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why is it easier to bend a solid metal pole than it is to bend a hollow metal pipe? | [removed] | it’s not. necessarily. well kinda. are we talking about a solid metal pole of the same mass as the hollow pipe or a solid metal pole of the same diameter as the hollow pipe. a hollow pipe has a better strength to mass ratio as compared to a solid pole. that doesn’t mean that a hollow pipe will be stronger than a solid pole of the same diameter. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if blood travels faster in arteries than in veins, how do arteries like the aorta get a constant flow of blood? | to elaborate, isn't the heart pumping out blood at a faster rate than blood is entering? shouldn't circulation in the body reach a point when the heart has no blood left to pump out if pressure (and hence flow rate) in the arteries/arterioles is so much greater than in veins/venules? | so, first of all, it is important to note that it is only the left side of the heart that pumps blood to the aorta- and this receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, via the pulmonary veins. the right side of the heart receives the venous circulation from everywhere bar the lungs. it then pumps deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. there is a matching between the ventricles of the blood volume that is pumped with each heart beat- this volume is called the stroke volume. so the same amount of blood that is pumped from the right ventricle, is pumped from the left. the difference is that the left ventricle pumps this blood at a much higher pressure. the ventricles do not completely empty when pumping blood- they retain a volume within them after each contraction. we refer to the proportion of blood present in the ventricle that is then pumped out into a circulation as the ejection fraction (usually about 55-70%). so there is always blood present within the ventricles. the other point, as to why the arteries get a constant supply of blood, is related to the proportion of blood present in the arteries/arterioles v those present in venules/veins. there is a big mismatch in volumes- a commonly accepted figure is that 70% of the total blood in the body is present in veins/venules. there is therefore a large amount of venous blood that is draining back to the heart. the body has several very powerful mechanisms to ensure that the blood in the lower pressure venous system drains as well- muscular contraction, for example, can squeeze nearby veins, driving blood back towards the heart (courtesy of their one-way valves). to illustrate this point further, when someone donates blood, they do not lose any blood pressure (normally). there is venoconstriction (mediated by the autonomic nervous system) which gives even more of a ‘squeeze’ to the veins to ensure blood pressure is maintained. hope this helps! | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you left a glass of salt water for long enough with no agitation, would the lower levels of the vessel become saltier? | i recently found out about haloclines and was wondering what is the mechanism that makes them form. i was thinking its because of the salt being heavy enough to sink, but i somehow don't think i'm seeing the whole picture. thanks in advance. | no dissolved substances don't sink. haloclines form because of environmental factors like weather. if fresh water is slowly poured over a quantity of salt water, using a spoon held horizontally at water-level to prevent mixing, a hazy interface layer, the halocline, will soon be visible due to the varying index of refraction across the boundary. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you stood completely still for 10 minutes, and traveled back in time 6 minutes, what would happen? isn't someone already standing there? | the earth is rotating on its axis, and orbiting the sun. our solar system is orbiting the center of the milky way, and the milky way itself is moving through space. if you could time travel, you would likely end up in the cold depths of space, and die in moments. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there any reaction in the physical world caused by something else that is truly 'instant'? | people always say something happens 'instantly', but is actually 'almost instantly'. is there anything that is, in fact, instant from a scientific standpoint, as in x happens at the same exact moment in time due to y? | physics student here. the only thing that comes to mind that can be described as truly instantaneous would be the phenomenon of quantum entanglement, in which the quantum states of two (or more) objects depend on each other. therefore, if two particles are entangled, and one is measured to have "up" spin, the other entangled particle will always have "down" spin, so it would not be incorrect to say that measuring the state of the first particle affects the second particle's state instantly. wikipedia [here](_url_0_) , quantum mechanics is super interesting, mind bending stuff. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_covariance"
] | [
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could something be truly instant? | nothing is instant, right? not even light is instant, and light is the fastest moving thing we know of, (except it isn’t really because shadows are theoretically faster) so wouldn’t that make nothing instant? but if i were to drop something, wouldn’t it be instant? i mean like down to the smallest unit of measurement we know, would something falling that length theoretically move instantly because there is no way it could move faster, right? | the answer depends on what you mean by "instant". science only gives rigorous and precise answers when you ask rigorous and precise questions. unfortunately it's a bit difficult to answer your question precisely because it's not clear what you have in mind when you're saying "instant". it sounds like you may be asking "can anything move a nonzero distance in zero time." the answer is no, physical and/or information-carrying entities cannot traverse a nonzero distance in zero time. there is a universal speed limit for anything that carries information, and that speed limit is what we call "the speed of light" (historically named, because light was the first thing we found that travels at exactly the universal speed limit). you mentioned shadows; that's an example of something that isn't a physical or information-carrying entity. the traditional example is "sweeping" a laser pointer or a shadow, but there are other, more abstract examples - the common element is that you can't use those things to actually transmit information across the "distance" involved. | 26 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do we have a microbiome in or around our brain? | i figured the blood brain barrier would prevent a biome from forming, but i realizes i don't actual know. it seems like i hear news about us learning more about microbiomes and their complicated relationship with us, and was curious if there are biomes in other organs. | biomes for the most part don't exist in organs per se. the biome in the lungs and gut (and on mucosal surfaces in general) occur because those tissues are continuous with outside space, even if you don't think of them that way; these biomes are only superficial, on the surface of the tissue, and not "in" the cell matrices themselves. we can demonstrate pretty easily that bacteria don't colonize the brain, which is especially immunoprivileged. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.nature.com/articles/srep37344"
] | [
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when you break something apart and then push it back together, why don't the intermolecular forces that were holding it together before re-attract? | i would assume it would mostly be due to the air that now occupies the space where the broken material used to be intact. if you could somehow realign the electrons (or move them out of the way in the case of a metal) i can see no reason for the atoms to interact as though nothing had happened. but when the object breaks, new bonds are formed at the surface. a bit like surface tension but in a solid and without the cohesion if that analogy makes sense. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do i go about learning quantum mechanics from ground zero? | i am interested and would like to know what i need to learn in order to grasp the concepts. what do i need to learn to build my way up to get to the main topic? | depends on what you mean by "grasp the concepts." if you're just looking for an advanced layman's understanding of the then concepts i recommend john gribbin's books "in search of schrödinger's cat" and his followup "schrodinger's kittens and the search for reality." the other route is the scholastic one recommended by others here. be ready for **lots** of math if you go that way. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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which muscle fibers are used during "recruitment"? | nervous stimulation effects muscles to contract. however, there are certain restraints in place to ensure only the force needed is used. muscle contraction is said to be an "all-or-none" response, meaning each stimulated muscle fiber must contract with full force- there is no in between. to lift a weight lighter than one's maximum threshold, only some, and not all muscle fibers within a muscle are used. similarly, when setting a weight down, some muscle fibers are allowed to lengthen, while others still operate with full force- this allows the object to be placed slowly downwards. my question is: which muscle fibers are recruited? are certain fibers let go first when setting an object down? when we lift something lighter than our maximum threshold, how does our brain decide which muscle fibers to contract, and which fibers to leave be? are certain fibers always contracted, with more and more groups added in a specific order as the weight increases? is it random? thanks to all the myologists out there! | a motor unit is a spinal motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it connects to. in general, with increasing efforts, smaller (fewer fibers) motor units are recruited first. they contract at an increasing rate until, at around 10-15 hz, another (larger) motor unit is recruited at a lower rate. this continues until all available motor units are contracting at their maximal rates. (maximal voluntary rates, btw, are lower than what's possible in pathological states.) in reverse, the reverse happens. firing rates decline until a motor unit drops out, and so on and so on. one of the skills of talented weightlifters is learning to recruit and fully utilize all of their motor units. it's something that takes training and time to fully control. then you can dead-lift 450 kg. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can something be genetically modified "on the fly" and see results in a (relatively) short period of time or is that something that has to be done before birth? | you can't just re-engineer a somatic cell (non-sex cell) and expect to see changes in the whole body just because of that one change (all of its daughter cells will be different, but only them). you can re-engineer somatic cells with a virus (a.... retrovirus?) which actually changes the dna of a cell and then moves on to a new cell and keeps going and going. otherwise it would be much easier to re-engineer a zygote, that way the changes will affect the whole body. but, there are issues with that as well. any changes made will be passed on to that person's offspring, regardless if they would want it or not. a merging of these two techniques would be something like: grabbing the already-determined, somatic cell in an embryo and changin that. though i'm not too sure of the pros/cons of that. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
plasma: how can the same phase of matter seem so eclectic in its behaviour? | are different types of plasma as uniquely behaved as they seem, or is their apparent broad categorization justified? i don't know if this question is naïve, and i am a layman. lightning, stellar surfaces, fire, aurora, etc. are all categorized as types of plasma, or at least partially so, but behave and appear quite differently. does this mean that the phase is just a general term for ionized energetic gases, or that they're more similar than they seem to the untrained eye, with concise explanations for the different behaviours? for instance, why doesn't lightning ever follow the convection rules of how fire spreads, or why doesn't fire get conducted into bolts? shouldn't all plasma transfer energy similarly? the question stems from other phases: liquids and other phases have recognizable and consistent patterns of behaviours. plasma seems to be more indie. sorry for the long post. it feels like i'm just missing one or two simple pieces to make sense of it. searching the web just led to overcomplicated papers or tv sales. | the definition of plasma is straight-forward: it is a gas of charged particles, typically free electrons and positively charged ions. in principle, you can get exotic plasmas (i've heard about electron-positron plasma, and you can also get 'cold' plasma), but i will not discuss those further here. plasma can exist in a wide variety of physical conditions, which means you can get a lot of different behavior and phenomena, as you point out. plasma can be low-density (e.g., interstellar space) or high-density (stars). plasma is very sensitive to electric and magnetic fields: it conducts electricity very well (as we see in lightning), and it interacts strongly with magnetic fields (it can be confined, like in the stellarator that made news recently, or it can drag magnetic fields with it, like in the solar wind). the physical processes that occur can change a lot depending on whether there is a strong electric or magnetic field, how hot the plasma is, and how dense. in plasma physics (which i've taken a few courses in, but don't consider myself a true expert), there are several key parameters that are used to determine what processes are important. the one i know most about is called 'plasma beta', and is defined as the ratio of the thermal energy/pressure to the magnetic energy/pressure. if beta is large, there is more themal/kinetic energy than magnetic energy, so the motion of the plasma will control the magnetic field. if beta is small, then the magnetic field is strong and can confine and control the motion of the plasma. there are similar parameters that compare the plasma to the electric field, or compare the large-scale motion to the thermal energy, etc. with these parameters, plasma physicists can immediately estimate what processes will be important in a given situation. for example, if the electric field is weak compared to kinetic energy, we can immediately know that the electric field will not dominate the behavior of the plasma. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why the congo has such an active atmosphere? | *does *have for clarification, why is the congo an area where the atmosphere is so active that lightning frequency and occurrence is the highest amongst the entire world for comparison. see map: _url_0_ | i did a little reading, and it turns out there isn't really a clear-cut single reason: a few factors are involved in making central africa the lightning capital of the world. 1. the area near the equator is home to the [intertropical convergence zone (itcz)](_url_0_), which is the area where northeasterly trade winds and southeasterly trade winds meet. this convergence of winds leads to rising motion in the air, which induces thunderstorm formation. the itcz moves north and south with the seasons, always staying in the summer hemisphere; so it stays over the congo for a good period of time over the course of a year. 2. the [african easterly jet](_url_2_) is a seasonal mid-level jet stream that forms over africa. its so-called left entrance region (the beginning of the jet streak where the wind is accelerating), which is another dynamical effect which causes rising motion and thunderstorms, lies over the congo region. this in turn [is responsible for](_url_5_) developing and maintaining almost-daily [mesoscale convective systems](_url_3_) during the wet season, which are responsible for copious amounts of lightning and rain. 3. the [west african monsoon](_url_1_) is a result of complex interactions that i actually don't fully understand that results in a seasonal reversal of the low-level winds over equatorial africa. as i mentioned above, the trade winds near the equator are usually easterly, but in certain parts of the year the wind shifts to westerly, bringing in moisture from the warm tropical atlantic ocean which aids in thunderstorm development. of course, all these effects [are inter-related (pdf)](_url_4_), so it's tough to even separate them; it's likely that without one the others would not exist, or would act differently. sorry if this answer seems unsatisfying, but in atmospheric science, there is rarely a straightforward single cause for *anything*. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/tb/1cqfj9"
] | [
"http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/tropics/itcz.htm",
"http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/BAMS-87-12-1739",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_easterly_jet",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoscale_convective_system",
"http://www.mmm.ucar.edu/events/ISP/Posters/mccrary_rachel.pdf",
"http://www.met.fsu.edu/people/nicholson/papers/MWR_8861.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone"
] | [
