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a burning question: can bitumen catch fire during a forest fire? | the athabasca oil-sands region is on fire. an entire city is being evacuated as i write this. people are wondering if the tar-sands themselves can catch fire if the fire decides to spread in that direction. there are (what i assume to be called) open-pit mines. is the apocalypse nigh? will bitumen burn? if they do catch fire, how easy/or difficult would it be to put such a fire out? | the answer is sort of yes and no, depending on where the bitumen is. fires in the boreal forest are a normal part of the forest cycle. and the current events at ft mcmurray bear out several typical features of these fires: they get huge, they come in quick, they burn themselves out (in a given spot) relatively fast and they are driven by the wind. what happens to bitumen in these circumstances is really a function of where it is. surficial bitumen is fair game for a good burning, whether natural bitumen in an oil seep or man-made bitumen-related products such as asphalt and tarred roof-tiles. being at the surface, they can be exposed to open flames *and* have access to oxygen. those will burn. but northern forest fires are essentially surficial processes, they do not burn deep. they might smolder for a couple of days a few inches under ground as embers work their way along spruce and jack-pine roots once the worst is past, for instance, but they will not go at depth. that's because contact with naked flame, access to wind and access to abundant replenishable free-oxygen are limited at depth. northern soils are often made of poorly sorted glacial material (till) which will not allow air (let alone fire) to pass through easily. the water table also limits how far the fire can reach. so as long as bitumen stays under ground, it is pretty much sheltered from the effects of such fires. consider current reserves in the athabasca basin, given the countless cycles of forest fire which have happened over the centuries, they would be severely depleted if they were vulnerable to such fires. that being said, if you *are* anywhere around ft-mc, best of luck and stay safe. if you aren't i hear the red cross accepts donations. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i hate to be crude but: does a man's diet correlate with the his semen? | the one's i have heard the most are if you eat spicy foods and pineapple your semen taste better for women or if you eat lots of celery you will ejaculate more. so does it have that much of an affect? | here is a link to a patent for dietary supplements that 'improve semen flavor'. the principal behind the experiments claimed that eating desirable organoleptic material, such pineapple, banana, and cinnamon, two hours before intercourse improved the smell and flavor of bodily fluids, in males as well as females. clinical trials concluded that 3-8 hours after ingesting the supplement, 2/3 of individuals experienced improved flavor and smell. so, yes, eating good tasting stuff makes your bodily fluids taste better. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.freepatentsonline.com/y2010/0166888.html"
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is bioelectrogenesis possible for the human body? | i want to start out by saying that i'm working on a fictional script, in which my characters have been biologically modified with some of natures phenomenons/more complex features. i'm not using magic as a cop out to give my characters powers, although visually, i'd like to exaggerate the visuals a bit. all in all, i'm trying to be scientifically conscientious. one of my characters is going to be capable of bioelectrogenesis. i want this character to be able to discharge a bolt of electricity visually similar to the way thor shoots a bolt of lightning at iron man in the first avengers movie. from what i understand, the human body could theoretically be a home to cells that create an electrical imbalance potential. in order to have such a biological feature, the body would need to produce some kind of fuel to sustain bioelectrogenesis. my rudimentary recipe is: synthetic hunter's organ (found on an electric eel) + adrenaline containing atp = human ability to discharge electricity. the problems i'm facing are being able to explain (or at least know the reason in my head) how my character can emit a bolt of electricity from his/her arm, and how this would be possible in on land rather than in water like an eel. | bioelectrogenesis is completely possible, in fact, as you point out, it occurs already. in fact, all of your cells have an electrical potential between in side of the cell and the outside of the cell, of around 30 to 70 mv (the inside being negative relative to the outside). very roughly, this is about 1/10th of the voltage of an aa battery. however, what is exceptionally important for you to understand is that biological membranes, i.e. the things that make up the walls of cells, cannot withstand large voltages (or more to the point large electric fields), because they are so very thin. lets call the voltage across the membrane 100 mv for simplicity, and lets say the membrane in 10 nm across. hence the electric field strength across the membrane is 10 kv/mm which is quite a lot. to put this in perspective, the electric field strength that causes electric break down of air is around 3 kv/mm, i.e. the electric field that exists across your membranes is strong enough to cause a spark in air. at this point, you might be thinking that this looks good for your story, but the opposite is true. while there is a large electric field across a cells membrane, the electric field is equal and opposite on the other side of the cell, i.e. there is essentially no electric field between the say the left side of the cell and the right side of the cell. the other thing is that this electric field strength, while high, is only high over a very short distance. i.e. in order to get an electric spark to exist over, say, 1 m of distance (i.e. a yard) then you need 3kv/mm * 1 m = 3000 volts, between two points 1 meter apart. so you would need to charge your entire body to 3000 volts relative to the target. which reveals another problem with shooting thunder bolts. if you were to somehow charge up your body to 3000 volts, the electric field would drive that charge to the nearest place, not to some "target". e.g. once you reached 1000 volts, the spark would from between your toes and the ground. now, i suppose you could have your character deliver electric charge between one hand and the other (which it appears is what electric eels do.... between their head and their tail, and they try to contort to keep their target in the areas of highest electric field strength, i.e. they bring their head and tail close together like a pincer, and keep the target in that gap). but you're still left with the biological problem of how you character would create large extracellular voltages that brings one hand positive and one hand negative. you might say well how does the electric eel do it, and as far as i am concerned we don't have a good model of how this is achieved. despite the fact that text books tell you we know, i have never seen a explanation of how they do it that makes physical sense. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can the maillard reaction be reversed? or, is it possible to untoast bread? | of course it wouldn't be done in a single step/single chemical reaction, if it's even possible at all. but given enough chemical reactions, would it be possible to untoast bread that has already been toasted? would it be as simple as "reversing" these 3 reactions? _url_0_ | most likely not. the reactions are very complex and heterogeneous, leading to a highly varied range of products that are more thermally stable than the precursors and resulting in the loss of many small molecules like water. this means you have both entropy and enthalpy working against you trying to reverse them. if you could reverse anything, it would certainly not be in the same configuration it started out in. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.compoundchem.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Food-Chemistry-Maillard-Reaction.png"
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] |
can metals undergo sublimation? | i tried doing my research but i can't seem to find anything to do with metals which have a very high melting and boiling point, like bismuth for example. the elements i'm interested in are bismuth, cadmium, iodine (which i know is a non metal), and krypton. | yes they can, and the rate at which they do so is related to their vapor pressure. an extreme example is dry ice, whereas the lowest i'm aware of among the pure elements is tungsten, which is part of why it is used as the filament in incandescent light bulbs. wikipedia has a decent list _url_0_ (sorry for formatting, on mobile) but i cannot speak to its accuracy. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_pressures_of_the_elements_%28data_page%29"
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how do cells attach to the plate when you start a cell culture? | i am doing a project which requires cell culture to be done. it's really neat work. i was just wondering what keeps the cells attached to the plate surface without any substrates added ahead of time. the cells only come off the plate when i add trypsin. so it's a protein bond. i just do not understand of what kind or how. i've checked google, but have had no direct explanation. the sources just mention that the cells stick to the plate, but don't explain how. | cell culture media usually has serum (commonly something like 10-15% fetal bovine serum). that serum contains a lot of proteins that are able to deposit on the surface of the cell culture plate (usually tissue culture polystyrene). the tcps is also usually treated to increase the number of free functional groups and thus facilitate protein deposition on the surface. the cells are then able to bind to the protein layer (usually through integrin receptors). when you trypsinize cells, you are indeed disrupting those bonds. trypsin usually also comes with edta, which is a chelating agent (since divalent cations are an important part of the bond). interestingly, you can also induce cell binding to modified substrates by offering up cell binding motifs directly. the rgd protein sequence is particularly useful for binding to integrins (i think specifically a2b1), and can be added to a polymer surface to induce cell adhesion. surfaces can also be made extra non-fouling through hydrophobic interactions with polymer layers like polyethylene glycol, which reduces protein deposition and thus cell adhesion. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the flow profile around an object change depending on how the fluid is forced around it? | for example would the profile look different if a fan blew air at a stationary ball in comparison to a vacuum sucking the air behind the ball. | it depends how close to the source of the forcing you are looking. naturally, the acceleration towards the vacuum would increase as you get closer to it; where the acceleration downstream from a fan would be lower. if you are looking reasonably far away from the forcing equipment so the flow was fully-developed, or the accelerations were pretty low, then the flows should be virtually identical. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are face emojis compatible with most global cultures’ understanding of facial communication? | it's believed that for the the most basic emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear, and surprise) facial expressions are pretty much universal across all cultures. _url_0_ there are plenty of more specific emojis that probably wouldn't work in cultures that were really far removed from western culture. for example, 😎 won't make much sense if you've never seen sunglasses before, and 🤥 makes no sense if you don't know the story of pinocchio. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2011/05/facial-expressions.aspx"
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|
what are these green lights? | i was playing with this image when i found these green [lights](_url_0_). just zoom in on the photo and you can see them much clearer. what is going on that is making them turn green? also how big do you think this green light be? | they are likely stars. the best guess to the green color (seeing the abberation in the image) is that the color calibration of the image is likely off. telescopes often record all these colors separately and they are mixed in post by an end user. you will notice the green stars have a red halo showing that the optics likely distorted the light as well. | 4 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/2hXw2gY"
] | [] | [
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] |
utility pole electric transformers and energy? | would anybody be able to explain how and why the type of transformer found on utility poles works? thanks in advance! | transformers are one of a two-kind of electrical machines: there are rotating electrical machines (motors and generators) and static electrical machines (transformers). the function of the transformer is to connect two electrical grids with different nominal voltage. the transformers you can see around on utility poles are used to lower the voltage from "high" (120-230 kv) to "medium" (15-22 kv). ~~the medium voltage grid will then distribute the energy on the nearby users (households, offices and/or industries).~~ the medium voltage grid will then distribute the energy to the nearby district(s) or large (typically connected to the medium voltage grid via another transformer there's the "low" voltage grid (100-500 v) used to distribute energy to small (typically < 100 kw) users (some flats, households, small offices). there are three fundamental materials in a transformer that will do what you need: 2 concentric windings around a ferromagnetic core. the physical reason why transformers work is because the electric field depends on the time-derivate of the magnetic flux density (curl(e)=-db/dt). current flows in a winding, so it generates a magnetic field, the ferromagnetic core has a high enough reluctance to accept a very big part of that magnetic field, then the variations of that field in the core will induce an electromotive force (a voltage) on the other winding. in ideal conditions (no losses from windings dispersions) n1*i1 = n2*i2 (the magnetomotive force remains constant along all the windings coupled to the same magnetic flux). thanks to these equations the value of the voltage on the other winding will be proportional to the number of turns in the windings. source: i'm an electrical engineer // edit: corrected a misfact about the medium voltage distribution and fixed the formatting | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/energy/power9.htm"
] | [
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why is it that we see a lot of resistor-capacitor (rc) circuits in electronic designs but not a lot of resistor-inductor (rl) circuits? | i am reviewing rc and rl circuits and in my textbook they state that you rarely will see rl circuits used because of the inductor's inability to have a precise value as opposed to the capacitor. if this actually true, why is it so? is it because the inductor is comprised of a magnetic field whereas the capacitor is comprised of an electric field? is working with a b field more difficult to have precise and expected values as opposed to working with an e field? | the #1 reason i would cite for the popularity of caps over inductors is that for the same reactance, capacitors are cheaper (easier to manufacture, smaller, easier to place on a board). caps aren't affected by stray magnetic fields. caps can store energy for hours; inductors are limited to milliseconds. a quick look at digikey found a few inductors at .2% tolerance, so i don't know that inductor tolerance is a big problem. | 26 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in what language can you read the fastest? | there are some languages like german where many nouns are compound words to describe the object rather than a new short word. other languages like various asian languages are single symbols to represent whole words. you could fit a whole sentence of mandarin the space it takes to write hoechsgeschwindigkeitsbegrenzung. is there a significant difference in the time it would take native readers will similar levels of literacy would be able to read a novel? do different languages communicate information quicker? if so which do it quicker and which are slower? | --science-- theoretically, all languages differ in their written information rate being dependent on numerous factors like reader skill, text comprehensibility and even language-specific features like complexity, ambiguity, and symbol density. however, to answer your question completely we would have to address an important aspect of how written language is recognized by human brains - pattern recognition. human beings have very good spatial skills (rapid eye movement and shape recognition) and their brains are exceptionally fast at pattern recognition. however, this does not mean that we can recognize a single-symbol "©" faster than the word "copyright". if we did, chinese should be read at a significantly faster rate than english by native readers of the respective languages. but studies indicate that both languages are actually read at about the same speed. this essentially means that humans are not limited by pattern recognition in written language comprehension, and are as fast at recognizing long strings of shapes as they are at recognizing single shapes. the aforementioned research suggests that it is actually the higher level cognitive processes that limit language reading rates of individuals. sources: [sun f, morita m, & stark lw (1985). comparative patterns of reading eye movement in chinese and english](_url_0_) sun, f, & feng, d (2010). eye movements in reading chinese and english text reading chinese script: a cognitive analysis, eds. jian wang, albrecht w. inhoff, hsuan-chih chen., 189-205 isbn: 9780805824780 yan, g., tian, h., bai, x., & rayner, k. (2006). the effect of word and character frequency on the eye movements of chinese readers british journal of psychology, 97 (2), 259-268 doi: 10.1348/000712605x70066 --pseudoscience-- the real limitation of reading speed, therefore, is the underlying language processing power of our brains. when reading, we do not simply identify words, but invoke a plethora of concepts, ideas and knowledge about the words we read in our minds. our brain takes time to process this information. from what we may easily observe, this is a much slower process than mere pattern recognition. the point of reading is to understand what we read, so the brain cannot possibly permit one to read faster than the rate at which it comprehends the written information. the brain's language abilities are scarcely researched yet we know that we tend to "subvocalize" and also "visualize" the words we identify in written language. there are claims by "speed-readers" that removing subvocalization will significantly improve one's reading speed; however, there is no hard science proving this. perhaps, owing to our excessive reliance on visual technology (electronic screens and written media), humans may someday invent visual languages devoid of vocalization so that the reading speed may be maximized. but doesn't that go even beyond the limits of layman speculation!? please let me retire now. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758%2FBF03204913?LI=true#page-3"
