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what is so great about being warm? | cold-blooded animals seem to spend a lot of time sun-bathing, and warm-blooded animals are obviously warm, but why is this necessary for organisms? if the liquid in your veins were to literally freeze that would of course be unfortunate, but in most temperate areas freezing is unusual. | i'm really not sure what you mean by a "biological organism"? anywhoo body temperature has to do with the function of enzymes which are temperature dependent. warm blooded animals can regulate their temperature to function in a cold or hot environment while cold blooded animals can't and have to shut down. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if skins receives frequent wounds, does the skins regenative abilities increase, decrease, or remain fairly constant (assuming all other factors equal)? | the basis for this question is that i have hobbies in building/repairing computers and making/shapening knives. there is rarely a day after working with them that i do not receive some kind of cut or skin abrasion from either a computer case, tool, or knife edge. i barely pay them any mind these days, but after consistently getting such wounds, i am curious if my body/skin has adapted in any way to increase its healing rate, or if it is more of a constant or declining rate. | repair of the skin requires many factors, among which are the replicating cells in the lower layers of your skin. these form the new fresh skin. if you're looking at a short period of time, this is more or less constant. in the long term, cell replication generally slows down as you eventually loose stem cells (the primary cells that are the basis of the skin turnover process). basically, the repair process slows down as you get older. now concerning small cuts, these can generally be healed without much problems and replicating cells will replace the ones that might die during the cutting. nothing to worry about though! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone explain to me how a solar panel made with ion cannon different from the panels made by the existing conventional methods?(link inside) | is it any better? is this a breakthrough invention? [link here.](_url_0_) | the difference lies purely in the production method of the silicon into wafer form, and the cost savings are gained in getting more silicon backing out of the raw block and minimizing loss to production. conventional methods cut the wafer, creating a large portion of material loss compared to a single-layer exfoliation like the company describes. it looks like it will probably be "better" in that it will be cheaper - it will not really add efficiency to the electricity production per meter squared of space. is it a breakthrough invention? no one really knows at this point because there has been no "payoff" as far as i know. remember, the cost savings of reducing wafer loss must be compared with the cost of buying a custom-build particle accelerator to help make wafers... and i'm pretty sure it's not a cheap piece of equipment. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/122231-solar-panels-made-with-ion-cannon-are-cheap-enough-to-challenge-fossil-fuels"
] | [] | [
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how do stereograms work? | how do the optical illusions stereograms work? i understand it has something to do with the layering of 2-dimensional images, but could someone explain it further? here are some examples. _url_0_ | when you see something (e.g. a tree, a car, a tornado), you're actually seeing two images at the same time, one from your left eye and one from your right eye. your brain interprets these images and comes up with a perception of the world with depth. a stereogram exploits this idea by showing your right eye one image while showing your left eye an image nearly identical, but different enough that your brain is tricked into thinking it has a different depth. usually, you'd be focusing on one specific point on the image, but crossing your eyes gives each eye a specific image to look at. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.netaxs.com/~mhmyers/rds-ex.html"
] | [] | [
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how much cytoplasm does the average animal cell contain? | about 100-1000 femtoliters. & #x200b; but it's a pretty hard thing to answer. the cell with the smallest volume that i know of is the sperm cell, with about 20 femtoliters (fl). the most numerous cell in your body is the red blood cell, and it has a cytoplasmic volume of about 100 fl. but a fibroblast has a volume of 1000 fl, a fat cell has a volume of about 100,000 fl, and a egg cell (oocyte) has a volume of about 1,000,000 fl. & #x200b; so how small of a volume is 100 femtoliters? well, in 100 femtoliters, there is only a trillion water molecules. i know a trillion is a big number, but the fact that we even have a common word for the number of molecules in that volume tells you it's pretty small. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there something that a modern computer is theoretically capable to compute/solve, but noone is able to program it? | the world has such a backlog of software waiting to be written, with not enough skilled (let alone advanced) programmers to fill the demand, that it's very difficult to establish the idea "no one is able to program it" vs "no one has yet managed to program it". *edit:* i am only commenting on the ability to translate a known detailed model into a computer program. as orbitalpete points out, often the harder part is determining the detailed model at all. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow"
] | [
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|
hourglasses obviously require gravity to function, but how would one function differently if subjected to higher gravity, say 2 g? | flow through an hourglass obeys the beverloo correlation, true generally for gravity flow of granular material through an orifice. [this link should be working, but isn't.](_url_1_) the beverloo correlation (so you don't have to open that pdf) is as follows: w = c & rho;*_b_* & radic;g * (d*_o_*-kd*_p_*)^(5/2) w is the average mass discharge rate through the orifice, d*_o_* is the orifice diameter, d*_p_* is the particle diameter, c and k are empirical shape and discharge coefficients, & rho;*_b_* is the apparent density, and g is the acceleration of gravity. so we can see from the beverloo correlation that mass flow rate is proportional to the square root of gravity. double the gravity and the mass flow rate increases by a factor of 1.414. [we know that this relation holds in an hourglass at least up to 13 g*_0_* where g*_0_* is the standard surface acceleration.](_url_0_) so you can increase the flow rate by at least a factor of sqrt(13) = 3.61. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0032591096801513",
"www.arxiv.org/pdf/0707.4550"
] | [
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how does nutrition effect the cognitive functioning of the brain when blood is seperated from the brain? | as far a i'm concerned the blood circulation transports the nutrients all over the body. but since the brain doesn't let any blood in i was wondering how food can effect the cognitive functioning. i've read stuff about omega fatty acids having positive effects, but don't really understand why. | the brain lets blood in, in great quantities (20% or more of your cardiac output goes straight to your brain). you have misunderstood the blood-brain barrier. it is a cellular barrier that prevents many substances from leaking out of the blood vessels into the brain tissue. but not every substance. nutrients are quite welcome to cross, for the most part. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do we need water? (not as dumb as it sounds) | i understand why the human body needs food: food contains nutrients that our body needs, the food we consume gets broken down/nutrients get extracted and used, and the leftovers come out the other end. but what’s the deal with water? there’s no special elements in water that gets extracted, is there? (i know most water isn’t pure h2o, but we’d live if we only drank pure h2o, right?) as best i can make out, we only need to drink water because we urinate and we’d get dehydrated if we didn’t replenish. so if we didn’t urinate, would we be fine? what’s the point of urination then? if our bodies had a water filter to continuously clean the water already in our bodies, would we not need to urinate or drink water? | water is the carrier of basically every chemical reaction in our body. it’s what lubricates everything that goes on inside us. interesting side note. water is a by product of cellular respiration and we excrete it as waste through our exhalation. theoretically if we didn’t excrete it that way we would need to intake less. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
radioactivity and time dilation | the thought experiment is a relatively (pun intended) simple one: radioactive material, such as uranium, is sent flying near the speed of light, fast enough to subject it to substantial time dilation. my question is this: does relativistic speed actually affect the half-life duration? or would this be unchanged from the "stationary" frame? | it actually affects the half-life duration, from our reference frame. actually, we measured the time it takes for moving muons to decay as [an experiment to support relativity](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_dilation#Muon_lifetime"
] | [
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is there a reason why evangelical christians sometimes have seizures during "prayer"? | i'm an atheist and just finished watching jesus camp and it's safe to say i'm shocked at what's going on. i saw kids having "seizures" during high intensity prayer and i was just wondering if it was something physiological or just psychological. what causes them to act that way? | dr. walter cannon ([study here](_url_0_)) in 1942 studied cases of "black magic deaths". cannon noticed that in cases of victims being "cursed" they had an exceptionally strong belief that they were doomed to die. he speculated that the victims released hormones that caused a rapid and potentially fatal drop in blood pressure thus causing them to come down with a serious case of the deads. it's quite likely that these people having seizures have such a firm belief of being able to have this seizure and expecting it is causing them to in fact have one. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://sinapsis.usach.cl/moodle/file.php/1/Papers/Original_Voodoo_Death.pdf"
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what would the effects of a variable fine structure constant be? | n 2010, john k. webb published a paper analysing results of analysis of spectral absorption lines as taken from telescopes viewing quasars from 10 billion light years away, showing that in one direction the lines were converging over time and in the opposite direction they were diverging. by cross-referencing this data with the rate of neutron absorption by samarium from the naturally occurring oklo reactor and comparing that to the modern absorption rate, he determined that locally, the fine structure constant was increasing over time. as a layman this is largely jargon to me, but fascinating jargon. in trying to decipher the jargon, i've done enough reading to get myself into trouble: i've read that the fine structure constant affects the electroweak force, and that the electroweak force governs the interaction of leptons. whilst the hypothesis presented in the article is still under dispute, i was hoping you might be able to help me get a better understanding of this stuff. how does the fine structure constant affect the interaction cross-section of samarium with respect to neutrons? isn't that all about baryons and strong nuclear force? are there any other interesting effects? what would the long-term effects be of the constant increasing or decreasing? | a varying fine structure constant changes how strongly charged objects interact from how readily electrons emit and absorb photons to the delicate energy levels of the hydrogen atom. it cannot be changed very much (~4%) before things like stellar fusion stop functioning or atoms fall apart. there is indeed some limited evidence that the fine structure constant may change over time. however, the evidence is limited to only one observation and the observed changed is incredibly tiny and may be suspect to yet unaccounted-for normal physics. if it really does change then nobody really has a clue how this could occur. here's how the scientific community is treating the result: to quote the planck 2013 results, * ade, p. a. r., et al. "planck 2013 results. xvi. cosmological parameters." astronomy & astrophysics 571 (2014): a16. _url_2_ there is also some interest if dark energy could manifest as a varying fine structure constant as well, * copeland, edmund j., mohammad sami, and shinji tsujikawa. "dynamics of dark energy." international journal of modern physics d 15.11 (2006): 1753-1935. _url_0_ i recommend reading the first 25 or so pages of this review article on the topic, * uzan, jean-philippe. "the fundamental constants and their variation: observational and theoretical status." reviews of modern physics 75.2 (2003): 403. _url_1_ oklo refers to the only known location of naturally sustaining nuclear fission in uranium deposits 1.7 billion years ago. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0603057",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0205340",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1303.5076"
] | [
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can someone explain to me the fine structure constant? | for context, i know a decent amount of physics (at least more than the average joe). i have an equivalent bachelors in physics (my college didn't offer it as an accredited degree) and i love reading about it. however, this is the first time i have read about it and i can't seem to figure it out. i understand that it is a constant between em waves and charged particles. but, when you have a quark (i know they cannot be isolated in standard energies but just go along with it) you have a charge of 1/3 so shouldn't the constant 'change'? or does this not apply to all elementary particles? also what else does this constant apply to? i read we have seen it pop up in many different arenas. i don't need the super dumbed down version, but dumb enough for someone with only a bachelor's. | the fine structure constant is related to the coupling between charged particles (*any* of them) and the electromagnetic field. gluons don’t couple to the em field, so the fine structure constant isn’t really relevant for them. the strong force has its own coupling constant, which is qualitatively and quantitatively different than the electromagnetic coupling constant. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does exercise mimic the function of a fever, in fending off illnesses? | does regular exercise provide the same benefit as a fever, and reduce the ability of new infections from acquiring a foothold? if so, what's the minimum level of exercise required to make it an effective deterrent against common illnesses? | we don't know exactly how exercise increases your immunity to certain illnesses, but there are [several theories](_url_0_): - physical activity may help by flushing bacteria out from the lungs (thus decreasing the chance of a cold, flu, or other airborne illness) and may flush out cancer-causing cells (carcinogens) by increasing output of wastes, such as urine and sweat. - exercise sends antibodies and white blood cells (the body's defense cells) through the body at a quicker rate. as these antibodies or white blood cells circulate more rapidly, they could detect illnesses earlier than they might normally. the increased rate of circulating blood may also trigger the release of hormones that "warn" immune cells of intruding bacteria or viruses. - the temporary rise in body temperature may prevent bacterial growth, allowing the body to fight the infection more effectively. (this is similar to what happens when the body has a fever.) - exercise slows down the release of stress-related hormones. stress increases the chance of illness. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/007165.htm"
] | [
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is it possible for one electrical outlet to put out/release less energy than a different electrical outlet in a home? if so, how? | the energy from an outlet is going to depend primarily on two things. one is the electrical "load" on the outlet. if you have a 5w light bulb plugged into one, and a 100w bulb plugged into another, the one with the 100w bulb will supply more power. this is determined by the electrical resistance of the bulbs (how much they "load down" their circuit). outlets commonly share a "circuit" coming from the breaker panel in the house. each circuit will typically supply 10, 15, or 20 amperes, shared among various outlets and light fixtures. after the limit is reached, the circuit breaker will trip, cutting off the circuit. this helps reduce the risk of a short circuit causing a fire. if an outlet is on a circuit where other outlets or light fixtures are drawing a lot of power, its power output may then be limited. if it is a 20a circuit and all of the other outlets/fixtures are already drawing 19a, the outlet can only draw 1a before the circuit breaker trips. in contrast, another outlet might be on a lightly used circuit, and have its whole 20a available. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