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why are losses always heat, not something else? | when there are losses in a system the lost energy is always descibed as heatloss. why heat? why not any other form of energy? radiation, light, sound.. etc? | they *can* be something else. it's just that in most cases the amount of energy going to heat is by far the most dominant. also, those other forms of energy usually end up dispersing as heat in any case for example, an electric motor loses energy as heat, but also as sound. that sound soon dissipates as heat in the surrounding atmosphere. if you are using a lightbulb as a heater (for example, in an incubator) you could argue that the light is the 'lost' energy in terms of the efficiency of the system, as it's the heat that you actually want for that purpose. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
some retrovirus-related questions... | 1) is it known where retroviruses (like hiv) like to integrate into during their latent phase? like specific chromosomes or genes? is it purely an epigenetic thing or does integrase have certain genome areas it "prefers"? 2) when latent, how are the viral promoters silenced? i'm assuming they'd have to be since otherwise it wouldn't be so latent. 3) how much do we know about what triggers hiv to stop being latent? thanks! | 1) as drnotescalator states there are biases in integration sites, and these are virus specific. a relevant, open-access publication is [here](_url_0_). hiv-1 integrase interacts with a host protein called ledgf/p75 that preferentially targets integration at at-rich regions of dna. 2) hiv-1 transcription is controlled by a viral protein called tat. without sufficient tat, transcription from the viral promoter is defective (at the elongation step). experiments investigating how the virus "switches" from defective to productive transcription (via tat) have suggested that this process is stochastic [reference here](_url_1_) 3)this is one of the major questions in hiv-1 (and lentivirus) biology. most people think it has to do with the tat protein, and possibly another protein called rev (both these proteins influence the early phase of the viral life cycle). however, there are plenty of competing theories, and there are drugs which you can use to "trigger" latent infections and which some people think will be an important part of any therapy to completely eradicate an infection. apologies if these answers are too dense or hard to make sense of. if you have any questions, please follow up and i'll do my best to answer in simpler terms. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0020234",
"http://www.cell.com/abstract/S0092-8674%2805%2900549-0"
] | [
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what exactly is soil leeching ? | so i've lived in the amazon region of ecuador for the last 11 years, and i know that the soil is nutrient poor because of soil leeching , however, i've never really learned what this means. i know it has to do with heavy rainfall washing the nutrients out of the soil, but i don't really get what that means, conceptually. can anyone help with a more thorough explanation of soil leeching? tia | & #x200b; that's basically it. most of the nutrients plants need are at least somewhat water-soluble, so, over time, they can be pulled out (leeched) by rain, winding up in the runoff. & #x200b; imagine mixing a bunch of salt with coffee grinds, dropping the lot into a filter, and then pouring water through them, while allowing the water to drain. eventually you're going to wind up with grinds with very little to no salt in them. & #x200b; some soils are better at holding onto nutrients than others, and some areas have ways of actively replenishing the nutrient content of the soil. (the floods of the nile are a good example of this.) | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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biochemistry knowledge is incredible detailed with reaction pathways. how do scientists "know" and "see" that these pathways exist? | for example: how did scientists discover that, say, glycolysis is a thing and that all those enzymes/molecules are involved? | i can't comment on the glycoltic pathway specifically but what i can say as a practicing biochemist/molecular biologist is that there is never a single experiment or even a short series of experiments that lead to the formulation of a specific pathway. it is a lot of laboratories over many years that lead to the discovery of a pathway. that being said, biochemists by nature are reductionist. they don't look at a cell as a whole but rather as a defined series of steps, steps that typically have a product. for example, say the product is c, a biochemist wants to know what plus what equals c? they're interested in the rate limiting steps. if you know what c is (meaning the protein is identified) than solving for it is possible. you could just grind up the cell (assuming the pathway is intracellular) and spin it into different fractions based on a variable, say hydophobicity. now test each fraction for the enzyme activity of c. whatever fractions show the most activity is probably where the reaction is taking place, i.e., nucleus, mitochondria, etc. now you know in which organelle(s) the reaction is occurring, which tells you something in its own right. biochemist also frequently use radioactive labels to trace a pathway. for example, if you want to know how c made and you know it is dependent on x (because you removed x and you didn't get c) label x and then follow the tracer biochemically. this reductionist method is then repeated and repeated under many different conditions with many different variables with many different proteins and intermediates of interest. which over many years will eventually lead to the elucidation of a pathway. edit: the experimental explanations are quite oversimplified, please ask if anything is unclear or you want more detail | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if a magnetic radio isotope within a strong magnetic field decays into a non magnetic element, where does the energy from the field go? | also, as a follow on, does the presence of the field alter the chances of or outcome of decay? | let's start by reminding ourselves where that magnetism comes from: unpaired electrons. because of the exclusion principle, many electrons orbiting an atom are paired up in an orbit to cancel their magnetic moments out. but the unpaired electrons in higher energy orbitals can contribute to the atomic magnetic moment. it is a bit oversimplified, but think of the atom as composed of a number of magnets that are paired up north to south (the electrons). only an odd number of magnets can leave us with a net magnetic moment. if an atom decays into an element with no magnetic moment, then that means it either gained or lost an electron. so we can add a new magnet and cancel out an old one or take away one magnet leaving the rest to cancel each other out. as far as energy goes, unless there is an external magnetic field the energy is equal whether the magnetic moment points up or down. if there is an external magnetic field, then the change in energy would get exchanged with the kinetic energy of the electron mostly. as far as radioactive decay goes, this will have no effect on the half life. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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gray matter volume change limited to age? | so i was reading a few articles on how intervention for dyslexia in children can lead to changes in gray matter volume in specific regions, similar to other studies where other skills were taught/enhanced like juggling. i was just wondering, in regards to gray matter volume, is it safe to assume that changes in gray matter volume are dependent on age? for example, a 10 year old would show a significant increase in gray matter volume in general compared to a 50 year old? or is the potential for changes in gray matter volume not that significant based on age? | a 10 year old is still going to have a very undeveloped brain compared to a 50 year old and will continue to add brain mass for quite some time afterwards. i know of a lot of work being done to examine the cortical mass in relation to various pathologies, testing to see if there is a way to correlate loss of brain volume to progression of the pathology and, from what i can tell, loss of grey matter is not entirely dependent on age but lots of factors. my work focuses on white matter damage and loss, so i'm not the best on this topic, but a quick search on pubmed seems to show lots of research on pathologically related grey matter loss, as well as fluctuations due to developmental factors. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen if a person stand directly under hovering helicopter, would he feel all the weight of heli? | thanks everyone for such detailed answer i was hoping for something like "no,youre stupid,lol" :d | you would feel a strong downfraft, but it would not be the weight of the entire helicopter. the force needed to lift it, *f*, is spread (i'm going to assume fairly uniformly...) across the area that the blades pass through, *a*. in air, this downdraft would quickly spread out across a wider area due to the pressure difference, increasing with the height of the helicopter above you. for you standing underneath, the maximum pressure (assuming that the air hasn't had room to spread out at all) is *p = f/a* and the force on you is the pressure * the surface area of the top of your head, which is a lot less than the area of the blades and so is much less than the entire force of the helicopter. still pretty strong, though, and you really notice it if you stand under the blades! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can a surface have a negative genus? | in the way that a sphere has genus 0 and a torus has genus 1, could we imagine a surface with genus -1? what would it even mean? | the genus is actually the dimension of a very special vector-space that we can associate to a surface, so a negative genus doesn't have a meaning | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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hypothetically writing, if i dug a hole straight through the earth and i jumped in (without dying), what would actually happen to me? | just being curiously curious about this curiosity. | to zeroth order, you'd oscillate back and forth through your tunnel forever - you'd fall all the way through, pop just out the other side, and then fall back through, ad infinitum. in the presence of air resistance, you'd experience [damped oscillations](_url_0_), eventually coming to rest at the center of the earth. there would also be gravitational perturbations to your motion due to the non-spherical shape of the earth. these would depend on where you dug your hole. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://beltoforion.de/runge_kutta_vs_euler/Damped_oscillation_graph2.png",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/would-you-fall-all-the-wa/"
] | [
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in physics, how do you tell when delta t is = tfinal-tinitial vs when delta t=thot-tcold? some problems go one way, some go the other, now i'm stressed out because i don't understand why. | in the chapters involving gases and engines delta t was considered to be thot-tcold, but in the chapters preceding these deltat was considered to be t initial - t final. for example, in problems where you have some mass of water, in a metal container with some mass, both at the same temperature. and then you drop a much hotter lead ball in the water, what is the final temperature of the system? in this case we use delta t as tfinal-tinitial in the equation q=mc(deltat). now if i go over to the heat and work problems involving ideal gasses, and expansion or contraction, we still use q=mc(deltat) but now we must use t hot-t cold. why have we switched, how do you tell when to switch? please don't tell me that you just intuitively know, and adjust. also please don't suggest that i just memorize the situations. i am a scientist, i noticed something inconsistent, i want to know *why* there is an inconsistency, and how to tell when i should use one delta t vs the other delta t. | in mathematics, the delta symbol has the same meaning as saying "the change in." so in both of your examples, "delta t" is equivalent to "the change in variable t." the symbol or letter for the variable in question is completely arbitrary. your textbook is using "t" because it makes it easier to remember that the variable in question is referring to either temperature or time. scientists and mathematicians frequently use common letters to represent variables in many different, unrelated equations. rather than trying to memorize that "t *must* mean temperature" or "t *must* mean time," it is much more useful for you to understand the logic underlying the equation and realize that the symbols are just arbitrary ways of representing a real world variable. then you will realize that it really doesn't matter whether you use delta t or delta x to represent that variable. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i just ran a marathon, what is happening to my body in the minutes, hours, and days afterward? | i've read that a marathon basically destroys your lower body, muscle-wise, which is why it's not a good idea to do intensive stretching immediately after. why is this? what exactly did i do to my body? i know recovery varies from person to person, but what is happening during said recovery? side-question: 'the wall' is common among marathoners. what happens physically (physiologically?) when we 'push through' the wall and get a 'second wind'? | side-question answer: 'the wall' is a term when all readily available glycogen; in the blood, muscle, and liver, become depleted. the body is always metabolizing *both* carbohydrate and fat for energy, however during a marathon, most of the energy will be derived from carbohydrate. 1 g of carb = 17 kj 1 g of fat = 39 kj but if carbs give us less energy per gram, why is used more predominantly during a marathon? this is because carbohydrates can be metabolized much more *efficiently* by the body. this process of glycolysis can be both aerobically and anaerobically. the process of metabolizing fats for energy, beta oxidization, is far less efficient, and requires the use of oxygen. a nice analogy for this, is to compare trying to send water down an large pipe vs. a kinked hose. you can get a lot more water through via the pipe (glycolysis). once you hit the wall, your steady stream of abundant energy has stopped, and you are forced to use that kinked hose. the 'second wind' you experience is likely from a new-found increase in blood glucose via gluconeogenesis; deriving glucose from via deamination of proteins. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are transformers passive devices? | i know that a transformer uses magnetic induction to amplify the amplitude of voltage in ac sine waves. how is energy conserved, if the transformer is a passive device? where does the energy come from? i know that v =/= e, but it seems to pull these high voltages out of nowhere. | yes, transformers are passive devices, and they do conserve energy. the voltage across the primary coil is v, and the current running through the primary coil is i. the power is p = vi. the voltage across the secondary coil is v', and the current is i'. the power p' = v'i'. if you work it out, you find that p = p' for an ideal transformer. | 17 | [] | [] | [
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can they use "seeding" on a hurricane so it doesn't hit a city? or make it less strong when it hits the city. | seeding: the attempt to change the amount or type of precipitation that falls from clouds, by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud condensation or ice nuclei, which alter the microphysical processes within the cloud. (_url_0_) | seeding is tricky and experimental. we can't put a hurricane inside of a hanger to test it. it could be weakened if they seeded out to sea. heavy things fall. the issues of effectiveness and morality are as yet undecided. do you think that this would have happened if it was deemed preventable? as for your first question, they can theoretically weaken a system the size of sandy but it simply hasn't been tested. show me a mayor who can volunteer his city. source: a science teacher, not a meteorologist. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_seeding"
] | [] | [
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should gravity, as an abbreviated form, use capital g or lowercase g? | i'm an old guy and always thought it was uppercase g. but i recently came across an article on the [g-force](_url_1_) involved in the explosion of [torpedoes on the kursk](_url_0_), and see it all being lowercase. i am usually reading astronomy articles, as an amateur - is there a difference? | when reading scientific text, g is always used to represent the gravitational constant in the context of gravity. when describing the gravitational acceleration at a point, g is used. when talking about gravitational force, you'll often see f_g used where the g is a subscript. | 13 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kursk_submarine_disaster",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-force"
] | [] | [
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how much rf exposure is too much? | [deleted] | 1) radiation is ionizing or non-ionizing. rf is non-ionizing (same as light) thus doesn't present immediate harm. 2) rf does increase temperature of biological tissue. thus you can be burned from excessive rf exposure. for guidelines, perhaps a fmri technician will jump in here. they have guidlines that control the amount of rf directed at each cubic cm. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecibo_Observatory"