] | [
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is the argon in our atmosphere involved in any important biological or geological processes? | i figure it's gotta do *something* being that it's our air's 1% | argon is a noble gas, meaning it has a full outer shell and so (under normal circumstances) does not react with anything else. other elements like this are (in order of mass) helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. i believe that radon is radioactive and so does not hang around for very long (hence there isn't much in the atmosphere), and i know helium has low enough mass that it escapes our atmosphere (therefore we have very little naturally in it). overall, argon does nothing in our atmosphere and the only reason it is there is because of radioactive decay and the fact it is too heavy to simply leave our atmosphere like helium can. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any benefits from high humidity? | in warm temperatures at over 65% humidity, anyways. it seems like high humidity damages everything. it inflates up heat indexes, it speeds up microbial decomposition of organic materials, it even speeds up decomposition of inorganic materials, and it even accelerates global warming (as water vapor is a potent greenhouse gas) | well, lots of plants and animals have evolved to live in areas of high humidity (rainforests) and removing them would probably kill them or damage them slowly. also, what's so bad about speeding up microbial decomposition? where do you think soil comes from? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the chance of 1 success in x bernoulli trials (with p = 1/x) always equate to roughly 0.63? | bit of a strange answer since the explanation could just be "because that's how numbers work". i remember reading an article relatively recently about the importance of this number (or perhaps, the importance of failing with p=0.37) and was hoping someone could jog my memory to help me find it. basically, is there any special reason for why it's 0.63/0.37? is there any special number in math like that in the same vein as e? | if you conduct n independent trials each with probability of success 1/n, the odds of every trial failing is (1-1/n)^n if you take the limit of this as n goes to infinity, you obtain 1/e in the limit. that's your .37 chance of failure. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if all substances try to move towards the most stable state, why do we have substances that are not stable in the first place? | some substances can be trapped in what is known as a "kinetically bound state". it's an energy state that isn't the lowest, but the substance stays there anyway. there is always an energetic cost to convert from one state to another, and sometimes it is just too high for it to happen. diamonds are an example. given enough time, they will spontaneously become lumps of coal, which has carbon atoms arranged in a lower energy configuration. but to do this, you will need to completely change the bonding of the carbon atoms involved -- and in this situation it is extremely hard to do. is this helpful? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would it be possible to mitigate / account for the hyperthermia danger of 2,4-dinitrophenol by simply being in a sufficiently cold environment for the duration of its effect? | i figure that if it's cold enough you would ordinarily experience hypothermia, it should offset the dnp's effect. | even if hyperthermia is controlled for there are many other acute effects of 2,4-dnp toxicity. the therapeutic and toxic doses are very close to each other. in addition to hyperthermia common acute toxicity includes: kidney damage, yellowing of the sclera and conjunctiva of the eyes, disturbances to cardiac ekg rhythm, and or a series of rashes. plasma neutrophil (a white blood cell) counts may also be low. if you’re considering using 2,4-dnp for wright i urge you to stop and approach weight loss as a lifestyle change or speak to your physician about other options. before medical school i worked in a lab where we used dnp, it’s nasty stuff. _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13181-011-0162-6",
"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1097/01.WCB.0000066287.21705.21",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/21739343/"
] | [
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why does the best adapted plant or animal not completely take over all such environments and displace all others? | i was on a hunting trip the past few days and was noticed how many very similar looking environments had different vegetation. one hill was covered by oak trees, while another nearby that looked the very similar did not. one meadow was covered by one type of thistly weed, while another meadow that looked the same had completely different weeds. is this just happestance? or must there be subtle differences in these micro-environments that aren't apparent to a casual observer, that impact which plants are in fact best adapted? and a related question: given enough time, why doesn't one single species completely dominate each environment? when you see a forest with a mixture of trees, shouldn't the one that is best suited to that environment eventually outcompete and displace the others? | there are a few parts to your question. first, yes, there are probably subtle (or maybe just unseen) difference in the environments you described. perhaps the water table is at a different height, or maybe one of the hillslopes is much more prone to landslides. even the angle at which the hillslope is situated on the landscape will make a difference (more/less sunlight during different times of the year). these types of characteristics will dictate which species of plant can thrive there. second, the reason one super species doesn't simply wipe out all other species is because of resources. they're limited. resources means time, food supply, space etc. if an organism only takes in 100 units of energy it has to 'decide' how to best expend this energy. 90 units to reproduction and 10 to upkeep? 10 units to locomotion, 20 units to defending territory, 30 units to raising this years litter of offspring, 15 units to hunting etc. you get the picture. species differentiate because groups within a species begin specializing on different characteristics. take good old darwins finches. you start with a group of finches, with varying characteristics. those with bigger beaks can crack open hard shelled nuts better, and those who can fly quickly an maneuver can catch insects better. perhaps there are 2 islands, one with lots of nuts and one with lots of insects. the large beaked finches on the insect island probably die off, and the fast finches on the nut island similarly die off. the only birds left on each island are specifically suited to that island. now leave them for a few hundred/thousand years and let them truly develop into separate species. if we then try to dump nut finches onto insect island, do you think they'll suddenly do well? no, they are super nut finches, but still shitty insect finches. what i'm getting at is, *each species currently on earth is already the perfect species for the job it evolved to do, else it would not be here.* it would have been outcompeted by another species trying to do the same job. i'm *not* saying that the species are perfect in every way, but they are the best suited to their niche in their particular environment. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when engineers work with devices emitting electromagnetic radiation, how do they control the frequency of the em radiaiton? | specifically microwave radiation... i don't understand how frequencies can be controled and manipulated the way they are. | inductors and capacitors are the two rudimentary "reactive" circuit elements in basic circuits. they are essentially resistors whose resistance depends upon frequency. with these elements, you can create a sort of logic in analog circuits. with inductors and capacitors, one can create filters that accept or reject certain frequencies. this is how the frequency in the circuit is regulated. inductors themselves also will radiate the energy off - they serve as both radio transmitters and receivers. there are other types of antennas and receivers, of course. antenna theory is a rich subject. this question is very broad and this answer applies in a general way. the subject of reactive circuits using inductors and capacitors is itself a very rich topic. check out lr, rc, lc, lrc circuits. perhaps "vco's" or voltage controlled oscillators - but these require some knowledge of transistors. feel free to ask more specific questions if you have them. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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this was submitted to r/science recently, and i'm curious... can we just catch and eat the fuckers? (url in text) | _url_0_ | the cost of fishing in the antarctic is prohibitive. unless you're willing to pay a few grand per crab kill. so you're talking about a project that would probably run you tens if not hundreds of millions of dollars and may be dangerous enough to assume a few human casualties. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20876-giant-red-crabs-invade-the-antarctic-abyss.html"
] | [] | [
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yesterday i placed a big shallow container of water in the freezer... | and today i broke the ice to use in some drinks. when i poured water over the ice, i heard some popping sounds and fractures appeared over the ice. what happened? | it cracked due to thermal stress. like most solids, ice expands when it gets warmer. if it does so unevenly you get internal stresses that can lead to cracking. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do we sometimes have the feeling something is wrong or missing before we consciously recognise what is wrong or missing? what's going on in our brains in this situation? | from time to time, our subconscious know what we are "missing" – as it causes us to pause and think – but we cannot consciously process that information at the time. what would best explain this situation? | we take in a vast quantity of sensory information each second. our conscious mind tends to focus on certain things we deem important, which is a good thing or we'd all the the attention span of a marshmallow. if something happens in the background, it registers on some level as the brain trudges through the data we've gathered, but we aren't actively thinking about it because we're in the middle of something and concentrating. we've registered there's been a change, but haven't had time to properly process it and decide what it is. hence nagging doubt. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what unique alternatives are there to modulate sound with? | i know of plasma(arc)/ion speakers.they can only generate high frequency. i'm looking for a unique method to create lower frequency in the range of 50hz | well i am not sure on your definition of "unique" but the rotary sub woofer is pretty awesome. it used a fan rotating at a constant speed. the blades pitch is controlled by a voice coil. this moves lots of air and modulates it at low frequencies. far better than what cone speakers can manage. i am not sure if it is capable of going up to 50 hz, but it fills in where conventional subwoofers drop out. it is capable of reproducing the growl of an engine, the sound of a helicopter, the roar of a rocket, and so on. nothing i know of is like it. _url_0_ pics _url_0_index_files/image006.jpg _url_0_index_files/image008.jpg video _url_3_ _url_4_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.rotarywoofer.com/",
"http://www.rotarywoofer.com/index_files/image006.jpg",
"http://www.rotarywoofer.com/index_files/image008.jpg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=oJ2nF1w5opU",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7Bkrypxzs4"
] | [
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i'm sure you've all seen the lion story on the front page by now. i need you to take the fun out of it for me. | why did those lions do what they did? the story: _url_0_ | this isn't a very scientific question (no offense) in that it can't really get a scientific answer. we don't know what those lions were doing and we have no way of knowing. so any answer (including the one provided in the article) is speculation. with that being said, there are some pretty obvious reasons that make more sense than them guarding her. they could have been waiting for her to die or weaken to eat her. they likely don't have the cognitive abilities (by no means implying lions/cats are stupid) to assess her as a threat compared to other humans, aside from maybe size alone. they likely aren't thinking "she's just a little girl, she'll be easy to eat compared to the big strong men we see all the time." they likely have no concept of that, or even if they do, they realize it isn't a certainty. lions, like most cats, rest a lot in the heat of the day and between meals, and so on. why break their routine and put in the effort to kill this girl if they can just wait and get a quick easy meal once she is too weak to struggle or dead? but here come some other larger probably stronger humans, so the lions leave, and now it looks like they were guarding her and letting the police "take it from here". more like, "they don't look like they are worth fighting for this measly meal, they can eat her or do whatever it is humans do with each other." alternatively, they may not have intended to kill her at all since humans probably aren't among their normal prey and she apparently posed no threat. so it may have just been due to curiosity that they stayed. the men that chased her there, or whatever would likely be a threat and if the lions didn't just avoid them altogether, they would likely act aggressively towards them which might seem like chasing them off. hell, if the pride of lions just sauntered up while the men were beating the girl, the men are probably going to get the hell out of there. then, the lions, also on guard, might have stayed either due to being cautious or curious or both. and now it looks like they are guarding her. then, of course, there is the possibility that the fact that she did not seem to pose a threat and is (presumably) not a normal prey item to the lion, if they could even easily identifier her as human, that it did evoke some kind of protective instinct in the lions. i don't think there is any way of confirming that or even explaining it. it's a possibility, but not a very likely one. to be realistic, it is highly likely that they were either waiting for her to weaken, die, or be caught off guard, or they were simply curious. this is a perfect example of the problem caused by the blind positivism and optimism humans tend to have. | 8 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/1bk1hm/til_a_girl_abducted_in_africa_was_saved_from_her/"
] | [] | [
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how do fighter pilots train themselves not to blackout under 9 gs of force? | have their bodies adapted to conditioning, or do they practice certain techniques? | [this us navy flight manual page](_url_2_) describes ways to tense the muscles and to breathe to exert pressure to keep the blood in the heart-to-brain area: the manual goes on to discuss these maneuvers in more detail, if you're interested. to sustain higher g-forces, however, like the 9 g's you describe, pressure suits come into play, as discussed in [this article](_url_0_) from pbs (which is worth reading in its entirety if you're interested in this subject more broadly): you can also see another [brief description of g-suits](_url_1_). edit: fixed some formatting. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/space/gravity-forces.html",
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/xplanes/outf-nf.html#gsui",
"http://navyflightmanuals.tpub.com/P-868/P-8680094.htm"
] | [