could enceladus' frozen shell move independently from the rocky core? | i just read [this post](_url_0_) about enceladus and my first question was - if a global ocean sits between the icy "crust" and the rocky core, would the spin of the crust and the rocky core have to be locked to each other? thanks! | yes! by making precise observations of the position of enceladus and comparing that to models that predict where it should move due to gravitational forces, a small error can be detected over time that indicated that the surface of enceladus is "wobbling" a little too much. the wobble doesn't line up with an off-center center of mass and the calculated center of mass changes slightly with time. the best explanation for these observations currently is that there is a liquid, or highly ductile, layer under the crust. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=4718"
] | [] | [
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] |
capacitor with power supply | if i had a parallel plate capacitor of separation x with a power supply, then the potential energy would decrease as x increases, if my math is right. u=0.5q_free*v because q_free decreases. this implies that there is a force to increase the separation x(as du/dx < 0). can you explain why there isn't an electrostatic force pulling on the two closer but rather a force pushing them apart? | here's a video explaining how to calculate the force between the plates of a capacitor: _url_0_ the electric field potential decreases as distance increases, which decreases the attraction between plates. you *require* a force to keep the plates separated, more distance = less force needed. tl;dr : there is an electrostatic force pulling them together, you have incorrectly interpreted your implication. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xnFRTbExOQ"
] | [
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why being a diabetic keeps you from donating blood? | i tried googling the answer, but i kept getting contradictial answers. somewhere, you can donate blood even if you have diabetes and cardio issues related to it, somewhere ypu can donate if you do not have eye, kidney or cardio related issues, and somewhere, like here in finland, you can not donate blood at all if you are a diabetic, but in cases where you have o- you may donate in a critical situation. what causes the issue for donating the blood with diabetes? what does it usually cause that can become a minor factor in critical situations? | two factors generally go into consideration for donating blood: health risks for the recipient and health risks for the donor. usually with diabetics (especially if uncontrolled), they are at high risk for complications related to hypoglycemia because of their natural inability to control body sugar levels. in a similar manner, conditions such as hypertension and kidney problems that are also related to blood pressure may deteriorate if given blood. for most agencies, one may be able to give blood if their sugar levels are well managed with human insulin and if they have no other known complications. this is for the safety of the donor. on the other hand, if the patient giving the blood takes non-human insulin treatments, they may have preformed antibodies in their blood that would be transferred to the recipient during the transfusion. this would spark what is called a transfusion reaction in the recipient, which can be life threatening. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what was the speed of the wind that made this waterfall go backwards? | this waterfall was falling backwards becouse of the wind. what was the speed of the wind? _url_0_ | we can estimate how fast the wind would have to be blowing to completely stop the water by conservation of momentum: m_air * v_air = m_water*v_water we can find expressions for m_air and m_water using their densities and velocity: (rho_air *v_air*dt*a)*v_air = (rho_water *v_water*dt*a)*v_water note that dt and a cancel (they are just area of the interaction and time of the interaction, and they can be arbitrary). using rho_water = 1000 kg/m^3, rho_air = 1.225 kg/m^3, and v_water = 2 m/s (about 5 mph, a reasonable current velocity), we get: v_water = 57 m/s (~ 130 mph). this is just a crude over-estimate. in practice, the wind isn't pushing back against a solid wall of water with area a, but rather many tinier droplets with a smaller surface area as the water reaches the edge of the waterfall, at which point effects like turbulent drag would become important. the turbulent drag force scales as v^2 instead of v. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/ghyUWwq.gifv"
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when i consciously will my toe to wiggle, how fast does the "signal" travel from my brain to my feet for that to happen -- is it near speed of light? | or with any other body parts for that matter.... is there a "signal" at all | i'm not entirely sure about the types of nerves that are between your brain and your foot. the speed of nerve impulses depends on some characteristics of the nerve, specifically myelination. myelination of nerves functions to increase the speed at which impulses travel. [this website](_url_0_) provides a number of speeds, with their sources. they seem to range from a sluggish 0.61m/s to 120m/s, depending on the function of the nerve. perhaps someone with a more physiological background could shed some light on the types of nerves used for motor control? | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2002/DavidParizh.shtml"
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] |
point particles, how can they exist? | why is this ok in terms of the laws of physics? i'm just having trouble understanding how something can have mass, but no volume. | point particles are an approximation that works in most situations. forget about subatomic particles for a moment and consider how you might model the orbit of planets around a star; you can get a pretty good model of orbital dynamics by considering the planets and the star to be point particles since their physical extent and internal structure are almost entirely irrelevant to how their orbits behave. their size and structure only becomes important when the planets and star get very close to each other; at typical interplanetary distances it just doesn't matter. the earth would orbit the sun just the same whether the sun was a ball of gas 1.4 million km across or a black hole 3km across; from a distance the gravitational field of the two objects is the same. whether elementary particles are point particles or strings or something else, treating them as point particles works just fine at least up to certain energies, the same way that treating planets as point particles works fine unless they're getting within a few planetary radii from each other, and bear in mind the often quoted phrase about an atom being emptier than the solar system; you have to create very extreme conditions before the point particle approximation breaks down for things like protons and we uncover a more complex internal structure, and for quarks and electrons our most powerful particle accelerators can't distinguish them from point particles. remember, don't [confuse the map with the territory](_url_1_) and don't try to milk a [spherical cow](_url_0_); many things in science are simplified models of reality. incredibly powerful and predictive models but simplified models all the same. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_cow",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map%E2%80%93territory_relation#%22The_map_is_not_the_territory%22"
] | [
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] |
is there any rational explanation for these noises? | in addition to the explanation offered, other possibilities include: - man-made structures that produce the sounds inadvertently (e.g. wind currents from passing trains in a subway system, rushing out vents that produce a "pipe organ" effect). [here is an example of structure built to purpose](_url_1_). - [natural structures](_url_0_) that produce a pipe organ effect from wind. - distant train, ship, or highway noises reflected oddly by natural or man-made structures. - a hoax. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://visitcuster.com/nationalparksmonuments/windcavenationalpark/",
"http://www.oddmusic.com/gallery/om24550.html"
] | [
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|
are incretins really the catalyst for the onset of type 1 diabetes? | for many years, we’ve blamed solely the immune system for the destruction of the beta cells in the pancreas. however, incretins also play a role in insulin production. gip & glp-1 are hormones excreted in the upper and lower intestines that regulate inflammation, insulin, glucagon and other processes. what if it is the misfiring or corruption of these cells (the k & l cells which make gip & glp-1) which confuses the immune system into attacking the beta cells in the pancreas. from studies and doctor accounts, both type 1 & 2 diabetics benefit from the synthetic glp-1 medications. would the correction of the microbiome and healing of the gut, provide the answer to helping understand type 1’s onset and lead to a cure? | i don't think this actually represents the current thinking. i'm going to be quoting from a few papers. this is from the [first](_url_0_): & #x200b; maybe you could tell me more about what you mean by misfiring or corruption of the cells, and how that might result in the confusion of immune cells. at least for glp-1, type 1 diabetes patients have [normal glp-1 responses to food](_url_3_). depending on what you mean by 'corruption' and 'misfiring', those might still be possible. it appears that glp-1 can exert anti-inflammatory effects on immune cells, so unusual lack of expression may result in increased inflammatory responses, though i'm not seeing any literature that suggests that is the case for the onset of type 1 diabetes. this is true, though it seems the effect is more modest for type 1 diabetics compared to type 2. type 2 diabetics show a decrease in glp-1 production, while type 1 don't (as i mentioned earlier). the gut microbiome is an area of significant interest when it comes to type 1 diabetes, and a lot of people are looking into it. the issue is that type 1 diabetes has strong environmental correlations that are difficult to explain. there are extremely large variances in incidence based on geographical area, season of diagnosis, season of birth, etc. presumably not all of these will be linked to the microbiome. in any case, there are many researchers trying to figure out if the initial generation of the autoimmune response starts with the gut microbiome, so i don't think you're barking up the wrong tree. & #x200b; there are a lot of different directions for curing type 1 diabetes, but dealing with the gut microbiome might be a way of identifying people who are at risk but are not yet clinically diabetic, and intervening before they are sick. i'm not sure any gut microbiome work would cure type 1 diabetes after it is clinical. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673613605917#bib33",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/thinking",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/insulin-dependent-diabetes-mellitus",
"http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/60/5/1599.short"
] | [
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is there any definitive relationship between an individual's height and they amount of calories their body requires? | is there a general relationship between height and calories required beyond 'taller people need more calories'? | not directly between height an required caloric intake, per se, but this is called base metabolic rate and is affected by stuff like body mass, age, gender, and a handful of other things. so basically yes, but not exactly. edit: oops, i actually just read your thread title, the answer to your actual body text question might be more properly rendered as "sort of, but not really". height is a factor, but so are a lot of other things, it's safe to say that if two people are the same except one is 3 inches taller the taller will need more calories. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how did chaperone proteins evolve? | what function could they have possibly served before they achieved their current function? i'm so confused, yet fascinated by their existence. | i imagine the same way as everything else at that highly complex level. i am afraid i am not knowledgeable to go into massive detail. two things i am reasonably certain of: many chaperone proteins are frequently referred to as 'heat shock proteins', allowing protein folding to occur at higher heats. many bacteria produce more of these proteins when stressed by things like temperature. better resistance to temperature in an environment where temperature is life threatening, leaves any bacteria with proteins like this with an advantage. natural selection functions because of small advantages like this. much like antibiotic resistance, it is fuelled by one bacteria mutating a basic chaperone protein that provides a small advantage, and thus better surviving under heat stress to pass that trait on. later, its ancestor has a similar mutation and can survive even more comfortably under that heat stress, and the process continues and slowly proteins become more and effective. it is also worth noting the rate of evolution is strongly tied to the lifespan and reproduction rates of an organism, which in bacteria is very high. lateral gene transfer (one bacteria passing genes to another bacteria) is believed to be a major factor in the spread of genes like antibiotic resistance genes, it may be tied to the spread of other advantageous genes like the heat resistance gained by chaperone proteins (or it may not, it is not my field). i have forgotten what my number 2 point was… will edit it in if i remember. hope this helps. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the electric field inside a conductor 0? | note that this is only necessarily true in electrostatics. the reason it’s true for static fields is that any free charge within the conductor will collect on the surface of the conductor. the charge density in the interior of the conductor is zero, then using gauss’ law, you can show that the electric field must also be zero everywhere in the interior of the conductor. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
breastmilk - energy input vs. energy output. | how much energy is required to produce breastmilk? say that human breastmilk contains ≈3100 kj of per l (the mean energy content of the milk from short-term breastfeeding mothers in this study: _url_0_), then how many kj would be required to produce this amount? | this is a bioenergetics question. i don't have actual numbers from a biological system, but i can propose an approach from a biochemical standpoint, recognizing reaction coupling. human milk contains proteins (whey, casein), fats, vitamins, and carbodydrates (lactose) ([citation](_url_0_)) - too many ingredients to account for individually. i will use the lactose (glucose-galactose disaccharide), and assume starting reagents are provided by gluconeogenesis from pyruvate. (alternative is to start from constituent elements in their free states - and would make no sense.) if you can find biological gibbs free energies for the above chains of reactions, it would be simple to work them out. **the key point is atp-coupled exergonic reactions in the human body are lossy.** if you could make a list of reactions, it's a simple matter of adding up the δg'°s. sadly, i don't have access to tables of biological free energies. :p hope this gives a good lead to work on. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.pediatricsdigest.mobi/content/116/3/e432.full"
] | [
"http://www.americanpregnancy.org/firstyearoflife/whatsinbreastmilk.html"
] | [
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how far away are we from replacing someones skin? | so basically i ask this question because i know that burn victims and people with severely stretched skin (due to obesity or pregnancy) have to live with their unelastic skin and the stretchmarks on it. so i was wondering if there are any recent or ongoing research projects regarding the generation of large transplantable skin patches also of course what are the challenges one faces when growing skin for transplantation in a lab? | it mostly depends on your definition of "replace." even if the skin cells were genetically identical different places on the body have different hair follicle and gland compositions. replacement skin may never be totally seamless. also, are we talking one section at a time or total skin transplant? we are relatively close to growing "skin," to replace what is lost but it's more like an amalgamation of skin cells and less like the unique, differentiated organ that natural skin is. other problems exist too, like how much connective tissue damage there is (bloodflow) and whether nerves will grow to support the skin. (feeling) i think the bigger question is whether science will be able to give the human genome the ability to regrow itself like an octopus or insect would. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiona_Wood#.22Spray-on.22_skin"