] | [
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why do snails have swirls on their shells? | most snails show indeterminate growth, meaning that they continue to grow larger throughout their lifetime. however, while some shelled animals like crustaceans [shed their exoskeletons](_url_2_) in order to grow larger, molluscs cannot do this. instead, they continuously add material on to their shell as they grow so that it remains large enough for them. it seems like even some of the very oldest undisputed mollusc fossils had spiral shells (like the cambrian [helcionellids](_url_1_)), though there are some other specimens from this period that are more disputed and *might* be early relatives of snails, like [*haplophrentis*](_url_0_), which has a conical but not spiral shell. presumably, spiralling of the shell evolved as a way to have a more compact body plan, rather than continuously growing longer and longer in a single dimension. edit: forgot to mention that an interesting feature of snail shells specifically, in contrast to most other molluscs, is that they are asymmetrical in the left-right axis. this is accomplished through a process called [torsion](_url_3_), which involves a major rearrangement of the snail's internal organs, but it's still not entirely clear why this system evolved. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Haplophrentis.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Latouchella_costata.JPG",
"https://i.imgur.com/S9Q9D5y.mp4",
"http://molluscs.at/gastropoda/index.html?/gastropoda/morphology/torsion.html"
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|
kaluza-klein geometry [x-post from /r/askphysics] | there's just so many articles that i've read it feels like a wikipedia scavenger hunt. _url_0_ please explain to me the following: a) how the variation principle effects the equation. b) what exactly the component "a" is in simple terms. c) how fubini's theorem effects the equation. basically (i think) i can understand the equations, just not how they relate to eachother. thanks. | i'm not quite sure at what level your questions sit, but i suspect it would be helpful if i just gave a quick survey of how the basic kaluza-klein model works; i think that'll answer at least some of your questions. so let's imagine we start with general relativity in 5 spacetime dimensions. we use the standard einstein-hilbert action, and use the principle of least action to get the equations of motion. at this point, we just have a theory of 5d gravity. but now let's imagine that one of the dimensions of the 5d space is wrapped up in a tiny circle, so that essentially all fields are constant along that direction (there are fourier modes that are non-constant along that circle, but they are very energetic because the circle is small, and so can be ignored at low energies; this also causes us to look at a more restricted set of diffeomorphisms, since fields are constant over the fifth coordinate at low energies). this causes our original metric -- a 5x5 matrix -- to separate out into distinct components. let's let the indices run from 1 through 5, with 1 through 4 corresponding to the spacetime directions that are "normal" and with 5 corresponding to the compactified dimension. the full 5x5 matrix can be split into: the 4x4 matrix g_{ab} where a=1,2,3,4 and b=1,2,3,4 a 4-vector g_{a5} where a=1,2,3,4 (the 5d metric is symmetric, so you get nothing new by considering g_{5a}) the component g_{55} that 4x4 submatrix of the original metric just becomes the metric in 4d general relativity. that 4-vector becomes the vector potential *a* of the electromagnetic field. it has the right equations of motion. the scalar g_{55} is a new field that we don't actually see in our world (and is one of the reasons this simple kaluza-klein model does not work phenomenologically). note that we get the right equations of motion and right remnant symmetries when we compactify to 4d in this way. | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory"
] | [] | [
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does the plank constant define a floor for how short lived a particle could be, is there a required universal minimum period of time? | [deleted] | there is an analogous number called the[ planck time](_url_0_) but both this and the planck length are not in any way lower bounds for anything (in any current widely accepted theories) despite what the wikipedia page i linked says. they are derived from several natural constants and essentially represent a scale at which we know our current understanding breaks down. it's not a minimum pixel size or anything like that, it's just the scale at which we know we will need a real quantum gravity theory to figure out what's going on. because these numbers arise so naturally it's likely they will appear in quantum gravity theories as important values, possibly even limits as popularly thought, but as of now all those theories are speculative. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_time"
] | [
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how do high rise buildings filter outdoor air for circulation? | not sure if this is the right sub for this question so feel free to delete. i know for houses and apartments we use a small air filter, but how do large high rise buildings do it? do they have large air filters that are the size of cars? | hi rises don't have just one giant air moving hvac. in my building each unit has their own hvac, and then there are three big ones that cool all the hallways, one in the gym, maybe a few more scattered throughout. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does electricity move through a person? | i saw the question yesterday about how electricity moves through wires, but i was wondering how it moved through people/things that aren't wires. when i touch something and get electrocuted, does that mean that there is an electron flow happening in my body? are my electrons moving around wildly(is it organized)? if i grab two ends of an ac source to complete a circuit do the electrons from the atoms in my hands oscillate in and out of the wires? | it is actually ions in your body that move. so our body has a lot of water (which does not conduct electricity) with salts dissolved in it (these when dissolved can conduct electricity.) and so with a dc source these move through your body in a similar way to electrons in wires. with an ac source then there move backwards and forwards yes. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
are water reservoirs always placed at a higher elevation than the regions they supply? or do pumping stations do a lot of the work that gravity doesn’t? | not universally, but it is advantageous for any artificial water storage. natural surface reservoirs (rivers, lakes) are very commonly lower than where they supply, but that water is treated first anyway. aquifer water is obviously much lower than where it supplies, and it may or may not be treated at all. if you're creating a water tower or storage reservoir it makes sense to place it on a reasonably high point because it creates essentially free back pressure on the system. pumping to meet demand requires you have enough pumping pressure to meet peak usage. pumping to a high point and letting it flow lets you use pumps that can meet average usage, with some safety factor. edit: oh, and depending upon where you live, there may not be a ton of water storage. it could all be back pressure created at the water treatment plant(s) or at the aquifer wellheads. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.newsdeeply.com/water/articles/2016/06/20/what-lake-meads-record-low-means-for-california",
"https://www.amny.com/lifestyle/how-nyc-gets-its-water-1.9205765",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effluent",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greywater"
] | [
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|
lose heat faster while running in the cold? | a commonly posed question is whether or not you will get more wet by running through the rain for less time or walking for longer. as i was getting snowed on earlier today, i found myself wondering if there is a parallel for wintry weather - specifically, whether the added heat loss from convection as you run will outweigh the heat saved by being out in the cold for less time. if there is no wind and no precipitation, but the outside air is below 0 degrees fahrenheit, should i run or walk? does the length of my trip make a difference? does the temperature? i ask purely from the standpoint of energy lost, ignoring the fact that i might feel warmer as my body heats up from running. | as a back of the envelope calculation for the wintry situation, we can model it as a cylinder (the human) in forced convection cross flow. the only variables changing when you walk faster are your velocity (*v*) and exposure time (*t*). the total energy lost to the surroundings (*e*) is given by the product of the heat transfer rate and exposure time, where the heat transfer rate is given by the product of the heat transfer coefficient, the exposed area, and the temperature difference between you and the surroundings. in this model the heat transfer coefficient depends on your walking velocity to a fractional power of about 4/5. [1] so now we compare walking at some velocity, *v*, against walking twice that velocity, 2*v*. if you're traveling a fixed distance, this will halve the exposure time but only increase your heat transfer rate by a factor of 2^0.8 . ultimately, roughly 13% less energy will be lost. looking at the math, *e_1* = *c* (*t_1*) (*v_1*)^0.8 *e_2* = c (*t_1*/2) (2*v_1*)^0.8 *e_2* ~= 0.87 *e_1* where *c* depends on all the other factors (temperature difference, area, air properties, etc.) but remains constant when comparing the two walking velocities. edit: while obviously modeling a human as a cylinder is a bit extreme, i think you can still take away that walking faster will generally reduce energy lost since the velocity dependence will usually not have an exponent greater than 1. [1] from table 7.2 in incropera and dewitt, *fundamentals of heat and mass transfer* 7th edition | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does using high flow o2 help in the treatment of an arterial gas embolism? | this may be a little too specific, but reading about treatment for arterial gas embolism in a trauma situation it lists positioning in trend + left lat. (which is peculiar but from the description it makes sense how it works) and giving high flow o2 (preferably 100%). it says the o2 accelerates the removal of the air bubble but not how. now i'm no chemist and i'm guessing that is the reason the book doesn't go into any further detail, but does anyone here know the scientific reason why maxing out o2 admin causes this gas embolism to absorb or evaporate or whatever it is that it does? the only thing i can guess is it might have something to do with bohr effect to increase oxygen-hemoglobin binding, but what about the other 79% that is nitrogen? | here is an [article on the matter.](_url_0_) the idea is that, as you correctly point out, if an air emboli is approximately 80% nitrogen and we can get oxygen to the bubble, the bubble it self will decrease in size. i'm sure another person could comment, but if your blood were saturated with oxygen then the nitrogen would "want to" diffuse passively out of the bubble and into the blood stream down its gradient. does that help? | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.invasivecardiology.com/article/6633"
] | [
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could anyone here maybe explain phonons, and phonon-electron excitation? | just as the title says, i would like to know a bit more about phonons. i already know that phonons are quantized, (standing?) vibrational modes, but how do they appear? can a collection of vibrating atoms 'drag' the remaining atoms into the necessary positions in order to create a phonon, or do all the atoms need to be excited simultaneously. is the smallest size of a phonon the wavelength of the vibration? i also know that phonons can decay to lower energy levels, but can they excite an electron when doing so? there are a number of papers on the subject, but i don't have access to them at the moment. | phonons are just a quantized notation for atomic lattice vibrations. they can propagate across the lattice just like sound waves through a material. in fact, sound in a material are phonons*. *a type of phonons at least. there are generally both acoustic and optical phonons, depending on what energy-momemtum curve they use. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any animal that have begun to evolve a protection against humans only? | as humans are starting to become the biggest threat to most animals. are there any signs of an animal evolving an protection against humans only? for example fish that may evolve special teeth for cutting through fishing net. (my first post on reddit) edit: i noticed my spelling on animal in the title... | i was listening on npr that rattlesnakes are starting to lose their warning rattling. according to all things considered when a rattlesnake would rattle to warn local people would kill it, so the rattlesnake that didn't rattle genes would be more likely to pass on. the rattlesnakes rattle works well against other predators, but has the opposite effect on human predators. so i think it counts as traits evolved to protect against humans? | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you were under water 50ft and a large ship sailed above your position would the psi that you experience change? would it go up, down or stay the same? | the pressure would not change: 1) all the ships on the entire ocean have a negligible effect on the ocean. [_url_4_](_url_4_) 2) pressure applied to the ocean's surface would be transmitted equally throughout the ocean. [_url_0_](_url_5_) an alternative: the propeller of the ship could suck you up into it (if it was big enough and/or spinning fast enough) [_url_2_](_url_2_) a panama-class ship (meaning, it could make it through the panama canal) has a draft (how deep the boat is in the water) of no more than 39.5 ft. typically you would find stuff more in the 20ft range, an aircraft carrier would be 37 ft deep. so if you were under an aircraft carrier in shallow water and they were on a flank bell, you might get pulled into the propellers (there are 4 of them) a supertanker can also generate a huge suction force under it, but those have a draft of around 100ft, so i would wonder why you were down there anyways lol. [_url_3_](_url_1_) | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s\\_law",
"https://pilotonline.com/news/military/article_e4b48785-2148-5403-9720-7bd78a563f64.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xv951RmIXEk",
"https://pilotonline.com/news/military/article\\_e4b48785-2148-5403-9720-7bd78a563f64.html",
"https://what-if.xkcd.com/33/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_law"
] | [
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|
what does natural selection act upon in such circumstances? | in these days, we simply buy food. really it's just the ability to get to a market and pay for it. so is natural selection acting upon the ability to make money? well, now that's vague, there's jobs such as a model (muscular build) science major (intellectual, knowledgeable build) chick models (could be dumb, but looks good), etc. also, in these days even autistic people find other autistic people with the opportunities and such given today. thanks guys! | as my understanding goes, and my only real credentials are that my father is a cell-molecular biologist (not me), evolution works in two phases: 1) diversification and 2)selection. let me explain... during good times, when there are no great threats to life, species of almost every variety will explode in their variety of mutations, simply because nothing is definitely selecting *against* them. it takes a twist, which is most easily seen with planet-wide disasters, but can also be seen with introductions of invasive species, or human tampering as in ddt for mosquitoes. it is during this phase that success or failure is driven by the chance mutations that have been adding up over who-knows-how-long. in conclusion, humanity has it easy for now. we will find out what is truly successful when we greet our next great challenge. it is worth noting that our genetic legacy has survived six major planetary extinctions. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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this is what happens when a mix of mercury, thiocyanate and ammonium chromate is put to a flame, can someone explain what happens? never seen anything like it. | _url_0_ | so there are two reactions occurring here: the first thing you see is the decomposition of the ammonium dichromate: (nh4)2cr2o7 → cr2o3 + n2 + 4 h2o this is known in pyrotechnic circles as "vesuvius fire," where the heat from the combustion causes the chromates to give off the slow red burn you see in the beginning. the second reaction is the decomposition of mercury(ii) thiocyanate: 2hg(scn)2 → 2hgs + cs2 + c3n4 where c3n4 is the compound that makes up the "snakes," and grow due to the evolution of gases produced by the decomposition of the other products: cs2 + 3o2 → co2 + 2so2 2c3n4 → 3(cn)2 + n2 hgs + o2 → hg + so2 this is also known as the "pharaoh's serpent" in pyrotechnics. both mercury and cyanogen gas are very toxic, so please don't try this at home. | 198 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QzjPva_MUAg"
] | [] | [