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how can phycists know the average lifetime of a proton? | in a physics book at school i read that the average lifetime of a proton is > 1,8*10^37 seconds (5,7*10^29 years). but how can we know this if the universe isn't even that old, not even remotely? | particle decay is a statistical process. so, if i give you a single particle with a lifetime of 1 day, that doesn't necessarily mean it will live exactly one day from its creation, it might decay much sooner or later than that. however, if i give you a sample of 1000 particles, you would expect that after one day only about 1/3 of the sample will be left. the fact that we define the lifetime to be when about 1/3 is left (actually to be exact we use 1/e, the base of the natural logarithm, which is closer to 0.368), is because statistically that's the expected lifetime of a single particle. --last sentence edit for correctness. by using the same definition that let us determine that after one lifetime about 1/3 of the sample should be left, we can determine how much of the sample should be left after any time period. for example, we can determine that after only 10% of one lifetime, there should still be 90% of the sample remaining. after 0.1% of the lifetime, we expect 99.9% of the sample to remain. now, notice that 99.9% of a sample of 1000 particles is 999 particles. that means that after 0.1% of the lifetime we expect 1 particle to decay. clearly, if we were to attempt to measure any lengths of time shorter than 0.1%, we would predict a fraction of one particle to decay, which of course doesn't make any sense. if we wanted to measure smaller fractions of the lifetime we would need to find a larger sample so that we would statistically be able to expect a few of them to decay. above i was determining how much of a sample was left after a certain time based on it's lifetime, but of course i could have gone the other way and determined what the sample's lifetime should be based on how much had decayed after a certain time, let's say 1hr. of course 1hr is less than a day, but by determining what fraction of the sample remains we can determine the expected lifetime. of course, this method only works if you can detect *some* number of particles in your original sample decaying. for very large lifetimes this would require very large samples, since of course you can't do an experiment that last as long as some of the very long lifetimes, but with a large enough sample you can make a useful measurement. edit: to be clear, there is no experimental evidence that protons decay, but the lifetime you quoted is based on the idea that protons *may* decay over ridiculously long lifetimes, and 5.7 10^29 years is the shortest its lifetime could be such that we would not have detected any proton decay in the various experiments that have looked for it. | 113 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_decay",
"http://www-sk.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp/sk/physics/pdecay-e.html"
] | [
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do robotics engineers and a.i. programmers take any precautions against a terminator type revolution? | my research might actually rank relatively high on the "likelihood to cause skynet" scale - i'm working on getting a robot that can wander around on its own to come up with its own things to do when no one's given it a job - and yeah, as zerowantuthri said, current robots are so far from skynet that imagining any of the robots i know of revolting is actually kind of hilarious. if any of the robots i use somehow decided to revolt (which their ai is nowhere near sophisticated enough to do), the most they could do would be slowly running into people until someone hit the emergency stop or their battery ran out after a few hours. chances are, ai won't be sophisticated enough for anything resembling skynet to exist within our lifetimes, so it's simply not something worth considering yet. ai and robotics research has produced some very impressive things recently, but anyone who thinks skynet has any chance of being just around the corner has no idea how pathetic most modern robots are at most things. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do we know the required delta v to get to distant planets or the moon? | my question comes from my teacher asking if any students don't believe in the moon landing. i as a believer in such events took place, am still curious on how we knew how much delta v it took to land on the moon in the first place, and later on to mars and jupiter? | math, and the laws of gravitation. we know that a certain amount of mass will exert a certain amount of gravitational effect. from there we can extrapolate the delta v for just about any target. as long as all the designers are using the same units, that is. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why don't dogs have an umbilicus? | and other mammals too. i've always found it strange that dogs don't seem to have a "belly button." since they're mammals that are born live shouldn't they have one? | dogs have umbilical cords (all mammals do). dogs also have navels (belly buttons) but are [not very prominent and usually covered by fur](_url_0_). edit to add: if you lie a dog in its back and draw an imaginary "x" from front left leg to back right leg (and front right to back left) the center of the "x" will be pretty close to the dog's navel. at least it is on my dog. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://farm1.static.flickr.com/13/15361766_9deb9851e9.jpg"
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is there an analogue to the color wheel for taste/smells? something that covers pretty much all the bases in a concise model? | there has been some attempt at creating a color wheel for smells, such as [this one](_url_1_), but these "fragrance wheels" don't even come close to covering all scents. creating such a wheel is rather difficult as humans have "hundreds of different olfactory sensors" capable of distinguish "trillions" of different smells. compare this with our eyes, which only have 3 different color sensors. and humans have *weak* noses compared to other animals! [this paper](_url_0_) discusses how your nose combines those sensors to identify so many smells. [the wikipedia article](_url_2_) also has a pretty good write up on how your receptor neurons work. in short: such a wheel doesn't really exist, because there are too many smells. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v299/n5881/abs/299352a0.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragrance_wheel",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfaction#Main_olfactory_system"
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|
evolution is the process of small changes over long periods of time. is it possible that these changes are happening still today right under our noses but we call them deformities? | if so which deformities? | it's a little complicated, but you're on the right track. evolution is still happening, right now, to every species on earth with each successive generation. including humans. deformities aren't necessarily genetic, though. some deformities are caused by genetic mutations, usually harmful ones that would be 'weeded out' by natural selection. other deformities are caused by developmental problems in the womb or during growth. most evolution is almost entirely unnoticeable, changes on the order of a single base pair alteration or segment translocation that barely have any effect at all. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardy%E2%80%93Weinberg_principle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sickle-cell_disease",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22372205",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22393332",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22145364",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16097650"
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[x-post from r/biology] is there a way to differentially label the cytoskeleton in a living cell without using a gfp (or other fp) tag? | i have hypothesized that a potential anti-tumor drug has cytoskeletal activity, however i need a way to test this hypothesis. it only takes ~30min for this drug to act in vitro, and it does not induce apoptosis; rather, it induces a *wave* of necrosis. also (because someone will likely ask), data indicates selective toxicity against tumor cells, so normal cells tolerate it (fairly) well. | the answer to this really depends on what mode of detection you are trying to use, whether or not you need the cell to still be alive and especially if you know what the target protein is. i'm assuming since you mentioned gfp you know what your target protein is. lc-ms is often used in drug discovery experiments like this, and doesn't necessarily require labeling, but it would destroy the cells. while it would be possible to use lc-ms without some sort of a tag it would require some slick chromatography or electrophoresis to detect the protein. it is more common though for people to use something like polyhistidine-tagging and immunoprecipitation as preparative steps. of course this approach requires that you already know what your protein of interest is. another option could be western blotting or some other type of immunochemistry, this would involve raising an mab against your target protein, which can be costly and/or time consuming. if you can recombinantly produce your protein that aids a lot of these workflows. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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possible to cook an egg on top of the mt. everest? | if you google around, most sources will say "no, it's not possible". however, i am not convinced because of my following findings: * water boils at [around 71 °c](_url_1_) at that altitude * the main proteins of egg white are [ovalbumin (coagulation: 71.5 °c) and conalbumin (coagulation: 57.3 °c)](_url_2_). i don't know about the egg yolk. those 2 facts would point towards "no" or "partly". however, then there is this [experiment from bill nye](_url_0_). so does it just take a very long time? lowering the pressure (and such the boiling temp of water) extends the time it takes to cook an egg. is the temperature too low on mt everest for it to work at all or are people just saying "it doesn't work" because nobody wants to wait 30mins or longer for their hard boiled egg? | it's possible to cook an egg at the top of mt. everest. first, i assume you mean "is it possible to hard boil an egg..." because you could obviously fry/bake/cook by any other means and it would be pretty much the same as cooking at sea level. it's possible to cook eggs at 70 °c, however. [here's](_url_0_) a page that correlates cooking time and temperature for slow-cooking eggs to a particular texture. [here's](_url_1_) a recipe linked by the previous page that instructs "17 minutes @ 70 °c" to get hard yolks. as you stated, the white hardens at lower temperatures. [here's](_url_2_) another page that shows that normal boiling times at 70 °c give you tender solid whites and soft solid yolks. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.billnye.com/so-hot-you-could-fry-an-egg/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point",
"http://ps.fass.org/content/60/9/2071.abstract"
] | [
"http://blog.khymos.org/2011/04/18/perfect-egg-yolks/",
"http://www.eatfoo.com/archives/2009/11/corned_pork_belly_hash_egg_yol.php",
"http://blog.khymos.org/2009/04/09/towards-the-perfect-soft-boiled-egg/"
] | [
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would we know if there was an imminent possibility of extra-terrestrial contact? | i get the impression any interstellar travel would take a very long time using current plausible methods. with this in mind, considering our current efforts to map the sky, would we already know if there were some kind of extra-terrestrial spacecraft en route to reach our planet within the next 50 or so years? i'm assuming this is the right place to post this, please advise or delete otherwise. | it would depend on the vessel they're traveling in. smaller bodies that don't emit light, like asteroids, are only spotted if they're big enough and reflective enough to be noticeable. if these aliens are still 50 years out, they're likely still outside our solar system. if that's the case, we probably wouldn't spot them. especially of they've taken any efforts to make it more difficult to do so. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a lot of people are making jokes about the "irony" of buying water to prepare for a rain storm. is it actually safe to drink rain water on the east coast? | a storm blows all sorts of things around. considering it can blow boats miles inland, you can't really predict what it will blow into your rain water. you can boil out bacteria, etc, but you can't blow out poison, fertilizer, etc, etc. | 33 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does blood flow evenly through the body? for instance, would an individual blood cell spend an equal amount of time in my hand as it would in my foot over a period of time? | what /u/just_let_me said is not incorrect, so yes an immortal blood cell will spend an average time over the vascular network. but the chance of it appearing or the time spent in one place, which are just two different ways of describing the same thing if we talk about infinite time period, depends and changes with the blood flow. the chance of seeing the blood cell in the heart is higher than in one single capillary, due to the fact there is more blood in your heart than in the capillary, hence a higher chance of your bloodcell being there. secondly we have to consider that our blood is not evenly distributed through out our body, some organs, eg brain, liver, have a higher blood 'density' than let's say your pinky. i know density may not be technical the right word, what i mean by that is there are more blood vessels present in your liver or brain than in your pinky, hence more blood by volume of tissue, if that makes sense. to the point of hand and foot i honestly don't know, would need a doctor or biologist for that. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if all 4 chromatids in a bivalent undergo crossover during synapsis, would all the gametes produced be recombinant gametes? | it seems like if all four chromatids undergo crossover at the same time with 100% crossover probability, the recombination frequency would exceed 50%. e.g. there are two homologous chromosomes, one of them contains gene a & b and the other contains gene a & b. assuming that all 4 chromatids undergo crossover during synapsis and the crossover probability is 100% then would all the gametes produced be recombinant gametes (all gametes are either ab or ab)? if that's the case then wouldn't the recombination frequency be 100%, which exceeds its maximum 50%? | due to the way the homologous chromosomes align, it's not possible for all 4 chromatids to undergo recombination. in order for miosis 1 to occur properly the chomosomes must align so that each one can only be reached by 1 spindle. the only way to get crossing over occuring on all 4 chromatids would be if the chomosomes aligned one on top of the other which would break miosis 1. tgerefore they have to align next to each other so that only 2 chromatids come into contact. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the man in this picture is currently the object of ridicule in /r/wtf. can anyone explain what condition is making his neck so extremely large? | he might have cushing's syndrome, which can be caused by long-term or high-dose corticosteroids (often used for suppressing inflammatory response to, e.g. an auto-immune disease). it can also be caused by some pituitary tumors that also lead to high levels of cortisol in the blood. the high deposit of fat around the neck, and the round face are suggestive of this possibility. when i had to take prednisone my face got much rounder, though fortunately nothing like this man's. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what exactly is the purpose of green's theorem? | so i am reviewing for my calc iii exam, and am still baffled as to the intent of this formula. our applications in the class use it to find two-dimensional areas in three-dimensional space when considering various bounds. but what does it really mean? how does it work? what is its technical purpose? | it lets you write a surface integral as a line integral, which can be easier to evaluate. consider its 1-dimensional analog: the fundamental theorem of calculus. if we have an integral on an interval [a,b], then the boundary of the interval is just the two endpoints a and b. if we have a function f(x) that takes values on a and b, then we can think of the "0-dimensional integral of f(x) on a and b" to be just f(b)-f(a). instead of looking at the area of f(x) under the 0-dimensional points a and b, we just sum up the values that the function takes on these points, and the minus sign acts like an orientation. we might even be loose and abuse notation by writing it [as an integral](_url_5_). we then have the 1-dimensional integral which is the limit of riemann sums of a function. (as seen in this special case [here](_url_4_) with the expression for picking the rightmost point.) these can be pretty hard to evaluate, but the fundamental theorem of calculus says that if f(x)=df/dx, then we can evaluate the integral of f(x) across the integral [a,b] in terms of the 0-dimensional integral of f(x) along the boundary of [a,b], which is just a and b. [see this formula](_url_2_). the integral on the left can be hard to compute, but the integral on the right is a dimension lower and is therefore easier to compute. so the fundamental theorem of calculus takes the 1d integral on an interval of a function that can be expressed as a derivative and says it is equal to a 0-d integral on the boundary of the interval of the function it's a derivative of. the same thing happens with green's theorem, just a dimension up. if you have a 2d integral of a function that can be expressed in a particular way as the derivatives of some other function, then it will be equal to the 1d integral of this function along the boundary. the 2d integral could be hard to do, but the 1d line integral will be easier. both the fundamental theorem of calculus and green's theorem (and the divergence theorem) are special cases of a much more general theorem called [stoke's theorem](_url_0_), which says that any integral of a derivative object in any dimension on any shape that has a boundary can be in terms of an integral on that boundary. the moral is that for nice functions, integrals over objects and the same as integrals along the boundary. this more general idea has applications everywhere in physics. for instance, if you have a charged object, then you can compute its total charge by integrating it's charge density function over the entire object. but if we invoke stoke's theorem, we can turn this 3d integral into a 2d integral on the surface, and this will be the integral of the electric flux leaving the object. so we get an important explicit relationship between an electric field and the charge density generating it. in fact, all of [maxwell's equations](_url_3_) can be seen as statements of stoke's theorem applied to different objects. it is also related to integrals of functions on complex variables. in particular, if f(z) is a differentiable function on the complex plane, then green's theorem can be used to prove that the integral of f(z) along any closed curve (where f(z) is differentiable everywhere inside the curve) is always zero. this is [cauchy's theorem](_url_1_). | 17 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokes%27_theorem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy's_integral_theorem",