] | [
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is it possible to catch two different colds at once? | ....and if so, would it feel any different? | easily, in fact, typically when experience a cold you're infected with several of the common viruses at once, and the combination of them causes the specific symptoms you happen to have. coronavirus, rhynovirus, syncitial virus, and others are all the common ones. it wouldn't necessarily feel different, because the chance you've ever been infected with only one is considerably lower than the chance you've had multiple strains at once. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do we have to smash nuclei together to fuse them? why can't we just nudge them together? | i'm thinking more along the lines of creating superheavy elements, as opposed to fusing hydrogen isotopes for creating energy. is it possible to strip [perhaps a very carefully selected pair] of atoms of their electrons and then use forces (electromagnetic?) to manipulate these ions, bringing them right close enough together for the nuclear forces to allow the nuclei to merge? i mean, i suppose i understand that's what we're doing when we smash them together, but couldn't we do it, you know, slowly? additionally, is there a structure to the way protons and neutrons are arranged in a nucleus? i've always just seen nuclei depicted as a random jumble of protons and neutrons (or at least that's what i saw it as), but there must be some kind of structure to how the nucleons are arranged, no? | protons are positively charged, so they repel each other, just like two north ends of a magnet will repel each other if you try to push them together. so if you try to push one nucleus into another nucleus, they will push away from each other violently. if you can manage to push them so close together that they are basically touching, a different force, known as the nuclear force, kicks in, which is much more powerful than the electrostatic force. this is known as the coulomb barrier — if you get beyond the range of the electrostatic force, and into the range of the nuclear force, the nuclei will fuse. this is why we smash nuclei together: we are really just accelerating them to a speed so that they can overcome the electrostatic force. could you do this "slowly"? "slowly" at this size means "low energy" — which is what "cold fusion" is about (and it doesn't seem to work, nor does it seem to exist in nature). so far, it seems like it is going to take lots of energy one way or another (even if the absolute speed of putting the nuclei together was slow, it would still take a lot of energy to keep the nuclei contained and not scattered or repelled from one another — they would be "pushing" away from each other and you'd be "pushing" back). as for a structure to the nucleus, yes, there is a structure. see, e.g., the [nuclear shell model](_url_1_). this is related to the aforementioned nuclear force: the nucleus, as noted, is full of positively-charge protons that would repel themselves if they got the chance. their nuclear force is not strong enough by itself to keep them together (which is why there are not pure-proton nuclei, except hydrogen). neutrons "balance" them out, because they have no electrical charge, but do carry the nuclear force. the illustrations in the wikipedia article [semi-empirical mass formula](_url_0_) give kind of an indication of what's going on here — the protons need to be arranged in a way that they will balance with the neutrons and keep things more or less stable. if they do not, the nuclei will be radioactive, and decay. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model"
] | [
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by measuring the resistance of a memristor (ie. by putting current through it), would you not have to apply a voltage across it and thus change its resistance? | the concept of a memristor has stumped me because i can't work out how it could have its resistance measured. surely it would change when you measure it, meaning it's essentially write-only memory? | you use alternating current, because it doesn't produce net directional current flow. so dc in one direction "writes" to the memristor by changing its resistance, and ac "reads" the memristor by testing its resistance (more precisely, its impedance) without changing it. here's a related article: _url_0_ with the quote: > "*of course, you might expect that measuring this resistance by applying voltage should change the resistance. the authors avoid this by using an alternating current; as the current is moving back and forth, there is no net change in resistance*." | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2008/05/maintaining-moores-law-with-new-memristor-circuits/"
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] |
is it possible to break down atoms into their separate parts and re-arrange them how you like? | for example breaking down numerous oxygen atoms and rearranging them into an uranium atom? this of course ignoring the fact that i would be blown up...alot. | breaking stuff is *relatively* easy. rearranging subatomic particles isn't really a meaningful concept because *what do you make your tweezers from?* quite apart from the [uncertainty principle](_url_0_), you face the extreme difficulty that the sort of forces available to you for the purpose of manipulating your sub-atomic particles are going to be the same as the forces which tend to assemble them into atoms. it's a bit like trying to build an [airfix](_url_1_) model with nothing apart from a sledgehammer and a paint roller covered in (already tacky) glue, both of which tools you are manipulating with the grabber arm of a [jcb](_url_2_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_principle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfix",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backhoe",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ununoctium"
] | [
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] |
are there any elements of pure chance in the laws of nature as we understand them? | my brother had this idea (which i guess is nearer to philosophy than science) that if there is no room for chance in the physical laws of the universe, then everything must be predestined. i've taken a decent amount of science courses in my schooling (engineering undergrad) and never heard of a law or equation having any actual chance built in. i figured i'd ask some people much smarter than me if his premise makes sense. | quantum mechanical systems are probabilistic. given you have maximal information about the system, you can still only predict probabilities of outcomes of future measurements instead of just the outcomes. you demonstrably can not do any better than that - it's not just a lack of perfect information on your part, which as i said is as good as is theoretically possible. it's that the outcomes are really probabilistic. for example, if you have a qubit, for example the spin of an electron is a qubit, a measurement of the x component of spin puts the qubit in a certain state. this is a pure state, meaning you have maximal information about the system, and has a definite value of the spin along x. however, it doesn't have a definite value for the spin along z. in fact, you can compute the probabilities of getting +1/2 or -1/2 when measuring the z component of the spin, and these are 1/2 and 1/2, but only that. when you actually go measure, the outcome is random with those probabilities. there is nothing in the world, no hidden mechanism that allows you to predict what will actually happen. it's truly probabilistic. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is "spacing out"? | when i'm sitting there, and start staring off into the distance and the wall suddenly becomes the most interesting thing visually so i can't not stop starting at it, what is my brain doing? | it's called [mind-wandering](_url_0_). it's long been thought that the [default mode network](_url_1_) is what drives this. this network refers to a number of regions in the brain which show greater activity when people are not engaged in any active task (or are engaged in an easier relative to harder task). the idea with the default mode network is that these regions are active when you're at rest and not doing anything specific, and become suppressed when you engage in a specific task. have a look through those wikipedia articles, they're both pretty good, and feel free to ask more specific questions. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind-wandering",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default_mode_network"
] | [
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reading "a brief history of time" and have a question about the uncertainty principle and quantum mechanics. | first i'll briefly summarize hawking's points: he begins saying that because to measure a particle's position, you need to bounce light off of it. this will then affect the particle, meaning you've changed the position and velocity. and the shorter the wavelength you use, to get a more accurate reading, the more energy the wave has and the more it effects the particle. standard quantum mechanics. then, he says that this means the universe is not deterministic: one cannot predict future events exactly if one cannot even know what the present positions and velocities of the particles are, even if you know all the laws of physics. but **then**, he says: **we could still imagine that there could be supernatural beings that could observe the present state of the universe without disturbing it, and therefore for them it would be deterministic**. but then he says "such models of the universe are not of much interest to us ordinary mortals. it seems better to employ occam's razor and cut out all the features of the theory that cannot be observed." and *then*, he says that this **uncertainty principle means that particles can behave as waves**. that their position is *literally* "smeared out". and because of the wavelike nature of particles, when they go through a double slit, they interfere with each other - even if it's only one particle going through. but don't the two bolded statements contradict each other? the first basically says that we cannot measure the exact position of particles, but they *do* have exact positions that we just can't know. but then he says that the particles *don't* have exact positions, and therefore act as waves. i'm guessing the answer to this is that hawking, when saying that there could be a supernatural being that could know the exact positions, only meant that that is a *possibility*, but then we went forward with creating quantum mechanics and found that particles actually *do* behave as waves when the theories of qm were experimentally tested. is this true? if that is true, then why does every textbook i read on the matter say that the reason that we can't know the position of a particle is because the only way to find it's position is with bouncing light off of it? as opposed to saying something like, "this is how we first approached the issue, but the *real* underlying thing is that it has nothing to do with how we might try to measure a particles position. there is no way to measure it because it doesn't *have* a definite position." | that book is a good intro, but it is a bit dated. the supernatural being hawking is referring to is also known as [laplace's demon.](_url_5_) it's the idea that if something has complete knowledge of the state of a deterministic universe, and the rules by which it operates, then the future can be unerringly predicted. this has been shown to be [mathematically impossible](_url_7_)([paper](_url_8_)). now [hawking agrees with that.](_url_9_) turns out, a deterministic system is one in which each state has exactly 1 possible immediate successor, not necessarily perfectly predictable. also, the uncertainty principle is not due to our inability to measure a system without interacting with it, that's known as the [observer effect.](_url_0_) an uncertainty principle is encountered wherever certain sorts of math are used, not just in quantum mechanics. it's due to the fact, that position and momentum are [conjugate.](_url_1_) so when transforming between domains, [locally concentrated features in one domain become globally dispersed in the other,](_url_3_) and vice versa. there are [many ways that uncertainty can be interpreted](_url_4_), but we don't know which is correct. bell's theorem shows there is a fundamental incompatibility between the [principle of locality](_url_6_), and [counterfactual definiteness](_url_2_), but we don't yet have a means to decide which, if not both, of those assumptions are unjustifiable. most physicists tend to assume cfd and discard locality, because not assuming cfd undermines the purity of science, in that an experimenter can never choose to make measurements which are truly independent of the state his experiment. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer_effect_%28physics%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_variables",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfactual_definiteness",
"http://members.optushome.com.au/walshjj/transform_pairs.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics#Comparison_of_interpretations",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplace%27s_demon",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_locality",
"http://www.livescience.com/2995-theory.html",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/0708.1362",
"http://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/09/stephen-hawking-says-theres-no-theory-of-everything.html"
] | [
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if you knew everything about every atom, could you predict the future? | for instance, say you have a perfect closed system and you knew everything there was to know about every atom in that system - it's velocity, orientation, mass, etc, could you predict with 100% certainty all of their positions in, for example, 10 seconds? what about 10 minutes? 10 days? does this work at all, and if so, is there a point where it begins to break down? | if we know the exact state of a closed quantum mechanical system, then we know the exact state of the system after any given time of free evolution. but even if we know the exact quantum state of a system, we cannot predict the measurement outcomes for all measurements with certainty. mind that this is also true if we do not let the system evolve at all - the [uncertainty principle](_url_0_) tells us that for a given quantum state there will always be some observable quantity for which we can only predict the measurement outcome with limited certainty. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_principle"
] | [