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why is "countdown" compression unfeasible? | so under classical compression theory a mersenne prime is basically incompressible (it's just a list of random numbers with no pattern) yet obviously there is a way to "compress it" by expressing it in the form 2^n + 1 right? presumably something similar would hold for all "incompressible data" you should be able to do something similar to the quiz show countdown and express the data (regardless of what it actually is it's still just a huge freaking number) as the product, sum, difference what have you of a small set of significantly smaller numbers. obviously proving you have the smallest possible reduction would not be trivial but intuitively it seems like finding a problem that's "smaller" (in terms of storage space) than the solution itself would not be that difficult? (ie something like data' = data - (floor(data^0.05 )^20 ) data'' = data' - (floor(data'^0.1 )^10 )... until you get to a data' that's relatively small then store only the terms and the formula components and solve to get the incompressible data?) | the *right* way to think about compression is in terms of set theory. imagine a set of "things" as 'people in the world' if we assign each 'person' a positive integer between 0 and 7 billion. now, the number of bits required to represent a particular person is log(7e10)=33, so 33 bits. so the number of bits necessary is 33. suppose we have some 'method' to 'compress' that data. suppose i claim that i can represent a particular person from all others in only 10 bits. since 10 bits can only distinguish between 1000 different possible numbers, by mathematical fact i must be in some way making it impossible to distinguish between more than 1000 people, therefore making my 'compression' impossible. however, i can get around this. what if i say "well, yes, a person is 33 bits of data (because of how many unique persons there are). however, my application need only consider people who are citizens of my small town. my small town only has 16 thousand people, which means that we can represent each person in my town with a different number such that it only goes from 0 to 16000. this only takes 14 bits". then my 'compression' algorithm to convert from a 33-bit person to a 14-bit person can work by simply identifying the person, making sure that they belong to my small town (if not error 'incompressible'), then figuring out their small town id instead....'compressing' the data. as long as you already know in advance that your 'target' data possible set is a much much smaller subset of items than your 'source' data set, then it's theoretically possible to create a mapping function that 'compresses' by representing an item from your source data set by its id in the target data set. for example, the reason your mersenne prime example works is that if you represent a mersenne prime by its index in the set of all integers, then the index will be much larger because the number of integers is much much larger than the number of mersenne primes. however, if you represent the prime by it index in the set of mersenne primes, then you can simply represent it as n where p=2^n -1 all compression basically works this way. run length encoding compresses from the set of all binary strings to the set of binary strings where there are repeating patterns (smaller). jpeg encoding compresses from the set of all possible pixel maps to the set of pixel maps with low-frequency changes and smooth colors (much smaller and maps to the real world data better). huffman coding compresses from the set of all binary strings to the set of binary strings with uneven frequency distributions in the characters. compression mathematically cannot work if the number of things you need to represent is the same size as the represntation bits for that set. it only works by mapping a source set to the target subset. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does oxygen therapy increase the risk for ards? | i seem to remember someone saying in a thread once that giving hospital patients too much oxygen can increase the risk for ards, but i can find anything on it. | respiratory therapist here! according to egan's "fundamentals of respiratory care," oxygen toxicity is one of the risk factors for ali (acute lung injury) and ards (acute respiratory distress syndrome). there are certainly many other risk factors, such as direct injury to the lung (pneumonia, aspiration, near drowning, or contusions) or indirect, such as systemic sepsis, burns, pancreatitis, etc. in order for oxygen toxicity to occur and potentially lead to ards, a patient must be exposed to very high concentrations of oxygen for extended periods of time, generally greater than 24 to 48 hours at around 100%. of course, there is a balance that has to be kept. while oxygen toxicity can be detrimental, the effects are typically not as bad as an anoxic injury (lack of oxygen). so as an rt one of my jobs is to attempt to decrease the amount of oxygen that any patient is receiving while avoiding causing them harm through a lack of o2. let me know if you have any other questions regarding this! | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is instantaneous communication over very long distances possible? | i've always wondered how it would be to try to communicate with another civilisation or a colony of us. there would be an enormous delay, wouldn't it? if an answer would take like 5 days to reach us, a good communication would be impossible. i also read a book about this topic some time ago, it was written by lucy and stephan hawking, it was a child book and was also about instantaneous communication, but i do not know if it was fiction or facts that i've read. i really would appreciate an answer for my question(s), i've always wanted to know this. | no, communication is limited by the speed of light. colonies in this solar system would be delayed by minutes or hours, while colonies near other stars would be delayed by years. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does wind/solar power work? (i.e. controllers, ac-dc converters) | my father wants to set up some solar panels and a windmill out on some property he owns for his shrimps ponds to work the aerators in the ponds. from what he has explained he wants a 10'x12' shed with solar panels on the top and then a small windmill either on the roof as well or on a stand by the shed. so basically what i'm asking is how does it all work? like to get the energy harnessed from the panels and windmill to the aerators. i want to know the science behind it and also if you have anything like it your experiences if you have any! thanks! | i happen to have a rather long book on exactly how to do this right next to me. i also grew up on a farm that had both wind and solar power. solar panels produce dc at a couple of volts. you wire them together in series as much as you safely can and usually use this current to charge deep-cycle batteries. you have a shack and one appliance so you won't need many batteries. windmills produce a wildly varying form of ac (it is easy to make a generator output ac) that is generally immediately converted to dc with a rectifier diode before it even leaves the windmill. you then charge your batteries. your batteries are protected from the (potentially explosive) dangers of overcharging by a charge controller which interrupts the circuit when the battery is full. power from the batteries goes to an inverter, which turns battery dc to the 120v ac your house appliances use. dc pond aerators probably exist or could be built. there are a variety of dc household appliances if you have a larger system and want to skip the (10% power loss) step with the inverter. i am a fan of solar because it is very low-maintenance. windmills have this habit of being struck by lightning or having bearings fail. you also need a really tall tower to get steady wind. if this sounds too complicated then it can be simpler. if all it will run is a small pond aerator, then any big-box home improvement store will sell you a complete packaged system. you would only really need your own batteries and an inverter if you want the shack to have power. note that there are pages and pages of rather tedious electrical code to adhere to (and explosive consequences for ignoring some of it, like charge controllers on the batteries). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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instead of waiting for an eruption of a vulcano, why not drill a hole in it to release the pressure? | i recently read an article about ideas for proactively dealing with the supervolcano under yellowstone. the conclusion seemed to be that drilling into the earth for any reason is perilous and doing so over a caldera is exponentially so. the idea is still pretty new and the technology is improving, so it could be feasible at some point. search for "nasa yellowstone volcano" for more info. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what did maths 'look like' in newtons day? was it very similar to what we have today? | well, here is an [online version of a english translation](_url_0_) or newton's own *principia*. pick a page pretty much at random and you will see a lot more words (originally in latin), a lot more geometrical figures and lot fewer symbols than you would see in a modern text on mechanics. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://archive.org/details/newtonspmathema00newtrich"
] | [
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|
do all diatomic molecules have centres of inversion? | do all diatomic molecules have centres of inversion? if not, how do you determine whether it has one or not? | not all diatomic will have an inversion center. all of the diatomic elements: h2, n2, o2, f2, cl2, br2, and i2 will have an inversion center. if you picture a linear molecule (say o2) with one oxygen on the left and one oxygen on the right, and flip them by moving them through their center of mass (an inversion) you end up with the same molecule (with one oxygen on the left and one oxygen on the right) but if you have a mixed element diatomic (say carbon monoxide) and you invert it you will change the geometry from left to right. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there any physical intuition for the complex plane? | for example, if an oscillating spring can be described as the projection of the function e^(iwt) onto the real axis, is there any physical significance of the imaginary part of the function? | complex numbers are used to describe physical quantities when analysing ac circuits. i’m not sure how familiar you are with circuit theorems, so i wont go in depth on this here. however if you really want to understand imaginary numbers i’d suggest you take a look. hope i helped. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if lobsters have no age limit, how do they control population numbers? | i've been informed that lobsters are one of few species on the planet that do not age. if that is true, how are lobster population numbers regulated in the wild? i imagine it is a mixture of predators, disease, and possibly selective breeding windows, but i thought i'd ask the question here to see if there is someone more informed who could tell me more about it. thanks! | lobsters aren't actually "immortal". they show the effects of aging *differently* and, after a certain age, apparently lose the ability to molt their shells, resulting in death soon after. their lifespans are [31-54 or so years for european lobsters](_url_1_). the "immortality" legend arose in part from a 2007 story about lobsters saying that they don't show signs of senescence in the same way many other animals do and that combined with a study on their [telomerase expression](_url_0_) led to extrapolations claiming that they were "immortal" or "didn't age". they have what's called "indeterminate" growth, meaning that they grow and reproduce until they die like a tree, rather than growing to a certain point, then stopping, as in the case of many other animals like humans, elephants, and birds. additionally, molting and growing a new shell is costly and something like 10-15% of the population of maine lobsters die annually during that process. in short, lobsters do age, they just show it differently. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001457939801357X",
"http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1139/f99-116"
] | [
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why have we failed at raising giant squids in captivity? | in light of the recent post in /r science by [risticus](_url_0_) which links to this [article](_url_1_). the article discusses the filming of a giant squid in its natural habitat and mentions the low oxygen levels and enormous pressure exerted at those depths. i'm sure this has already been thought of, but this made me wonder, perhaps our attempts to raise giant squids in captivity fail because we aren't replicating the natural environment sufficiently. so my question is: **in our attempts to raise giant squids in captivity, have we or have we been able to create environments/habitats with similar, if not identical, properties and characteristics (e.g. pressure levels, oxygen levels, temperatures, etc.)?** i'm sure there are many other environmental factors, but i wonder if this has ever been considered. thanks in advance to your thoughts, comments, answers, and contributions! edit: i was recalling what i saw on the discovery channel once, but i failed to remember that they were talking about squids in general, not giant squids. | sorry, but i know of no such attempts. it would be incredibly difficult to even begin since there is no known source of eggs or juveniles, not to mention the logistic difficulties if there were. the cost/benefit of doing so just is not there. edit: so i did find this guy marine biologist [steve o'shea](_url_0_). i have no idea how it is going since 2010, but he seems optimistic! > i've been told in the past that what i'm trying to do is basically impossible, and i'm told that i'm just going to spend an eternity in trying to prove them wrong... we are proving that the impossible is possible. | 13 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/1643ck/giant_squid_filmed_in_pacific_depths_japan/",
"http://phys.org/news/2013-01-giant-squid-pacific-depths-japan.html"
] | [
"http://io9.com/5476317/marine-biologist-hopes-to-raise-giant-squid-in-captivity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_squid"
] | [
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[geology] to what extent is continental drift random versus deterministic? | i think nearly all biologists would agree that if you could go back in time millions of years, then wait millions of years to the present, the tree of life would be very different than we see today because of the inherent randomness of evolution. you wouldn't see e.g the "re-evolution" of birds, rabbits, or *homo sapiens sapiens* (unless the universe involves fate/destiny in some larger sense, so that even roulette wheels would hit the same numbers for some fortunate time traveler). i wonder how much the same could be true of plate tectonics. were the paths along which the plates moved in essence pre-destined by their initial configuration, or is there a nontrivial chaotic component to continental drift? | some component of the force driving plate motion comes from fluid motion in the convecting mantle (*most* of the force driving plate motion comes from the excess density of oceanic crust in subduction zones), and fluid motion is well known for being chaotic - although the convecting mantle obviously isn't turbulent, so it's less complex. but deformation in the earth's lithosphere is localized to weak zones (plate boundaries), and there's evidence that even very old, inactive weak zones are still important, which would make things more predictable. in essence this is still an active area of research. over something like < 100 million years, plate motions shouldn't be too random. but we don't understand very well how subduction zones start so as the time scale gets longer the forces driving plates get less constrained. edit for short answer: over 50 million years, sure, it's predictable. over hundreds of millions of years (time scale for supercontinent formation and breakup), not really. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is a pentaquark possible? | lhc apparently found one, but i don't see how. it supposedly has 1 antiquark and 4 quarks, but with 4 quarks would it require 2 quarks of the same color charge, which isn't allowed in superposition? i thought only mesons baryons tetraquarks and hex a quarks would be possible. | for the easiest way to circumvent any exclusion principles, imagine the compostion: up quark, down quark, strange quark, bottom quark, charm anti-quark with all spins aligned and colour charges in a way that the whole thing is colourless. of course this is not a very probable composition, but it shows that it is easy to fulfill all rules and get a penta-quark. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would doing 5 push-ups an hour throughout the day (16 hours) give the same exercise benefit as doing 80 straight push-ups? | the numbers aren't really important. the root of the question is, will a person get the same physical benefit from breaking a large number of push-ups into smaller groups as they would get from doing the larger number at one time. | there are two parts to this: the local muscle behavior and the systemic response to exercise. for the local muscle, breaking exercise into small sets may have little effect in the wear caused to the muscle and the calories burned room the exertion, provided that you don't spread the sets too far apart. systemically, extended periods of exertion increase heart and metabolic rates as the body works to provide energy for the muscles to do work. if the level of exertion is "low impact" enough, the body won't have to boost the metabolism at all, and you wouldn't gain the most important benefits of exercise. that said, increasing lean muscle mass through isometrics (such as pushups) will increase your base metabolic rate. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in battlestar galactica viper pilots would flip end over end during dog fights. would the pilot stay conscious for the maneuver? | the end-over-end flip would not put the pilot under any significant strain. the subsequent acceleration - 100s of gs - that quickly had the viper in a close chase with the raider would have crushed the viper pilot to a pulp without some kind of inertia canceling mechanism. (but hey, they had ftl, so why not!) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