"https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?%5Cdpi%7B100%7D%20%5CLARGE%20%5Cint_A%5EBF%27%28x%29dx%20%3D%20%5Cint_%7Bk%3DA%2CB%7DF%28k%29",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_equations",
"https://latex.codecogs.com/gif.latex?%5Cdpi%7B100%7D%20%5CLARGE%20%5Cint_A%5EBf%28x%29%29dx%3D%5Clim_%7Bn%5Crightarrow%5Cinfty%7D%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bn%7D%5Csum_%7Bi%3D1%7D%5Enf%28A&plus;%28B-A%29%5Cfrac%7Bi%7D%7Bn%7D%29",
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how much pressure is in the center of a rubber band ball? | pretty simple, i made a rubber band ball today because i like to always have my hands busy, and i saw rubber bands. after wrapping all of those rubber bands around each other, i thought: wouldn't the pressure be quite alot? | it is going to vary wildly depending on the number of bands used, the strength of the bands used, and how they were wrapped. with enough rubber bands, you can crush a watermelon, so i'd imagine it can get pretty high. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
i'm confused by 1) e = hf vs 2)e is proportional to amplitude squared; for the energy of a wave. | is 1) e=hf, just for the *minimum* energy of a wave? or by comparing electromagnetic waves to 'waves in springs' i am making a gross error? tia! | e = hf is the energy of a _photon_ of light. a _classical_ wave has an energy proportional to its amplitude squared. if you read about the [photoelectric effect](_url_0_), it'll all become clear. this was what showed that light came in photons, rather than as a classical wave. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect"
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if each neutrino flavor has a different mass and this phase shifts their wave packet as they move causing oscillation, why isn't the wave packet stretched over long distances? | [deleted] | the flavors don’t have well-defined masses. there are three mass eigenstates and three flavor eigenstates. but a neutrino or a given mass is a superposition of all three flavors, and a neutrino of a given flavor is a superposition of all three masses. if the flavors had different, well-defined masses, they wouldn’t oscillate. as for why the wave packet doesn’t spread out, actually it does a little bit. if the neutrino has a given energy, the group velocities of the different mass eigenstates are different. but since the neutrino masses are so small, neutrinos are usually always moving at approximately c anyway. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how did the evolution that produced the angler fish work, especially the sexual dimorphism? | if evolution is just a series of small mutations, wouldn't males getting smaller and weaker jaws make them less likely to survive? how did the parasitism even evolve? did a male angler fish suddenly think, okay i'm just going to bite this female, and somehow they fused? | so consider the environment most angler fish live in. most live in dark areas with limited resources. to make things harder they eat living things rather than dead things. living things are kind of rare, but it's how the angler fish do. the female is the primary producer of children, so in order to produce lots of children you need a lot of energy. this can't happen if you are competing with your own species. so to combat this the males get smaller and require less energy. in addition, males are programmed to seek out the female and attach. some females in nature (namely geckos) store sperm cause your don't know when the next meeting will be. angler fish take this a step further and basically collect gonads. edit:a word. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you help me revise my understanding of the nature of waveforms? | there were a few times during my years of schooling where i believed myself to have a firm understanding about some concept or another, only to find out that i had only grasped the concept in the overly simplified context in which it was presented. many of these instances involved two dimensional depictions of physical forms and structures. i assume that many concepts that i have been taught two dimensionally operate differently in reality. today i have decided to re-evaluate my understanding of waveforms, as they seem likely to be one of the simpler examples of planar depiction vs spacial behavior/existence, which is the crux of much that i believe i misunderstand about various concepts. my quick search for 3d waveforms led to audio player visualizations and generators. i am looking for information on waveforms as a description of how sound/light travels. i typically see waveforms depicted as sine-waves, a regular pattern of alternating parabolic curves of equal character crossing a central straight line. my primary question: does this flat depiction of the waveform hold true in reality, or is there depth to the "beam"? if it is flat: * how is the plane oriented? * does it orient to the gravity of nearby masses? * parallel or perpendicular? * does it remain in the orientation it initiated in? * does it rotate or oscillate around the beam axis? if it has depth: * is it a helix around the beam axis? * does the amplitude merely describe bounds of location possibility, similarly to an electron cloud? does the waveform actually depict the path of travel? * is the path the axis line, and the waveform just a depiction of the extent to which variances from the axis will be perceived as the same source? * what force binds that amplitude limit to axial course? * is the path the parabolic oscillation, and the axis a depiction of some force that binds the oscillation on a linear course? * what force would that be? * do we define the force that binds the waveform in a linear path as something real and distinctly separate from the waveform? does the waveform depict pulses in intensity along the path of the stream? * the stream isn't a string/length, but numerous units following the same path? are waveform depictions only true in relation to a defined spectrum? such that axis +/- amplitude will be defined as "red" in relation to visible spectrum referred to in chart, but shall not indicate "red" in an magnified subchart? is the direction of reflection based on interaction with the axis, the boundary of amplitude, or the point along the path of oscillation? is linearity even and accurate description of travel? i assume, that when light/sound is emitted by an object/source, a number of streams radiate out from that o/s in many directions along linear paths. the intensity diminishes with distance from the o/s because the individual streams become further apart from each other. does light/sound instead radiate as an expanding orb which only loses intensity as parts of the orb are blocked, absorbed, or reflected. these questions represent the possibilities i've come up with. i assume most of these can be answered, "no," and then i'll have a smaller area to focus my inquiry on. i will be happy a source i can use to understand this better which stays fairly laymen friendly and explains the method of light/sound travel in a more realistic way than the 2d waveform image. unless the 2d waveform is perfectly adequate and realistic and i'm complicating matters beyond necessity. if someone could narrow these down to the few "yes" answers, or a more concise general explanation, with emphasis on the point(s) less likely to be easily explained by the other source(s), i would greatly appreciate it. also, if there is some common terminology that is used when transitioning from simple 2d depictions to working 3d explanations of scientific concepts so that i can research the many other similar questions i have without flooding r/askscience with multiple question posts. thanks for your time. | part 1: light and sound are very different beasts. when they present waves and waveforms in school, they fail to convey strongly enough the fact that what you are actually learning is an abstraction. it is a set of mathematical tools that you can learn to apply in various situations. the physical meaning is entirely dependent on the particular phenomena under study but you can "import" all the various proofs and results as long as the thing being modeled satisfies the assumptions of the particular model being used. i'm going to ignore quantum physics for now as answering your questions is going to look highly obtuse if i start off with an infinite grid of harmonic oscillators. besides - quantum is not my specialty. on the other hand, i am qualified to talk about classical light. in classical e/m, you analyze the motion and behavior of charged particles by hypothesizing an electromagnetic field. this field is a merely a tool that we use to keep our calculations straight so that we may best predict outcomes when performing certain experiments. if we are to consider phenomena that are not relativistic, we can break apart the various equations that relate various aspects of the e/m field into 2 separate fields - the e field and the b field. each of these is simply a way of assigning each point in space with a particular vector value and keeping track of how these vectors change over time. light is a particular form of disturbance which we observe as a periodic variation in these vector values. it has a particular style of propagation and the outcomes from our calculation imply certain other properties such as the capacity of light to carry energy or interact with matter in certain ways. there are a number of different representations here that one could make. you are trying to represent something that requires you to show the length and direction of an "arrow" at every single point in space. we don't know how to visualize all the data at once quantitatively. instead, we deal with *projections* - aspects of the electric field such as the field strength along a certain set of points in one axis for example. one rather fundamental aspect of vector fields is that you decompose them into magnitudes along a set of "basis vectors" (just like how any coordinate can be broken up into a series of numbers that tell you the x y and z displacements). you can analyze the situation by handling things one component at a time. sure.. in reality, we have to consider the other spatial dimensions as well. for example, when designing directional antennas, you can't just look at one dimension because the radiation pattern looks different along different directions (_url_0_). usually, you can exploit some symmetry in the situation to only analyze things along one dimension (because the situation is spherically symmetric about a point for example) and then extrapolate your results back to the higher dimensional situation. so about "depth"... what are you trying to represent? one of the rules of light wave propagation is that the electric field won't oscillate along the direction of motion. in fact, that's how you decide which way your wave is propagating. so the field strength can be changing along 2 other directions. you can draw this in 3d (either as the fields strengths at a single moment in time along some particular direction or as the field stength of a single point as time varies) by using the 2 dimensions other than your independent variable to graph the field strength along a 2d plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of your wave. so yes - the wave can have "depth". in the particular case of a wave that is plane polarized along one axis, that polarization usually arises due to quantum phenomena or due to a geometric restriction on directions in which a charge can oscillate. for example, if you have a long monopole antenna, the electrons there can only freely move along one axis. the determines the polarization of the emitted wave along any particular direction. i don't believe polarization is affected by gravity but this is not something i'm familiar with. gr folks should correct me here. there are processes to twist or change the polarization of a beam of light. you can certainly produce _url_1_. there are media that are non-linear and change polarization based on the color of the light. it describes the strength and direction of the electric field for a point (in time or space - depending on what you're plotting). charges that are free and initially at rest at that point will start moving in the direction of the field (or against it depending on the charge) but that's it. the wiggly line isn't something physically travelling. it's just a function plotted along 2 axes. it represents the electric field strength. a bit awkwardly phrased but the oscillations that you are graphing are the solution to a particular equation. the equation (through boundary conditions and other restrictions) forces any solution to only take on certain shapes and with certain properties. this is not to imply that e/m disturbances are *always* going to look like sinusoids (sinusoids are not paraboloid btw - they are very different). there is a branch of mathematics called spectral analysis and fourier analysis that produces a wonderful result that says that you can take any reasonable function and break it up into a sum of sinusoids that you that then reason with separately. that's all there is to it - you're just looking at a function describing the oscillation of the electric field at a point (or along an axis). the equations only admit certain solutions and those are the ones you are familiar with. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_lobe",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_polarization"
] | [
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why do we rebel against our parents? surely during the vast majority of our evolutionary past, it must have been advantageous to unskeptically imitate our parents? | i'm not a scientist of any sort, but i do have a question. would it necessarily be advantageous for children/adolescents to be as close as possible a copy of their parents? it occurs to me that there is a lot to be said for adaptability, which is provided by a bit of rebellion followed by a period of learning. it may be that the children mostly take the same path as their parents, but they may adapt better to changing conditions or find a better way to do things. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is ca(oh) a bad conductor of electricity even though its a strong base ? | ? | what the other poster said is half-correct. it's true that, as a solid, it won't conduct electricity. however, i'm assuming you're wondering why ca(oh)2 doesn't conduct electricity after mixing it with water. conductivity isn't a property of basicity or acidity, it's a property of how many free ions are in solution. ca(oh)2 doesn't dissolve well in water, so the relative number of ions is pretty low. compare this to koh, which dissolves very well in water, and a koh solution is indeed conductive. in general, the hydroxide compounds are usually only soluble in water when paired with the alkali metals (li, na, k). the rest, especially the alkaline earth metals (ca, mg) are pretty insoluble in water. a small amount dissolves, and it isn't a totally negligible amount, but it's orders of magnitude less. you might ask why ca(oh)2 is considered basic if it doesn't dissolve in water well, and it's because of a few reasons. first, it is indeed a tiny bit soluble, so it meets the definition of an arrhenius base in that it increases the concentration of oh^- ions in solution. secondly, most definitions of acids and bases aren't based on how they interact in aqueous solutions, but rather how they react with other chemicals. calcium chloride cacl2, is a salt, and it can be created from letting calcium hydroxide (ca(oh)2) and hydrochloric acid (hcl) react, forming cacl2 and water. this is loose interpretation of what it means to be an acid or a base: does it react with something of the opposite type (i.e. a base or acid) to form a salt? | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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has any subatomic particle ever been observed in free fall? is it experimentally possible? | people have measured the phase shift induced between two neutron wavefunctions as they pass through regions of different gravitational potential (so different heights). [here](_url_0_) are some of the details. it's also mentioned in sakurai's quantum mechanics textbook. this is about as close as you're going to get to studying a particle in free fall due to gravity. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.int.washington.edu/talks/WorkShops/int_07_1/People/Werner_Sam/GRAVITY.pdf",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1140%2Fepjc%2Fs2005-02135-y?LI=true"
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|
