experiments. whole books are devoted to this - [amazon biology + statistics](_url_0_). also biologists use math in conservation. [a primer of ecology](_url_0_#/ref=nb_sb_noss?url=search-alias%3daps & field-keywords=primer+of+ecology & rh=i%3aaps%2ck%3aprimer+of+ecology) runs through most of the models conservation biologists use when trying to figure out how to protect a species, how to model populations (birth and death rates), how species get from point a to b and so on. these can be simple and very complicated, requiring computer programs to solve problems. some ecological statistical packages include: primer, spss, minitab... while these are also used for statistical needs in other fields they are definitely used in biology. in biochemistry, pharmacology, medicine, and genetics... - math is used all the time to make dilutions, mix the proper amounts of chemicals, experiment with dna and so on. without math, biology in all its facets would be boring. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.ca/s/ref=nb_sb_ss_i_0_12?url=search-alias%3Daps&field-keywords=biology+statistics&x=0&y=0&sprefix=biology+stat",
"http://www.amazon.ca/s/ref=nb_sb_ss_i_0_12?url=search-alias%3Daps&field-keywords=biology+statistics&x=0&y=0&sprefix=biology+stat#/ref=nb_sb_noss?url=search-alias%3Daps&field-keywords=primer+of+ecology&rh=i%3Aaps%2Ck%3Aprimer+of+ecology"
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can someone explain how impedence matching works? | a [transmission line](_url_0_) is specialized cable which enables the transfer of alternating current with a frequency high enough that the length of the cable begins to matter. (basically anything higher than mains power). at the end of the line there is usually an impedence-matched load resistor. what is that and how does it work? does it simply absorb the wave pulse so that a return line is not needed? | this revolves around the maximum power transfer theorem. there are two ways to look at it. firstly from a circuit-theory point of view, when power energy is transferred from one component to another, the maximum is transferred if they are the same resistance. impedance is the more generalised, complex form of resistance. this means that if they are matched in resistance (impedance) then the most power is transferred, which is most efficient. the second way to look at isn't is from a waves point of view. at the frequencies you get in a transfer cable the currents can be modelled as electromagnetic pulses. when they reach a boundary some are reflected and some are transmitted, just like light is when it passes between air and water. when the two mediums either side of the boundary have the same "resistance" to the wave, more of the wave propagates through, as it's almost as if there is no boundary, so the maximum energy is transferred, as expected. | 7 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_line"
] | [
"http://youtu.be/DovunOxlY1k",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DovunOxlY1k"
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tailrotor question dealing with helicopters | what does the delta-x tail rotor as seen on the ah-64 and mi-28 provide over just a single or double bladed standard x, as seen on the uh-1y and ah-1z? is it just a sound deal? | this seems like a good answer: "when hughes tool co., aircraft division experimented with the oh-6a to make it very quiet, the engineers knew that a big source of noise was the tail rotor. to make the tail rotor quieter, they decided to increase the blade area and decrease the rpm. the most convenient (i.e., least costly) method was to simply add another set of teetering blades to the tail rotor. in addition to the addition of more blades, hughes engineers experimented with blade phasing to decrease the noise level as much as possible. as i remember, the phasing they decided upon was about 45 deg. when the ah-64 apache came along, the hughes engineers incorporated what they had learned from the oh-6a development work. the same basic design for the tail rotor of the quiet oh-6a was incorporated into the apache design; two pairs of teetering rotor blades. the same concept was used on the 4-bladed tail rotor option on the md 500d, e, and ff series of helicopters. the one additional requirement for the apache was to fit into a c-130 transport without disassembling the rotors. in order to meet this requirement, the tail rotor blade spacing was changed to the 30 deg spacing you found. the noise signature suffered a litttle bit, but the transportaion requirement was met. " -_url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.airtalk.org/ah64-tail-rotor-vt35959.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=a6fFnEyvnHA#t=34s",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PV7Cijdi4Xw&feature=player_detailpage#t=53s"
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do we name the muscles and bones of other species? | for example, every human muscle and bone that has been discovered has a name, like quadriceps, pectorials, ulna, etc. do we do the same for other species? obviously different species have different muscles and bones than we do. so do dogs have quadriceps, or just thighs? do cows have an ulna, or just a front forearm? etc., etc. | yes. when describing other species anatomy there is a corresponding naming scheme for their body parts. all vertebrates share the same basic blue print, so in this case both we and a cow and a dog have an ulna. there are description of species-specific differences, whales lacking the second pair of limbs for example. and there is a scientific naming system for arthropod and other invertebrate anatomy. science wouldn't work if we couldn't properly specify what we're talking about. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there color beyond the subatomic scale? | when light is reflected off of things, they produce a certain color, but do things that are around the same size or smaller than protons, electrons, neutrons, etc. have color? can photons even reflect light off of them? | color is the name we give to our perceptive reaction to the electromagnetic radiation from 400 to 700 nanometers. an atom like helium is much smaller than that, about 0.1 nanometers. so to visualize "*colors*" at the atomic scale you first need a device, a synthetic eye that reacts to electomagnetic radiation in the order of the picometer, and some system to translate the equivalent of the light spectrum at that scale to us. basically you can't shine atoms with light, but you can shine atoms with electromagnetic radiation of the appropriate wavelenght, usually no greater wavelenght than twice the size of the atom you need visualized. edit: spelling | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how did oliver heaviside predict cherenkov radiation in 1888-1889 before the discovery of subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons, etc.)? | interesting question, i did not know he had done this! i just did a little poking around, and found a textbook he wrote in 1899, "electromagnetic theory" with an appendix on this topic in volume ii, [available online here](_url_1_). by this point in history we already had an excellent theory of classical electromagnetism in the form of [maxwell's equations](_url_0_), which were developed in the 1860's and are still widely used today. this was well before einstein and relativity, but in fact maxwell's equations already sort of had some of the functionality of relativity built in (in that the speed of electromagnetic waves (light) was always *c* according to the equations, but curiously no reference frame needed to be specified), people just didn't understand why yet. we also didn't have quantum mechanics or an understanding of what particles made up nature, but for classical calculations this didn't matter, you just need to know how much total charge there is and how it is distributed and moving. so having this good theory of electromagnetism with this curious speed of *c* built in, it would be natural to wonder what would happen if some charge moved faster than *c*. according to that heaviside book, several physicists of the day, including future nobel prize winner j.j. thompson, had apparently concluded that it would be impossible for a charged object to move faster than light because they would carry an infinite amount of electrical energy (because it fills the universe with a disturbance in the electromagnetic field), and infinities are bad. heaviside apparently realized that the energy would not be infinite unless the particle had *always* been moving faster than *c* since negative eternity, because it's only when it starts moving faster than *c* that a disturbance in the electromagnetic field starts propagating outward, at a finite speed, *c*. thus there is always a finite volume of the universe with this disturbance in it, which has only been expanding since when the object broke the light barrier, and thus a finite amount of energy. his calculations in 1888 showed that this disturbance is a conical wavefront, and that the charged object will rapidly lose energy to feed this disturbance, or else it must be pushed along by some force to keep up its speed. he doesn't come out and say it in that brief appendix, but i think it must be that this disturbance in the electromagnetic field is light. there's an interesting note at the end of the appendix, where he references thompson's recent (1897) discovery that cathode rays were made of fast-moving charged particles (now known as electrons), and points out that maybe these particles could be accelerated past *c* and this effect observed. ---- the broader point here is that cerenkov radiation is actually a consequence of *classical* electromagnetic theory for any particle traveling faster than *c*, so heaviside was able to predict it for some nondescript charged object without needing to know about the fundamental charged particles in the universe. heaviside though was thinking of moving objects faster than the speed of light in vacuum, while cerenkov radiation as we know it is when a particle is traveling slower than that, but faster than the phase velocity of light in some dielectric medium. the math is the same though, just with a couple different numbers in place. | 97 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations",
"https://archive.org/stream/electromagnetict02heavrich#page/532/mode/2up"
] | [
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|