has any species other than humans been known to use a form of tangible currency? | well, someone might want to put a much longer explanation out here, but "yes." first off, they can be taught: _url_0_ secondly, though, more importantly, when you say "tangible currency," one could easily define bringing tokens back to the pack-alpha as "use of currency," plus other similar examples. if the question is, "has another species independently defined a currency as a modicum of exchange in lieu of the physical good for which it is exchanged," i do not know of an existing example. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://ec.europa.eu/research/headlines/news/article_08_07_07_en.html",
"http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=844UUcd7J48C&oi=fnd"
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|
do we know if any other species than us ever used some sort of currency? | and if not, why not? what's the supposed 'thing' they do not have that we have. or that they have that we do not. | in a sense, kinda. we know that certain species understand the concept of of currency. they "trained" monkeys to use tokens as a form of money to get food. if you consider barter a form of currency, then most herds have a form of currency, in division of labor. but some sort of intrinsicly worthless object for something with actual worth? not really. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when you take a picture of a computer screen, and then zoom in really far, there are some things that appear to be characters. what are they really? | _url_0_ | 1. the colors human beings see aren't distinct. white light is actually a combination of red, green, and blue light. other colors are made of various combinations of those three. 1. computer screens are made up of grids of dots that are really close together. 1. each dot is itself made up of smaller red, green, and blue dots, and depending on what color is supposed to be in that spot on the screen, those red, green, and blue dots may be on to various degrees. | 9 | [] | [
"https://i.imgur.com/LSzwDP0.jpg"
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are measurements of an object's radioactivity affected by background levels in the environment? | question stems from this video (_url_0_) - just after the 4 minute mark the researchers are assessing radioactivity of moose bone shards, but the bones are sitting on the ground in the no-man's-land around chernobyl. wouldn't the radioactivity of the ground be included in the measurement? | sure, but this is the first thing you correct for. at work i measure the output of a radiation treatment device for cancer. the first thing i do is just take a measurement with the treatment device off, and measure the level of ambient radiation. then when i do a measurement with the machine on, i subtract the background out of the measurement. | 2 | [] | [
"video.pbs.org/video/2157025070/"
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do some materials cause precipitation of water at a higher rate than others (such as steel over glass)? | a follow up question: is precipitation solely dependent on temperature differences? thank you! | precipitation is basically rain, that happens because of water condensation in the atmosphere. there is hardly any glass or steel floating in the atmosphere so i am guessing you meant condensation. which is the change of phase from gas to liquid. some materials do promote condensation, and the brief following explanation is not only true for water but for any other gas. it is also true for the phase change from liquid to solid. the simplest case is the one you describe, the phase change from vapor to liquid. imagine there is only vapor, not in contact with any solid. the first thing to establish is that at any given moment, there are vapor molecules (or atoms) becoming liquid. this process is called **nucleation**, however, they have the same probability to evaporate again. that is a system in **equilibrium**. so for the phase change to occur you need to add energy (pressure, temperature, etc) to the system, this will take it out of equilibrium and cause any nucleus to **grow**. why is this energy needed? you are creating a new phase with a new surface, and it has to overcome the surface tension generated. when any nucleus reach certain size, it will continue to grow spontaneously. that is the simplest case. now what happens when there is a solid surface? this surface has a property called excess surface energy, that is the energy needed to create it. you could also see it as an atom or molecule not as bonded as the bulk ones. this causes an extra influx of energy into the system, and therefore some stable nuclei form on the surface. how important is the effect on the phase change? depends on the interaction of both the gas/liquid and the solid. that interaction can be very different even if you are using the same material, depending on the geometry of the surface, its composition and even partial charge. this of course applied to water. the geometry of the surface could be interpreted as its roughness. so rough glass can help water condensation while polished metal won't. then rough metal will help condensation and smooth glass won't. then there is the fact that water is a polar molecule, so polar surfaces such as some organic materials will help condensation while non-polar materials such as teflon won't help it. in conclusion, it usually depends more on the physical nature of the surface rather than its chemical properties. references: [instrumental methods in electrochemistry, ch. 9](_url_0_) [electrocrystallization. fundamentals of nucleation and growth](_url_1_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781898563808500142",
"https://books.google.com.mx/books?id=RJIRBwAAQBAJ&lpg=PR5&ots=uvGFNCi2ij&dq=0-306-47552-9&pg=PR2#v=onepage&q=0-306-47552-9&f=false"
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is an electrocardiogram sensing actual current or an electromagnetic field? | [deleted] | dunno specifics about ecg, but a *changing* em field will drive the electrons already present in a conductor to move. this is pretty much how anything wireless works, like radio, etc. the next step is to amplify it and then filter the raw current into the specific signal range you want to 'hear'. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pathophys.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/ActionPotential.png"
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if ketamine tranquilises someone, how can they still scream if they are in pain? | there was a documentary on channel 4 (in the uk) this evening that follows a 24 hour period in a & e (er). a patient was brought in with a badly broken arm and shoulder. it was too painful for him to have his arm manipulated, so they gave him 50mg ketamine. this appeared to knock him out (they tested his responsiveness and he was unresponsive to pain stimulus), and just before they set the arm, the consultant said to the nurses, he may scream - but he wont remember it. how is the body responding like this when it is unconscious, and can this happen in any other circumstances? | ketamine is a dissociative. you feel the pain, but it's like it's happening to someone else. these people are conscious, which is why ketamine is usually given with a sedative. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociative_drug"
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how valid are the claims in favor of alternative sleep cycles such as uberman or dymaxion? | i've been reading about polyphasic sleep cycles like the uberman cycle in which you sleep for 20-30 minutes once every 4 hours, or the dymaxion, in which you sleep for 30 minutes once every 6 hours. these sleep cycles drastically reduce the amount you're sleeping, but (supposedly) maintain, or even increase, the amount of actual rest you're getting by sending you into rem sleep as quickly as possible. i am very interested and would like to try this, but i don't quite know enough about it yet. does anyone have more info on this subject? | there is no scientific basis for these schedules. they are simply forms of chronic sleep restriction, which lead to the accumulation of cognitive deficits. i discussed chronic sleep restriction and its effects in detail [previously](_url_1_). chronic sleep restriction -- whether achieved by polyphasic sleep schedules or simply by shortening nighttime sleep -- results in a rem sleep deficit. this does indeed lead to earlier entry to rem sleep, but this is not a sign of your brain adapting to a mode of more efficient sleep. rather, it is a physiological response to being in constant rem sleep deficit and the brain attempting to make up that deficit. the idea that rem sleep is the most important stage of sleep and that the rest of sleep is optional or less efficient has **no scientific foundation**. rem sleep and nrem sleep are both important and serve complementary roles. the dissipation of delta waves during nrem sleep is actually the most reliable physiological marker for the restorative value of sleep. consistently skimping on nrem sleep leads to increased homeostatic sleep pressure and cognitive impairment, even if there is still an approximately normal duration of rem sleep. as humans, we have evolved to spend ~80% of our adult sleep in nrem sleep and to consistently cycle back and forth between nrem and rem sleep. we know that nrem sleep has important functions. we know that disrupting sleep cycles lowers the restorative value of sleep. we know that chronic sleep restriction has adverse effects on both cognition and health. this is because all of our physiological systems, from the brain, to the heart, to the pancreas, to the bones, have evolved to function optimally with a particular sleep:wake ratio. there is no evidence to support the idea that you can reduce your daily sleep duration without suffering some consequences. one of the worst things about polyphasic sleep schedules is that they tend to ignore the circadian rhythm. there are certain times of day when the circadian rhythm strongly promotes sleep (nighttime and the mid-afternoon). at other times, the circadian rhythm strongly promotes wake. polyphasic sleep schedules typically place wake periods at times when the circadian rhythm is strongly promoting sleep, and naps at times when the circadian rhythm is strongly promoting wake. this is a terribly inefficient way of doing things. with a high enough sleep debt and a high enough level of impairment, it is nevertheless possible to fall asleep at any time of day. [people who are chronically sleep restricted have a very poor subjective gauge of how well they are objectively functioning](_url_0_). proponents of polyphasic sleep often appeal to the fact that babies sleep polyphasically or that other mammalian species sleep polyphasically. well, we are not babies or other mammalian species. dolphins sleep with one half of their brain at a time, yet nobody suggests that we should naturally do that. it is normal for sleep patterns in most mammals to become more consolidated with development. a human newborn has an approximately 45 minute nrem/rem sleep cycle, whereas an adult has an approximately 90 minute nrem/rem sleep cycle. in other mammalian species, these cycles may last 40 minutes, 20 minutes or 5 minutes. there are inherent differences in both the circadian and homeostatic processes between species and across development. the move towards a more consolidated sleep pattern is not some societal choice; it is driven by changes in intrinsic physiology. now, it is true that most mammals sleep polyphasically. but if you want to make an evolutionary argument, you should properly consider phylogeny. if you look at our closest relatives, the apes, we are all diurnal (day-active) and we all sleep in a relatively consolidated fashion. unfortunately, there is a tremendous amount of misinformation regarding polyphasic sleep online. please understand that it is simply pseudoscience. | 37 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12683469",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1kb8sd/can_a_person_ever_really_catch_up_on_sleep/"
] | [
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what is the chemical reaction between kitty litter and motor oil? | i was unaware just how fast kitty litter cleans oil up until yesterday. so i thought i'd ask. i guess the question is more like " what is happening when kitty litter absorbs oil?" | there is no chemical reaction as far as i know. the oil is absorbed by the kitty litter simply because the granules have tiny, tortuous pores and can accept a certain amount of oil within each grain. the mere fact that it can contain the oil provides a driving force for the movement of the oil into the granule. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when people are born with extra, functioning appendages, are they also born with unique brain regions for controlling them? | in cases of polydactylism, such as having an extra finger, i believe an appendage splits during very early development. one finger might split and develop into two but they are essentially treated as one finger by the nervous system. | 177 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the distribution for a set number of trials where a certain number of successes ends the trial? | for example, lets say i wanted to flip a coin 5 times, and want the probability of 3 successes, but 3 successes also ends the trial. that means there is no possibility of 4 or 5 successes. i don't think its a binomial distribution because of the restriction, but how would you calculate it? edit: thanks for the answers guys! all made sense | you are describing an [absorbing markov chain](_url_0_). i don't know if the distribution you want has a name, but you can calculate it fairly easily using the transition matrix. for your example you get the distribution 0 success - 1/32 1 success - 5/32 2 success - 10/32 3 success - 16/32 if you want the distribution of a binomial variable with success rate s, and the experiment to end after r successes,and to perform a total of n trials, then construct the r+1 x r+1 transition matrix p as p(i,i) = 1 - s, p(i,i+1) = s for i < = r. p(i,i) = 1 for i = r+1. then calculate the vector [1 0 0 ... 0]*p^n to get your distribution. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorbing_Markov_chain"
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hyperpower function: why does the proof work one way and not the other? | find x such that x^x^x^x^....^x = 2. the solution is that x = sqrt(2). the proof that i learned went something like this: * let x^x^...^x = a * a = 2 * x^(a') = 2 * a = a' (eq. 1 ...why is this valid, exactly, btw?) * therefore x^a = 2. so x^2 = 2, and now x = sqrt(2). instead of raising x to the a, why can't i raise a to the x? i.e.: * let x^x^...^x = a * a = 2 * a^x = a (eq. 2 - if eq.1 is valid, should this be valid too?) * a^(x-1)=1 * 2^(x-1)=1 * x = 1 the second proof is obviously wrong, because 1^1^1^...^1 is not equal to 2. i'm confused as to why the first proof works, but the second one doesn't. a bit of a strange first post to reddit, i'll admit! i'd be very grateful for an answer! thanks again. | equation 2 is clearly invalid, simply by plugging in the known values for a and x. it is possible to prove that x^a = a (equation 1), but you can not prove (because it is false) that a^x = a. a proof for equation 1 follows these lines (this is a sketch). the formal definition of a is actually that it is the limit of a sequence which may be defined as follows: * a_1 = x * a_i+1 = x^(a_i) and a is the limit of the sequence { a_i } . consider now the sequence { x^(a_i) }. the limit of this sequence is x^a on the one hand, and it is also just a shifted version of the sequence { a_i } on the other which is a. thus, x^a = a. if you try a similar approach for equation 2, you will not be able to define an appropriate sequence. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what defines and where are the boundaries between tropical, sub-tropical and polar waters and how subject are these to change? | i've never really come cross definitions of the water bodies themselves, beyond being within the relative regions, i.e. the tropics are defined as an area where the sun will be directly overhead at some point throughout the year. the water bodies themselves vary massively within the zones due to hydrology, geology and other such "ology" subjects. also as part of the "global conveyor" system water masses move around the globe, with cold polar waters sinking due to higher density, and moving into ocean basins, to later be brought up at upwelling zones. the constant movement of the oceans means there is no definable water mass/body that is "tropical" or "polar". they are normally defined by parameters such salinity, density, position within the water column and origin location, for example antarctic bottom water originates in the antarctic, moves into the deepest parts of the ocean basins, before eventually mixing with other water bodies, before being upwelled at a location such as the benguela upwelling system, where it is cooler than the expected temperature for a tropical zone, but eventually is heated up as it travels across the atlantic at the equator. very simplified version and a bitch to type on a kindle with a keyboard that barely works, but hope that helped a bit. edit: i realise having read through it again i kind of jumped from explanation to explanlation, hopefully someone can clarify any questions or i'll have a go later on a laptop. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how is it possible for a band of light reflecting off a cylinder of light make a perfect circle around the metal with no shadow (example pic inside) | how does this work? _url_0_ i feel like there should be a shadow but there isn't and i don't understand how it reflects all the way around. | this is possible if you have a light source that illuminates from different sides. for example, a long fluorescent tube that's above the stand can hit it at different sides. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/fYcDbz2.jpg"