why do different colors have different velocity in the same medium? | i know that all colors of light have the same speed in a vacuum, which is 3.10^8 m/s, and a change in the wavelength only changes the frequency. when in a medium, like a glass prism, as the material is the same, why don't the changes in frequency and wavelength balance each other? does it have to do anything with protons and their interactions with photons with different energies? | im on my phone right now so i cant link to it, but sixty symbols did 2 great videos on index of refraction. one of the 2 videos explains a mechanism for index of refraction that explains the difference in speed of the diffrent frequencies of light, and therefore diffrent colors of the rainbow. if you want to consider all possible colors, then you need to know that all colors can be decomposed into a superposition of the colors of the rainbow. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what effect would it have had if j002e3f had hit the moon or the earth? | i recently saw [this](_url_1_) on another subreddit and wondered what would have happened if if had hit the moon or the earth. from _url_0_ > j002e3 is the designation given to a supposed asteroid discovered by amateur astronomer bill yeung on september 3, 2002. further examination revealed the object was not a rock asteroid but instead the s-ivb third stage of the apollo 12 saturn v rocket (serial s-ivb-507). | assuming that it is a saturn s-ivb, [it weighs just about 1 tonne empty](_url_0_), and it's hollow. if it fell to earth, most of it would burn up in the atmosphere - some of the larger and more solid parts might reach the ground. compare the re-entries of the bigger and more massive [skylab](_url_2_) and [mir](_url_1_) - | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J002E3",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:J002e3f_orbit.gif"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-IVB#History",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deorbit_of_Mir",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skylab#Re-entry"
] | [
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what would happen if you "cross the steams" on high power lasers? | so i'm not a scientist, so i don't know a lot on this subject, but isn't a laser just super excited photons? do photons have mass? there are lasers [like this one](_url_0_) that are high power enough that they actually burn/damage things. but what would happen if you had more than one of these, and you crossed their beams. would anything happen at the intersection? would the photons collide or bounce at the intersection? would it just be an even hotter point in both beams path with no other changed characteristics? or what if you had several hundred of these all crossing at about the same point? | a laser beam is a collection of coherent photons (i.e. photons of the same frequency that are in phase, lined up, and traveling in the same direction). a strong laser beam is a collection of very many coherent photons. no. but they carry energy and momentum and therefore can move and burn objects. nothing at all happens. photons only interact with objects that have electric charge. photons do not have electric charge. therefore, photons just pass through each other and do not interact. furthermore, photons are bosons, meaning that they can exist in the exact same state just fine and overlap with no problem (which is just what a laser beam is in the first place). nothing would happen to the photons at the intersection. if you placed an object at the intersection, the object would receive energy from both laser beams, and heat up twice as much as if it were only in the path of one laser beam. yes. you can think of the intersection of two laser beams as effectively the same thing as the focusing of a single laser beam. [you mean like this?](_url_0_) | 13 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ToRjKyFowMI"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Ignition_Facility",
"https://youtu.be/1RpLOKqTcSk"
] | [
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does a greater surface area lessen weight distribution? | i'm asking this because i'm fixing my bed frame and i want to induce the least stress on the bed frame from the mattress. there's one side of the bed frame that holds the mattress with more surface area. does this even make a difference. for any necessary calculations i'm 140 lbs. | not sure what you mean about "lessen weight distribution," but i'm going to assume you mean something like, "does a greater surface area lessen pressure exerted on a given area?" that's the essentials of pressure. pressure = force / area. increase surface area (and force remains constant) and you decrease pressure. think about laying on a bed of nails vs. laying on one nail. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i put a drop of water on a window, why doesn't it slide down straight but it has a jagged path? | the drop of water is deflected by even the tiniest particles of e.g. dusts or sand on the window. particles and irregularities, (including the unevenness of glass itself) cause the drop to deflect from its straight-down path, just like a ball would if rolling down a rough hill. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how can i classify mud? | hey i am trying to categorize mud so that what i am working on can meet certain requirements. i know there is a way to classify soil, uscs, but does that change with mud? | dry it out and do the same thing as with soils. if you do pre- and post- drying weights, you can also get moisture content. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone briefly explain the lorenz attractor? | the lorenz attractor is a set of differential equations which was originally formulated to describe a certain physical situation in phase space. that is, the coordinates of each point of the "line" describe the state of the system, and the line its evolution over time. it's an attractor because with those equations anywhere you start within a certain area, the state will always say bounded within a certain area. the lines will always loop around those two butterfly loops. if you follow the evolution of the thing, the line loops around the two halves back and forth in an irregular fashion one or many loops around the left and then switch to the right, but never ever repeating itself. it is "strange" or "chaotic" because if you move any point along the line an arbitrarily small amount, it will result in completely different patterns and paths around the loop no matter how small the change you make. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does a euler's disk work? | [this](_url_0_) is a euler's disk (or disc, for you non-americans.) it is a disk that, instead of slowing down the longer it spins, it speeds up. but how?! is it what the disk is made of? is it the surface? how does is work? | it's not special...the same effect occurs to a lesser degree if you spin a coin on a flat table....this is just a really big heavy coin on a really smooth table think of it like this: the coin is really rolling around instead of spinning...when it's nearly vertical, when the coin rotates around it's edge once, it has traveled a distance equal to its circumference across the ground. as the angle to the ground decreases (the coin falls down) the coin wants to continue rotate around it's edge at the same speed....but because it's at an angle to the ground, it must travel a huge distance across the ground...so the contact patch moves faster and faster in order to conserve the angular momentum of the coin (keep the coin spinning at the same speed). you can again see this effect with a coin....take a penny, as it starts to fall down, mr lincoln looks like he is appearing to spin around super fast....but as he falls down, the coin sounds like it is spinning faster, and is making the same raising pitch noise that your disk does here, but lincoln is actually appearing to spin more slowly.....effectively the movement of the contact patch....what you hear, and what you interpret as speeding up in the video, is speeding around, trying to keep him spinning the same speed. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ug2bKCG4gZY"
] | [] | [
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how do passive millimeter wave detection systems (like the provision scanners used by tsa) differentiate between materials? | how can these scanners detect something like a paper gum wrapper in my pocket and ignore the clothing fabric or my own flesh? say i wore somesort of latex movie makeup on top of my skin or had a prosthetic limb, would the scanner pick up on that? if so, how? | they can't tell the difference between one object or another. clothing and many other materials are translucent in some ehf (millimeter wave) radio frequency bands. so the wave passes through your clothing to see what's beneath it. the wave energy reflected back from the body or other objects on the body is used to construct a three-dimensional image, which is displayed on a remote monitor for analysis. passive ones, are just checking for irregular patterns, basically shapes that don't match human forms. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are the „shade balls" in los angeles black and not white? | today i read some articles that los angeles dumps 20k „shade balls" into reservoir to stop evaporation. i learned in school, that white surfaces reflect light and black surfaces refelect nothing, better said they absorb the most. so could it be better to have these shade balls in white? (sorry for my poor english skills^^) | the "shade balls" were intended to prevent sunlight from reacting with chlorine in the treated water. under certain conditions the reaction can create disinfection byproducts which are an epa regulated contaminant. i suspect white balls would allow some uv through and be less efficient in reducing dbp formations. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is a 'flying saucer' (as far as we know) an aeronautically valid way to fly? | a flying saucer like [this](_url_0_)? | the avrocar vtol was developed post wwii, and flew around. a powered flying saucer is definitely realistic. i don't imagine it's a very efficient design though, or we would have more saucer shaped vtolsinstead of helicopters. | 11 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/uF7wkXl"
] | [
"ntrs.nasa.gov"
] | [
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physics/ ee: how is information transmitted over wire (let's keep it "simple" and exclude optics) | a student in freshmen physics and i want to know a lot more than this class provides. i was thinking about electron/columb drift velocity (about 1 cm/s) and i wondered how, if electrons (and i understand that electrons may or may not be a "thing" but like so many "things"in physics, it's the best model) drift that slowly through a circuit than how can my lights turn on instantly or how can i hear instantaneous information over a wired telephone? is it that the electric field moves near the speed of light? on a second note, how can transmissions go in two separate directions (as in a circuit diagrams with batteries facing in two opposite directions)? won't the electrons have collisions with each other (although, they are very small)? side note: i am not looking for homework help. i can do the math and i can work with gauss' law, e-fields, circuits, resistors, capacitance and we are diving into magnetism. i mention this because i don't want any scientist to think i am trying to dupe them into homework help. everything i'm asking about is theory that's probably well beyond the scope of this class. another side note: i'm also really only aware of ohmic circuits and not ac. thank you. edit: _url_0_ how does this happen? how can currents go the wrong way through a battery and pas each other? | you're thinking that electrons have to move from your switch to the light in order for it to turn on. all the electrons move parallely in the wire say, in the circuit of your light. for your telephone signals, they travel above 40% the speed of light in the wires. and for two batteries connected in opposite polarities, they don't send electrons in opposite directions. they create a "slope" called a potential gradient which tells the electrons which way to go. lets place a 9v and a 1v battery in opposite directions. the net slope is 8v, the difference between the voltages and the current moves from the +ve of the 9v to its -ve end. one way to imagine it is like jumping from a table to the floor and jumping from the first storey of a building to the ground. but you can also jump from the first storey and land on a table placed exactly where you fall. here the table behaves like the 1v battery and reduces the height you fall. in this case gravity makes you fall and in the battery, the electric field makes the electrons move the diagram uses kirchoff rules. the current direction does not matter, it's just a way to write equations for current. if we get current value as a negative for one direction, it means the actual current is in the reverse direction. it's just algebra and has nothing to do with physics. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/R1bpTUE"
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what is the reason of turbulence? | when you try to model the behavior of many bodies at once, the amount of information you need to completely describe the system goes up tremendously. we are fortunate that there are many cases where we can simplify things and still make predictions about what happens. in a solid object, we can focus on the motion of the center of mass and rotations around that point, reducing some number of free parameters on the order of avogadro's number needed to completely describe all the atoms down to a handful of free parameters needed to predict the macroscopic motions. in an ideal gas at equilibrium, we can assume the range of velocities and positions of each particle average out, so that the gas produces a near uniform pressure provided we specify the particle density and temperature of the gas. but we don't always get so lucky. once a gas is out of equilibrium, there are correlations between the velocities of neighboring particles that create forces on other objects. by treating the gas as a continuous fluid, we can simplify this motion by describing the velocity of some arbitrary number of small regions of the gas. but for some cases the motion of the fluid is still impossible to predict for very long. small changes in the velocity of some region in the gas can lead to large changes in how many neighboring regions behave a bit later. this is characteristic of chaotic systems in general. for a given fluid, the transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow is characterized by the [reynolds number](_url_0_). at high reynolds number, the inertia of the fluid starts to become important leading to eddies and vortices that can behave chaotically. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynolds_number"
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|
what property(-ies) decide(s) whether a substance is brittle or not? | what exactly makes glass, on a molecular level, so brittle? or certain types of iron for that matter? | you are talking about two classes of materials which are relatively different in terms of cracking and brittleness. glass, which i believe is an amorphous ceramic is made up of sio_2 molecules bonded together covalently, (strong bond). metals (steel) is composed of metal atoms bonded together metallically (different, relatively weak bond). the difference is that in glass you have no long range order, the atoms are bonded randomly and have no higher structure beyond the nearest bonding atom. but in metals the atoms are arranged in a long range order that is periodic (look up atomic stacking, fcc, bcc, hcp). and these atom stacking make up the grain structure of a metal which is of the order of 1 to 100s micrometers (depending on processing and i'll explain later), and these grains make up the shape of an object. now getting to cracking. when you create a crack in glass you need to break atomic bonds between the molecules and form feee surfaces. this costs the system energy (proportional to the bonds broken, i.e. the length of the crack). however there is a point where growing the crack further decreases the energy of the system and it is favourable for the crack to grow in size (stability) and so once you form a crack of this size the material will crack completely. that's why with some glasses you can scratch a circle and punch it out, it's an application of this crack instability criterion. look up how some people cut/break glass, it's impressive. in metals however, brittleness is related to how much energy you need to put to grow a crack that either breaks a grain up in two, or goes around between two grains. it's a complicated process but in essence when you put stress in a metal you can have two things happen, either you will grow the existing cracks in size, or put dislocations in the metal lattice, which is a way of accommodating this stress. if the metal lattice is too stressed already( from all the existing dislocations, or in case of steel and cast iron, from too much carbon atoms) it will be much easier to grow a crack that to deform by dislocation, and so you get cracking, which again depends on the stability criterion. the opposite of brittleness is toughness ( which is a measure of how much a material resists crack growth) and in metals you achieve it by making smaller grain size, so that a crack has to go around the grains and is deflected (energy consuming) as opposed to having a nice large grain along which is can travel easily. so that's how brittleness differs in these materials. i apologise for the length of this essay. if there is anything unclear let me know, it's been a while. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do baryons (ie. a neutron) react to being hit by a boson? | i know that if a boson is absorbed by an electron, the electron will absorb the energy of the boson by jumping up energy levels and then falling back down and emit more bosons. however, how does that interaction play out between bosons and baryons? for example, if an xray or a gamma ray hits a neutron or proton directly, how does the particle react? does the boson impart kinetic energy, does it go right through? etc. | a boson is just any particle with integer spin. so there are tons of bosons, each with their own couplings to baryons. gamma rays on protons can undergo a variety of different processes. neutrons don't have a net electric charge, so they don't couple as strongly to photons. the forces between nucleons can be modeled using effective field theories, where the exchange particles are mesons (which are bosons), such as pions. also you could include any nucleus with integer spin as a boson, in which case there are a whole host of nuclear reactions which can occur between them. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=How%20do%20we%20get%20wattage%20so%20high%20in%20certain%20devices%3F"