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is there any benefit to health or fitness by practicing and getting really good at holding your breath? | i was bored in work and tried holding my breath for a really long time. in my oxygen-starved state i started wondering if your body adjusts in any way to dealing with a low oxygen supply every now and then? | low oxygen will cause your body to upregulate erythropoietin, which signals for higher production of red blood cells, which are the cells that carry the protein haemoglobin. haemoglobin in turn carries oxygen, so your oxygen carrying capacity will increase. this is at least one reason why things like high altitude training and artificially low oxygen environment are good for training athletes. if you deliberately restrict your breathing, you would conceivably achieve the same effect. generally you need reduced o2 exposure for extended periods of time to see effects though. holding your breath a few times a day will not achieve much, but if you make every breath more intermittent you might see some effect. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what determines whether a substance is osmotically active? | if you have two containers of water separated by a membrane that is water-permeable but not solute-permeable, adding na^+ to one container will generate osmotic pressure and drive water into that container. in this case na^+ is "osmotically active." same thing happens when you add other solutes, like glucose, alcohol, etc...but does it happen with albumin? hemoglobin? red blood cells? ball bearings? marbles? bowling balls? if some of these things are *not* osmotically active, what determines whether a solute is osmotically active or not? | yes, it absolutely does happen with larger molecules, and it has nothing to do with molecular charge. the breakdown of this post will be: 1) why it is relevant with bigger molecules, and 2) why bowling balls are osmotically active and why it does not matter that they are. 1) albumin is a great example because it is easy to show what happens osmotically from a medical perspective. albumin is produced in the liver, is a huge protein, and floats around in the blood doing lots of things... but mostly serves to keep your plasma volume in your blood vessels. when you have too little, you get bloated because fluid leaks out into of blood vessels your tissues. you can lose too much albumin if your kidneys don't work properly (google image search kidney failure pitting edema), or you can underproduce it because your liver stops working (liver failure), or you might not have good enough nutrition to produce albumin (this is called kwashiorkor, it's why so many kids in underdeveloped areas have huge bellies even though they are malnourished). 2) now think about numbers. after you have determined that a substance is big enough or small enough to fit through a membrane (i can come back to this if you like, just let me know), osmolarity is all about numbers of things. you have a couple liters of water in a big ol' bucket (however much is enough to submerge a bowling ball). how many molecules of water are in there? short answer; if we assume 2 liters of water, the answer is 3.35x10^23 molecules... so a lot. a bowling ball on one side of a smaller-than-bowling-ball membrane will make an average of one molecule of water from the other side come over to its own side. that means you have to compare 3.35x10^23 with (3.35x10^23)+1. that doesn't make any real difference for most scenarios. that's why people born with two or three spleens don't have any huge problems related to the osmotic activity of their extra organs :). short answer: it's the number of molecules that determines the degree of osmolality. it's the size of the holes in the membrane in relation to the molecules that determines whether or not something is osmotically active. cheers edit: typos, and changed "africa" to "underdeveloped areas." | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are isolated indigeous peoples infected upon meeting outsiders? | it seems throughout history when the outside world comes across an isolated population the isolated people often suffer greatly from diseases. most important part i don't understand is does it happen the other way around as well? could the connected world suffer from a huge outbreak if we came across a remote tribe with a virus nobody was accustomed to? please forgive incorrect terminology- not well versed in biology | yes. the immune system doesn't build in strength, per se. but rather in complexity. the possibility of a polio outbreak is realistic in modern times due to immune systems not having exposure to it and lacking that element of complexity. which is why if you ever invented time travel, it wont be biff tannen that gets you - it'll be polio. or poor food preparation. the same reason why the common cold is seemingly incurable. there are over 200 different strands that cause the common cold and while your immune system may become accustom to one strand, another will always come along to mess up your day. in the case of native peoples, their immune system has not been exposed to the diseases of other cultures (or diseases in general). and it's possible for it to work the other way around. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is going on with the moon tonight? | confirmed, i'm in a similar area and saw the same thing. i was out walking tonight and everyone seemed to stop and stare at the moon. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://home.hiwaay.net/~krcool/Astro/moon/moonring/",
"http://astroblogger.blogspot.com/2009/10/ring-around-moon.html"
] | [
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|
would it be possible to read and comprehend while entering a black hole? | **typical stellar black holes: no.** why? the forces near the event horizon of such black holes are so extreme that you would be [spaghettified](_url_0_) (yes, this is a real technical term) immediately, probably much before you "entered" the black hole. and even if you survived the entire trip you wouldn't have enough time to see and process even a single word before you became part of the singularity. **super-massive black holes: yes** if you're free falling into a super-massive black hole like [sagittarius a*](_url_1_) then your local frame of reference would be nearly flat and tidal forces would be barely noticeable (at first, that is). still, you wouldn't get very far into your book since even for an enormous black hole it wouldn't take you more than a few seconds to reach the singularity. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaghettification",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A*"
] | [
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|
is there ever a datetime when gmt differs from utc of a magnitude > = an hour? | ios uses seconds from gmt and mssql server uses utc to store dates. is conversion necessary? if so what would the process be? | gmt is a historical and slightly non-scientific measure tied to the *mean* (or average) position of the noon day sun over greenwich observatory in england, this was (and still roughly is) "ground zero)" for measuring longitude (although other prime longitude meridians have existed, eg: in paris). today gmt is no longer strictly maintained although the term is often bandied about, the closest standard to gmt is probably utc1 - a utc derivation that is tied to the earth's rotation rather than to the march of an atomic clock (as strict utc is). utc is adjusted every few years to match it to utc1 and is thus a discontinuous timescale, the difference between the two is called dut1 and since inception of this system the [difference between the two](_url_0_) has remained less than one second. as implemented now there will never be a time when the two systems (absolute and rotational) will differ by more than a second (unless an extraordinary event happens whereby an external force suddenly alters the rotational speed (and rate of change) of the earth). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DUT1"
] | [
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so i was watching and episode of cosmos tonight (again)... | and a couple questions occurred to me: in episode 9, carl talks about the lives of stars. in it, he briefly mentions the last perfect day on earth. he goes on to say how the sun might (possibly) become a red giant at some time in the future and completely engulf mercury, venus, and possibly earth through expansion. my questions are these: 1: does this theory still hold true? could the sun still become a red giant? 2: and if so: does the concentration of mass matter in regards to gravity? meaning: if the sun is a given mass and density (say its status of it now) if it were to, in fact, become a red giant its density would thin out a bit. would this affect its ability to keep planets at their current distances? ultimately: would an expanding sun (lessening in density) have the same gravitation as the current sun and thus allow earth to become enveloped? or would earths orbit move outward with the expanding sun? | yes, the sun will become a red giant in about 5 billion years. it's the natural next step for a star of the sun's mass. with the exception of the planets that the sun engulfs, of course (and that may include the earth!), the sun's expanding will have a negligible effect on the orbits in the solar system. the reason is that a spherically symmetric distribution of matter gravitates exactly the same as if all of its mass were concentrated at a point in the center. so whether our sun now expanded out or even became a black hole (without losing mass in either case) or something else, its gravitational field *outside its surface* would stay the same. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when we eat meat, what happens to the hormones within the animal? | i'm curious about hormones such as testosterone/estrogen/neurotransmitters/etc. | it depends. hormones can be peptides/proteins, e.g. insulin or growth hormone. these are completely destroyed by the stomach and gut, because the body cannot absorb whole proteins, just the amino acids that make them up. neurotransmitters are typically made from amino acids such as tyrosine and tryptophan. transmitters like adrenaline and dopamine don't cross the blood brain barrier even if they are absorbed, your body makes new ones so i doubt they could have any effect. steroid hormones like oestrogen or testosterone can be absorbed and would potentially be biologically active. i don't know whether the quantities are clinically significant. i suspect some phyto (plant) oestrogens could be, e.g. from soy products but haven't researched this. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens when you use knuth's up-arrow notation with non-natural numbers? | suppose you take knuth's up-arrow notation. using it on integers is easy: 3 ^ 3 = 3^3 = 27, 3 ^ ^ 3 = 3^3^3 , etc. but what happens if you place a fraction as the latter number? 3 ^ (1/3) is obviously the cubic root of 3, but what about 3 ^ ^ (1/3)? what if we place a negative number instead? or a complex number? | just to get this out of the way first, knuth's up-arrow notation is just that, a notation. it doesn't define any new operations, it provides a better way of writing extremely large numbers that are expressed in terms of these operations. so in the double-arrow case, like 3 ↑↑ 3, what you have is the tetration operation. then your question becomes, how do we define tetration for real numbers or complex numbers? there is no commonly accepted solution for that in mathematics. wikipedia provides a [decent overview](_url_0_) of tetration extensions, and one could use computational methods to [compute and plot tetration to complex heights](_url_1_). while various approaches exist, the correct answer at this point is that tetration is not defined for rational or complex numbers. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetration#Extension_to_real_heights",
"http://www.tetration.org/Tetration/index.html"
] | [
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the oberth effect (domonstrated in ksp) - where does the energy come from? | we are demonstrating and explaining 'the oberth effect' and the extra efficiencies you can gain from doing some of your burns at the highest possible velocity. _url_0_ it may seem that the rocket is getting energy for free, which would violate conservation of energy laws. where does the energy come from? why does the same amount of velocity increase give you more kinetic energy at higher relative velocities? would love feedback! | in addition to what /u/dcarrier said, the oberth effect can be understood in terms of what happens to the fuel after you eject it. assuming you are in orbit around some central body (such as a planet) the fuel will remain gravitationally bound to that object. depending on the speed after ejection, it might remain in orbit or it might fall down into the planet (or it could be blown away by solar wind). but whatever happens to it later, it is effectively part of the planet system now as far as our spaceship is concerned. by burning that fuel deeper in the gravity well the ejected fuel has less potential energy. by burning closer to the planet you are taking energy away from the planet/ejected fuel system and giving to your spaceship. | 8 | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/FSG33hAtc4c"
] | [] | [
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was cooking onions and two frozen chicken breasts in a frying pan with a tempered glass lid. the lid blew and fragmented into little pieces. why? | i suspect it was temperature related because of the frozen chicken, but i don't understand the physics of it. | the frozen chicken has little to do with it, as it will not make a noticeable temperature differential in the lid - especially compared to conduction between the pan and the lid. what likely happened is that the glass was weakened somehow, through impact of manufacturing defect, and the heat from the pan added enough stress for it to break. tempered glass is designed to shatter into little pieces, as the tempering process adds internal stress to the material. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can't the dynamo be improved? | i was reading about how a (pipe-shaped) rotating conductor at high speed generates ultra high magnetic field at certain rpms through its rotating axis. can't this field be converted back to electricity? (eg. place another conductor through the inductors axis of rotation). | i feel that... conservation of angular momentum says that yes, you could do this but it would lower the efficiency of the original spinning device because the "another conductor" that you place will exert a back-torque on the dynamo. nothing's free... | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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which materials do the best job holding onto heat? | my first thoughts were: some types of stone, ceramic, maybe water. what makes some materials better than others? what are some common materials with above average heat retention? | water is amazing in this regard. i believe hydrogen gas takes the cake though. try googling "specific heat" as this is what your question pertains to. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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an abscessed lower-left wisdom tooth threatened to keep british rower alan campbell out of the 2008 beijing olympics after the infection spread to his shoulder, back and eventually settled in his right knee, requiring surgery two months before the games. how can an infection travel like this? | i don't know the specific story. but it sounds like haematogenous spread (i.e. it spreads in your blood stream). it's the most common route by which osteomyelitis/septic arthritis occurs. basically, the initial local infection (wisdom tooth abscess in this case) has some bacterial load that ends up in the blood stream. a few outcomes can then occur. a) nothing - destroyed by immune cells. b) systemic infection/sepsis - bad. c) the bacteria become lodged somewhere and start growing in that place - also bad. heart and bone are common, but many other sites can become infected. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is it possible to estimate the economic impact of corrupt leadership (i'm thinking marcos, mugabe and suharto levels of corruption) on a country's economy? | or, to rephrase that, let's suppose we could access news from a parallel universe where suharto, marcos and mugabe never came to power and leaders of integrity had been in place instead ... how would the economies of the alternate versions of those countries differ from what we know? | not exactly what you're asking, but the heritage foundation publishes an index of economic freedom. taken as a whole, it's a terrible document. they're trying to say that high taxes lead to economic ruin - they don't. however, last i looked, they published the individual rankings for different aspects - labor union participation, taxes, corruption. corruption is the one you're interested in. lo and behold, freedom from corruption has a very high correlation to per-capita gdp - the highest of the aspects they examined! i used excel to calculate correlation coefficients for each "freedom" and per capita gdp: 1. business freedom 0.631751043 2. trade freedom 0.462432646 3. fiscal freedom (taxation) -0.162106876 4. freedom from govt. (govt spending) -0.361775326 5. monetary freedom 0.387304527 6. investment freedom 0.540280313 7. financial freedom 0.485338054 8. property rights 0.748756788 9. freedom from corruption 0.822897886 10. labor freedom 0.238353877 i did this in feb 2007, so current data may be slightly different. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is a nervous tic? | something like excessive eye blinking or head jerking. what is it and why do people do it? | ah-hah! this is my favorite area of study and i am a researcher of tourette syndrome (ts). ts is a diagnosis given to individuals who have multiple physical and vocal tics for a significant period of time, so i'll use the term ts when writing in this post. if a person has just one tic, they may qualify for chronic tic disorder. really it only poses a problem to people with severe tics that create social isolation, frustration, or physical pain. in short, as with most conditions, we do not know. this particular condition has been bounced between psychiatry and neurology for centuries (for a good historical overview check a cursing brain -- kushner, 1999). it seems to be exacerbated by stress. most people feel an urge to tic, similar to how you might feel an urge to blink if you hold your eyes open for too long -- you can prevent yourself from blinking for a period of time but it will quickly become very uncomfortable and will require conscious effort. it's very common in children (1 in 100 children qualify as having ts), and usually goes away by adulthood. of individuals with ts, roughly 90% of them also have at least one other condition (usually adhd or ocd) to some degree. there was a study conducted examining thousands of individuals across 22 different countries, and it was found that these stats were largely true across many different cultures. there is some good evidence to support that these tics are a result of a diversity in the cortico-striatal-thalamo-cortical (cstc) circutry. some have speculated that it may be due to increased dopamine sensitivity in the striatum, but i would caution that this is an oversimplification of the condition. gabaergic pathways seem to be implicated as well. traditionally, dopamine blockers have been prescribed to reduce tics, although the side-effects often prove unbearable and worse than the tics themselves in many cases. they do reduce tics, though. increasingly, researchers have begun to examine the basal ganglia, cstc, and striatum for their roles in attention, which would speak to the fact that comorbidity between ts and adhd and ocd are extremely high (only 10% of individuals with ts only have tics). it does seem that behavioral treatments (cbit and hrt) are the best we have at the moment. recently, new clinical guidelines for diagnosing and treating ts were released in canada and they positioned cbit and hrt as first-line treatment. this is after some hard work by douglas woods and his colleagues across multiple ivy-league institutions in the us. ten years ago, pharmaceuticals were mostly all that was considered. an interesting line of work has been taken up by some occupational therapists. the notion of sensory integration may hold some water. individuals with ts do seem to experience certain sensory stimuli differently, and it has been posed that this contributes to the symptoms. this is still fairly speculative, but draws on some interesting research from affective neuroscience. hopefully this is a fairly good overview of many different perspectives on ts. if you have further or more specific questions about tics, just ask. also, the tourette syndrome foundation of canada has a great website (_url_0_). | 23 | [] | [] | [