why and how do small fishes (like goldfish) overfeed themselves to their death? | for any creature to be able to stop eating when food is readily available, they need to have mechanisms that react to the amount consumed and triggers some sort of instinct to stop. for this mechanism to evolve naturally, the creatures would have to have gone through long periods of fatally over-abundant food. this is extremely rare in nature, as more food usually results in a lot more feeders in just one generation. humans do have a few of these mechanisms, but how well they work vary greatly from individual to individual. this is thought to be a contributing factor to why some people struggle with obesity and others do not. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the caloric content of an average adult human? | i saw a documentary about a shark's eating patterns, and learned it can live off one seal for weeks because it provides the shark with tens (hundreds?) of thousands of calories. assuming average height and weight of a healthy (american) male is 5'10" (178cm) and 150lbs (68.2kg) with roughly 21% body fat, and female is 5'4" (162.5cm) and 130lbs (59kg) with roughly 28% body fat, how many calories would we provide to a predator? also, if we don't know this, why not? is it unethical to use cadavers for this purpose? *average height obtained from wikipedia article [here](_url_0_); weights averaged from bmi tables for men and women, respectively; bf% averaged from wiki tables [here](_url_1_).* | as a basic rule of thumb (and you would want to eat that part, too), protein is around 4 calories/gram, carbs are about 4 calories/gram and fat is around 9 calories/ gram. so approximately 4 - 9 calories/gram depending on your specimen. i'd imagine if one eats the bones there's some caloric content in those, too, but many predators aren't equipped to do so. there's also probably some small caloric content in hair, and some in cartilage. | 11 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_height#Average_height_around_the_world",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_fat_percentage#Typical_body_fat_amounts"
] | [
"http://www.livestrong.com/article/368497-percentage-of-body-mass-bone/"
] | [
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how does a voltage clamp work? | the [voltage clamp](_url_0_). i've been looking through physiology textbooks and online but i just can't get my head around it. obviously the technique is pretty important and i'm required to know how it works but i have very little physics background; could someone give a simple explanation please? | i'm not personally familiar with that particular circuit, but from the description it looks like a basic negative feedback circuit. (in control systems, "negative" feedback is a good thing. positive feedback creates lack of control.) you measure the output of your system and compare it to a reference value. use that comparison to create a difference signal. if the difference is zero, do nothing. if it is positive, reduce the output signal; if it is negative, increase the output signal. that tends to drive the system output to the value set by the reference. in this case, it looks like the thing you are trying to control is the potential between that seen by the intracellular electrode and the extracellular electrode. that signal is amplified and compared to a reference (from a signal generator) to create the difference signal coming out of the op amp, and going back to the axon. one of the nifty things about such control circuits is that it also can provide you with a measurement. if the thing you want to measure directly is delicate and would be upset by the process of measuring, you can instead measure the amplified difference signal. the difference signal is the difference between the signal you care about and a constant value, multiplied (amplified) by some amount. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_clamp"
] | [] | [
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how does krokodil cause necrosis? | the best information i've found only says "because it's caustic." what is the full method of action? | a combination of infection from impurities (dirt, unclean needles), unremoved solvents (battery acid and gasoline, both of which are caustic) and improper injection resulting in damaged skin, capillaries and veins. together, these things result in a local environment that is extremely hostile to tissue repair/regeneration. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are the maldives so flat? | i would have thought that, as islands, they would be the "peaks" of mountains/volcanoes sticking out of the water meaning they would be hardly flat at all. | the maldives are coral islands. coral starts to grow in reasonably shallow warm water and stops growing at sea level. sea level changes and geological uplift can then move the coral tops slightly above sea level but it’s unlikely to get very high before it is eroded back. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[physics] how do water bombers lose so much of their weight so rapidly and still manage to fly straight? | is there some technology that equalizes the water leaving the system, or does the pilot just know how to accommodate the change? | the best solution to a problem like this is this: the water tank is designed in such a way that the chordwise position (i.e. the position along the length of the aircraft) does not move, or moves only a little bit, as the tank drains, and therefore there is nothing for the pilot to compensate for except the reduced weight of the aircraft. reduced weight is a safe problem to have - all other things equal, it will just make your aircraft climb vertically if it suddenly loses a lot of weight. it's shifting the center of mass that is trouble because then the pilot has to worry about changing the attitude of the aircraft. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do aircraft calculate headwind and tailwind? what instrument do they use and how does this instrument calculate it? | what does this instrument look like and how does it work? i know it is simple to calculate wind while stationary on the ground with a windsock but i can imagine it gets complicated once airborne. i understand that crosswinds are also a major factor given that winds are almost never directly parallel to the line of flight and these complicate calculations even further. i had thought maybe it could be calculated by the difference in gps speed with the revolutions per second of the turbine (that would provide a theoretical speed at which the aircraft should be flying at). | to find the wind vector you first find the air speed vector and the ground speed vector. aircraft are equipped with instruments to calculate the air speed vector. pitot tubes and static ports can be used to find static pressure, dynamic pressure and air density. with these three values the aircraft can calculate the air speed vector presumably using bernoulli's equation. the relative ground velocity vector can be found using gps systems. once these two vectors are found the wind velocity vector can be found by vector subtraction of the air speed vector from the ground speed vector. nasa has written some nice articles on this but not only for the wind speed velocity component parallel to the aircrafts velocity. i also recommend you learn more about pitot tubes if you are unfamiliar with them. using multiple pitot tubes in different directions is how wind components perpendicular to motion are calculated. _url_0_ _url_1_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/pitot.html",
"https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/move2.html"
] | [
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theoretically, if a perfect peg and a perfect hole had the exact same diameter (i know this isn't possible, but this is more of a theoretical physical property question), would the peg fit in the hole, not fit, neither, or both? | you are trying to use a physics example in what is clearly a purely mathematical question. exact values don't exist in physics. a simple mathematical form would be asking if there is a conjuction between the sets (x is less or equal to 4) and (x is larger or equal to 4). the answer is yes, they both contain the number 4. edit: you can write it much shorter with the proper mathematical operators, but i don't know how to do that here. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are the implications of the new machine that can temporarily deactivate the blood-brain barrier? | university of queensland researchers have recently figured out a way [to temporarily break the blood brain barrier](_url_0_) . the mechanism they have devised is purposed to treat alzheimer's by helping to remove plaque buildup on the brain. what other types of applications would be possibile through this new-found ability of suspending the blood/brain barrier ? how else might we use this new ability for good and bad? | we could probably use it to get drugs into the brain and get some sort of really intense high. on a more productive note, this might aid in chemotherapy of brain cancer, and it would make administering drugs for brain conditions easier. it could be a concern though, as that barrier exists for a reason and it could be easy to get toxins and other chemicals we don't want in the brain inside it inadvertently as we administer this treatment. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/health-science/queensland-scientists-in-alzheimers-treatment-breakthrough/story-e6frg8y6-1227259862721"
] | [] | [
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] |
what are the biggest obstacles to creating a personal flight device? | is it size of the power supply? impulse required? something else? are they completely unfeasible in the near future for some vital reason? i know that people have made some functional yet huge and deathtrap-like jetpacks. i've also seen that thing that uses water (although that's not self-contained). i'm talking about something practical that could revolutionize transportation. | jetpacks have been made, but they suffer from a problem of not being able to fly very far. the record is a [5000 foot climb and then descent](_url_4_) in a jetpack, which only lasted 10 minutes. so the current maximum duration is in the minutes. and the more fuel you add, the greater the mass to carry, and eventually you hit a limit. there are personal flight devices that are like small airplanes. [ultralights for example](_url_1_), which can be very small, and carry only one person or slightly larger and carry two. [microlighting](_url_3_) is another form of personal travel, again like a small plane. a still smaller example is a [powered paraglider](_url_2_), (and of course without an engine, a paraglider can still fly if taking off from a height, and using thermals to retain altitude). so they exist. i've flow in some of them. but they have some drawbacks: ultralights and microlights need a runway and a pilot's license. jetpacks have very very short flying times. edit: i've just found out that in many countries (eg uk, us) [powered paragliding is minimally regulated](_url_2_), and required no license. you can read more about them [here](_url_0_), so maybe that's the answer you're looking for? | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://blackhawkparamotor.com/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultralight_aviation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_paragliding",
"http://www.bmaa.org/",
"http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2011-05/video-martin-jetpack-crushes-previous-record-climbing-5000-feet"