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] |
if all possible shades of a single colour were mixed together in equal parts, what would the colour be? | a "single colour" is not a scientific term. technically, a "single color" would have only one frequency component and have only one shade. if you mix two (or more) differently colored paints together, you get something in between the original colors in the [cmy color space](_url_1_). if you mix two (or more) differently colored light sources, you get light in between the original colors on the [rgb model](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RGB_color_model",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMYK_color_model"
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|
why is 683lm/w maximum efficiency? | currently studying for exams, and mye lecture book mentions that 683lm/w is max (theoretical) efficiency we can get out of a laser/anything that produces light? | the unit lumen is based on the associated unit candela, which is essentially the amount of light emitted by a "standard candle", which used to be a form of providing a standard for luminous intensity. lumen is the unit that measures the total luminous intensity of a light source, while candela are used to express the luminous intensity per unit of solid angle (which is somewhat equivalent to the surface area of a part of a sphere at fixed radius). the luminous intensity is not exactly the same as the power output of a light source, because the luminous intensity is weighted with the sensitivity profile of human vision. light sources that human eyes are sensitive to will count more towards the luminous intensity. the peak of sensitivity of human vision is at a wavelength of 555 nm, which corresponds to monochromatic green light. so if we want to make a light source that maximizes lumens per watt, that light source would be made to emit only green 555 nm light. light itself has energy, so when you produce light, you convert some of the input energy into the light itself, while the rest ends up as heat typically. the more efficient the light source, the more of the energy ends up as light and the lower the heat production. an old tungsten light bulb will become hot far more rapidly than a modern led bulb that emits the same amount of light. as it turns out, the amount of power that is needed to make a green light appear just as bright to a human observer as the aforementioned standard candle (which is just a candle with certain predefined properties regarding composition, size and burn rate. not terribly accurate, but historically the best way to at least get some amount of standardization in units) is about 1/683 watt, so 1 watt worth of light would generate luminosity equal to 683 standard candles.. the definition of lumen/candela got shifted around a bit as time went on, because people realized that using a specific candle as a benchmark unit for luminosity wasn't that accurate. ultimately, the definition of a lumen is now simply "the luminous intensity of a monochromatic 555 nm light source producing 1/683 w of light". so the simple answer to your question would be: because by definition 683 lumen contains 1 w of light, so producing 683 lumen at perfect efficiency would require 1 w of input power. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would residential electrical circuits be more efficient if larger gauge wires were used? | an electrician friend of mine claims that if we wired houses with 12 gauge (rather than 14 gauge) for common circuits, the savings in electricity would quickly cover the additional costs of the wire. is this true? | i was curious, so i worked out a sample calculation: a typical single-family home has somewhere around 3,000 ft of wire in it, depending on a lot of variables. to keep things simple, let's assume that 1,500 feet of this is 14-2 and 1,500 feet is 12-2, and compare this to a house wired with all 12-gage. i checked a few places online, and found prices around $0.30 per foot for 14-gage wire, and $0.47 for 12-gage wire. so a house with half 12- and half-14 gage wire would require about $1155 for wire, whereas all 12-gage would cost about $1410. the difference is $255. the next question would then be, "how long will it take to break even on that initial cost?" this requires estimating the amount of power lost to wire resistance for both cases. i made some assumptions. first, the average home power usage is 11,500 kwh/year. i'm going to assume this is all run through 20-a circuits (which is technically invalid, because it exceeds the rating for 14-gage wire, but it should still give a ballpark figure). the resistance for 12 gage wire is about .1588 ohm/100 ft. for 14-ga, it's about .2525 ohm/100 ft. if electricity had to pass through the entire 3,000 feet of wire, at 20 amps, you'd see 48 watts lost in 1,500 feet of 12-gage wire, and 76 watts dissipated in 1,500 feet of 14-gage wire. the final assumption is price for energy. an average rate for the u.s. is 12 cents per kwh, so i'll use that. comparing a house with all 12-gage to half 12-gage and half 14-gage, the difference between power lost comes to about $16 per year, with all of the above assumptions. at that rate, it would take almost **16 years** to recoup the materials cost for heavier wire. so i would agree with fuckallredditors, you could make up the difference elsewhere more easily. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what could be the cause of these surface patterns on mars? | i was exploring mars on the [nasa mars trek](_url_0_) site and found [these surface patterns](_url_1_). what could cause these types of surface patterns on mars? | nice - here's the same region of mars, known as claritas fossae in google mars: [link](_url_0_) those surface patterns are caused by tectonic activity surrounding syria planum, which is the plain to the east. they are generally considered graben - a valley with a normal extensional fault on either side. the two common ways of forming them are extension of the crust (common on earth, not as common on mars) and intrusion of magma dikes at depth (common on earth and mars). | 65 | [] | [
"http://marstrek.jpl.nasa.gov/",
"http://i.imgur.com/31dF5uq.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.google.com/mars/#lat=-15.273587&lon=-110.544433&zoom=7"
] | [
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the ehrenfest paradox? | _url_0_ the faster an object goes, the more it seems to contract relative to a stationary observer. the ehrenfest paradox: 1. places the observer at the center of a rotating disc (or let's say the observer is suspended above the center of the disc by helicopter - so he does not contact the disc) 2. places measuring rulers along the perimeter of the disc. 3. draws a measuring line on the surface of the disc that leads from the observer's feet to the perimeter (the line marks the radius of the disc). 4. spins the disc up the observer should see the rulers along the perimeter of the disc contract, while the radius seems to stay the same length. the ehrenfest paradox points out that this is a contradiction. the only way the perimeter of the disc could contract without the radius changing would be if the perimeter were to break apart. the rulers would have to separate from each other, allowing you to fit more rulers into the gaps created. i encountered this problem when trying to imagine what a charge "sees" while passing through a loop or coil of wire. it is placed at the center of a seemingly rotating disc of charge (the current carrying conductor). there -is- some kind of lorentz contraction taking place, since we know the charge experiences a magnetic force. i'm trying to understand why/how, relativistically, that happens. but i keep encountering this paradox while trying to visualize it. **bonus question #1:** what does the person see if the helicopter flies upward, allowing them tolook down onto the disc? **bonus question #2:** if the person is level with the surface of the disc, does it matter whether the disc is spinning or the person is spinning? | the resolution of this paradox, as hinted at in the article you linked, is that rigid bodies do not exist- and relativity precludes them from existing even theoretically. not only is an absolute rigid body not possible- this one often comes up when discussing "why can't you have a light year long rod and poke things with it, thus transferring information faster than light?"- but even a weaker form of rigidity, called [born rigidity](_url_0_) isn't possible. that is, any real disk, as it is spun up will deform slightly. no matter how strong you make it, you know it has to deform some based on the argument you made here. | 24 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ehrenfest_paradox"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_rigidity"
] | [
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during capillary action the average gravitational potential energy of the molecules increases. where does that energy come from? | edit, to clarify the question a little bit: the first law of thermodynamics states that in a closed system you can only trasform energy. so, before the liquid rises due to capillarity, that energy that is later transformed into gravitational potential energy has to be already in the system in another form. i formulated a stupid hypothesis: it was thermal energy, and when the liquid rises, the average temperature decreases. it's just the first thing that popped into my head, that doesn't even convince me either haha. but i hope this clarifies my question, sorry if it is poorly worded. thanks for the replies. | i'm going to simplify this a bit but consider the attraction of water to the capillary walls and let us call this "capillary energy". if the water climbs up the capillary walls then you could say the capillary energy has been transduced into gravitational potential energy. you can not get any work from this capillary energy. if you suck up the water in a capillary and think you can let it fall back down to produce energy you will find you actually need to put energy into the system and actually push the water down yourself. a very easy way to reframe this... you have a magnet on a table and another magnet floating above it on a string. the table magnet will go upwards, sticking to the other magnet. they gain gravitational potential energy but you removed the magnetic potential energy in return. you can not get the magnets to unstick and fall back down without putting energy into them. | 26 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how and why does entropy change during adiabatic magnetisation and subsequent demagnetisation? | i am an a-level student trying to do some wider reading and came across the magnetocaloric effect. i was reading [this article](_url_0_) and got confused in the first paragraph where is is stated: > the isothermal compression of a gas (we apply pressure and the entropy decreases) is analogous to the isothermal magnetisation of a paramagnet or a soft ferromagnet (we apply h and the magnetic entropy decreases), while the subsequent adiabatic expansion of a gas (we lower pressure at constant entropy and temperature decreases) is equivalent to adiabatic demagnetisation (we remove h, the total entropy remains constant and temperature decreases since the magnetic entropy increases). i suppose i was mostly wondering why the temperature decreases instead of the total entropy during demagnetisation but was also wondering how to conserve entropy in both the adiabatic expansion of a gas as well as in demagnetisation. thanks in advance. p.s: any good recommendations on places to start on becoming familiar with thermodynamics (so i don't have to pester you guys) at a level appropriate to me would be greatly appreciated. | an "adiabatic process" is, by definition, one where entropy is left constant. it is a process where you do not allow any heat transfer into/out of the system while varying some external probe (like applied pressure/magnetic field for the gas/magnet respectively). obviously this is an idealized process, but you can imagine completely isolating the exchange of any energy between your system and its surroundings while varying the probe. now, given an adiabatic process, you need to know the equation of state to understand how the temperature and other state variables will change with the external probe. for example, in an ideal gas, pv = nkt, and u = c_v nkt (u = internal energy, c_v is a positive constant). from these two relations, it's still not immediately obvious what happens in an adiabatic process, but [there are derivations](_url_1_) standard in an intro thermo class showing that the relation between p and t in an adiabatic process is p = constant*t^(1 + c_v) so as pressure decreases, so does temperature. similarly, there are some relations between the applied field, magnetization, temperature, and energy of the magnet which also determines how they vary in an adiabatic process. what your quoted passage is saying, is that in a magnet one can often make the substitutions p < - v < - where h is the applied field and m is the total magnetization, and your intuition from the ideal gas goes through (in certain approximations, the equation of state of a paramagnet looks like that of a [van der waals gas](_url_0_), which is the first correction to the ideal gas assuming interactions). | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.tdx.cat/bitstream/handle/10803/1789/1.CHAPTER_1.pdf"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_equation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_process#Derivation_of_P.E2.80.93V_relation_for_adiabatic_heating_and_cooling"
] | [
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is there a neutrino (or similar) version of the cmbr? | when the energy density of the universe was a lot higher, it was a big sea of hot stuff that was opaque to photons. but then, as it expanded and cooled, it suddenly wasn't, and the photons we see red-shifted, to microwave, are the photons from that dense, opaque universe. since lots of interactions create neutrinos, and since neutrinos interact so weakly that it would be tougher for something to be opaque to them, is there a background of neutrinos? also, what is the neutrino equivalent of red-shift? | there absolutely is! photons decoupled from the cosmic plasma when the universe was about 400,000 years old, but neutrinos decoupled when it was barely a second old, meaning that if we could detect the cosmic neutrino background, it would give us a direct window onto the very early universe. it would be the earliest time we could observe; right now we can observe conditions a few minutes later by measuring the abundances of light elements like helium and deuterium formed a few minutes after the big bang, but neutrinos decoupled (i.e., the universe stopped being opaque to them) even before then. the problem is that neutrinos are notoriously hard to detect, and these neutrinos, cooled down (or "redshifted") to a temperature of about 1.95 k, will be absolutely impossible to detect for quite a while to come. in theory there's a background for every relativistic particle species which hasn't annihilated with its anti-particles (up to matter-antimatter asymmetry), the problem being that most of the standard model particles did exactly that. the other important particle which is expected to have a background is the graviton, but that might be even harder to detect than the neutrino background. however, you'll see a lot more effort put into detecting the gravity wave background because they can provide us with a *lot* more information than even the neutrino background can; gravitons decoupled when the universe was an incredibly tiny fraction of a second old, probing eras at far higher energies than our particle accelerators can achieve. that background, if detected, will tell us about physics far beyond the standard model. i think the cosmic gravitational wave background is the next frontier in observational cosmology. it will revolutionize not just cosmology but all of fundamental physics much like our studies of the cmb have. however, it's several decades away at the best; it's projected to be seriously probed by the third generation of gravitational wave observatories, and we're still in the first. lisa, a space-based probe which would constitute the beginning of the second, is in serious hot water now that nasa has pulled out its support, which deals a serious blow to the search for primordial gravitational waves. i can only hope such probes are launched and their data come in while i'm still around and doing research! my apologies for a bit of a digression, but the cosmic gravitational wave background is a fascinating subject and i could go on about it for hours (indeed, i have in the past!). the cosmic neutrino background almost certainly exists, but detecting it is a long way off, and i don't think the scientific value will be significant enough for many people to put in the resources necessary to build those detectors even if such a thing is possible. edit: i forgot to mention that there is another method of detecting the cosmic gravitational wave background, and that method might pay off in only 2 or 3 years. primordial gravitational waves can polarize the cmb, leaving a distinct imprint. this imprint is in principle observable by the planck satellite, which is currently in space returning data, but i don't think even the planck folk are very optimistic about getting much more than constraints from those data. only gravity waves covering a large range of frequencies - in other words, those produced during inflation - will be visible to planck, and most models of inflation predict gravity waves were produced at levels far lower than those needed to be observable at planck's sensitivity. however, the possibility that planck will return very interesting results is there, and i think either way there's a good chance that planck's gravity wave search can be a game-changer. expect those results in 2014, i believe. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background"