"tourette.ca"
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how bayes rule was used to help with aiming cannons? | i am listening to [the theory that would not die](_url_0_). at some point it is said that joseph louis francois bertrand used the bayes rule to solve the artillery aiming problem. he produced a table that helped gunners to aim?!? i am studying statistics and ive got a basic idea on how to apply bayes rule to classical problems like: suppose that you are worried that you might have a rare disease... but i can't see how can it be used with the cannon aiming problem? | i'm not familiar with that story, but it makes sense. an artillery shell will be affected by various unknowns (wind speed, etc.) and will have an inherent imprecision. for the first shot, you have a probability distribution for where you think it will land. observing where each new shell lands is a new piece of information, that can be used to update the probability distribution for where the next shell will land. | 10 | [] | [
"https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B0050QB3EQ/ref=dp-kindle-redirect?_encoding=UTF8&btkr=1"
] | [] | [
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is there a second complex plane? | does there exist another "complex" plane? two analogies to explain what i mean: 1. if the real numbers can be seen as the "x" axis, then imaginary numbers can be seen as the "y". does there exist a number system which also introduces a "z" axis? 2. the question "what is the square root of -1?" is a question about a real number that can only be answered by use of complex numbers. does there exist a question about complex numbers that can only be answered by the use of a second complex plane? | the complex plane is not the "y", the complex plane is all the x+iy, for x,y real. the "y" is the imaginary axis, the complex numbers that are purely imaginary, no x in them. we also denote x+iy generally by "z", so yes there's a z, but this isn't the one you're talk about. no. this is what the fundamental theorem of algebra says. the "question" that the complex numbers answer is "can we find a root to the polynomial p(x)=x^(2)+1?". the answer is "no", unless you introduce the complex numbers, when it becomes "yes". the fundamental theorem of algebra says that if p(z) is *any* polynomials, then the answer to "can we find a root to the polynomial p(z) in the complex plane?" is always "yes". so the complex plane is as big as we need to get. generally, polynomials and number systems go hand-in-hand. if you have any number system (eg the rationals or something), then if you find a polynomial with no root, then you can get a new number system by inventing a root for it. for instance, p(x)=x^(2)-2 has no roots in the rationals, but if we include sqrt(2) into the rationals, just like we include sqrt(-1) into the reals, then we can get the number system of all numbers of the form x+sqrt(2)y, where x and y are *rational*. in general, all number systems are created in this way. for something like the rationals, this goes up and up and up, you can find a number system of any dimension over the rationals. for the reals, you can only make the complex numbers. well, there is another way to create number systems. if you take the rational numbers, and give them a "meaningful geometry", then this geometry will have holes and filling them in gives a new number system. for instance, if you arrange the rationals onto a line, then filling in the holes gives the real numbers. the only other "meaningful geometries" you can give the rationals are much more abstract than a line, and each corresponds to a prime number, and so for each prime number p, you can arrange the rational numbers according to this prime, fill in the holes and get a new number system that is a cousin of the reals called the "p-adic numbers". just like you can make the complex numbers from the reals, you can extend the p-adics in their own ways too. but you can go up as high as you want for the p-adics, you don't have to stop at 2-dimensions. but, for every p-adic, there is a gigantic, huge number system that has no holes, and contains all the other number systems you could make from the p-adics, and this is called the "p-adic complex numbers". this is much, much, much larger than the p-adics. but the funny thing is that even though the p-adic complex numbers are obtained in a way unrelated to the ordinary complex numbers, it turns out that, as number systems, ever set of p-adic complex numbers is identical to the original complex numbers. they are arithmetically the same, but their geometries are wildly different. not just a plane. so, polynomials and filling in holes are really the only ways to make number systems, and both of them say that the complex numbers are the top. you can make different arithmetic systems more ad hoc-ly though. for instance, you could, for shits and giggles, include a couple extra numbers into the complex plane that work like i, but are different.. these are the [quaternions](_url_1_) and they are an arithmetic system that is more closely related to geometry than numbers, so they come from geometric questions and not number questions, and so it is not a "number system". but the quaternions do live "above" the complex numbers and are a 4d arithmetic object. but the quaternions are actually as high as you can go, if you want to keep associativity, and you can go one step higher to [octonians](_url_0_) if you don't mind losing that. generally, arithmetic objects over the reals are highly restricted. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octonion",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternion",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternion",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-complex_number"
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what is the likelihood that nested black holes exist? and further, what is the possibility that we are in one? | running on the theory i've seen floating around regarding "hologramism" and that bit of information fitting into lower dimensions etc, could our universe (the part we can observe) be set on the surface of a black hole in another universe? could there be other black holes in the "upper universe" holding similar universes and could black holes in our universe operate in the same fashion? | holography arguments suggest that a theory with gravity in some spacetime (the "bulk") can be equivalent to a different theory *without* gravity which lives on the boundary of that spacetime, which has dimension lower by 1. since we have gravity in our universe, this can't be the boundary universe; this has to be the bulk universe. if there is a holographic dual to our universe then it has 2 space dimensions. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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ape to human blood transfusion? | if this question has been asked and answered before i apologize but is it possible to use ape blood (with the same blood type if applicable) for humans and vice versa? i obviously am not thinking that this is any kind of viable option but am just wondering if it's scientifically viable. | so to answer this question, i will have to give you some background on human blood transfusions. i'm sure you know that with human blood there are different blood types. blood types being, a+, a-,b+,b-,ab+,ab-,o+, and o-. but what do these letters mean? every cell in your body displaces a chemical receptor called an antigen. think of it as a a name tag telling other cells in your body what type of cell it is. so for example: i have a+ blood. so every blood cell in my body has the a antigen and my immune system knows everyone that has this "name tag". so if i were to lose blood and needed a blood transfusion and a doctor accidentally gave me b+ blood. my immune system wouldn't recognize it and think it is a harmful foreign substance and attack it. ab blood types mean you have both a and b antigens and o means you don't have any antigens. so what does the "+,-" mean? well it actually is for the rh antigen. and rh stands for rhesus because they were first discovered in rhesus monkeys. so if you are positive then you have the rhesus antigen. so the question is do humans and apes have the exact same antigens to where we could do blood transfusions? yes and no. if you have an ape that has a o blood type then yes because they don't have antigens on their blood to trip our immune system. however, in any other case no. our blood is very similar however not close enough. weirdly, pigs are closer to ours than apes. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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wet lab glassware terminology help. what is it? | hi. i have found some glassware from a decommissioned laboratory and i'm curious what it is and a possible use for it. please tell me at least what it's called so i can google the information. thank you. [pictures](_url_0_) | they look like source vessels for a liquid phase material that will be added to the system in a gaseous phase. the one with the protruding cylinder off of the globe is probably to keep more of the material in contact with ice in a bowl. the u-bend after the globe to the stop-cock is terrible and probably will not take much pressure or vacuum. the ground fitting is very small for most standard chemistry rigs. most likely a custom piece for a very specific reaction. source: glassblowing off hand/ furnace and flame work, plus 15 years is compound and chemical inventory management in the pharmaceutical industry. | 6 | [] | [
"http://postimg.org/gallery/2iyil41u4/cd5c5818/"
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] |
why is the pressure of a triple point not listed in the online source i've looked at, but the temperature is? | i was looking for the triple points reasonably close to room temperature and pressure. while going through molecules i noticed that rarely, if ever, was the pressure of the triple point listed. for example, [this is nist's data for naphthelene](_url_0_), which only lists a temperature for the triple point. why is pressure not listed if it's so critical (heh) to the phase changes of a compound? | yes, that particular database from the nist trc doesn't usually list the p_tp. you can get the pressure from the [antoine equation parameters he gives on the same page](_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [
"http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C91203&Mask=4#Thermo-Phase"
] | [
"http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=C91203&Mask=4&Type=ANTOINE&Plot=on#ANTOINE"
] | [
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in animals like octopuses and cuttlefish that die shortly after mating, what is it that kills them? | in documentaries about cephalopods, sometimes footage is shown of octopuses and cuttlefish post-mating indicating that they die shortly afterwards. they usually look very disheveled, with their skin peeling off it looks as though they are literally disintegrating. what causes this, is it some sort of super fast aging process? | the trait you're looking for is called semelparity. a classic example is a marsupial mouse, which basically fucks its way into the grave. as it enters the mating season it starts producing a huge amount of the stress hormones adrenaline (epinephrine) and cortisol. these make fat stores more available for energy, reduce hunger, reduce pain, reduce fatigue, and kill the immune system in order to maximise the number of times it can mate in this one season. it will continue to have sex without eating, barely sleeping, until it is ridden with diseases (fur hanging off etc.), has no fat remaining and has been digesting its muscles for energy, and is completely exhausted. | 2,533 | [] | [] | [
"http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2014/07/30/octopus-cares-for-her-eggs-for-53-months-then-dies/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitoky",
"https://vimeo.com/99098750",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenoptosis",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22817532",
"http://science.sciencemag.org/content/198/4320/948.abstract"
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in the lastest xkcd what-if?, it was question of how to prevent the slowing of the earth's rotation, by acting directly on the earth. what if we bombarded the moon instead, bringing it closer to the earth, and tidally locking it on a 24 hour period? | this is a drastic change in the orbital energy of the moon, so the scale of things is hitting the moon with a similar mass as itself at a similar speed to itself in the opposite direction. the tidal force is proportional to 1/r*`3`*, so moving it from 384,000 km to 36,000 km (geostationary orbit) would increase the tidal force by a factor of 1,200. maybe a geophysicist can tell us how catastrophic that would be. though curiously the lunar tide would be static. actually the moon would need to be *farther* away to move the barycenter outside the earth. it's getting close as it is, ~1700 km below the surface. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
superhydrophobic coatings: where are they? | i've been seeing videos of coatings that repel water for a few years now. i've seen videos of coated glass, a finger, and a [shoe](_url_0_), all of which seemed to perform excellently. but where are the products? an obvious application seems an umbrella or jacket that doesn't need to be dried once inside. i can find the mention of one coated umbrella that doesn't seem to be sold anymore. the neverwet coating despite apparently being a spray seems impossible for a normal person to purchase, if it can be bought at all. so why? is there some significant downside that hasn't been fixed yet? | so i work a little in this field. more than likely, the super hydrophobic coating is a specific polymer, which has been put into a solution and can form an even surface once sprayed. this may seem too simple, but there are extremely hydrophobic polymers out there already which are commonly used in the fabrication world. additionally, if there was a way to control the topography of the polymer once sprayed - such as incorporation of nano or microspheres to increase surface roughness - this would increase the hydrophobicity. in terms of downside, i can't really think of any but to me (being in the field) this isn't super novel in itself anyway, and the downsides could be the actual application - how well does it stick to the surface, how well can it maintain its hydrophobicity (generally dirt, oils, etc, can change surface properties), how toxic/skin safe is it. can't really say much more as this stuff is likely proprietary. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7is6r6zXFDc"
] | [] | [