] | [
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is there a rigorous definition of causality and is it possible to definitively establish causality in a physical system? | in general relativity a spacetime satisfies "the causality condition" if there are no closed non-spacelike curves. at least that's the definition from hawking and ellis, *the large scale structure of spacetime*, §6.4, p. 190. a curve is a map from an interval, or the whole real line, into spacetime. a curve is spacelike if its tangent vector is has positive (or negative, if you like terrible conventions) norm at every point on its image. and a curve is closed if it has finite length and empty boundary (as a manifold, not as a subset). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does causality exist? | so, i just watched this [video](_url_0_) discussing the relativity of simultaneity. in his example, the train survives because the observers disagree about what caused the train to survive. if it is impossible for there to be agreement on whether events a and b happened simultaneously or whether a happened first then b, how is it possible for causality to still exist? | as far as we can tell yes. if we had causality violations, we'd lose predictive power in physics—we would not be able to attribute causes to effects or predict effects of causes. a causality violation has never been detected in any experiment which suggests that faster-than-light transportation of information is impossible. that 60symbols video is very good, among my favorites. they are quite right, among causally disconnected events (a and b simply happen, neither causes the other), which happens first is relative to the observer and different observers will disagree. the reason causality is saved is that lengths and times will also warp to maintain the constancy of the speed of light. while observers will disagree on the order of disconnected events, they will also agree that both events occur and they will always agree on the order of causal events. never will two observer witness diverging and different events. you can tell whether or not two events can possibly causally connected by the spacetime interval between them. [check out this diagram of a light cone](_url_0_). if a is the origin, then for b to possibly cause a, it must at least be in the past light cone and for b to result from a, it must at least be in the future light cone. this is the minimum requirement. | 7 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kGsbBw1I0Rg"
] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/World_line.svg/752px-World_line.svg.png"
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how do we measure someone's olfactory response? | i know there is variance in the ability to smell between different individuals, such as those with hyperosmia/hyposmia, but how is this determined? is there a specific scale or measurement that is used? | a common one (probably most widely used as well) is the university of pennsylvania smell identification test (upsit). essentially it consists of 40 scratch-and-sniff odors printed on 4 booklets. it's quick (10-15min) and very reliable. _url_1_ doty rl, shaman p, kimmelman cp, & dann ms. (1984). university of pennsylvania smell identification test: a rapid quantitative olfactory function test for the clinic. laryngoscope, 94. _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"doi.org/10.1288/00005537-198402000-00004",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Smell_Identification_Test"
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theory | i get told quite often that evolution is just a theory. (should i capitalize 'evolution'?) my response is usually something like... "you're thinking of the wrong use of the word 'theory'. a *scientific* theory means that it has been tested and proven without fail many times. to put it in perspective...gravity is a theory." and if i have a cheap object available, i push it to the ground. is there anything i'm saying that's just blatantly false? i don't want to be wrong :/ | this is incorrect - theories are never *proven*. they can only be accepted or rejected based on an ever-growing (hopefully) pile of evidence. it would be more accurate to say that an accepted theory has been tested and scientists recognize that it has passed all tests so far. gravity itself is not a theory but an observed force; our current *understanding* of that force, including the equations we use to describe our observations, is a theory. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/kj1tk/what_is_the_difference_between_a_hypothesis_a/c2knyao"
] | [
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when i flip a coin on a moving speedboat, why doesn't it fly into the water behind me? | because it's traveling forwards at the same velocity as the speedboat. neglecting air resistance, throwing the coin into the air doesn't suddenly take away it's forward velocity. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what exactly is happening to my calculator screen as apply pressure to it and then release? | the numbers on the calculator screen deform and when pressure is applied and then stabilizes. once i release the pressure, the screen is deformed once again and then stabilizes once more. why is this happening? | your calculator is likely a liquid crystal display (lcd). there are 2 kinds, lcds which use a backlight for displaying (like some tvs), and lcds which use incoming light to display (like many calculators). how the "reflective" lcd screen works is that, first the light will enter through one light filter which linearly polarizes the light. wherever your calculator screen is supposed to get dark, the lcd will apply a voltage at that spot. what this does is it causes the liquid crystals inside to line up and become circularly polarized, which will shift the linearly polarized light by 90 degrees, which is orthogonal to the light filter at the incoming window. therefore light cannot leave this voltage-applied area, and it becomes dark. this shift of polarization is very sensitive to the distance between the incoming window and the reflector at the bottom of the lcd. when you press on the calculator screen, you are shrinking the distance. this causes some light to leak out of the dark areas. in addition, you push some of the liquid crystal in the voltage-applied areas outside of this area, so for a few seconds before they return to normal, they will "deform" the number until the effects of the voltage wears off. kind of long winded explanation. hope this helps. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the most "out there" theory or concept you've heard? | that we are a computer simulation. it seems impossible, but when i look at technological advances over the past 40 years, it seems it would only take a society ~10-20 generations ahead of us to create everything we see/experience. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how is masculinity and femininity defined scientifically? | i've always wondered exactly how subjective the the perception of masculinity and femininity is. it's always seemed to me like a very abstract term that we can't really put a real definition on. how can you explain what exactly makes a face more masculin than an other, for example. for example, if a masculine jaw is defined as a broad, big jaw, why do many women that are considered very attractive also have this kind of big jaw? | if your sex cells are small and motile, you are male if they are big and sessile, you are female. that's male vs. female. masculine vs. feminine is a much more complex matter, that covers biology, psychology, and sociology. there is no strict scientific definition to date. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will a conductive material attached to a insulating material (like a copper plate attached to a glass plate) have a thermal conductivity equal to one of the materials, or an average? | as an example, if i bake cookies in a pan that consists of a bottom made of a typical metal sheet pan and a top made up of glass, with the cookies sitting on the glass, would the cookies bake the same as if they were in a glass pan? | neither. the thermal conductivity in this case will follow the same law as the electric conductivity for two series-connected resistors: _url_0_ to give an exact answer to your question, if we denote the total thermal conductivity as c, then 1/c = 1/ca + 1/cb, where ca and cb are the conductivities of your two layers. if the conductivity for one of the layers is much less than the conductivity of the other one, the total conductivity will closely approximate the lower conductivity of the two. in other words, if you put a layer of glass on top of a layer of copper, and the layers have similar thicknesses, then your total conductivity will be close to the conductivity of the glass layer. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor#Series_and_parallel_resistors"
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how does a 3 chambered heart work vs a 4 chambered heart? | im in a veterinary assistant program, and i learned that reptiles and amphibians have a 3 chambered heart. my teacher didn't go into much detail since i won't be working with a lot of reptiles, but i was just curious. how does the 3 chambered heart function if it only has one ventricle? how does "double circulation" work? | basically, in an amphibian heart there are two atria and one ventricle. now as you'll know, humans have two ventricles to keep oxygenated and deoxygenated blood from mixing before it is pumped to the appropriate place. however, in amphibious hearts, there isn't an interventricular septum so you might think the blood mixes and the frog or whatever is going to be continuously cyanotic. it works though because there are ridges (trabeculae carnae) on the endocardial walls which turbulate and direct the flow of the blood to the appropriate vessels. minimal mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood occurs and everything's fine. in humans there is a rare congenital condition called 'cor triloculare biventriculare' in which there is just one atrium (i.e. a common atrium). you'd think that this would be very bad indeed but patients with this condition are pretty much asymptomatic and regularly get into their 20-30s undiagnosed. yep, we have trabeculae carnae too. without these 'meaty ridges' (as the latin literally translates to), the blood would stick to the walls, which is why we need the turbulation. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what long-term effect does (extensive) use of technology have on the brain/the learning process? | i remember reading an article about how the usage of technology changes the way our brain works. obviously, it didn't use the "technology is bad, it makes people stupid because they can't think for themselves" argument. it said something more on the lines of "when we use technology, it makes us better at being able to find/retrieve data, we become smarter at using things such as the search engine, to get the information we need and then use it, rather than trying to figure it out on our own." and then it went on saying that that is not necessarily a bad thing. as i'm writing this, i used google and searched through reddit to try and see if the article i read is on the internet anywhere. now i'm asking you, r/askscience, because i'm not good enough at using technology. | you may be thinking of [this science article](_url_0_), which reports: > this is preliminary evidence that when people expect information to remain continuously available (such as we expect with internet access), they are more likely to remember where to find it than to remember the details of the item. one could argue that this is an adaptive use of memory—to include the computer and online search engines as an external memory system that can be accessed at will. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21764755"