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how do these mesa-like structures form out of wet sand freezing? (image in description) | over in /r/mildlyinteresting i saw [this image](_url_0_) of mesa-like structures formed from sand freezing in michigan and i wondered if any geologists had an explanation. | when you look as those structures, you can see the primary lamination formed during deposition is well preserved and undeformed. this constrains the ways in which those structures can form and eliminates processes such as sand volcanoes and the like. looking at them, i'd say they are erosional in nature and comparable to small scale "hoodoos". those form when a sediment or sedimentary rock is subjected to differential erosion. i suggest it is also possible, since freezing is involved in this case, that the greater resistance of the structures compared to the sand which was eroded away results either of the grains being cimented differently, or perhaps because for some reason they froze solid earlier in the process (different porostity, maybe). | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/MkJB8kT.jpg"
] | [] | [
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why is it impossible to be (or at least perceive to be) sucked into a black hole? | i think your question is misworded. if you fall into a black hole, you will experience it! (i mean, if you could survive getting to the black hole in the first place). what you may be referring to is the fact that an outside observer will not be able to watch you cross the event horizon of the black hole. this is because of the effects of time dilation by general relativity. if you're watching me fall into a black hole, as i get closer and closer to the event horizon you'll see time slow down for me, so much so that i'll never reach the event horizon -- to your eyes. you'll see my image slow down and red-shift until the light is no longer visible. check out this write-up for more information: _url_0_ | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/BlackHoles/fall_in.html"
] | [
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|
evolution question | my friend said this last night: "i believe in evolution, but something that always stumps me is why the different races came to be. like i understand that africans may be exposed to more sun, therefore their skin evolves to have more melanin or what not, but what about asian people? why are their eyes like that?" i really didn't know, so i was wondering if anyone could explain? how/why did different races evolve with some distinct features like different shaped eyes? | many traits are not due to pressure from natural selection, but are instead due to [genetic drift](_url_1_). essentially, in traits not under selective pressure, neutral mutations might create traits that confer no advantage or disadvantage to fitness. if there's no pressure to remove the trait or increase it, it will become [fixed](_url_0_) in the population at a certain probability. but if a group of people sharing the trait migrate to a new area, this will create a [founder effect](_url_2_), perhaps markedly increasing the frequency of the relatively rare neutral trait and decreasing other neutral traits in that population. then the trait is much more likely to become fixed. in this manner, you can have trait differences in populations that confer no selective advantages. however, it should also be noted that many traits *are* due to selective pressure, like skin color as you mentioned - though dark skin was the ancestral trait. edit: clarified "fixed" terminology and added link to population genetics definition. | 188 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixation_\\(population_genetics\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_drift",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founder_effect"
] | [
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evolution question | so wait, if i am right, at some point in evolutionary history, human ancestors would have decided that a tail was not useful, (that a "person" with a prehensile tail should not be copulated with). or the prehensile tail impeded the way or life of some of the "people" therefore allowing some of them not to reach an age for sexual activity. basically, my question is, why don't i have a prehensile tail? | cringe! keep in mind that during the process of evolution, no one *decides* anything. the reason our ancestors don't have tails is that they were more likely to reproduce and bear fertile offspring without one. simple as that. as far as the proximate reason, it probably has something to do with the fact that apes, from whom we descended, eventually began to enjoy a less arboreal life and became more adapted to plains-like environments. there, they wouldn't need a tail for balance, and certainly wouldn't need it for grabbing tree branches. so in that regard, a tail would be a metabolic and developmental burden energetically speaking. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do 24 hour sicknesses work? | i understand they only last 24 hours but how can some sicknesses last weeks while these only last a day? | the difference in time is due to a number of factors, including the ability of a person's immune system to handle a particular infection. for example, a person who has never had bacterial gastroenteritis would likely experience the symptoms for a week. in contrast, someone who has a history of bacterial gastroenteritis would recover more quickly (assuming that their immune system was functioning properly). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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from a physics standpoint, what prevents the future from becoming predictable? | let's say that we knew every single law and principle of physics, chemistry, and biology that govern how the material world operates. now lets say that we have a lecture hall filled with people, and we pause time, with knowledge of the position and state of every single atom in the hall. when we un-pause time, will the lecture hall behave in the exact same way every single iteration? that is to say, would suzy always yawn, and would bobby always blink? logic tells me that if we knew the state of every atom, with enough computing power we would accurately be able to predict their states in the next instant as well (for example, the trajectory of an oxygen molecule in the room). one should be able to predict the location of a hydrogen atom in space 10,000 years into the future, given complete knowledge (location, behavior, etc) of every single other atom in the universe. in essence, wouldn't we be predicting the future, at least for this lecture hall? if we had a complete enough understanding of physics, would we also be able to predict what happens 5, 10, or 100 seconds down the line? in other words, is the fate of the universe already sealed, and everyone and everything is just acting toward a predictable end, completely governed by the laws of physics? | the responses here have cited the "randomness" of quantum mechanics as a reason that you can't predict the evolution of a physical system, even in principle. this is extremely misleading and i will try to explain why. according to our theory of quantum mechanics, if you know the state of a **closed** physical system at any particular time, the state of that system at any future time is completely deterministic in every possible way. period. end of story. actually computing the future state may be completely intractable for even moderately sized systems, but it's not impossible in principle. * by **closed** i mean a system that is self-contained and not interacting with anything else. if your hypothetical lecture hall were the only thing in existence it would be a closed system and we could calculate it's evolution in time using schrodinger's/heisenberg's equation. if we draw a box around a single person in the lecture hall, and suppose we know the quantum state of that person, but we *don't* know the quantum state of the rest of the lecture hall, then we can't predict the evolution of that person. this should make intuitive sense: if i don't know what the other atoms in the room are doing, then i don't know how they're going to affect the evolution of that one person under consideration. that single person is not a closed system, and so its time evolution will not follow schrodinger's/heisenberg's equation. you have to take the whole system into account in order to apply the laws of physics. (it is possible to describe open systems with physics and math, but those descriptions are always probabilistic because they are necessarily missing information about the surrounding environment. statistical mechanics is such a theory. note the word "statistical" in the name of the theory. not an accident.) the other posts here citing supposed intrinsic randomness of quantum mechanics have all done so in the context of **measurement**. i invite you to press any of those posts' authors on what they mean by that word "measurement." the fact is that indeed, when we hook up a laboratory apparatus to a physical system undergoing quantum mechanical evolution in order to make what we colloquially call a "measurement", the quantum mechanical state of that system changes in a way that is unpredictable, ie. random. many physicists just add an extra rule to quantum theory to account for this. they say "quantum mechanics follows schrodinger's/heisenberg's equation, except when you make a measurement in which case the quantum state collapses randomly into one of several states defined by the measurement protocol." now ask yourself this: if i draw a larger box encompassing the physicist doing the experiment, his apparatus, and the system he's measuring, does the wavefunction of that combined system also collapse when the physics makes the measurement? it shouldn't because in the absence of someone measuring the combined physicist-experiment system, the whole thing is supposed to evolve according to schrodinger's equation. no collapse. this leads us to the weird conclusion that quantum state collapse is actually a relative phenomenon. while the experimentalist sees the wavefunction of his experiment collapse, the wavefunction of the entire combined system including the physicist, his apparatus, and the system being measured by him, does not deviate from normal evolution in any way. if someone versed in these matters would condescend to comment on this post, i would be extremely pleased. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem",
"http://dogphysics.com/"
] | [
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] |
does the heat index actually correlate to a specific dry air temperature well? | with the heat rising in the northeast u.s., the topic of heat index keeps popping up on my radar. what i'm trying to figure out is whether a heat index of 110 deg f is actually comparable to a dry air temperature of 110 deg f. i'm basing this off of experiencing i've personally had while living in nj where the heat index is 105 deg f vs. an air temperature i've experienced of 110 deg in las vegas. to me, i felt significantly warmer in nj than i did in vegas, despite the heat index being lower in nj. from what i've read, the correlation is based off of relative humidity and the body's ability to reject heat to the atmosphere. obviously perspiration is the primary method of heat removal, which is inhibited when the ambient humidity is increased. the amount of heat removal is apparently directly related to how hot we personally feel. i still don't understand how this determination is made, since i feel much warmer in a humid environment than in a warmer, dryer one. or, am i confusing discomfort of sweat with heat, making this question useless? | the calculation is a curve-fit to a specific set of data from the 1970s but each individual experiences heat differently. the data for the classic heat index assumed a 5'7" man weighing 147 pounds, wearing long pants and short-sleeved shirt while walking 3 mph in the shade with a slight breeze. your results may vary. [source](_url_0_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://mentalfloss.com/article/30964/what-exactly-heat-index",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature"
] | [
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how does saran wrap work? why is it that it sticks together? how does it not melt in a microwave? | saran wrap is low density polyethylene (polyethylene is the most common type of plastic), which, because of the way the monomers chain together, is highly ductile and malleable (very strechy). this is obviously desirable when making something that is going to be, well, *stretched* over something else. as for the sticky part, many brands of food wrap add adhesive (glue) to the wrap, but polyethylene does have natural adhesive properties. saran wrap does not melt in a microwave because it is entirely non-polar, and so it can't easily absorb the microwave energy. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
question about rocketship parachutes | i just recently picked up kerbal space program from the steam summer sale and i'm going to assume that the physics are somewhat grounded in reality. in the game when your capsules are falling back towards the earth and you deploy the parachutes, the parachutes deploy but remain in an odd very oblong shape until your capsule reaches a low enough altitude. is this something that happens with real rockets? what are the physics behind it? | it sounds like you may be describing "reefed" parachutes ([described in last section of this page](_url_1_)). the parachutes are opened in stages. [here's a video of an orion test with such parachutes](_url_0_). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYGN1Y2bfIs&t=03m15s",
"http://www.pcprg.com/inflate.htm"
] | [
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removal of lens in eye allows you to see light from cashier scanner at grocery store? | science teacher told me this many many years ago in middle school, what lens is this? i've always wondered if i had it done, get a flashlight that emits the light that only people without this lens can see, i can see in the dark. i'd it possible?? | your eyes only have one lens each and you need it to focus. people who have had a lens removed due to cataracts or an accident cannot focus on nearby objects. normally this lens blocks ultraviolet from reaching your retinas. if it is out of the way then your retina will start receiving ultraviolet! [and you'll be able to see it](_url_3_)! visible light normally runs from about 700 nm (red) to 400 nm (purple). if you would like to see all visible pure colors ordered by wavelength then just look at a rainbow. ultraviolet is off a bit beyond purple. you only have photoreceptors on your retina for red, blue and green - but all three are weakly activated by ultraviolet down to about 340 nm if ultraviolet can reach that deep. remove the lens and ultraviolet will appear blueish white. this can substantially change how the world looks. bees see ultraviolet and many flowers have [special markings](_url_0_) called nectar guides in ultraviolet that are only visible to bees. or high ultraviolet reflectance to attract them. people have [claimed](_url_1_) that the reason claude monet suddenly began painting water lilies as blue instead of white was due to cataract surgery and not artistic whimsy. people have produced artificial lenses that [happen to be partially transparent to ultraviolet by accident](_url_2_) and this may seem like a nifty minor superpower, but sunburning your retinas is a bad idea and we haven't invented artificial retinas yet so keep the ones you have working. edit: grocery store scanners usually use red light. maybe he was thinking of the counterfeit bill detector, which uses ultraviolet. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nectar_guide",
"http://www.skepticalartist.com/2013/06/25/claude-monet-and-ultraviolet-light-did-the-master-impressionist-painter-have-uv-supervision/",
"http://www.komar.org/faq/colorado-cataract-surgery-crystalens/ultra-violet-color-glow/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/1455745/",
"http://www.allartclassic.com/img/Claude_Oscar_Monet_MOC150.jpg",
"http://41.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_m2osawnXtI1qbh26io1_500.jpg",
"http://40.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_m2osawnXtI1qbh26io2_500.jpg"
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does passing electricity though water effectively sterilise it? | can you even kill bacteria with electricity? | effectively, yes! so as you should know, one of the major disinfection processes involve chlorine and hypochlorite as disinfectants. recently, people have been trying to steer away from these expensive processes. another way to disinfect water is through electrolytic processes. some of these processes are being utilized in africa where safe water is a scarcity in many parts of the continent. one of the major ones that i know of involves solar cells as the means of electricity. photovoltaic cells are able to take solar energy and transform it into electrical energy. in a nutshell, photons are absorbed by a semiconducting material which then excite electrons. the electron is then able to travel to the electrode and the electricity of captured. the electricity, now in the water, can create oxidative radicals to kill any microorganisms. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what are quaternions, bivectors and biquaternion? what are their applications? | **r**, real numbers are really nice for a majority of things, but it wasn't enough. we had simple polynomial root that didn't exist. how can a simple equation like *x^2 = (-1)* can't have an answer ? then [euler](_url_1_) said "what if (-1)^½ exists ?" (might not be an accurate quote) and then created **i** to represents this value and creates complex numbers written **(a + b *i* )**. then [hamilton](_url_0_) said "mmmm... that's interesting. the complex plane is nice. can we have something similar for 3d ?" (not so accurate quote) so he worked hard to try to have something like **(a + b *i* + c *j* )** but couldn't arrive to something stable. so he thought "mmm... if instead of adding 1 component **j**, i doubled the components, with **j** and **k**" (might not be the actual real quote). and then quaternions **(a + b *i* + c *j* + d *k* )** were created. quaternions has this particular link : **i**^2 = **j**^2 = **k**^2 = (-1) but also **ijk** = (-1). how ? in the quaternions space (**h**) commutativity has been taken off. i.e. **ij** = **k** but **ji** = -**k**. might be weird to say like that, but remembers that matricial multiplication isn't commutative either. in fact, quaternions are used a lot in physics and computer graphic. you can easily represents 3d-rotation through 4x4 matrix, using quaternions. biquarternions now are quaternions where **a**,**b**,**c**,**d** coefficients are complex instead of real. and bivectors are out of my field. but at this point, you will most likely find a physicist that can tell you what you want since these (quaternions, biquaternions and bivectors) are certainly mathematical units, but are way more used in physics. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rowan_Hamilton",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler"