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what happens if you force a dc generator to rotate in the wrong direction? | this question came up in our ee tute today and devoured a whole hour because the lecturer wasn't sure how to explain it. can anyone help me understand what would happen if, for example, you had a motor in operation and then forced it to rotate even faster (mechanically somehow)? would it draw extra current and sap the battery faster? after doing some reading, i understand that in 3 phase (as with windmills that accidentally flip) it would deliver negative sequence current to the grid (i think), but for some reason the simpler version of the question had us all confused and i couldn't find an answer. | *power requirement* is the variable that changes the energy/time requirement of a dc motor. overspinning a dc motor will have the effect of decreasing the power requirement of the system. (assuming an induction motor) thus, power supplied by the circuit will decrease, and decrease the amps delivered to the motor. when you spin a dc motor in reverse, it becomes a dc generator! thus, it will supply a voltage to the circuit, possibly charging an in-line battery if the voltage produced by the dc generator is greater than that of the battery. source: electrical engineering principles and applications 6th allan r. hambley. edit: interesting side note, an ac generator will work the same regardless of the direction it is turned. this is because it uses diodes to rectify the net voltage of the system, which essentially negates all negative sections of voltage produced by the phases. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if a child were to not ever come in contact with another human/lifeform, how might it act? | they're what we call [a feral child](_url_1_) (not the most sensitive name ever). the most famous case is [genie](_url_0_). tl;dr human contact is very important for proper development. what's more, we have critical periods of development (think about how hard it is for adults to learn new languages) where we learn certain things far easier. over time the child will show more normal development if exposed to other adults but the effects *are* felt forever. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genie_\\(feral_child\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feral_child"
] | [
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|
are there any possible advantages of using a different shape for each plate of a capacitor ? | for example, a plate in a spherical one or so | a capacitor works by the small gap between the 2 metal plates, so if the plates are different size they waste space and metal. so if you have a square plate and a round plate, the edges that dont overlap are wasted. this is why a modern capacitor that you're talking about uses the same shaped rectangular plates wound up into a tube shape. the time you do use different shaped plates that dont overlap completely is for tuning dials in old radios for example. they move sets of plates past each other to produce a different capacitence depending where you tune the dial, and depending on how much metal overlaps. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
if capacitance increases as distance between plates decreases, why aren't there very small 1f capacitors? | is there a point where we cannot bring the plates any closer (engineering problem)? | when the plates are really close, the electric field between them will get really high ( e = v/d, where v is the voltage difference between the plates and d the separation distance). if this electric field is very high, the air between the plate will become a conductor (dielectric breakdown) and thus the capacitor will be discharged. generally, we put a plastic material between the plates to increase the breakdown limit (dielectric screening), but if the distance between the plate is really small, it will be impossible to negate the breakdown effect (because nothing will fit to screen the electric field). | 649 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor",
"https://www.mouser.com/Passive-Components/Capacitors/Supercapacitors-Ultracapacitors/_/N-5x76s?P=1yztzayZ1z0wug0"
] | [
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can plasma be enclosed in an electromagnetic field and then launched as a packet in a controlled manner? | in science fiction there are a number of instances of weapons based on using small bursts of plasma encased in electromagnetic packets and fired at the enemy. most notably in my mind are the ppgs from babylon 5, and the tau pulse weapons in warhammer 40,000. i am curious if this has any basis in actual science, or if it is complete bs. followup question: -if the concept is sound what scale do we have the technology to do it at? i am assuming no small arms, and my imagination has me thinking it would be particle accelerator-esque. -if it is complete bs, do we have anything similar? the closest i can think of is my very basic understanding of the huge particle accelerators. | we actually kind of have something something similar to a plasma canon. but it is not really useful as a canon. it is potentially useful for other stuff tho. so the cool (and complicated thing) with plasma is that it's pretty much a gas made of electrically charged particle. that means that you have to describe how it behaves with both fluide mechanics and electromagnetic equations. you can control it with an electromagnetic field, but stream of plasma can also create currents that themselves induce electromagnetic fields that influence the plasma stream. this can create fairly stable structures called plasmoids (those are our "plasma bolts"). one plasmoid shape is called the field reversed configuration. it kind of looks [like a smoke ring](_url_1_). traditionally those have been used in fusion experiments where their "long life" (a few tenths of microseconds) is useful to study plasma confinement. however they have also been proposed as propulsion system. if you put them in magnetic nozzle you can shoot them at very high speed. [here is a schematic of what it looks like](_url_0_). i have uploaded a couple of pictures of the device [here](_url_3_) and [here](_url_2_). tests in labs have reached between 10 and 60 km/s ! (22 to 130 thousand miles per hour). so you might think this would do pretty well as a plasma cannon. sadly the plasmoids have very little mass, and thus very little momentum (around 1 mn.s). the recoil of shooting one is very roughly similar to the impact of a raindrop. since they are going so fast they have a fair amount of energy (~ 50 j, 20 to 30% of a .22 bullet) but they are not really practical as a weapon. the record that i know of, by the team in washington state, is around 400 j on a lab bench (near 9mm parabellum energy wise). so while plasma canons are not really a possibility for now, ejecting "smoke rings" of plasma at very high speed might be good way to travel in space in the not so far future. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/QrXWmuU.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Field-Reversed_Configuration.svg/800px-Field-Reversed_Configuration.svg.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/25wa8Y4.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/BoIegI9.png",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARAUDER"
] | [
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how does a break beam sensor work? | i assume you're talking about a setup where there's (typically) an infrared beam crossing space, and then if the beam is broken, something will happen. so on one side of this setup we have the infrared emitter. on the other side we have an infrared sensor - some semiconducting material that's sensitive to photons in the infrared spectrum. (a way to think of it might be like a solar cell that's tuned for a particular infrared wavelength instead of the visible spectrum.) when a photon with at least that much energy strikes the sensor, it can pass the energy onto an electron, which creates some electric current. the sensor is probably something like a phototransistor, where photons striking the sensor will turn on (or turn off) the transistor. the circuitry that it's hooked up to will detect that change, and ... things will happen. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can humans be born psycopaths, or is that a learned thing? | watching forensic files and a detective made the comment, "psychopaths aren't born, they're created". just wondering if there is merit to that. | psychopathy is a really difficult one. science now knows that psychopaths have a different brain structure to "regular" people in the sense that the part of their brain responsible for processing emotions is damaged (fewer connections). we have cases of children doing horrific things to themselves, each-other and animals so we know we can be born with it. however whether or not you can become a psycho throughout your lifetime needs more research. we have evidence of people with brain trauma displaying an inability to process basic emotions amongst other things, however to call this trauma psychopathy conclusively without more trials is far fetched. if you have a car accident and suffer damage to the prefrontal cortex and amygdala alone, you would display characteristic symptoms of someone with psychopathy, but you have brain damage. so which one is it? the lines are very blurred still and requires years more research. to throw a spanner into the works, not all psychopaths are "evil" and many live normal lives. there is evidence that psychopathy may have evolved as some evolutionary trait, much like homosexuality, but we dont know why yet. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
i'm trying to make a substance of 11.8 cp viscosity! can anyone help me do this? | so far i've considered using glycerin or polyvinyl alcohol and borax (making slime). both of these i found doing simple research online. does anyone know how i can go about this? i would really appreciate the help! i'm basically trying to make slime, but of a specific viscosity! | is there some reason it has to be exactly 11.8? have you considered looking into viscosity standards if you need precision? here's an example: _url_2_ does the viscosity need to be constant with respect to shear rate. i.e. is this a [newtonian fluid](_url_1_)? if it needs to be newtonian, i'd stay away from slime, since the viscosity will vary with the rate of shear (sort of the rate of flow). if you want something newtonian i'd go with a mix of pure liquids until you get the viscosity you are looking for. using [this table](_url_0_) for liquids, i'd say you could mix ethylene glycol and water and end up around that value. you'd need to measure the viscosity of different mixtures until you got the right proportions. if you don't have the ability to check your mixtures, then you are going to be stuck using a known value, likea a pure compound or one of the standards i mentioned above. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity#Other_substances",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_fluid",
"http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/analytical-chromatography/analytical-products.html?TablePage=101701449",
"http://www.use-enco.com/1/1/45211-105481-mobil-no-10-spindle-velocite-machine-oil.html",
"http://www.widman.biz/English/Calculators/Mixtures.html"
] | [
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what is the process- start to finish, of a hurricane? | a hurricane requires a few things to form: warm, humid air, low vertical wind shear (the wind speed at the surface is similar to the speed in the upper troposphere), a latitude higher than about 5 degrees, and an instability to kick it off. i'm not a huge weather expert but i know there are ways to measure the stability/instability of the atmosphere in an area as it relates to the gradients of temperature and pressure of the air. basically, a hurricane needs to form around a small low-pressure spot, rather than a large low-pressure region. the point of these conditions is that a hurricane is basically a giant heat engine, sucking warm air from the surface of the ocean into the cold upper atmosphere until it cools down enough for the water to condense, forming storm clouds, then the air falls back down. this is called secondary circulation. the air being sucked up in the center of the hurricane creates a low-pressure area, so surrounding air flows inwards. this is where the latitude comes into effect, because a hurricane can only form when the coriolis effect is significant enough to drive the primary circulation of the storm, which is the characteristic circular rotation. because the earth is a rotating sphere, air at the equator has a higher speed in the direction of the earth's rotation than air at higher altitudes (air at the equator has to go around a larger circumference in the same amount of time). for this example, i'll assume we're in the northern hemisphere. when a low-pressure zone is created, air to the south of it will move north. as this air moves north, its eastward speed becomes greater than the ground below it, so it veers off towards the east. the air to the north of the low pressure zone will move south, and as it moves south its eastward speed becomes lower than the ground, so it veers to the west. this creates a counterclockwise rotation around the center of the storm. the lower the pressure in the center, the more air it can pull in and the faster the rotation can get. this process can only continue as long as there is warm, humid air driving the low-pressure eye of the storm. eventually the storm will hit cold water or land where there won't be enough energy to keep the system going and it will dissipate. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
will the electrons in the wire of the generator run out? | this sounds like a dumb question. i'm a teen and from my understanding in class. electricity is produced by cutting a conductor through a magnetic field to "push" the electrons. so when we us electricity, will the electrons be used up and you have to change the metal in the generator or the electrons are still there but just the energy they carry is transferred. i asked my teacher and all he said was "it isn't in the syllabus, don't bother" | not a physicist or engineer, but nobody seems to have stepped in yet. in order for electricity to flow, you need a circuit (please tell me they covered that). the circuit is in fact to permit electrons to move in a complete loop around your current path, which means no, you can't run out. as soon as they can no longer cycle, current stops. although it is horribly misleading as to the more precise understanding of electricity, think of the water analogy. if you had a hose sealed on both ends, you wouldn't be able to pump water through it - but make a loop and the water will cycle and you can attach turbines or other devices and make it do 'work' at a location in the loop somewhere other than where the pump is. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://solar.bnsc.rl.ac.uk/sb99/people/DMackay/generator.gif"
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lacking an 'r/askbotany', i have a question about pineapples and petals. | admittedly, an odd question, but as a philosopher of science i'm quite used to asking them. what are the mechanisms that are responsible for petal arrangements on flowers, and the placement pineapple scales? i know both are places where the fibonnacci series crops up, but the point i'm trying to make is that, just because two disparate phenomena both appear to be governed by some common equation doesn't do much in the way of *explaining* how they come about? presumably in the case of petals, there would be reference to phototropic auxins (gcse biology ftw), but i'm pretty clueless about any more detail than that. | not super scientific so i hope i am not breaking the rules but vi hart of khan academy explains it in broad strokes in these videos. her presentation is fascinating as well: _url_1_ _url_2_ _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.khanacademy.org/math/vi-hart/v/doodling-in-math--spirals--fibonacci--and-being-a-plant--part-3-of-3",
"http://www.khanacademy.org/math/vi-hart/v/doodling-in-math--spirals--fibonacci--and-being-a-plant--1-of-3",
"http://www.khanacademy.org/math/vi-hart/v/doodling-in-math-class--spirals--fibonacci--and-being-a-plant--2-of-3"
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could the human body cope with training under increased gravity ? see: dragonball z. | say in the hypothetical situation where a fully grown man/woman could train under increased gravity, let's say twice the gravity of earth, would that work ? would the effect on the human body be more positive or negative? what will be the effects? | i would think that the extra gravity would be detrimental to the spinal cord more than anything. the muscles in our backs are not meant to deal with that much extra weight, especially considering that a vast majority of our population neglects the back muscles almost entirely. most people, with bad posture, would likely end up with an unhealthy curve to the spine. our legs would adapt rather quickly to the excess strain, they are a relatively simple system by comparison. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
plant-based diet study suggests coronary heart disease could be all but eliminated. is the science here sound? | in a [tedx talk](_url_0_) (x-posted from /r/vegetarianism), dr caldwell esselstyn presents a few results of treating coronary patients with a plant-based diet and claims amazing results. the talk is interesting and all, but verges a little on the evangelical side - fair enough i guess, it's not an academic conference, but i'm keen to hear what other scientists, including nutritionists and medical researchers might have to say on the idea. have you read his papers? does it stand up? has he been rigorous methodologically? quick edit to clarify: i'm largely interested in method, really. the idea is that all animal products must be eliminated, but he doesn't address the questions of: all animal products from all animals,? are there any plant products that also need to be avoided (he mentions oils, including olive and vegetable oils),? and what exactly is the cause-effect pathway? | i am in no way qualified to answer this, but i wanted to tell you that these are the kinds of questions i'd be asking when i hear such an idea. what portion of the big change is the key aspect? what's the mechanism of action of this change? | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=EqKNfyUPzoU"