] | [
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does a particle "make" a field, or just create a disturbance in "the" field? | i remember when first encountering the concept of electromagnetic fields being told that a charged particle "creates" a field around itself which tapers away farther from the particle. but from everything i've learned since, it has seemed much more intuitive to me to think of the electromagnetic field as a single omnipresent entity with which charged particles interact and create "ripples" when they accelerate. i know that sounds a lot like an aether, however, and i know that concept was discredited. i'm also familiar with the idea as particles themselves as manifestations of field disturbances, which also seems to me to play nicely with the notion of the field being universal and permanent. is there any problem with thinking of fields as massless (though energy-carrying) "aethers", or/and is there any advantage to conceptualizing particles as "creating" their fields? | one thing to clear up: when you're talking about a charged particle, there are actually _two_ fields involved. there's one field corresponding to the particle itself, and there is also the electromagnetic field. (actually, even that's a simplification - depending on how you count, there could be lots more fields, but i'll just ignore that little detail.) for the field corresponding to the particle itself, e.g. the electron field, what we call a "particle" is actually a particular kind of disturbance or ripple in the field. or more like a bump, perhaps. e.g. an electron is a bump in the electron field. there is only one electron field, which has a value at every point in space. now, the disturbance in the electron field that we call an electron also creates "ripples" in the electromagnetic field, because those two fields are coupled together. again, there is only one electromagnetic field, which has a value at every point in space. just as disturbances of a certain shape in the electron field are called electrons, so disturbances of a certain shape in the electromagnetic field are called photons. every field has a corresponding type of particle. however, the ripples produced in the em field when an electron accelerates are not the same shape as individual photons. you can roughly think of it as a sum of photon-shaped disturbances, though. the reason these fields are different from the discredited luminiferous aether is that quantum fields exhibit lorentz invariance, whereas the luminiferous aether did not. in other words, the aether was meant to select a particular reference frame which would be at rest, and which the speed of light should always be measured with respect to. but quantum fields do not identify a particular reference frame. they just exist in spacetime without picking out any particular speed or orientation. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-bohm/"
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are deep-sea creatures fragile? | recently i've been reading a sci-fi book about a crew manning a deep sea geothermal plant and it is mentioned multiple times (and shown) that the organism down there are fragile and squishy due to their crappy diet. is this true? | due to the extreme amounts of outside pressure deep sea creatures experience they don't have any bones or teeth. this causes them to be extremely squishy. if we try to study them by bringing them to sea level they usually swell up and pop. like a balloon would when you send them high into the atmosphere. (this is because the outside pressure isn't pushing as hard as the inside pressure when going higher and higher. so the inside pressure pushes harder against the walls of the balloon which causes it to expand or swell up and eventually pop). | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do physicists sometimes speculate that the fundamental constants of nature may vary over time or within different parts of the universe? | is there either empirical data, or theoretical reasons to believe that the fundamental constants have changed and/or can change? or is this speculation just because no physical law explicitly forbids it from happening? or is the speculation because it would possibly resolve the goldilocks enigma? | the reason is primarily that mainstream physics predicts that the constants are actually constant, and as scientists are eager to find physics outside of the standard model, they are looking for any possible discrepancies, and the variable constants are one possible discrepancy. in general it's not easy to design an experiment to do this so when it's possible to check fundamentals of the sm for cheap, it'll be looked at. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is blood flow increased to a particular area? | let's say i'm at the gym doing biceps curls. how do my biceps signal that they need more blood? and once more blood starts flowing, how exactly does it get directed just to the biceps (as opposed to the heart just pumping more blood to all arteries)? | yep, as mentioned, it's done by controlling the size of the local blood vessels. there are a number of signaling molecules - peptides such as angiotensin, vasopressin, endothelin et al., and other molecules like adenosine, histamine, prostaglandins, and a list as long as most arms. the vascular smooth muscle cells that line the vessels are very senstive to these cues. exercising skeletal muscles immediately starts sending out such signaling molecules to the local vasculature. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does one represent concepts, such as looping, stopping, storing, etc through electric signals (created by binary) | i can't seem to wrap my head around how a series of 0's and 1's can represent something like "perform this task unless this is true, otherwise do this until this is true." is this based upon anomalies found in the electrical storage of the ones and zeros on disk? | the most basic programming languages are [machine languages](_url_0_), which define numerical codes for very basic commands. in a machine language, each instruction is some fixed number of bits long, determined by the processor (~~this is basically what the "64-bit" refers to when we say "64-bit processor~~). those bits are then broken down into the opcode, which tells the processor what to do, and then several references which tell the processor which values to do that operation to. so when a processor goes to execute the next command in a program, it gets the command, feeds the opcode into a piece of circuitry that sets the value of various control bits based on the value of the opcode, then it pulls the values out of the specified registers, does some math and stores the resulting value in a target register. of course, this is a simplified description and many commands don't follow this exact model, but the idea is basically the same. to go a little more in-depth, i can tell you that branching works by performing a test on a given value which returns either 0 or 1. then, depending on this value, the next instruction it fetches is either current instruction + 1 (as usual) or the branch target instruction. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_language"
] | [
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what precent of people ever alive are alive today? | a quick search through [google](_url_0_) or [askscience's search results](_url_1_) (near top of results) would have given you the answer. it's estimated, roughly, that about 100 billion people have ever lived. so about 7% are alive today. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.prb.org/articles/2002/howmanypeoplehaveeverlivedonearth.aspx",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=humans+alive+today&restrict_sr=on&sort=relevance"
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|
0.9^n < 0.05? | i know if you can take log base 10 of both sides and you can solve it: > log10(0.9) < log10(0.05) as log10(0.9) is negative when we divide we have to reverse the inequality sign giving > n > log10(0.05)/log10(0.9) therefore n > 28.4 however if we were to take logs with a base 0.9 instead of 10 it gives: > nlog0.9(0.9) < log0.9(0.05) and as log0.9(0.9) is no longer negative we dont need to reverse the sighn so dividing by log0.9(0.9) gives: > n < 28.4 are you not allowed to take a log with base 0.9 or have i gone wrong somewhere else? | logarithms with bases less than one are decreasing functions, so you should have flipped the inequality already when you took the logarithm. | 43 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you predict oncoming rain by the flow rate of a river downstream? | i ride past a river every day which i think noticeably changes depending on the amount of rain that fell recently. i can't help but wonder that if it rains upstream will i notice a difference in the river at my location downstream before the rain arrives and therefore predict oncoming rain? (assuming the path of the rain is roughly the same as the direction of the river) in short: * does river water get downstream faster than the clouds that produced it? can this be generalised or is it highly dependent on the river and weather system? * if it is possible, did any old societies use this method to predict rain? | your first question was too vague to answer, but i can tackle the majority of what you wanted to know. water following a storm event enters the water way through a combination of baseflow (the water seeping into the waterway from groundwater) and the stormflow (surface and subsurface flow) for the most part. to predict a storm event up stream in the way you describe would require prior knowledge of the baseflow preceding the rain event -- in some cases stream velocity change may also be a good indicator. so, if you knew the baseflow prior to the event, you could predict a storm event somewhere up stream, given the contribution from stormflow; however, this method would depend on the severity of the storm event and would require knowledge of the significance limit such that the water rose high enough, or started flowing fast enough, that the probability of occurrence was beyond the standard error of measurement. as far as a method to predict rain goes, it would be a lowsy method for predicting rain beyond where you could see the rainfall event, or at least the clouds. unless the ground was completely saturated with water, you would not get instantaneous transfer of water into the waterway beyond the water directly striking the stream channel. during a storm event, if there the infiltration capacity is not completely saturated -- and barring some some type of hydrophobic or impermeable layer --, water can end up infiltrating into the ground, caught on vegetation surfaces, respirated by vegetation, evaporated, and caught in depression storage -- aka puddles --, or essentially delayed enough that you wouldn't notice the storm event far enough down stream. in actual practice hydrologists merely look at hydrographs, from strategically placed gauging stations, to see a storm's effect on the river. hydrologists also interpret instantaneous data from stream gauging stations to see if the flood event might be occurring in a given location rather than figure out if a storm event had occured up stream. given the baseflow prior to a storm event, we then can attribute the peaks on the hydrograph to specific storm events; but, that would be a bad way to predict a storm events that were not local because isolated storm events are usually absorbed into the excess capacity of the river network, making them hard to detect. **edit:** made it sounds a little more coherent. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are the intestines "in order"? | ok, so this might be a strange question, but every time you see a depiction of the intestines it looks like a rope, that you try to fit into a small place without properly tangling it up. and if people in movies,tv etc. are severely injured, their belly sliced open and their intestines fall out, they kind of hang out of there like a rope. so my question is, if that was to happen, is there any order or system to put in back in in surgery or do you just try to "make it fit"? please excuse the informality of the language, i just tried to paint an accurate picture of my problematic understanding. these depictions are meant: nsfw !!! _url_1_ and this one, of a man with his intestines hanging out: again nsfw nsfw _url_0_ | i will answer part of this at least for non-human animals, but i think for humans as well (based on my talk with my colorectal surgeon). in veterinary medicine, when we do an exploratory surgery or a bowel resection or some other surgery involving the intestines, they can essentially be put back in in any way. we usually just stuff them back in. they go back into the same area of course, but the way in which we place them isn't a specific configuration; we essentially just "make it fit". we pull them out of the body, do what needs to be done, and then just kind of push them back in. the other commenter explained very well how they are attached to each other and the inside of the body. they do come outside the body (we lay them next to the animals body on our surgery drapes) but not very far. we just pull them out, place them right next to the body, then put them back in. my colorectal surgeon kind of mentioned this to me about my imminent bowel resection as well, although not in as many words and not really in regards to a question i asked, so i won't really go into that. i'd love someone to come along and let me know if it's the same for humans, especially because this pertains to me specifically in the near future! | 17 | [] | [
"https://riversofgrue.files.wordpress.com/2013/08/dream-home-movie-guts-intestines-evisceration.jpg?w=450&h=294",
"http://img.webmd.com/dtmcms/live/webmd/consumer_assets/site_images/articles/image_article_collections/anatomy_pages/intestines.jpg"
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"https://theledemom.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/photo02281631_1-e1407432060979.jpg"
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now that sha-1 has been broken, what would it take for crackers to break sha-256 or sha-512? is it just a matter of processor time? | it's been broken: _url_0_ they recommend moving on to sha-256 or sha-512: > we hope our practical attack on sha-1 will increase awareness and convince the industry to quickly move to safer alteratives, such as sha-256. but if the algorithm is basically the same and only the block size changes, why is it safer? is it only because the required processor time would be exponentially larger? | sha-1 has not been broken. a single collision was found, using 6500 years of cpu time (or 110 years on a gpu), and a technique which is about 10^5 times faster than brute force. to turn this into a practical attack, you need to find a collision with what you're trying to spoof, that *also* delivers your payload. that's a bit harder, but with enough computing power still possible. sha-1 hashes are 160 bits, and it has been deprecated for 5 years. sha-256 hashes are 256 bits, for a difference of 96 bits. this makes them 2^96 times harder to break. 2^96 is 79228162514264337593543950336. if you had a billion billion times the computing resources of google, it would still take you 5 times the age of the universe to expect to find a single collision. and as i said above, one collision doesn't make the algorithm useless. | 42 | [] | [
"http://www.shattered.io/"
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will releasing store-bought preying mantises into my garden unbalance its ecosystem? | my girlfriend works at a garden center that just started selling these little pods full of mantis eggs, about 300 eggs per pod. you're supposed to release the eggs into the garden, and when they hatch after a few weeks, the little guys are supposed to descend upon the bugs in the garden like the black wing of death, devouring everything they can find. i'm thinking this is great, praying mantises are awesome, and they're eat all the pests attacking the plants, but won't they kill all the beneficial insects too? bees and butterflies and so on? will this ultimately be creating a much more severe problem than it's meant to fix? | yeah. you should probably not do that. they'll kill pretty much everything, and moving species around in general is almost never a good idea unless you're a conservation biologist and you really know what you're doing (and even then, it's hard to do without screwing up ecosystems). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to blood when it reacts with an antiserum? | i did an experiment at school where we found out our blood type using antisera a and b. when type b blood was mixed with the antiserum it *chuncked up*. the same happened when we mixed type a blood with antiserum a and with ab blood it happened to both. [here](_url_0_) is a picture to illustrate, this is how type b blood reacted to antiserum a (bottom) and antiserum b (top). | red blood cells are coated with what are called antigens. antigens are comprised of either proteins, carbohydrates, glycolipids or glycoproteins, depending on the actual blood group. the antisera contains antibodies which are made up of immunoglobulin molecules (another protein). each blood group has its own antigens that coat the red cells. in your case the "b" antisera (called anti-b) reacted with the b antigens coating the red cell. this is called agglutination. if your anti-b reacted with the b red cells, this would indicate that the patient is blood group b. group a would agglutinate with the anti-a. if neither reacts with the antisera, that person would be considered group o. a agglutinates with anti-a, b agglutinates with anti-b, o agglutinates with neither, ab agglutinates with anti-a and anti-b when the red cells agglutinate, the antibodies in the antisera are attracted to the antigens on the red cells. this creates the "chunking" effect that you see. the force holding the antigen and the antibody together is an electrical charge so you need to shake out the reaction to view it under a microscope or in a tube, the amount of agglutination that remains when you shake it indicates how strong the elctrical charge holding it together is. source: i am a med tech (lab people) | 5 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/9jNjYCO.jpg"
] | [] | [
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does air have its own form of “surface tension” the same way water does? | my assumption is that the atoms are too far apart to create any form of tension compared to water. but would this be the case in a pressurized environment? | there are [small correction terms](_url_0_) to the ideal gas law to account for the interaction of molecules, this often includes a pressure, but i don't think you can call that "surface tension" as it is not a surface effect. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_gas#Models"
] | [
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are universal constants really "just the way they are"? | i ran across this article:_url_0_ basically, the idea i get is that there's no point in considering changing or overcoming or using anything that is a "constant" when it comes to considering science. is this correct, or am i misunderstanding? is there no point to considering how to exceed the speed of light, or manipulate gravity, or… whatever else there may be? | it is possible that fundamental 'constants' do, in fact, vary from place to place (i.e. throughout the universe: we only measure most of these on earth) but we have no reason to believe that's true. if the fundamental constants are, in fact, constants then there is no reason to try and 'break' them: but that is at odds with the pillars of science. even fundamental constants must be tested continuously to verify that they are, in fact, constants. it is extremely unlikely that anyone will find a way to exceed the speed of light, but in testing the 'universal speed limit' they may be able to provide a better estimate for the correct speed of light, or even find some new phenomenon. fundamental constants should not stymie scientific ingenuity. a perfect example of why you shouldn't let fundamental constants prevent scientific inquiry is bohr's experience with spin. he insisted that angular momentum be quantized in units of h, and thus refused to accept h/2 for spin: which later turned out to be true. the same can be said for the fundamental unit of charge, e, which can be as small as e/3. | 2 | [] | [
"http://zidbits.com/2011/04/why-cant-anything-go-faster-than-the-speed-of-light/"