] | [] | [
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does your body employ any kind of error correction on the electrical signals in the neurological system? | in a sense, yes. you generally need a certain amount of excitation to make an action potential, so a little noise doesn't do anything. motor neurons often work in agonist-antagonist combinations, so that rather than just one firing making a muscle move, you have to both excite and inhibit in the right measure. in the basal ganglia, a collection of groups of neurons in the brain, you have to break a constant inhibition to allow motor signals to get through to the spinal cord and on to muscle. the overall effect is pretty nice: you can think about moving without actually doing it, and execute movements smoothly or stay still without lots of twitching. (people with parkinson's have losses in the basal ganglia, with resulting difficulties in motor coordination.) the eyes are actually particularly oriented towards noise reduction. while most sensory stuff is geared towards neurons depolarizing only when they get a stimulus, photoreceptor neurons are constantly depolarized and firing; light hyperpolarizes them, reducing their firing rate, and starting a signal to the visual cortex. this avoids sending a lot of random noise from ion channels, and helps ensure that only real stimuli get through. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what causes rivers to snake? | while checking out northern canada on google maps, i noticed some rivers were snaking much more than what i usually see. [example](_url_0_) what causes this and what influences some rivers to snake more than others? | in a curve the water is "pushed" towards the outer side from the flow, that leads to more erosion there and makes the curve even deeper. on the inside the eroded material can be deposited again. eventually the curves get so deep that the river makes connections between them. over time you can get what you see in the image. curved sections everywhere, some still connected to the river, some not. this is called [meander](_url_0_) after a turkish river. | 4 | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/maps/@68.0023968,-139.1897429,55425m/data=!3m1!1e3"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meander"
] | [
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do people living in hot climates have less issues with high blood pressure due to salt lost in sweating? | nacl has a major role in raising blood pressure, so i figured that losing it constantly in sweating could bring some benefits, but i could not find any paper on the topic. | sweat is actually hypotonic, meaning it has less salt than your blood. people with cystic fibrosis have a mutation in a ion channel that regulates salt balance and one of the results is that their sweat is more salty, hence why we can screen for cf with the chloride sweat test. on the other hand if you're sweating a lot you'll become hypovolemic and hence would have low blood pressure. since your blood has a higher concentration of salt now (after losing hypotonic sweat), water will be drawn from the intracellular compartment into the intravascular compartment osmotically to try to maintain blood volume (along with many other reflex mechanisms). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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tetanus and botulism | i know that tetanus makes your muscles spasm out like no tomorrow. and i know that botulism disables and paralyzes your body. what happens if you have both? do they battle each other out? do they cancel each other out? do they work together to cause pain? i'm not too knowledgeable in the science world so i was wondering if someone could answer lol. | botulism wins. tetanus toxin works centrally. it basically prevents your brain from controlling your muscles. the motor neurons in your brain not only fire to move muscles, they actively suppress unwanted muscle action. when you stop this suppression, you get uncontrolled spasms and contractions. those signals from the brain are carried down the spinal cord, to a lower motor neuron, and eventually to the [neuromuscular junction](_url_0_) or nmj. the nmj is the way nerves communicate with muscles. botulism toxin blocks that final piece of communication completely. the nerve is rendered incapable of releasing neurotransmitter, the muscle receives no stimulation, and the muscle goes limp. you can think of the communication from brain to muscle like the communication between two people, a speaker and a listener. tetanus is like causing the speaker to yell nonsense. botulism is like making the listener deaf. both disrupt the proper communication, but if the listener is deaf, it doesn't matter if the other person is yelling or not. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction"
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how can you demodulate, say a 2.4 ghz signal when the receiver only has a 1 ghz processor ? | there is gotta be some level of signal treatment that is done when a signal is received : when talking about very high frequency, how is it done ? (of course, the same would be true for the emitter) thanks ! | 2.4 ghz is only the carrier wave, not the data rate that has to be processed. the simplest way to apply data to a carrier wave is amplitude modulation. in that case the peaks of the signal vary in height, but they do so much more slowly than 2.4ghz. multiple adjacent peaks have almost the same height and form a gentle slope. once such a signal has been received, it can be sent through a low pass filter, which will smooth the signal so that the high frequency oscillations are removed and only the gentle slopes of the data signal remain. these can then be digitized at a sampling rate that is at the nyquist frequency of the data signal, but far below what would be needed to sample the carrier wave. a simple analog low pass filter can be constructed from just one capacitor and one resistor. if you would try to digitize the carrier wave directly at a rate appropriate for the data signal, your sampling would hit the carrier wave at pretty much random points and you'd get noise, or, if the sampler has very accurate timing, you would get a solid tone from the interference plus the data signal mixed into one. what we actually use today for modulation is more complicated. if we are lucky: another user of this account knows much more about electronics than i do, maybe he will chime in later. in any case: the digital components need only be fast enough to work with the data, the rest is done with analog components. some applications are focused on flexibility and try to as much as possible in software, but this requires much more powerful hardware. even in projects done with gnu radio, there is usually at least some analog component doing frequency translation, so that the processor has to be able to deal with the bandwidth of the signal, but not its actual frequency. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do bell's inequalities and the experiments of alain aspect disprove local realism? | i saw a pbs nova special on quantum mechanics that was less than satisfactory. the way nova explained it, it actually sounded like the experiment supported local realism. it wasn't a neil degrasse tyson episode; it was that pasty annoying guy instead. i am sure that dr. tyson would have explained adequately. please help me with this one, because right now i am still with einstein in this debate which he seems to have lost a long time ago. relevant wikipedia pages: * _url_2_ * _url_0_ * _url_1_ **edit:** i guess i'm especially skeptical because if you take quantum mechanics as the way particles actually are rather than the an efficient way to talk about them and accurate for the purposes of computation, you end up with a cat in a box that is both alive and dead. this violates the principle of non-contradiction which is one of the fundamental rules of logic. well maybe the universe just isn't logical you say. well ok, but then the whole enterprise of trying to describe it with math and language, both of which are entirely products of logic, is doomed. even quantum mechanics must surely fall apart if we abandon logic..? | so since you seem to have read a fair amount about this already, i'll just quickly summarize. bell's inequalities are inequalities which the measurement statsitics of two distinct measurements, on two, what we would normally consider, distinct systems must satisfy, if certain assumptions hold, one of which locality. it is possible in theory to create quantum mechanical systems which violate these inequalities, and this has been demonstrated experimentally by aspect and others. because these violations still occur when the two detectors are space-like seperated, the most common way to reconcille qm with realism is to abandon locality. this is actually not an issue for any of einstein's theories, since the kind of non-locality present in a realist interpretation of qm is non-signalling, and so does not allow for ftl information transfer, which is in some sense the true essence of einsteinian locality. that's all i think needs to be said about bell tests, but if you have any more questions feel free to ask. i want to talk a little bit about your edit though. this is not common knowledge, but schrodinger first used his famous cat arguement to point out how ridiculous large scale quantum coherence was. of course it is ridiculous for a cat to be both alive and dead, but that has more to do with the size of the system, and the fact that "alive" and "dead" are probably not valid quantum states. what this arguement does suggest however, is that perhaps the quantum state is just a measure of the knowledge of some outside observer about the underlying reality (which is possibly deterministic), an opinion likely held by einstein. unfortunately, recent work has shown that if there is an underlying reality, the quantum state must be part of it. so we are left with the existence of "cat in a box" like scenarios, albeit for much smaller and less complicated systems. how do logic and mathematics still exist then, in light of the principle of non-contradiction? the answer is simple, what classical physics describes as opposite and contradictory states, are in reality not. in the quantum world, being "alive" or "dead" are not opposites, and one can easily be both. this is a very good example of why applying classical ideas to a quantum world is a bad idea. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain_Aspect",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_test_experiments",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_locality"
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why does thomas bell's famous experiment disprove local realism? | so i am familiar with bell's double photon experiment which most people cite as having "disproved" local realism - what i am wondering is, why is that how the result is interpreted? my understanding is that the experiment measured the state (usually polarity) of two entangled photons and found, predictably, that an equal number of particles were measured in each of two states, which is necessary because of conserved universal quantities. the crux is that half the time, the polarity is measured at an angle, and this apparently "weights" the measurement such that the expected outcome is greater than fifty percent - this is what i don't understand. wouldn't that explicitly violate the conservation of angular momentum? why would this be the expected result? this is something that i would love to have a more intuitive understanding of, as i'm running into two-photon physics in my research. | are you referring to *john* bell (_url_0_) bell test experiments like the one by alain aspect (_url_2_), and bell's theorem (_url_1_ )? you could also read up on the epr paradox. (_url_3_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stewart_Bell",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_test_experiments",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPR_paradox"
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is it possible to predict the next major mountain range? | since we as humans are aware of the shifting and colliding of the tectonic plates to create mountains, are we also capable of predicting when and where the next fresh mountain range will appear? also, about how long does it take for (just as an easy example) totally flat ground to become a mountain range like the rockies or the himalayas? | yes and no. you are correct that we con forward model the movement of plates to a certain extent (such predictions exist) so we can anticipate the location of collisional plate boundaries that favor the formation of mountain ranges. but the formation of mountain ranges also depends on rates of erosion that depend on climate, and i don't think anyone can predict climate over geological timescales. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are certain saurians believed to have sails versus humps? | looking at a bison skeleton, its vertebrae suggest a sail of some sort. yet bison clearly have humps and broad, muscular backs. when looking at a dinosaur such as spinosaurus, or various pelycosaurs, why do we assume the spines form a sail? is it the lack of marks indicating soft tissue anchors? | with a little anatomic knowledge you can look at a bone and tell whether muscles attached to it or not. [in this image you can see rough looking knobs on the top of the vertebrae indicating muscle attachments.](_url_0_) however [in this image you see vertebrae from a spinosaurus, the ends are relatively smooth.](_url_1_) paleontologists can deduce from this that muscles were not attached to those bones. whether or not fat accumulated around the spine is a question i cant answer but i think the fact that most birds and reptiles don't accumulate a lot of visible fat probably went into forming this assumption. *edit - just realized you mentioned the part about attachment points in the op, studying for anatomy is getting to me. i figure i'll leave this just so other people can see the pictures. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/JqtLS",
"http://imgur.com/QiRee"
] | [
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why do low pressure weather systems cause people to be lethargic? | i experience this nearly every single time a low pressure system passes through, and i know i am not the only one. what are the causes for this? | i'm no expert but presumably it has a similar effect as sad. considering low pressure systems lead to cloudy skies, it could lead to someone feeling lethargic due to the dreary looking weather. can someone confirm this? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are some reputable sources with which i can better understand theories on the origins of the universe and the evolutionary processes? | [a brief history of time](_url_1_) and [cosmos](_url_0_) are two giants when it comes to bigger picture cosmology. great to start with in my opinion | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Cosmos-Carl-Sagan/dp/0345331354",
"http://www.amazon.com/Brief-History-Time-Stephen-Hawking/dp/0553380168"
] | [
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|