] | [] | [
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what kind of instruments directly measure space debris? | i saw a statistic stating 29,000 objects over 10cm are tracked and was interested on how those object are tracked and how we use instruments to determine their location. thanks! | space objects tracking is performed and disseminated by the [united states space surveillance network](_url_0_). they mainly use a combination of ground-based radars and optical telescopes, but there have been experiments with using space-based instruments as well. you can see the different kinds of instruments they use on the link above. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Surveillance_Network",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Space_Surveillance_Network",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalman_filter"
] | [
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what causes a dead body to become stiff? | recently our neighbor went out of town for a few weeks and asked us to watch her cat. long story short we went to her house to check on him the other day and discovered him lying on the floor dead. after talking to our neighbor on the phone, she asked us to bury him in her backyard. so we got a box to put him in and when we picked him up he was stiff. like a plank of wood. his joints wouldn't even move hardly. what causes this? i know it's suppose to happen, but what happens in the body that causes it to become stiff and hard? | in short, death on a cellular level happens a little slower than it does on the organism level. the muscle cells are depleted of oxygen and are unable to regulate the flow of calcium ions. this causes the actin/myosin in the muscle fibers to crosslink and stiffen. the body is also unable to clear lactic acid from normal cellular activity. this causes the muscles to become stiff for a time. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are government agencies still insisting that salt is a bad thing when there is no evidence to support this position? citation inside. | _url_0_ this shows there is no strong evidence that consuming salt increases morbidity so why havn't health agencies updated their message? | this study only shows that you can't bring your pressure down by reducing salt intake. which is correct because primary hypertension is irreversible unless you use medications. however, salt increases your blood pressure and it's bad for ya. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/ajh/journal/v24/n8/full/ajh2011115a.html"
] | [] | [
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trying to understand reflection on a particle level. | so, i understand diffuse reflection on a grander scale - light is reflected and refracted around by the sub-surface structure. but i have two questions; what happens to the missing wavelengths of colour that are subtracted to give something its colour? what is happening to the quanta of light when they are 'reflected'? absorbed (electron up an energy level) and emitted (back down a level)? | the missing wavelengths are absorbed by the thing the light is hitting; leaves would absorb all wavelengths except green, and the absorbed wavelengths would by converted into energy that the plant will use to make sugar. most often the energy is converted into heat. that is why black stuff will be hotter than white stuff when left in the sun. reflection is harder to explain, the photons are interacting with the electrons in the surface, being absorbed and emitted again. the electrons get excited (higher energy) and then emit that energy as another photon. the reason that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection has to do with the waves being in and out of sync; you get destructive interference where it doesn't seem to be reflecting at. like [this](_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Feynmans_QED_probability_amplitudes.gif"
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which would heat the body more, a jacuzzi or a steam room? | we'll say the person is sitting in the jacuzzi neck deep for 30 minutes or in the steam room for 10 minutes. for the purposes of this question we'll say the steam room is at a high humidy level and both are heated to 40 degrees celsius. it's a pretty stupid question but i got into an argument about it the other day. \firstworldproblems | liquids are much better thermal conductors than gasses, and jacuzzis are inherently convective (via the bubble streams), whereas saunas tend not to have air currents, so i'm gonna say the jacuzzi by a (figurative) mile. add on to that the fact that you're spending more time in the jacuzzi in this hypothetical, and i don't think there's much room for debate. however, it's worth noting that (for this very reason) hot tubs aren't supposed to exceed that 40 c mark, whereas saunas are typically kept at or above 70 c, so the hypothetical is a little unrealistic. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do goat muscles work? how are they different from other animals? | i am really curious i after finding and spending several hours browsing through a subreddit called /r/goatparkour [here](_url_3_) are some goats jumping and [here](_url_2_) and here is a [video](_url_1_) i googled around and couldnt find anything because it wasn't what i was looking for or it was too complicated for me to understand. my first thought after watching some of the videos is that this might be similar to that post about humans fighting orangutans in /r/changemyview [here](_url_0_) in which a significant factor was how human muscles are much weaker but more precise than the orangutan, which are much stronger but alot less precise also if you want to just talk about interesting things about goats thats fine too :d | it's not particulary the muscles that are different from other species of animals but the mechanics of the animal. the way the bones of a goat move together make them great jumpers. the mechanics merged with the strong muscles (length and thickness of the muscles depend on the function of the muscle) gives the goat great balance and manoeuvrability. to summarize the above; the muscles of the goat are not different from other animals, it's more about the construction of the body that makes a goat good at what it does. | 4 | [] | [
"http://np.reddit.com/r/changemyview/comments/31mhzm/cmvit_is_possible_for_a_human_in_peak_physical/",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtUz514rXKo&feature=youtu.be&ab_channel=NatGeoWild",
"https://vine.co/v/OlhDDIOLDd1",
"http://b50ym1n8ryw31pmkr4671ui1c64.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/blogs.dir/11/files/2014/06/DoNotUse-CathyandGordon_Illg-395654.jpg"
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mathematical theory of evolutionary fitness costs | does anyone know of a quantitative approach to modeling evolution which incorporates fitness costs? if a population is under strong selective pressure, it is likely to evolve a trait, but with a substantial cost (if that selective pressure disappears, the original strain will likely re-emerge). however under weaker selective pressure, the cost can not be as high. furthermore, any costs imposed by the new trait are likely to themselves be selected against, so they should be eventually eliminated. does anyone know of research on quantifying this? | you're looking for population and quantitative genetics. can you describe in a bit more detail what you're interested in? i can currently see six different mid-level to advanced textbooks on the topic from where i'm sitting at my desk, so it's not as if i can just give you a one paragraph version that would actually be informative. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if hydrophobic surfaces prevent adhesion at a molecular level, and geckos/gecko based technologies adhere at a molecular level: can a gecko walk up a hydrophobic surface? | something like that green skillet (you know the one, the name is triggering a filter on my post though...). could a gecko walk up that kind of surface? would the materials that are based on geckos natural adhesion stick to such a surface? | from: _url_0_ (bold my emphasis) "the mechanism of dry adhesion in the millions of setae on the toes of geckos has been the focus of scientific study for over a century. we provide the first direct experimental evidence for dry adhesion of gecko setae by van der waals forces, and reject the use of mechanisms relying on high surface polarity, including capillary adhesion. the toes of live tokay geckos were highly hydrophobic, and adhered equally well to strongly hydrophobic and strongly hydrophilic, polarizable surfaces. **adhesion of a single isolated gecko seta was equally effective on the hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces** of a microelectro-mechanical systems force sensor." i do not have the knowledge on my own to answer this question, but this paper may imply the answer is yes (at least for the individual hairs on the gecko's feet). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC129431/"
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do we have a subconscious awareness that certain things are not okay to eat, regardless of us possessing no knowledge about what those 'foods' are or may contain? | this is related to your question regarding awareness but not in relation to colour of the food but rather what it contains. it has been shown through experimentation that rats have an innate knowledge of sodium sources in food. rats are notoriously neophobic (fear of new things) especially with regards to food. they will almost never try new foods unless they have learned from other rats that the food is safe to eat. however, when a rat is experiencing sodium deficiency and given a selection of new foods, the rat becomes selectively neophillic and will try new foods to find a source of sodium. it has been suggested that this occurs in humans also, when the body is experiencing low sodium levels, we will subconsciously pick food that contains high sodium levels. tl;dr this has been proven in rats and is thought also to occur in humans with regard to sodium levels in foods. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do we as humans feel attached to objects which are useless to us? | i've been wondering this for quite a while, as an example why is it so difficult to throw away toys from our childhood when we never actually use them any more? is there some kind of advantage to this or is it just an oddity? bonus question: do other creatures show this behaviour? and is it to the same extent as humans? | the stuff gives a good feeling, that is, they are a way to maintain desirable moods. this is an adaptive function of autobiographical memories. they also have a self-directed function where they can create and maintain identity across time, enabling self-continuity, which is an important property of the self. [maintaining autobiographical memories also help socially](_url_0_.). keeping reminders of the past self is thus adaptive when it comes to social relationships. i think it's a profound and existential question. i've felt this experience whenever i see something dear from my childhood withering away, so that i know only my memory of it will be left. it's strong, i think. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/acp.2350040407/abstract;jsessionid=2EE55B036AA7EFF5A851E0E9F4387F64.f01t01?systemMessage=Wiley+Online+Library+will+be+disrupted+on+21st+March+from+10%3A30+GMT+up+to+six+hours+and+from+05%3A30+EDT+up+to+six+hours+for+essential+maintenance.++Apologies+for+the+inconvenience"
] | [
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] |
can you cross breed sharks? | could we ever see a great white hammerhead shark? | can it be possible to hybridize sharks? yes. that particular combination, no. in order to cross breed, the two species must be closely related. even then, the offspring usually are sterile. sharks are unlikely to breed outside their species, so it'd have to be artificially done. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there any research behind glycerin improving hydration in humans? | maybe this [article](_url_1_) or [this one](_url_0_). seems to be a number of papers on pubmed regarding its utility for hyperhydration, however the effects on performance are not consistent. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19941615",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20092365"
] | [
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|
in quantum mechanics, how do we know that some things are uncaused? | radioactive decay, and virtual particles are uncaused events. what is the reasoning process used to conclude that these events (and other events?) are uncaused? how do we know that they are uncaused? assume that i have a poor understanding of physics. thankyou | we don't know whether or not there are global hidden variables. the [bell's theorem](_url_0_) forbids local hidden variables though. simply put the bell's theorem states, that > no physical theory of local hidden variables can ever reproduce all of the predictions of quantum mechanics. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem"
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why does flipping the voltage switch on old psus blow them up? | for example, i live in an area with 230v, i switch the psu to 110v, it blows up - i would have thought, with half the voltage, same resistance, i would have half the current - but obviously this isn't what is happening (as shown by experiment :) ). | when you flip the switch, the circuit is expecting 110v. it is getting 230v. you are more than doubling the rated voltage think of it this way. the psu switch is setting the resistance to get the expected power. to get 440w from 230v, you would set the resistance to 120ohms. to get 440w from 110v, you would set the resistance to 27.5ohms. when you flip the switch to 110v, it sets the resistance to 27.5ohms. if you drive this circuit with 230v, you will get 1924w, more that 4 times what the psu is expecting. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how does science explain the seemingly mindful and certainly well coordinated actions performed by tiny molecular structures in living cells? | _url_0_ this guy shows amazing visualizations of the inner workings of our cells. assuming they're correct, they seem to show amazing purposefulness and coordination. i'm aware that it's partly an attribution from my side, but it seems like these are just little walking beings, going about their business. | even though he says it's an accurate representation, remember that you're looking at an animation made by humans for humans. while i don't claim to speak for all of science, i would say this accounts for the "seemingly mindful" behaviour. an important point about molecular biology is that the single molecules, proteins etc. are moving about stochastically. when a neurotransmitter connects to some binding site, it is not because it was somehow drawn to it, it is because it randomly bounced by, and probably bounced into thousands of other receptors on the way except it didn't fit. the bit where the genetic replication machinery was working gave the impression that it was sort of floating freely in space. what isn't shown is the vast sea of molecules all bouncing around chaotically - even though the effect is the same from the perspective of the genome, it would perhaps be a more confusing (but less misdirecting!) video :) | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WFCvkkDSfIU"
] | [] | [
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why does the turbulent wake cause the drag in pressure drag? | i know that in aerodynamics, wing-shaped objects tend to cause less of a turbulent wake, causing less drag, but why does the turbulent wake cause drag at all? i often see semis on the highway with wings on them to reduce the turbulent wake, but i've never really understood why the swirl left in the wake of moving objects causes them to slow down. or am i misunderstanding the entire process? | maybe the end conditions on this phenomena may help explain it. let's say you have an airfoil that allows the fluid to slip by with no reduction in the flow. this perfect airfoil creates no disturbance in the medium. the laminar flow reseals completely behind the object. contrast that to an imperfect airfoil. it leaves vortexes in the stream behind the object. those vortexes have captured velocity from the object because they're now spinning. that spinning will become heat or whatever. its kinetic energy. turbulence always results in kinetic energy loss. still laminar flow if its not in a perfect fluid does too. the laminar flow near an object is slowed. in that case its more just an experimental result and not a law of any type that turbulent flow usually results in more drag. in practice its helpful to induce some turbulent flow in order to increase the overall laminar flow. turbulence is almost always more drag because it tends to increase the effective size of the object. you're not just dragging a small boundary layer along. you're also dragging a turbulent flow. the whole thing then has a moving swaying and messy interaction with the flow beyond that. the skin size of the object is bigger, and mutating. this is more or less a summary of six weeks of fourth year fluid dynamics. lots more math in practice. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any examples of animals 'practising' an ability, in the way we as humans do? | in the sense that certain humans feel the desire to become increasingly proficient in an ability - performing a musical instrument, athletics, video games, etc. i suppose the question i'm asking is - is practising some personal ability, something we have developed due to our intelligence (or a consequence of it), or is it 'instinctive'? | a lot of predators such as cats, dogs and wolves exhibit play behaviours, which are in essence the offspring practicing skills that will be useful for hunting. in human babies such play behaviours help stimulate and develop motor and thinking skills too! | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-005-0002-7",