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is it possible to pass a very thin wire through a person's body without killing them? | i had this thought the other day. would it be possible to pass a very, very thin wire straight through a person's body, let's say around the middle, and have them survive despite technically being sliced in half? if so (considering very minimal damage would occur), would it be possible to pass 10, 20 or 100 wires simultaneously through the body at once without it resulting in a fatal injury? is it purely the displaced cells that cause the fatal injury and if so, couldn't that be avoided by using a very thin wire, but still slice all the way through? | if you are talking about wire moving through in a slicing motion then a person would die. when you cut through the major arteries, there will be severe internal bleading. the pressure in the arteries is much higher than the pressure inside the abdominal cavity, this would cause the blood to move from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure. blood pressure would drop quickly, and you would bleed out. if you are talking about a movement of the wire in a piercing action, then that might be a different story. there will be extensive trauma, but not nearly to the magnitude of cutting a person in half. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does contamination occur in other experiments with hela cells, and why is it such a problem? | i was reading about hela cells, and the wikipedia mentioned contamination was a serious issue with this line. i always assumed biologists in this line worked aseptically, so... how do hela cells get into other cell cultures? how frequently does this happen, and what does it mean for the research when it does? | dirtymirror is right on and as to how they get into other cultures: not using disposable pipetts/not changing tips. they survive cause they're hearty lil dudes. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why does the iron filings and bar magnets experiment result in the iron filings arranging themselves in neat lines when the magnetic field should be continuously distributed around the magnet? | like [this](_url_0_)? | because each tiny piece of iron becomes magnetized itself, and now you have a giant pile of tiny magnets that all attract and repel each other. the attraction and repulsion of the individual tiny magnets lead to spaced-out-lines pattern you see. | 24 | [] | [
"http://bolvan.ph.utexas.edu/~vadim/classes/14f/magnets/bar-magnet2.jpg"
] | [] | [
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] |
how did we come up with orders of operation in math? | so i'm thinking about how math became standardized and formulated. i can imagine someone thousands of years ago taking two pebbles and adding two more to have 4. or adding three times the amount and having six pebbles, but how did orders of operations come up? for instance how was it proven that if i have a problem where i divide, add, and subtract that division comes first, then addition and subtraction? bonus: how did we come up with exponents? did it come with roots? | i don't know anything about the history, but mathematically, order of operations is just a notational convention—it governs how you write something down, not the underlying mathematics. here's an example: suppose you want to write down the process "multiply 6 by 2, then add 3 to the result" in notation. * in our normal order of operations, multiplication comes before addition, so this would be "6\*2+3". * now suppose we instead used an order of operations with addition before multiplication. then the formula i gave above means something different, but we can still write the desired formula; we just have to use parentheses, resulting in "(6\*2)+3". we can write the same thing either way; we just have to do it a little differently depending on the order of operations we choose. **tl;dr**: order of operations just tells you how to convert complex sequences of mathematical operations into written text; it doesn't affect the underlying mathematics at all. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_operations",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mmgfj/why_is_the_order_of_operations_in_the_order_that/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponentiation#History_of_the_notation",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/tef9j/where_did_we_get_the_order_of_operations/"
] | [
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] |
what do we use as a metric? | _url_0_ this post got me wondering what we use as a metric, or if there is one that we do use. does c increase/expand as space does? | the metric is a function that tells you how distances between points depend on space and time. the metrics that physicists are interested in are solutions to the einstein field equations, which is the central set of equations in general relativity. unlike in newtonian physics, in gr the distances between objects (in space and in time) depend on the distribution of matter and energy. in the equations, the metric (which is actually 10 independent functions of space and time) is the variable we are usually trying to solve for, just as we were trying to solve for position as a function of time in newtonian mechanics. the speed of light, c, does not change as space expands. in fact, c is just proportionality constant of space to time that allows you to define "distances" in spacetime. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/it5jz/is_the_milky_way_at_the_center_of_the_universe_if/c26glib"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric"
] | [
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what determines the preferred nesting sites of birds that are commonly found in birdhouses, like sparrows, tits, and starlings? | or blackbirds, thrushes, finches, wrens, etc.; smaller birds that inhabit birdhouses. what do they need/prefer when looking for a spot to nest? | many of the birds you mention are secondary cavity nesters; meaning, they need a cavity to nest, but do not build it themselves. that means there might be a limitation on being picky finding the exact right nest spot! there is evidence that suggests that nest sites available limits the breeding density of these secondary cavity nesting species. particularly in regards to current forest management practices, which until recently removed snags and dead trees. these trees are important, as oftentimes they are where the primary cavity nesters (like woodpeckers) build their cavities -- the dead or dying wood is softer and easier to dig out. regarding these secondary cavity nesters, there is some evidence that lower cavities are hit with predation more often, and cavities that are older (perhaps because predators know the site as a nest site). in almost all cases, secondary nesters fare worse than primary nesters in terms of raising a successful clutch. most species in the other birds you mention - sparrows, blackbirds, thrushes, and finches, build their own nests (usually in a cup or bowl like shape). so for these guys, who are not limited by cavity availability, there are some specific cues for good nesting sites - including well camouflaged or defended (some birds nest in prickly trees!). there's even evidence that birds actively nest in areas that help maintain a good nest microclimate! such as nesting in a spot where there is a large branch overhead to act as a roof, or even orienting the nest toward exposed sunlight during certain times of day (to warm the eggs in the morning, and keep them warm throughout the day)! | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.allaboutbirds.org"
] | [
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lost over 258 pounds in the passed six months. my skin is still catching up. is there anyway to speed up the process of skin shrinkage that's safe and proven? | wow, that's 1.4 pounds a day! from what i've seen there's not much to do but wait. most links say the same thing, don't lose weight too fast, stay hydrated, get fish oil and flax oil, exfoliate the skin. _url_0_ this one mentions preparation h and collagen cream: _url_1_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.livestrong.com/article/73760-shrink-skin-after-losing-weight/",
"http://allwomenstalk.com/how-to-tighten-loose-skin-after-weight-loss/"
] | [
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|
questions about vanishing points in an infinitely deep well. | when looking down a well, into a tunnel, at railroad tracks, etc. they all appear to merge to a point off in the distance. let's focus on a well (a circular hole in the ground). if the well is infinitely deep, the well will look like it comes together at a point. my question is if there is a way to dig the hole so that it doesn't vanish, ie. looks to have the same diameter the whole way down. an issue i've had with this when talking with some friends is that if you start to make the well a cone shape so that it counteracts the vanishing phenomenon, you wouldn't be able to see the walls because they would be wider than the hole you are looking through. so if the walls are parallel they vanish, but as soon as you start widening them does the hole look to become infinitely wide? | the walls would have to be a cone, with its vertex at your eye. this means the shape would chance depending on where you are looking at it from. also, it would probably only work if you closed one of your eyes. this is because of how field of vision works. note that you can see things through a hole that are wider than the hole. just poke a hole through a piece of paper and look through -- chances are you can see the entire room -- or at least a section of it wider than the hole. also note that your brain takes everything together to interpret a size, so while the hole might look equal-sized the whole way down in a photo, to your brain, it would look pretty huge still. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could you compute an image which would be clear to someone with with an eye prescription? | i would like to know if you could compute an image at a given eye glass prescription. for example, an image at a specified distance, without my prescription glasses, which i would see clearly. would it be possible to create a virtual phoropter that an optometrist uses? | for astigmatism maybe. for focusing problems, i think you would need holographic output, which is extremely rare, and last i heard, crude. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i just read that steel produced post-wwii is slightly radioactive. what else has changed on earth (beyond?) due to nuclear weapons/other technologies? | [radiocarbon dating](_url_0_) has been affected by human activity. the most obvious is the doubling of atmospheric carbon-14, due to nuclear weapons testing, which makes carbon dating techniques difficult to use on any object made since 1950. the article also mentions that the carbon released through burning fossil fuels has also altered the ratio of radioactive to non-radioactive carbon, although this is a more minor effect. on a subject closer to home for me, the growth of population, cities, and the widespread use of electric lighting has made astronomy somewhat more difficult unless you find a really good dark site due to light pollution - and even then, protecting those sites from encroaching development can be difficult. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_carbon_dating#The_effects_of_human_activity"
] | [
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|