does exercising help my brain function? | yes. i read a book called brain rules which talked about how, compared to those in a sedentary life style, those who have 30 minutes of aerobic exercise 3x a week had significant increases in reaction time, executive function, and mathematical thinking. i think mathematical thinking was double in the aerobic group but i don't know what sort of mathematical thinking this was. an important part of the study(s) was that they took sedentary people and had them start exercising and their scores increased to those of the active people. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone walk me through the physical and physiological benefits of drinking water? | this is going to be a meandering answer because i'm just going off the cuff. i'm going to start with that there's no scientific evidence for that idea of drinking at least x number of glasses of water per day. obviously there's a certain number, below which you stress your body but that number varies depending on a lot of factors. the most basic concept of water is that we are 55-75% of it, by weight, and it is the medium in which all the chemical reactions of our body occur. since staying alive relies on a certain consistency of the concentration of constituent molecules as well as consistent temperature, a lot of inflows and outflow of water is driven by maintaining that. concentrations of specific substances depend on what part of the body we're talking about. for example potassium is typically high inside cells and low outside them. think sweating, to be cool, then drinking water to replenish that loss because now your concentrations are too high (typically of sodium). low blood pressure / reduced blood volume are also drivers of [thirst](_url_1_). this brings us to blood, which carries and distributes nearly everything in the body except for electrical signals. this includes glucose, protein in all its configurations (enzymes, antibodies,, etc), lipid and lipid soluble molecules (ie fats, hormones etc), oxygen, carbon dioxide, electrolytes as well as functioning cells like white blood cells. the other major fluid transport system is the lymphatic system, which is this parallel system to the more familiar arteries and veins. the lymphatic system carries water that has left your blood gone into the body tissue itself back to the heart. along that way, there are lymph nodes which are analogous to biologic filters. the liver and spleen can be thought of as the equivalent on the blood side. there's a list of somewhat less universal functions that can be described in finer and finer detail but i'll just leave them as a collection of broad topics 1. lubrication: think tears, mucous, joint fluid; the former two also double as cleaning solutions, carrying crud out of our lungs, sinuses, off the surface of our eyes 2. filler / bulk material: osmotic pressure keeps our eyeballs globed shaped, the thick joint fluid not only lubricates but also helps distribute the forces in our joints (imagine how much pressure goes through our knees), our brains float in cerebrospinal fluid and cushion it; it also fills out our skin, giving it some of it's elasticity, a dehydrated person's skin is loose and saggy 3. i mentioned cooling already, with sweat, evaporation in our lungs 4. an extension of the transport function i described but i want to highlight that that includes the excretion of urine which carries away excess electrolytes and leftover / excess / toxic molecules 5. in the digestive tract, in addition to lubricating food, it is also a medium for your gut bacteria to grow. the implications of all this bacteria in our gut are only slowly being described but has huge implications for immunological regulation and nutrition. as a closing note, it is possible to [drink too much water](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_intoxication",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirst"
] | [
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|
what makes a disease curable or incurable? additionally, it's my understanding that incurable diseases are just ones we haven't yet found a cure for. is there such a thing as a disease that is truly impossible to cure? | the medical definition of curable is that through some action (medicine, lifestyle changes, surgery.. etc) a condition is completely eliminated from the body and no further action is needed. this is much different from 'manageable' which require continuous action and are never eliminated but symptoms can be alleviated. aside from bacteria vulnerable to antibiotics, and surgeries for physical body defects... modern medicine doesn't really 'cure' a lot of things. the rest of your question is more philosophical than medical. can we 'cure' all human ailments? this is only limited by the degree at which medical science advances. there are theoretical cures for most ailments in the sense that we understand the pathology of many diseases. we just lack the ability to effect the necessary changes in the body to treat them. much of it can be linked to genetics. for example, if we had the ability to manipulate the genetic code in every cell of a living being the range of 'curable' diseases would greatly expand. the idea of a disease that is impossible to cure is probably dependent on how broadly you define disease. i can't imagine any doctor saying that any disease that is understood would be 'impossible' to cure in the scope of human existence. maybe something like that would come up if humans were living a very long time after we cure all known human ailments. things that are unknown will always present new challenges when discovered. perhaps there are challenges beyond the capacity for humans to ever solve, but i'm sure people would try. this doesn't have to apply to just medical science. all human problems can be thought of the same way. a good example of a problem that science says is impossible to solve would be entropy. the universe will get colder and colder as time marches forward... by scientific law this is something humanity could 'manage' and never solve. but maybe there is a solution hidden in the depths of our lack of understanding. maybe we will always lack the understanding necessary. there could be filters that prevent us from properly solving problems. after all 'thought' cannot be infinite. there are limits to information density and processing. i truly believe that we will continue to try and understand all things until we are no longer able. only then when the last human is about to die can we properly define something as 'unsolvable' or 'incurable'. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are rainforests really vast sources of biochemical inspiration? can anyone tell the story of an example of something discovered in some obscure species of insect or other transitioning to a product? | this is an argument often used in opposition of razing rainforests for farmland, that the fascinating biodiversity that can be found in them, more than just being fascinating, is *useful* too. i have heard of venture capitalists going on expeditions for the express purpose of carrying out pharmacological research. but it would be nice to hear some concrete examples of it paying off. personally i once spent a couple hours chasing citations to find one and i came up empty handed[faceless figures and vagaries and paywalls]. since then i've been dubious about the whole issue. **edit** i am really looking for a story here, one with a beginning a middle and an end. academic publications typically only cover the beginning or some stage in the middle. | [sea sponges](_url_8_) are highly diverse, and a source of many potentially useful biochemical agents. some of the most [diverse sponge habitats](_url_4_) are under threat due to increased trawl fishing. a more famous example is the [gastric-brooding frog](_url_14_) which has now [gone extinct](_url_0_). it is understood the rough mechanism on how the stomach acid secretion was inhibited, but now the frog is extinct, we can't really find out more apart from its genome. your reasoning is also flawed that aspirin is not an example to preserve biodiversity. certainly useful chemicals have been found in common species, but most of those have been subjected to bioprospecting. unless you are suggesting that rare species somehow yield less useful agents than non-endangered species. if you understand a little about the field of biology, you will understand that the problem lies in the lack of resources (or the enormity of the task) of studying the biodiversity on earth into any depth. the reason we find useful agents in common species is most likely because they are a) readily available, and b) have extensive research present already. according to [wikipedia](_url_6_) citing [sustaining life: how human health depends on biodiversity](_url_3_) it states: one problem of your question is that many research pharmacological agents are not a direct extraction of chemicals from endangered species, but as starting points for research into mechanisms which leads to information that enables synthesis and modification. we learn the inner-working of organisms around us, they lead to understanding of biology, and ultimately in applications that help us save lives. here's an article putting those into numbers: [potential consequence of plant extinction in the united states on the current and future availability of prescription drugs](_url_1_) lastly, [bioprospecting](_url_12_) is a [massive industry](_url_9_). although, drug companies don't always disclose where their original ideas come from. during the push for commercialisation, scientists generally don't publish the specific compound they are working on (i work on basic research and rarely touches commercial stuff, this will require confirmation from those people working in the drug industry) due to patent issues, so you will not likely hear much about those discoveries. here's an example of finding potentially useful chemical from a [rainforest plant parasite](_url_15_). the chance of it goes to human trial is slim, but just to show that the process is definitely going on in the background. did a quick google scholar search for some other bioprospecting from rainforests. if those academics managed to find commercial partners, some of those may go into further research for drug development, which you will probably not hear about until they appear on shelves. hopefully this will give you some perspectives. * [ethnobotany and the identification of therapeutic agents from the rainforest](_url_13_) * [hiv-inhibitory coumarins from latex of the tropical rainforest tree calophyllum teysmannii var. inophylloide](_url_7_) * [the medicinal value of tropical rainforest plants from paluma, north queensland, australia](_url_2_) * [bioactive labdane diterpenoids from renealmia alpinia collected in the suriname rainforest](_url_10_) * [the future of botanical drugs and the rainforest](_url_5_) * [the calanolides, a novel hiv-inhibitory class of coumarin derivatives from the tropical rainforest tree, calophyllum lanigerum](_url_11_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,996764,00.html",
"http://www.ciesin.columbia.edu/docs/002-267/002-267.html",
"http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1076/phbi.39.1.67.5944",
"http://chge.med.harvard.edu/programs/bio/SLbook.html",
"http://www.treasuresofthesea.org.nz/sponges#2",
"http://informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/J157v01n01_02",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity#Human_health",
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"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/np970233c",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1379639",
"http://www.corporatecitizenship.novartis.com/patients/access-medicines/intellectual-property/biodiversity.shtml",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470514009.ch3/summary",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastric-brooding_frog",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1472-765X.2008.02470.x/full",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_services",
"http://www.pharmacognosy.us/",
"http://www.pharmacy.ac.uk/pharmacognosy.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacognosy"
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how was it discovered that same metals would stick together in void? (plus a couple of questions in comments) | - and how it that they keep their shape in space? - and how is it that spaceships and the iss parts are not sticking together. - how are repairing done, using tools with different metal composition? - is there any metal on spacesuits? could they get attached to something? - when releasing satellites and stuff in space, how is it that the mechanical arm is able to move and twist and expand and come into a smaller packed size and the metals are not sticking to one another (if that makes sense)? this topic is blowing my mind, feel free to tell me anything if you are an expert on this field! | metals in space do not act as if they're covered in glue. vacuum welding is an effect where, theoretically, metals and crystals can form a single object by touching clean surfaces together. this works, because at the atomic level, there is no reason for the structure to "end". take a piece of pure iron, it is a lattice made of iron atoms and if you add more iron atoms at the end, they join. an individual iron atom doesn't "know" whether its neighbour was part of a separate lattice or not. in reality (outside lab conditions) however, this doesn't really happen because you need clean almost perfectly straight surfaces. most obviously, the air on earth prevents it from happening because when you touch two pieces of metal there are still air molecules between. however even in space, the surfaces aren't perfect, they'll be covered by a thin film of oxides (and dirt) which prevents vacuum welding. they'll also be far from perfectly flat. this means that vacuum welding only rarely happens, mostly in parts that are designed to fit perfectly together and especially moving parts, where friction will, over time, grind away the surface and produce both a perfect fit and a clean interface. if you need to prevent vacuum welding, just put some paint on the metal (or apply any other surface coating method). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is stopping us from producing too much blood for our body to hold? | when the body loses blood, the blood is remade and replaced in the body fairly quickly. what is stopping our body from creating so much blood that we "explode?" | an incredibly common mechanism throughout biology is negative feedback, simply put when something in the body gets too high whether its blood pressure, blood glucose, hormone levels or any of the other myriad of parameters, the body takes steps to reverse that change. too much blood would increase blood pressure, this is sensed by pressure receptors in blood vessels called barroreceptors. the activation of these barroreceptors elicits a number of changes to increase urine output from the kidneys to compensate. this decreases the volume of blood and therefore blood pressure like letting air out of a balloon. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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two methods for correcting autoimmune diseases. | hello all, autoimmune diseases are, put simply, all similar in that they are the result of the body producing self-antibodies. this is true of the whole range from something as major as ms to something as simple as cold agglutinin. and here's where my question comes in; why can't the self-antibodies themselves, or their production be disabled? by disabling the self-antibodies, i mean creating an artificial antigen which is basically just a "cap" for the antibodies binding site. not to take the antibody out of circulation, but to make it unable to bind (or in some other way denature without removing). my counter-thought was that the "cap" antigen would risk stimulating more antibody production, but if the antibodies are not being removed from circulation (or causing other signaling by the antibodies) would that still occur? at the very least, could such a method be used to overpower a reaction for the short term... for example an emergency shot during a transfusion reaction? and by disabling the production, i mean targeting treatment against the specific plasma cells producing the antibody. if memory serves, once a plasma cells "choses" the type of antibody it will produce, it continues to do so for it's life span. if this is the case, whatever 'blueprint' it is using has to leave some physical imprint on the cell, and if that is the case couldn't it be targeted by some treatment? obviously retroviruses wouldn't work (the choice of antibody isn't in it's dna), but is there no similar method to target specific intracellular protein sequences? at the very least, a way we could scramble what it's sticking on the immunoglobulins to be 'noise' instead of whatever self-antigen it was targeting. sorry for the rant on this, and i'm sure specialists in the field will laugh at the nativity of my suggestions. i appreciate your time. | i don't think the suggestions are naive, your second one is extremely brilliant, but as you yourself point out things are not so simple, lest we would have conquered these diseases by now! here are some problems: * not all autoimmune diseases are antibody mediated. ms is quite definitely not; a subset of the ms patients do have an antibody component, but cell-mediated immune system is generally more to blame for most autoimmune diseases. * its sometimes notoriously hard to figure out what the actual antigen is against which the immune response is * even if the disease is ab mediated, its almost never "monoclonal". so if you use a "cap" antigen which tries to neutralize just one epitope ab, its not going to help (it might actually make things worse by crosslinking different antibodies and increasing inflammation). * a more cleverer way to clear *all* autoimmune antibodies is (ivig therapy)[_url_0_]. this just flushes out all antibodies in your body and replaces them with abs from a large pool of healthy people. it actually works extremely well for any autoimmune disease that has an ab component to it (even some that don't have it respond, surprisingly). more and more diseases seem treatable by this therapy. the only problem is the cost and the difficulty to produce this product (several 10s of grands for a single shot, need to take ite very couple months or so). i'd suggest you keep reading more immunology and thinking though, coming up with such nice ideas with rudimentary knowledge is actually a very good sign! | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenous_immunoglobulin"
] | [