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/LB.38.3.206"
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how much do ones internal organs move around? | are they more or less just dangling or floating in liquid, or are they firmly supported from all sides? does it vary very much from organ to organ? can you damage your other organs the same way you can damage your brain by rapid motion and impact of organ on bone, ie rib, skull(rather than just external blunt force)? are there any drastic, interesting differences between certain human vs animal organs? | most of your organs are suspended in place with their blood supply and ligaments. the most movable organ is you bowel, small intestine specifically, which slithers around but is attached to your back by the mesentery. chest organs are all pretty much tacked in place and so are your kidneys and spleen, but they are all healed in place by ligaments as well as being positioned next to each other. that being said, they all have a bit of wiggle room. you can definitely injure your organ by acceleration and deceleration, that is how concussions and whiplash injuries happen. for example, if you are in rapid moving car that hit a stationary object, your head will move so fast forward then rebounds and your brain, having its own mass and only really attached at the base, can wiggle in your skull and hit forward and backward, causing a concussion or worse, a contusion, even if your head is not directly hit. similar things can happen to your liver, spleen l, kidneys etc, but because these organs are squishy and more tightly packed, they don’t wiggle around as much. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you calculate the velocity of an electron relative to the nucleus? | it depends on how you define its velocity. classical mechanics doesn't work for atoms, you need quantum mechanics. you can define a velocity operator in terms of the momentum operator: **v***_op_* = **p***_op_*/m. we're interested in energy eigenstates of an atom, which are not eigenstates of this operator. so electrons in an atom do not have well-defined velocities. we can get around this by talking about the expectation value of the velocity < **v***_op_* the next best thing we can come up with is the rms velocity sqrt[ < **v***_op_* this is not zero. using the [virial theorem](_url_1_), you can say that the expectation value of **p***_op_*^(2) is equal to m\*k\*ze^(2) < 1/r for a more complicated atom, you have a many-body system and the clean general solution above doesn't really work anymore. instead now you have to calculate the expectation value of the one-body kinetic energy operator (times 2m) for the true electronic orbitals (which are not quite hydrogenic, because of electron-electron interactions, etc.). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.physicspages.com/2013/08/30/feynman-hellmann-theorem-hydrogen-atom-mean-values/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virial_theorem#In_quantum_mechanics",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellmann–Feynman_theorem"
] | [
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|
does the linnean classification system account for non-terran life? | so people theorize there could be some form of life forms off-world, such as the waters of europa. if science ever uncovers something living off of earth, is there already a 'plan' for how to names these findings? | the linnean system doesn't even account for terran life! it's not a bad first start, but you can't always break things down neatly into orders and families and such(or even genus and species), you have to start adding suborders or superfamilies and all kinds of other things. these days people are more into cladistic methods. but the basic framework we use _could_ be easily expanded to include life on other planets. you could name species with binomial names, you could group them into larger groups. this tree would be entirely separate from what is on earth, so you wouldn't have earthly "animalia' or "bacteria" or 'plantae' on other planets but some separate categories that fill the same role. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
when an aircraft drops a missile off one wing, how does the aircraft account for the change in the center of mass? | i'm sure that modern aircrafts have computer systems that can automatically account for the shift, but in older jets/aircrafts, how did they not wobble? | the change in cg is insignificant. extremely large bombs would be mounted on the centerline of the aircraft, but wing-mounted missiles and bombs don't have a drastic impact on cg. the slight effect they do have on cg and aerodynamic symmetry can be trimmed out if the pilot notices an imbalance. for context, [this f16](_url_0_) flew with only 1.5 wings, and [this f15](_url_1_) flew with only 1 wing, so you can see the capability of these type of aircraft greatly exceeds the magnitude of loads and cg offsets caused by an asymmetrical payload. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2015/02/20/near-miss-this-f-16-landed-after-half-its-wing-was-sheared-off/",
"http://theaviationist.com/2014/09/15/f-15-lands-with-one-wing/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Vulcan"
] | [
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how would a wall jump work? | what is the physics behind a wall jump. i understand friction and things like that, but is it possible to jump off a wall when it is vertical? is the impulse of the kick important? how high can one theoretically jump off a wall? can they do it multiple times? tl;dr how does mario work? | horizontally: you start out moving towards the wall, and you end up moving away from the wall. so for a while, there is a reaction force: your foot pushes the wall, the wall pushes your foot (causing you to revert direction). vertically: gravity pulls you down. your foot is touching the wall for a little while, so friction will oppose gravity. the question is: can the friction force overcome gravity entirely? not only that, but: can the friction force be so great that you more-than exceed gravity, so that when your foot comes away from the wall, your vertical velocity is greater than when your foot touched the wall? if the coefficient of friction is big enough, then yes. let's say that the horizontal force of your legs pushing against the wall is x times your weight (where x is in the neighborhood of 1 or 2 or 3, depending on how strong your legs are, how many of you your legs could lift). that means that the coefficient of friction needs to be 1/x, in order to overcome gravity. that would be enough so that when your foot leaves the wall, your vertical velocity is the same as when you touched the wall. or, coming at it from the other way: given some shoes and a wall, where the coefficient of friction between them is μ, your legs need to be able to generate at least a force of (your weight)/μ in order for you to have any hope of wall-jumping off that wall with those shoes. but to jump up, you need more than just matching/canceling the force of gravity, since you need your vertical velocity coming off the wall to be greater than when you touched the wall. so if your legs (or whatever moving thing touches the wall) can push the wall with a force of x times your weight, then you need a coefficient of friction of more than 1/x to make the wall jump work. how much vertical velocity can you gain? that's a function of how much friction you have (more friction means more upwards acceleration) and also of how much time you have, which in turn is a function of the distance that you can move while still pushing yourself against the wall (i.e. the distance from "as close to the wall as my cg can be while i still push against it" and "as far from the wall as my cg can be while i still push against the wall"... probably a function of how long your legs are, e.g. 2/3 of the unfolded leg height). the longer your legs, the more time you have to gain vertical velocity while you push the wall. so if your leg displacement length is l... say we start our analysis at the point where you are as close to the wall as you can get, i.e the horizontal speed is zero and is about to increase in the away-from-the-wall direction... you push from x=0 to x=l with a force xw, where w is your weight (i.e. g times your mass), so you accelerate from the wall at an acceleration xg. assuming constant acceleration, l=xg·t²/2 (displacement is acceleration times time squared over two). so your time will be √(2l/xg). your vertical force will be μ·xw, so your vertical acceleration will be μ·xg, so your gain in vertical velocity is μ·xg times √(2l/xg) or μ√(2lxg). actually, that's just from the closest point to the wall. double that, if you were also pushing up during the time you were slowing yourself down from when you first touched the wall, before you started moving away from the wall. **tl;dr**: your gain in vertical velocity can be 2μ√(2lxg), where μ is the coefficient of friction between your shoes and the wall, l is the displacement your legs can push you through (distance from where your cg is when your legs are bent/crouched all the way and your hands are by your feet, to where your cg is when your legs are straight and you're on the tips of your toes and your hands are over your head), x is the force your legs can generate in terms of how many times your weight... and g is the acceleration due to gravity. this, of course, ignores moments entirely. the next step would be to figure out the angle from your cg to the point where your feet touch the wall, so that you remain balanced. the push away from the wall (force xw) would have to balance the push upwards (force μ·xw)... oh, no, wait, it's easy. you have to put your feet at the spot such that the tangent of the angle (the angle off the horizontal) from your cg to your feet is equal to the coefficient of friction between your shoes and the wall. so if the shoes/wall are really sticky, then you can be almost upright, but if they're slippery, then your body has to be pretty much perpendicular to the wall. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can prey animals (those with a large fov) focus on objects well? | i am talking about animals that have their eyes on the sides of their heads. this allows them to have a nearly 360 degree field of view. when i am playing a game that has an adjustable fov, the higher it is, the smaller objects around me appear. eventually, a fish-eye effect becomes noticeable and distorts the edges. i noticed that animals that hunt have their eyes on the front of their heads, pointed forward which limits their fields of view. do prey animals have the same issues that games have at high fovs? | a game that allows fisheye view does it by compressing the edges to simulate a wider field of view in the same space. animals that have wider fields of view just have a wider field of view. to use a similar analogy, it's like how a letterbox video format is wider than the standard format — there's no compression, it's just wider. prey animals that have a wide field of view typically have only a very narrow field of 3-dimensional vision and a very wide field of 2-dimensional vision. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes vacuum instability, and what causes "spontaneous" symmetry breaking? | there are two genres of vacuum instability. the vacuum is the field configuration that minimizes the potential energy. we can have a situation in which the vacuum has two minima, one lower than the other, kind of like a tilted "w" shape (but smoothed out). if the system happens to have settled into the higher of the two minima, it will sit there for a while, until a quantum tunneling event will cause a bubble of the lower vacuum to form. this bubble will grow, and cause the whole system to go to the lower vacuum state. a second kind of instability arises when the potential energy is changing. this happens in the universe as it expands, because the potential is a function of temperature. suppose the potential has a "u" shape at high temperature; the bottom of the "u" corresponds to the vacuum. now, as the universe cools, at some point, an upward bump forms where the bottom of the "u" was. this causes that point no longer to be a minimum, and so the system will move outwards to the side to the new minimum. spontaneous symmetry breaking means that the laws of physics still respect the symmetry, but the ground (vacuum) state does not, so the world does not look symmetric. this is in contrast to explicit symmetry breaking, in which the laws of physics no longer respect a symmetry. in the "u" example above, for example, even after the upward bump appears in the potential, the potential is left-right symmetric. but the ground state will not be at a left-right symmetric point; it will be either to the right or left (whichever one occurs is a random choice). this is spontaneous symmetry breaking. ferromagnets are another example. the equations of motion say that spins will tend to align with each other in such a system, but those laws don't say which way they'll point. so the laws are rotationally invariant (do not pick a particular direction in space). but the ground state will consist of a whole bunch of spins all pointing in some particular direction. so the ground state does single out a particular direction, and so we have spontaneous breaking of rotational symmetry here. bell's theorem has nothing to do with either of the above issues. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking#A_pedagogical_example:_the_Mexican_hat_potential",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking#Generalisation_and_technical_usage",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=plot+x%5E2"
] | [
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|
is there a study showing significant effects of the jersey color in any specific sports? | always wondered if some team jerseys are designed so the team who wears them create illusions such as they seem to outnumber the other team players, more scattered across the field, etc. etc. | [here](_url_0_) is a link to a report suggesting that red shirted teams are more successful in english football. of course, the fact that liverpool, manchester united and arsenal (who all play in red) are by far the most successful teams could've really skewed this analysis but it is argued that because red stands out so well, players find it easier to pick out teammates against a busy background. it also mentions that red is a more intimidating colour. as an aside, manchester united once famously swapped kits at half time when they were playing in a grey away kit. they claimed that they were behind because they couldn't see each other. once they changed their kit, they ended up winning the match. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18344128",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v435/n7040/abs/435293a.html",
"http://blogs.wsj.com/ideas-market/2011/09/27/hockey-goons-wear-black-on-average/"
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if you suddenly had a heart attack, would administration of a beta blocker potentially help? | is there any type of heart attack that you could survive through acute administration? | this is from the acc/aha guidelines: "immediate beta-blocker therapy appears to reduce the magnitude of infarction and incidence of associated complications in subjects not receiving concomitant fibrinolytic therapy, the rate of reinfarction in patients receiving fibrinolytic therapy, and the frequency of life-threatening ventricular tachyarrhythmias." _url_0_ but no, it won't prevent a myocardial infarction. remember, there's a blood clot stuck in an artery. you need to get that out. the approach to these presentations is multifaceted and beta blockers is one small part. these little clots can screw up the way your heart conducts a signal, and can lead to deadly arrythmias, 90% of mi patients end up with some sort. beta blockers help to prevent that. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/110/5/588.full"
] | [
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