energy? | if energy can't be created or destroyed then how did it come to be in the first place? | the current picture (as i understand it) is that the total energy of the universe seems consistent with zero, with the mass-energy we see being exactly balanced by negative gravitational energy. this, of course, depends on coming up with a sensible way to talk about gravitational energy in gr so that "the total energy of the universe" is a statement which makes sense. this can be done, but is tricky enough to be worth noting. one way to think of this is that the mass-energy we see now came in some sense from the initial rapid expansion of spacetime itself. that's my understanding of the current understanding. gonna need a cosmologist in here to flesh things out though. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a scientific explanation behind what causes the "thousand yard stare" in people with shock/ptsd/trauma? | exposure to trauma coupled with the stress and heightened emotional state of ptsd or other posttraumatic syndromes can take an enormous physiological toll on the body. often those diagnosed with ptsd have significant trouble sleeping, and when they do manage to sleep they have nightmares that may re-expose them to their trauma. when they are awake, they are in a constant state of hyperarousal; they exhibit an exaggerated startle response, hypervigilance, increased heart rate... a general arousal of the autonomic nervous system. additionally, a common symptom of ptsd is disassociation and intrusive thoughts - what we commonly call "flashbacks." when disassociating, an individual is taken out of the present moment and may be unaware of their surroundings because they are re-experiencing their trauma. the "thousand yard stare" is a term that was born out of seeing veterans return home after seeing particularly traumatic active duty. it is one of the terms, along with "soldier's heart" and "shell shock" that was used to describe posttraumatic stress before we defined ptsd. (ursano et al., 2010). it is now a recognizable symptom of the disorder. there isn't a whole lot of research into the cause of this specific symptom, but it is not unreasonable to make the connection between the thousand yard stare and the fatigue of constant hyperarousal and/or disassociation. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
askscience, how valid is the "web of sexual partners" concept (i.e. that you've had sex with all your partners' previous partners' previous partners, etc.)? | so, yeah. if i've had sex with 20 people who have each had sex with 20 people, is it really like i've had 400 partners, or is this some exaggerated horseshit to scare people into celibacy/buying condoms? | a bit of both. are the odds of you catching a disease greater if your sex partner has had sex with 20 people than if they had 0? of course. are your odds of catching a disease greater than if they had only 10? of course. are your odds of catching a disease greater than if they only had 19.... yes, slightly. also, lets assume your partner had sex with 20 people, all virgins. your odds of catching something are very low. realistically, if your partner has had sex with 20 people, he or she is sleeping with people who have a similar amount of partners, on average. this increases the odds that that person carries something. but (always gotta be a caveat) - it all depends on the individual circumstance. maybe your partner has always used protection (i wonldn't bet my life on it). maybe they all were virgins (i wouldn't bet my life on it). maybe your partner just lucked out and none of those partners had an std. (i wouldn't bet my life on it). best answer is, the more partners your partner has had in the past, the higher your chance of aquiring an std. best to be safe unless you have seen a clear full std pannel of medical tests, or trust your partner that they have had one recently. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does an organism's water consumption rate tell us about that organism? | it seems obvious that a more active person (for example) would consume more water than a sedentary person and desert reptiles might consume less than frogs from a swamp, but what about comparing different species in similar climates? for example, do humans consume more water than similarly sized/massed animals because we sweat more to cool ourselves off? does water consumption strongly correlate to a species' sweat glands? surface area? volume? mass? | yes, all of those things, and also the organism's water use efficiency. for instance, kangaroo rats can go their whole lives without drinking liquid water. they are are able to utilize the "metabolic water" which is a byproduce of certain steps in cellular respiration as their primary water source. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if the spinal cord was used like an ethernet cable...how fast would it transfer files? | [this](_url_0_) forum post might not be rigorous enough, but a good starting point. now i suppose you'll have to also consider where on the spinal cord, since at the top is 31 nerve bundle pairs (33 segments) that branch off as you go lower, and i also don't think you can compare action potentials with binary 0 and 1 states. you might also have a different estimate for a burst rate versus a sustained bandwidth. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://sci.rutgers.edu/forum/showthread.php?t=70993"
] | [
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|
how do i measure the power output by copper wire coils(magnet wire) with a cheap multimeter while passing alternating magnets parallel to it. | i have wound my 30 aug magnet wire around 100 times. i have a cheap-o multimeter that requires a positive and negative. i am trying to generate electricity by spinning alternating magnets parallel to the coil. any electrical engineers out there? edit: thanks so far! i have been informed i need to measure across a resistor. now i'm gonna have to learn about those. been learning as much as i can from the interwebs so far. really hit or miss with videos. | it might be easier to just measure the resistance of your coil, measure the ac voltage produced when the magnets are moving, and then calculate the maximum power available. example: if your coil puts out 0.5v ac, and the coil resistance is 20 ohms, then the "maximum power point" would exist if you connect the coil to an identical load (20 ohm light bulb.) the total power output is then: watts = (volts)^2 / (coil resistance + load resistance) / 2 so watts = 0.5^2 / 80 = .003125, or 3.125 milliwatts. ps, with coil and magnets, you get maxiumum output if you flip the magnets end-over-end, then wrap the coil very closely around the rotating magnet assembly like so: [youtube simple generator](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k7Sz8oT8ou0"
] | [
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why is ductility often listed as a separate property of a material from malleability? | to my understanding, malleability is a material's ability to be shaped (as opposed to being brittle and failing) and ductility is a material's ability to be drawn into wire. is drawing into wire not simply a certain way to shape something? are there materials that are malleable, but not ductile? are there materials that are ductile, but not malleable? if these materials exist, why do they behave the way they do? | they refer to doing the plastic deformation using different methods. namely, ductility is the ability to be plasticly deformed under tensile stress, whereas malleability is the ability to be plasticly deformed under compressive stress. lead is an example of a material that is very malleable, but not very ductile. it gets deformed easily under compressive stress, but trying to draw it into wires will result in shearing. | 31 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a way to mathemetically prove if this puzzle is possible without actually trying to do it? | in this problem, you have to get the gas line, water line, and electricity line to house a, b, and c without the lines connecting. these are on an xy axis plane. _url_0_ is there any way to prove its possibility without even attempting it? | you probably should have posted this in /r/math, as it can be solved with graph theory. the answer is yes if and only if the corresponding graph is planar. from wikipedia: "a finite graph is planar if and only if it does not contain a subgraph that is homeomorphic to k5 or k3,3." since your graph *is* the [complete bipartate graph](_url_0_) k3,3 the answer is no. | 6 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/Q8dP1.png"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_bipartite_graph"
] | [
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reddit, i ran into this video about a proven cure for aids/cancer disappearing. anyone have any additional info/insight about this? | here is the [video](_url_0_) the start of the video is bad, but once the section starts it clears up. **tl;dw** the video covers the research project of a doctor, who used viruses such as the flu and others that the body can recognize to fight aids and cancer. he did this my getting viruses (which the body can recognize) to attach themselves to the aids/cancer cells. i am no scientist. so i am not sure if i understood it completely to give an accurate tl;dw | i tried looking up his stuff, and i came across a bunch of holistic stuff. meh. i figured out his therapy is called **indued remission therapy**. he holds a [patent](_url_1_) in it which i found from google scholar. i can't find any papers though about his work on pubmed or google scholar (although i haven't looked through all 15 or so pages... but i figure it should show up on the first few, especially if i have his name written as an author.) i'd say this "panacea" is a hoax. it would be ridiculous for him to make one viral strain to cure everything. fuck that; i don't even know if it be possible in this day of age, yet alone ten years ago. however, the idea of using viral therapies to treat cancer has been looked in to. here are a couple reviews i quickly found on pubmed, but do note that they are a bit old (2004 and 2000) : _url_0_ _url_2_ | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-TG3O_xPfJs"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14967074",
"http://www.wipo.int/patentscope/search/en/WO2004024129",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11426652"
] | [
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] |
what are the ramifications of the newly confirmed exotic hadron? does this modify, extend, or confirm the standard model? if this extends the standard model, does that give us any new dark matter candidates? | in reference to [this article](_url_0_). regarding dark matter: it seems like for a while the "neutralino" was a good candidate, i've been given the impression that supersymmetry isn't looking very likely anymore, so "stale neutrinos" are the current bet. does this news alter that? | tetraquarks and other exotic hadrons are predicted in modern qcd. this isn't even the first exotic hadron to be confirmed. take the [z(3900)](_url_0_) and [x(3872)](_url_1_) for example. this news has just about nothing to do with dark matter, supersymmetry or sterile neutrinos | 7 | [] | [