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what is the human body terrible at regenerating properly? is it related to complexity or just bad luck? | for example, humans can't regenerate limbs -- i always assumed that was because limbs are pretty complex; they've got nerves, skin, blood vessels, bone, all that jazz. but we also can't regenerate hair follicles or nerves, apparently. what's up with that? they both seem like relatively simple things that we should be able to regenerate a la skin. can we only reproduce skin and other simple tissues in their "proper places?" we can regenerate livers and nothing else? it's really confusing and i'm always interested in studies in regeneration, but i'm never quite sure what a reasonable "limit" is to expect in mammals or reptiles because i'm not sure what's limiting regeneration, so to speak. and for a stupid question: if we did have reptile-like regeneration, would there be any point to circumcising men, or would it just end up regenerating? | although i cannot remember the source as i read this a few years ago, it seems that mammals got all the capabilities needed to regenerate. from what i read it seems to be related to the immune system as it tends to prefer inflammation and creation of scar tissue when flesh are lost. this makes sense from an evolutionary standpoint as it prevents infection and seals the damaged area off quickly. but tests on completely immunosuppressed mice that therefore didn't create scar tissue or inflammation, have shown they were able to regenerate lost limps and large chunks of their ears as opposed to a control group. humans also have the mechanisms needed for regeneration as there is many cases of regenerated fingertips (as in, complete with new bone and nerves, just not closing off the wound), regenerated rips, and of course is the prime example of our liver as you mentioned. so we got the mechanisms needed for regeneration and although it don't fully understand it yet, once we do we might be able to actively activate it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will an octopus die if one or two of it hearts stop ? and why ? | [deleted] | the three hearts aren't equal. it's got one main heart like other animals (the systemic heart), and two other minor hearts (branchial hearts), each pumping blood through one gill. if the main one stops it would have the same effect as if your heart stopped\*. *maybe* it could live with one gill though (provided the stopped gill-heart didn't disrupt the circulatory system too much and it could survive on half the oxygen - but most animals can survive on one lung/gill until they get eaten) \*apparently the systemic heart stops when it swims, hence they don't swim fast unless they have to. | 4,361 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can one half of an entangled pair be 'observed' in a way that causes a particular outcome? | an analogy mentioned was of two astronauts that reach into a bag and pick out a marble each. when they travel apart, the person who finds he picked a black marble will know that the other person picked a white marble. is there a way to affect e.g. an entangled electron to induce it to always have a particular spin at the point you observe it? e.g. you each take a marble out of a bag and put them into separate bags. without looking inside one of the bags you expose that one to various forces - could any such action influence the likelihood that a particular marble is later found? | not without destroying the entanglement and losing that information if a and b are entangled spins, and i take b with me and subject it to a magnetic field so that it is aligned a certain way, the entanglement is gone. b is now always spin-up, and a can be either, which is clearly a non-entangled state. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if sepsis is so life-threatening, how come hemorroids are not deadly? | i understand any amount of bacteria in the blood stream can lead to spesis/septicemia. i think i also understand hemorroids can be a direct interface between the gut bacteria and the blood stream. so how come hemorroids are not life-threatening? | the other link does a good job explaining it. i'd like to add two things: 1. you can survive a certain amount of bacteria in your bloodstream as long as your immune system is intact (you have white blood cells there, too). 2. you get transient bacteremia (temporary bacteria in your blood) when you brush your teeth. i just thought that was neat. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what processes create cinder cones? | i'm interested in learning more about the geologic history and current geological processes in the mojave block (mojave desert region). there are a great deal of cinder cones in the southeast mojave desert that have been active in the late holocene period (so, pretty recent). in what little laymen knowledge i have, cinder cones generally form as a way to relieve tension within nearby shield volcanoes, but as far as i can tell on basic searches, there are no shield volcanoes in the mojave region. there is a strike-slip fault that goes in a north-south direction, starting in soda dry lake, which makes me wonder if it (or the larger eastern california shear zone) could contribute to volcanic activity in the region. so my general question is: can faults trigger processes that create cinder cones? my specific question: how did the cinder cones in the east mojave form? and my general inquiry is: does anyone have any great resources on the geologic history of the mojave region? | have you paged thru the usgs site on mojave preserve? (see _url_0_). it doesn't cover all of california's mojave, but it might give you enough general info. you seem to understand how cinder cones form, but it sounds like you want to know why specific cinder cones formed in the location you are studying. you might try contacting usgs for that level of detail. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1007/intro.html"
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what is the difference between anoxic and anaerobic? | i am asking this in the context of waste water treatment (activated sludge processes) | anoxic means there's no oxygen, but there is some other oxidising agent such as a nitrogen oxide. anaerobic means that there is no such oxidising agent available and the process must proceed by a fermentation pathway. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where are the 'furthest outposts' of microbial life, with respect to (a) depth into earth's interior, and (b) atmospheric height? how did they get there? how 'constant' are they? | as other commenters have pointed out, we are still finding microbes at the 'furtherest outposts', and likely will continue to as long as we look. so what is currently known, and published? some of the deepest characterized microbial communities are associated with deep-sea [hydrothermal vents](_url_0_), which can reside at depths of over 3000m, exhibit temperatures above 400c, and with atmospheric pressures 300 times greater than sea level. the microbial (and larger life forms) communities dominating these vents are incredibly diverse, and perform some amazing metabolic and chemical processes in order to survive, and even thrive in these harsh environments. we are also starting to characterize the microbial life in [subsurface areas](_url_1_) around the earth. unlike the hydrothermal vents, which have extreme amounts of energy traversing through them, these deep subsurface sediments have extremely little energy (one could argue this is practically zero). at these conditions, it is almost impossible for 'life' to survive as we define it, yet we still find microbes here. these microbes are thought to have doubling times (the time it takes replicate and produce two microbes) on the scale of centuries... (as a comparison, typical e.coli growing in the lab doubles in ~20min). this has raised questions if these microbes are even alive? or how are they alive, if they only double once a century. as for upper reaches, a recent study flew airplanes through the [upper troposphere](_url_3_) (~15km above earth), and collected microbial biomass on filters dragged through the [atmosphere](_url_2_). bacterial cells were found to represent ~20% of all particles in the upper atmosphere that were bacteria-sized. this suggests that microbes may have unrecognized roles in precipitation, cloud density, and even climate change. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://mbio.asm.org/content/3/1/e00279-11.full",
"http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v11/n2/full/nrmicro2939.html",
"http://www.nature.com/news/high-flying-bacteria-spark-interest-in-possible-climate-effects-1.12310",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/110/7/2575.long"
] | [
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|
why is a hypothesis necessary? | this is something i've been wondering about since i heard a professor say something along the lines of "randomly doing analyses with a dataset just to see what significant effects you get is a bad thing; you always have to base any analyses you do in some well-reasoned, a priori hypothesis. why is this necessary? why can't i make ad hoc conclusions/assumptions about significant effects i've found between variables without a pre-existing hypothesis? why is that considered bad science? | this is bad practice because you are applying statistics that are designed to test hypotheses, not explore data. when you use an alpha of 0.05 you are saying there's a 5% chance this result could have come about by chance. so if you generate 20 data random data sets, you should expect that one of them would appear "significant" simply by chance. so if you look through a giant data set and do 100 different tests on any old set of relationships you can come up with (aka fishing), you should expect 5 of them to appear to show a significant relationship by chance. what if you found 6 or 7 though? which 5 would be random and which 1 or 2 real? who knows? you don't because you haven't thought about it before hand. we are really good at coming up with explanations to fit the data after the fact, but thinking about that before hand limits you to a small subset for which we have really good reasons to expect a relationship and we can interpret in light of preconceived notions. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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has the earth ever passed through the same spot twice? | i understand procession, and how the galaxy is expanding, so while the earth may ( i don't know) have the same location in relation to the sun, wouldn't this mean that it has never been in the same spot twice since the milky way is expanding? | first of all, the galaxy isn't expanding. the universe is, but gravitationally bound objects like the milky way have dropped out of expansion and are not experiencing metric expansion. the milky way can grow when it accretes mass from other galaxies or from the intergalactic medium, but it's not expanding the way the universe is. second, and most importantly, there is no such thing as absolute position. position, like velocity, is totally relative. from the earth's frame of reference, it's spent its entire existence in the same spot. from the frame of reference of a cosmic ray, the earth has never been anywhere close to returning to the same spot. even from a more reasonable frame of reference, like the center-of-mass frame of the milky way galaxy, the earth has almost certainly never been through the same location twice, because it's a profoundly tiny object in a gargantuan galaxy, and the sun has only made a couple dozen orbits of the galaxy in its entire lifetime. stellar orbits around the galaxy are not stable enough for there to be any significant chance of them returning to the same spot. the earth's plane of orbit is not in the plane of the galaxy, so it won't cross its own path anytime next year. from the milky way center-of-mass frame, the earth's path looks a bit like a corkscrew pattern. | 27 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do the heart's autorhythmic fibers work? | the heart has these autorhythmic fibers that are self-excitable. can you explain how the action potentials work, where and how they are generated, and how these fibers are involved in arrhythmias? also, how do these cells become so specialized during embryonic development? my a+p (university med classes -woohoo!) textbook says that about 1% of the cardiac muscle fibers actually become autorhythmic. how do those 1% know when to begin their job? sorry for all the questions. the human body is insanely intricate. feel free to pick only one of the questions to answer. thanks for your input! | alright, so i am going to focus on your question of how these cells work and how they generate an action potential. these cells possess a special type of ion channel in their membrane, so called nucleotide-gated hyperpolarization-activated channels. the important part is the second one. during inactivity the membrane potential of the cell is being polarized by the flow of k+ ions out of the cell. in many other cells this causes a stable membrane potential until an outward activity affects the cell. in these autothythmic cells it is different. these special channels open at a membrane potential of about - 60 mv causing an inward flow primarily of na+ ions. this causes a depolarization which then causes the opening of potential triggered ca2+ channels in the membrane, causing the actual action potential and depolarization to about +30 mv. after that the k+ channels causes a depolarization through an outward flow of k+ until the cell is again polarized enough for these special channels to open, so the cycle can repeat. the action potential is then spread through the myokard via gap junctions, seeing as it is a functional zyncitium, but not a morphological one. as for how these cells develope exactly i can only guess. since they are simply modified cells of the myocard, i assume that certain growth factors have a major contribution to this. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a bone graft work? | what glues everything in place? why doesn't our body reject the bone? where is the best place to harvest bone for a bone graft? | a body doesn't reject (at least initially)the new bone because the cells are alive. it's not the hard outer layer of bone that reconnects, but rather the soft inner bone. a body can and will reject it as "dead" if the graft doesn't "take" fast enough(within a week). it will attack and break down this bone through resorption(basically it dissolves it). for me, the glue that held it in place was 3 long titanium pins that speared through the bone they were trying to fix as well as the grafted bone. there was a full arm cast around the whole dealy. the best place for a graft in my case was both of my hip bones. they're non-load bearing and not essential. source: i had a shattered scaphoid/navicular(wrist) and two bone grafts to fix it. the broken half of the bone dissolved and they used grafts to rebuild the bone. first one didn't work (bone graft was dissolved through resorption), but the second one worked with the help of an exogen sonic therapy device. all in all i only lost 7% of my flexion in the wrist (forward and backward), and retained full motion in side to side flexion. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the human body optimally designed to eat? | for a while now i've been researching nutrition and food related illnesses (such as forms of diabetes, heart disease, and certain cancers) and every time it seems i have an understanding of what humans are "supposed" to be eating for optimal health, i come across a piece of, what looks to me to be, solid scientific research disputing it. my most recent disappointment was after 4 months of researching the paleo diet, i came across this study (_url_0_) which seems to link the majority of cancers with high amounts of animal protein. i'm no scientist and i was hoping that the collective minds at "r/askscience" could help shed some light on what the human body really needs in its diet to function optimally and at the lowest risk of dietary related diseases. | there is no one thing the human body is designed to eat. quite the opposite...our digestive system can handle a wide variety of foods fairly well, instead of handling one type perfectly and being unable to cope with other types. there's probably no diet that lowers the risk of all diseases and dietary problems, because lowering the risk of some will likely raise the risk of others. for instance hypothetically (i can't speak to the quality of actual studies involved) it's entirely plausible that eating meat could provide benefits to heart health and weight while simultaneously increasing the risk of cancer. that's an omnivore's life for you. of course, even if you can't find an optimum diet you can still avoid the blatantly unhealthy ones. | 29 | [] | [
"http://tctutoring.net/pdf/ChinaStudy.pdf"
] | [
"http://rawfoodsos.com/2010/07/07/the-china-study-fact-or-fallac/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21507735",
"http://freetheanimal.com/2010/07/the-china-study-smackdown-roundup.html",
"http://mediasite.suny.edu/mediasite/SilverlightPlayer/Default.aspx?peid=36d261682e3f4bd19d2c2e4978eddf261d"
] | [
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koala mating glue? | so, koalas have notoriously strange mating habits, but i've heard on several occasions that post coitus the males excrete a glue which closes some section of the females reproductive system, therefore eliminating further mating. is there any truth to this statement, and if so, what section does the glue close and how does this affect birth? | what you're referring to is called a sperm plug. i'm not sure about koalas but sperm plugs and analogues are found all over the place in the animal kingdom. essentially the seminal fluid seals closed the vaginal/cloacal orifice and prevents other males from being able to penetrate and, in effect, compete with the other male's sperm. crayfish males use sperm plugs on their females to keep other males from competing. however, it dissolves after the female molts which, if the sperm doesn't fertilize the eggs, another male can get in there and try. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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