] | [
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|
is there a connection between quaternions and unit vectors? | i've been learning about quaternions lately, and every time i read more, they seem to remind me more of unit vector notation. they both use i, j, and k, and the multiplication of these terms seems to produce the same results (except for the squaring of terms, which i haven't seen in unit vector notation). are they pretty much the same, or is there something fundamentally different i'm missing? | yes the vector part of a quaternion (the complex portion denoted by i,j,k) can be used as a description of **r^3** space. your intuition is correct that they produce many of the same results, and the use of i,j,k in both is actually related. the notation stems from hamilton's work in the hyper-complex space, **h**, where quaternions live, and **r^3** (the standard 3d space you're familiar with). now it should be noted that quaternions are distinct, and while there are connections between the quaternion's vector component and **r^3**, much of the power of a quaternion comes from considering it as a 4d construct, and constraining its full 4d form to unit length. while hamilton found that unit quaternions could represent rotations in 3d space, euler demonstrated that unit quaternions could be thought of as a reorganized way of viewing a rotation by it's axis-angle representation. these are referred to as euler parameters, but are essentially just unit quaternions. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where are electrons supplied from in a power plant? | i understand that in a power plant, the electrical current we use every day is created by a magnet and a coil of wire. my question is that since electricity is the moving of electrons, wouldn't the coil of wire run out of electrons eventually? if not, where are the electrons supplied from? | most current is alternating. electrons don't move, they just jostle back and form. the movement of the current is the transfer of the "vibration," not the transfer of electrons. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the oberth effect actually increase the delta v of the burn or does it just mean an equal delta v performed at high velocity has a larger affect on the orbit? | the wiki doesn't really make this clear | it actually increases the delta v of the rocket. to an observer on the rocket, the fuel is always leaving the rocket at the same speed. this means that to an observer who is stationary with respect to the frame the rocket is flying in, that the faster the rocket is moving the slower the expelled exhaust is. thus, the less energy the fuel has, the more energy that must go into the rocket. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to project an image on a wall, corrected for nearsightedness? | i.e. it's out of focus for people with correct vision but is clear for a certain level of myopia. | no, because the fundamental problem in myopia is that the focal point of the image created by your lens is too far in front of the retina. no amount of digital manipulation can address the underlying structural abnormality. the only way to fix the location of the focal point is by changing the refractive index of your eyes (with glasses). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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every species has a carrying capacity... what do you think the carrying capacity of humans is? | i mean, 7 billion people is a pretty high count as far as a species goes. what number do you think we will get to before we level off for whatever reason (probably running out of necessary resources)? | it's a super complicated question that doesn't really have an answer. [this video](_url_0_) discusses a lot of the factors involved (resources, space, life expectancy, etc.). but essentially your guess is as good as mine. we anticipate at least another 3 billion people, and estimates i've seen (in google) have ranged from 10 billion to 1 trillion (though these have been called extremely political, and not scientific). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://digital.films.com/play/EZSDTL"
] | [
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do flippers let you move more efficiently through the water, or just allow you to use more energy more rapidly? | it is all about surface area, momentum, and the force needed to push the water. swimming is like a rocket engine. newton's third law propulsion. your feet have a certain area that they can use to push the water aft and create a reaction force pushing you forward. with flippers you have a larger area. meaning you can move more water than with just feet. to move the same water with your feet requires higher speed to create the same momentum. (physics, f=ma and p=mv). so flippers allow the same thrust using more muscle force but less speed. this condition seems to be easier on your body. using less energy for the same propulsion. someone who knows body physiology can answer that part better. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do we develop mental maps of video game maps the same way we develop mental maps of physical places? | there's been some interesting new research lately on virtual environments vs real and brain processing. early results showed a difference in the areas of neurons in the hippocampus which fired in response to each environment. they hypothesized it may be due to more sense processing in reality from smell and sound etc whereas virtual relied on sight only. just thought id mention this since its somewhat relevant to the discussion! link: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/11/141124162926.htm"
] | [
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|
how were mathematical models fit from experimental data before computers? | in other words, how was curve fitting performed? particularly for more complicated models. | for what sort of models? if you convert data to log scale, you can do linear fits to try and figure things out. fit can be rigorously measured by least-squared fits. if your data seems piecewise, i.e. linear with one slope for low values, then linear with a different slope for high values, you can deduce that there are multiple terms, and fit for each. you can also do some fitting by hand, but it's a little time-consuming. you can do what computers do, just slower and not as accurately. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_equation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marchant_calculator#/media/File:Marchant_EB9.jpg",
"http://permalink.lanl.gov/object/tr?what=info:lanl-repo/lareport/LA-UR-86-2600-05"
] | [
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what physiological factors lead to breath holding ability? | i noticed when i was a kid i could hold my breath for 30 seconds, when i was a teenager i could hold it for a minute, and as a man i can hold it for two. besides lung volume, what factors allow breath holding ability? does fitness come into play, and the rate at which your body uses oxygen? is it related to vo2? | vo2 is indeed a portion of the factor, but the drive to breathe comes primarily from co2 levels within the body. since you understand vo2, i'll presume you understand it's relationship to co2, and such, if not, we'll go there in further posts. basically, being a more fit individual, combined with a larger lung volume allows you to decrease your resting vo2 and typically manage it better at all times, this means less co2 production, and a greater ability to hold your breathe for a longer period of time. basically, you're fighting to overcome a reflex, and a lot of it is willpower, but there is a point at which you will lose, training oneself to hold your breath longer involves blunting the respons, by willfully forcing yourself not to breath you blunt the response to co2 over time. stretch receptors in the lung are also involved, and o2 levels come into play slightly as you become hypoxic. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can't we extinguish the centralia mine fire in pennsylvania? | it's been burning for 55 years. it has to be a large contributor to current climate change, or is that not true? | it mostly has to do the size of the mine and fire, and the volume of material required to excavate it or extinguish it. the first attempt to put it out excavated almost 60,000 cubic yards of material before they gave up. the second attempt tried to backfill the mine with 10,000 cubic yards of material, but was also unsuccessful. to put that in perspective, a single dump truck can hold about 15 cubic yards of material. as for climate change, coal fires (there are hundreds throughout the world) are thought to contribute about 1% of global co2 emissions. the pennsylvania department of environmental protection has an [faq about the mine fire](_url_0_) if you want to learn more. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://files.dep.state.pa.us/Mining/Abandoned%20Mine%20Reclamation/AbandonedMinePortalFiles/Centralia/CentraliaFrequentlyAskedQuestions.pdf"
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[computing] how to compute the determinant of a large matrix with optimal precision? | for a cluster computing competition a couple years back, the challenge was to compute the determinant of a 5000x5000 square matrix (25,000,000 elements) consisting of double-lengths integers. my original idea was to row reduce the matrix and multiply the diagonal, but that seems like it would run into problems with the sheer quantity of multiplication that would need to occur leading to a reduction of precision. the goal of the competition was to be "accurate" (but that wasn't really defined very well) and to be the quickest to this "accurate" result. what methods would provide a quick and reliable answer, reddit? | decompose your matrix m using lu decomposition (into two lower- and upper-diagonal matrices) which you can achieve with a modified gauss-jordan elimination [1] in 2*n^(3)/3 flops and then calculate the determinant as: `det(m) = det(l) * det(u)`, which for triangular matrices is just the product of the entries in their diagonal. if your matrices are sparse, there are specific algorithms to handle them, but i'm not too familiar to say what's the best alternative. about the "optimal precision" part: i assume you already know floating point ops are inexact. therefore, you have 2 choices, after you determine the required precision: 1. if the required precision is within the limits of native floating types (commonly encountered as `float` or `double`, ieee754), then you can use those and the task is especially trivial 2. otherwise, use an arbitrary precision arithmetic library to represent your numbers. [1] using either crout's or doolittle's algorithm requires the same amount of flops. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what specific chemicals make tennis balls smell the way they do? | the scent is mainly from the leftover chemicals in the synthetic skin of the tennis balls. it's usually made of nylon and several other polymers, and without knowing the exact manufacturing process, it's difficult to pinpoint the compounds used. maybe a tennis ball manufacturer(?) can chime in here. what i can tell you is that while it is safe to breathe in small amounts of the volatile compounds like you're doing with a few tennis balls, if you find a way to recreate the chemicals, do not inhale it. organic compounds tend to not do you much good when in your respiratory and circulatory system. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
is there a current future and a current past? | the space we are looking into is the past and there could be some life form in the far distant, looking into their "hubble telescope" and seeing us, but we are already dead by then because that is in the future. looking a few light years away is the past for them and the present for us. so is it possible that there is a life form in the future that is looking at us right now but is a few thousand light years away? | if another life form were to be "looking at us", they would not see us in the future, they'd see us in the past. if they are, say, 25 light years away and had the ability to resolve our planet, they would see it as it was 25 years ago, just the same as when we look at them. this is due to the time it takes for light to reach them from us. furthermore, time is just as relative as movement in every other dimension, and is not a constant that is universal. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2aug1o/are_there_any_visual_not_radio_telescopes_in/"
] | [
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what is it about oxygen that makes it so critically important to... everything? | without it there'd be no life, no fire, no water, we'd be mars. i get all that but, why? what mystical properties does this element possess that causes it to be such a necessity to everything we know on this planet? beyond that, as my 5th grade lessons on photosynthesis taught me eons ago, plant life takes in co2 and produces o2 as a result. so what portion of this requires them to take in oxygen molecules in the form of water? does flora use the oxygen from water in a similar manner as fauna? | oxygen is a strong oxidising agent and combines with many substances to give out a large quantity of energy - as evidenced by anything that can be set on fire. this energy can be harnessed if the reaction is set up in the right way, and used for biological processes. there are other strong oxidising agents around, but they are either *too* oxidising (i.e. they tend to react with the biosystem that creates them) or are difficult to produce from readily available resources. with a bit of clever biochemistry, sunlight can be used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, and there's a whole lot of water around. this makes oxygen the natural choice for a biological oxidising agent. i'm not entirely sure what the second part of your question is asking - there's no such thing as oxygen molecules in the form of water. plants absorb water and carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. as part of this process, the water is split apart and its hydrogen is used to reduce the carbon dioxide into the carbohydrate. if the carbon dioxide is being reduced, something must be getting oxidised - in this case the oxygen, which is released as free gas. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why don't we quantify chemical imbalances in the brain for diagnostic purposes? | let's say a patient comes in with depression and anxiety (just assume it's for sure) as i understand it, there are a few options: wellbutrin, to increase the balance of dopamine and neuronephrine ssri, to increase serotonin and neuronerphrine or tricyclic, to increase dopamine, neuronephrine, and serotonin. now, as you can tell, i'm no doctor of any sort. but please correct me if that's inaccurate. my question is: why can't we just quantify levels of certain chemicals to know how to treat? please excuse my noobiness. | there are several issues here. you couldn't simply syringe out a sample of brain fluid like you can take a blood sample for biochemical analysis. the brain is not homogenous, not to mention the practical problems with even doing that if it was. the chemicals you are talking about are neurotransmitters, they are active only upon release into the synapses, so you'd have to measure them there rather than within the cells. the neurotransmitters have different effects in different brain regions as well. there are also effects from the reuptake rates; one might seem to have a low concentration of dopamine when in fact it is spending longer in the synapse and exerting more effect. sorry i haven't gone in to more depth but i hope this answers some of your question. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what does it mean if a compound is exergonic? | it says [here](_url_0_) that the binary fluorides of xenon are exergonic, but it also says they are stable at room temperature. what am i missing? if energy is going out of the compound? how is it stable? | you have to realize that the terms exergonic/endergonic here refer to the process of forming the compound. specifically, the terms are based on the sign of the [standard gibbs energy of formation](_url_0_) (dg^(f)). if dg^(f) in the case of exergonic compounds everything is reversed. there you release energy when forming the compound (the exergonic part). that same fact means that these compounds are thermodynamically stable. | 2 | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenon_hexafluoride"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Gibbs_free_energy_of_formation"
] | [
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if i eat a nut, or kernal and it comes out whole in my stool. do those calories count? | check out [some of these past posts](_url_1_). i also [provided a related answer here](_url_0_) regarding the atwater system, which measures food calories by finding the difference in energy between input (food) and output (excreta). this system is the basis upon which modern food calorie measurements are made. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3jfy19/why_do_we_measure_dietary_energy_by_burning_food/cuoxapj",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=food+calories&restrict_sr=on&sort=relevance&t=all"
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