"http://home.web.cern.ch/about/updates/2014/04/lhcb-confirms-existence-exotic-hadrons"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zc%283900%29",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%283872%29"
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what is the criteria for a successful interspecies reproduction? | there is no criteria, beyond needing all the genetic building blocks to make a functioning lifeform. imagine you are trying to build a new car from two old broken down cars. two things would have to be true to get a working car: 1. for every part, at least one of the cars would have to have a working version 2. the cars would have to be similar enough to be compatible if neither car has a working differential, you are out of luck. if one car has a manual transmission, and the other an automatic, you are out of luck. you have a little wiggle room...you could drive a car without a passenger door or windshield wipers, but it would reduce the functionality. actual genetics are a little more complicated, but the idea is the same. if neither mom or dad gives you the gene to make hemoglobin, you are out of luck. and if mom is building herbivore teeth while dad is building a carnivore digestive track, that won't work too well either. so what is close enough? that's a matter of luck. typically you want the same number of chromosomes, but that neither guarantees success, nor makes it impossible. a lot of it is luck. the '64 mustang and the '73 mustang might be close enough to pull it off, but a '73 with a '74, not so much. disclaimer: i am not a mechanic, all i know is the mustang ii ('74 model) kinda sucked...:) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does anyone know what explains rapid, halting shifts in cloud formations? | i don't know exactly how to describe it, but i observed something like [this](_url_0_) the other day and was totally mystified as to what could have caused the cloud behavior. any suggestions would be greatly appreciated. | this looks like thin cirrus outflow from the cumulonimbus cloud. the ice crystals have reflective properties that strongly depend on the orientation of the crystals with respect to the sun. if they are randomly oriented you won't notice but if all of the crystals in the bulk aggregate orient themselves in a particular direction then you will notice the change in light transmission through the cloud when compared to if they all oriented themselves a different way. this sort of ordering is due to many interesting phenomena of atmospheric optics such as [sun dogs](_url_0_) where hexagonal ice crystals fall with their large faces horizontal giving characteristic refraction. in this case the situation is more dynamic than slowly settling crystals. the rapid and almost discrete readjustment means it isn't due to circulation changes. the only reason i can think of for these crystals to orient is because of the electric field that builds up in the cumulonimbus for lightning. as it discharges (a bit of lightning maybe) the crystals rapidly become randomly oriented due to turbulence and then reorient as the field charges up again so you can see the changes in transmission through the cloud with a characteristic timescale dependent on the discharge. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.liveleak.com/view?i=cab_1373076396"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_dog"
] | [
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] |
what is the visibility like in deep space? | if you were floating in deep space with no nearby star illuminating your surroundings, would the faint light from the stars in the galaxy be enough to allow you to visualize your hand in front of your face or would it be like trying to see in pitch black? | in interstellar space? the milky way does cast [a shadow](_url_0_), so it would be enough to see *something* of yourself. in intergalactic space? no way! the andromeda is 2mly away and it is already barely visible. you could wave your hand in front of it and see the occlusion, but the hand will still be pitch black. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap100823.html"
] | [
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how delicate is the human brain? | i have a fascination with videos of brain surgeries, but one thing i have noticed is that sometimes the neurosurgeons poke and prod around a lot, just moving the brain itself. obviously this is not that big of a risk or the neurosurgeons probably would not be doing that. but this raises my question: how delicate is the human brain? concussions can cause brain damage, for example. can squeezing parts of the brain or flaking off some neurons be enough to noticeable change someone's behavior and internal thought processes? i don't understand how a neurosurgeon can take out a chunk of someone's brain and not have the patient undergo radical changes to their personality or behavior. | the brain has the rough consistency of jello. it has some give, but if you pull too hard, or with something too thin/sharp, it will cut or tear. we do our best to minimize the tugging etc. but sometimes it is unavoidable to access the region of interest. our understanding of the brain is far less developed than that of other organs. so, although we claim to commonly remove tumors with little harm to patients, we also don't commonly perform highly detailed neuropsychiatric testing batteries on patients after surgery to detect subtle changes. we might call it a success to remove a brain tumor if the patient can walk and talk, but we might alter something more subtle like their ability to do math or recognize objects by feel. one of the biggest advances in neurosurgery that i foresee in the next 20 years is the increasing integration of fiber tractography into our surgical planning to avoid damage to even these less-eloquent but still-important regions. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are fourth molars related to neanderthal heritage? | my dentist saw in my panoramic radiograph that i have 3 fourth molars hidden in my jaw and said to me that this ir very rare and somehow a neanderthal heritage. is that true? | not going to lie, i've never heard of anyone having a 4th molar. ever. but homo sapiens are very distinguished in having a crowded dental arcade, this is why impacted teeth and agensis of teeth is quite common in our species. it's also why quite a few people have their wisdom teeth (3rd molars) removed, in order to avoid discomfort or dental pathology from overcrowding. as for the neanderthal part (again i've never heard of a neanderthal having a 4th molar either - but if that's what he said, i'd trust the dentist over me!), neanderthals are distinguishable by a much less crowded dental arcade, and what's called a retromolar space, that we just don't have, that's why our 3rd molars emerge almost out of the ventral part of the ascending ramus. if you have this retromolar space, it's pretty likely it's a neanderthal trait. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is an event with half the probability but twice the frequency just as likely to happen in the same time span? | suppose that every second, an event has a 1/10 chance of happening. every two seconds, another event has a 1/5 chance of happening. is one event more likely to have happened than the other in a 10 second time span? | there are two related questions here: what is the probability of each event happening *at least once* in the time frame, and what is the expected number of occurrences. for the first one, the standard trick is to find the probability of it *not* happening, which is easier, and subtracting that from 1. for the first scenario, this is (9/10)^10 (probability of not happening each second for 10 seconds). one minus this is .65, the probability that the first event happens at least once. in the second scenario, 1 - (4/5)^5 is .67. thus the second scenario is more likely to happen at least once in a given time frame. the second question is easier, in the first scenario we have 10 occurrences, each with 1/10 chance, so the expected number is 10*(1/10) = 1. similarly, in the second we have 5 occurrences each with 1/5 chance, so the expected number is 1. the reason for this is that the expected number is basically the average of what you get if you ran the test a bunch of times, and the first scenario is less likely to have a single occurrence, but this is balanced by the possibility of having up to 10, the second can have most 5 occurrences. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to create a lighter-than-air solid i can hold in my hands? | [seagel](_url_0_) is an agar-based derivitive of aerogel that is lighter and supposedly can be filled with lighter-than-air gasses during the manufacturing process. it's a pretty obscure subject so i can't really find any definitive sources on the floatability of it. [there's a video of it floating on nitrogen gas](_url_1_), so the claims that it can be filled with hydrogen to float are probably warranted. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEAgel",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HoCAxS4vqwQ",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel"
] | [
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|
what happens to information after the heat death of the universe? | presume the heat death is the ultimate fate of our universe. if so, my understanding is that there are no "nodes of lower entropy" to do work. does this also mean that there is no way to tell one location from another? wouldn't all points in space have the same particles at the same energy level? if so, wouldn't locality cease to be relevant? what about temporality? ultimately, i am curious if this means that all of the information in the universe gets spread out uniformly. if so, wouldn't this annihilate the information (or make it irrelevant)? tl;dr if you looked at some point and moment in/after the heat death, could you reverse the clock and reconstruct the universe as it was before? or, is the heat death a kind of point of no return for information? | you could theoretically do this, but you would have to know literally every piece of information in the universe. in practice you never could because you can't measure all of that data without changing it, which is another way of saying that you're part of the universe. clearly you couldn't store all of the data of the universe in a hard drive, because the hard drive doesn't have enough space to describe itself as well. the information is all still there, it just isn't usable because it's so scrambled. every bit of energy interacts with everything near it and you'd have to keep track of the entire process in order to reverse the universe to a more usable state. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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