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can a vaccinated non-carrier become a carrier if exposed to a vaccinated carrier? | your question is worded in a really broad manner and it's difficult to answer it like this. diseases and their causing pathogens don't all behave the same way. you really need to look at "who is carrying what pathogen where" to give a detailed answer. having said that, the broad answer is: if you are vaccinated and contract a pathogen and your immune system is able to detect the pathogen, your vaccination status makes your adaptive immune system kick into gear and fight the pathogen swiftly and efficiently. in that case you will no longer be a carrier after 3 to 5 days. however, biology is complicated. your immune system isn't equally efficient in all organs and under all circumstances. there is a [study on carriers of pertussis performed in baboons](_url_0_) that anti-vaccine proponents like to quote, in which vaccinated baboons spread the pertussis pathogen for 35 days after infection. the explanation is that the clearance rate in the lung was really low and it took the immune system some time to get rid of all pathogens. so yes, depending on circumstances of infection and specific pathogen, effective vaccination - none of the vaccinated baboons developed symptoms - does not mean that you have immediate clearance of all pathogens. another fun example that people like to bring up is the bcg "vaccine" and pulmonary tb. this really makes my blood boil. the simple answer is that you can dismiss anything anyone ever says about a vaccine against tb - so far there is no vaccination against pulmonary tb. tl;dr: depends on the person, the pathogen and the circumstances but yes, it theoretically can happen. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://vaxopedia.org/2018/07/09/can-vaccinated-children-be-asymptomatic-carriers-of-pertussis/"
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there are theories that say humans may kill/destroy earth. have scientists observed this same behavior in nature? has there been an organism that has killed its own ecosystem which in turn kills the offending organism? | this is not including invasive species or where humans intervened. i know viruses and some insects may kill their host or a tree but they normally have reproduced spreading to other hosts or trees. | google the term, "tragedy of the commons" and specify uses of the term in ecology. you will find plenty of examples. it doesn't even have to be "behavior" in the sense of the word you've used here. this type of competition has been experimentally shown in plants as well as animals. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any reverse of evolution process. (like when there is no competion and "survival of the fittest" doesnt apply?? | man becoming apes | if there were no competition and "survival of the fittest" did not apply, we would still expect to see random mutations. if the population was distributed over a large geographic area or there were otherwise isolated sub-populations, then the mutations wouldn't be mixed equally throughout the population, and we could expect to see "genetic drift" and mutations accumulating in some sub-populations. _url_0_ this would be similar to the way that the gene for "blue eyes" became common in humans in northern and eastern europe. _url_1_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_drift",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_color#Blue"
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why do children have the natural inclination to pick their noses? is there an evolutionary reason? | [deleted] | solid objects, namely drying snot, in our noses is very irritating. it's like an itch. you don't have to think at all to decide to deal with it. for kids, that means picking their nose. snot actually contains sugars, making it taste sweet, which leads to the possibility that eating boogers is beneficial to you. your nose filters out dust and bacteria and whatnot. you then eat it, and your body is exposed to these contaminates through your stomach, which is much more resilient than your lungs. this is the same thing that your tonsils do- exposing you to weakened bacteria to build immunity to them. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
do high pressure systems push low pressure systems away or does low pressure systems suck high pressure systems in? | like how heat flows from hot to cold | it's actually both. they pull together, but each force can still be measured separately. for instance, in a nuclear reactor the nuclear reaction creates heat that is used to boil water into steam. the water is confined at extremely high pressure and will not boil until it is released. it's sprayed into a gigantic turbine and instantly flashes into steam as it's freed. this produces hundreds of thousands of horsepower. but in order to make it even more powerful and efficient, they have a huge coolant system at the end!of the turbine, and by cooling the steam it collapses to become liquid water, which is more than 700 times as dense. this condensing into water produces an almost perfect vacuum and increases the total pressure gradient across the turbine. the reactor itself produces about 1000psi of positive pressure, and the vacuum created by the condenser is almost negative 15psi. so the total pressure is 1015psi. it might not sound like the condenser is doing much, but it saves hundreds of millions of dollars over the life of the reactor, and also allows more power from a given size reactor simply by cooling the exhaust with outside air. but that's a different topic for a different question! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how nutritious are animal organs (besides skeletal muscle)? should we be eating some of them? | i understand not eating brains (mad cow disease) and intestines (poop). but what about things like livers, kidneys, bone marrow? | people eat a lot of offal meat. prior to supermarkets and pre-packaged meat, it was very common to eat pretty much every part of an animal. [liver](_url_1_) is not only tasty, but incredibly high in iron and a bunch of other vitamins/minerals. have you ever heard the expression, "what am i? chopped liver?"? this refers to [food](_url_3_). [heart](_url_4_), being basically all muscle, is very high in protein. intestines are very commonly eaten as well, most commonly as [casings](_url_2_) for things such as sausages. have a look through the wikipedia article on [offal](_url_0_) for a lot more of the "other" parts of an animal that are readily consumed and highly nutritious. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offal",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_\\(food\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casing_\\(sausage\\)#Natural_casings",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chopped_liver",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart#Food",
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/evolution/becoming-human.html"
] | [
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] |
how exactly is information transferred with electricity? | can someone elaborate what is physically going on here? how exactly does it go from electricity to 1's and 0's? | voltage. for digital you set some voltage level for you logic device, like say 5v. you define voltages from 0v to 2v a logic "0" and 3v to 5v a logic "1". anything in between is indeterminate and an error. for analog voltage becomes the waveform you want to transmit. think of the graph of signal vs. time. just make the signal a voltage. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-flop_%28electronics%29",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/mr9fz/how_does_stuff_ie_information_travel_through/"
] | [
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does an electrocardiogram measure voltage or current? | the y axis on an ecg printout says millivolts, but the way it is explained in med school is that current moving through the heart muscle is what causes the deflection in the ecg. as an example, after the atria depolarize but before the ventricles do, the ecg shows a reading of 0 millivolts for a few milliseconds. i asked my professor why since there is still a potential difference between the two areas of the body (negative charge outside atria and positive outside ventricles). he said that it is because there is very little current flowing through the muscle during that time. so is the machine measuring current and inferring a voltage from that? unfortunately i took the physics sequence for bio majors in college which was just a repeat of high school physics, so i may be completely misunderstanding. | it is volt, as it is a measurement of 'electric tension' on the muscles. there is a current, as it is the current that induces this differential. you can never have a 0.000a environment with a volt-readout. what the ecg picks up is the volt in fact, as we can only measure "indirectly" over the body. in order to pick up current, we would have to disconnect tissue, put a machine in between the two disconnected tissues and then be able to read out what is going through there. i can imagine there would be some voltage difference in between those situations as described, but the ecg is only that precise. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the math used on this page and how is it used? what would a person have to do inorder to understand such mathematical equations? | you could try _url_0_ to start learning math and work your way up from there. it's entirely possible to get a barebones idea of what the math is saying on that page without understanding the details. it's multidimensional calculus. it takes a general formula and he solved for a particular case to prove that "energy density measured by observers whose 4-velocity is normal to the hypersurfaces" is negative. i'm not an expert on this, so maybe someone else can go into further detail as to why he picked those values to use. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.khanacademy.org/"
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] |
|
do the faa, air force, or any other flight monitoring/traveling agency go to any kind of special "alert status" during events such as tonight meteor shower? are we at an increased risk of flying tonight? | bonus question: odds of satellites and planes being taken out by a meteor? | no. not in the least. it depends heavily on composition, size, and the angle at which it enters the atmosphere, but most of the pretty meteors people are seeing tonight are well above surface of the earth, probably greater than 60 miles. for reference, a commercial jet typically flies at an altitude of 6 or 7 miles. [here's some background info if you're interested.](_url_0_) enjoy the show if it's clear where you live! there are a few places streaming online, including a nice one from some friends over at [nasa's marshall space flight center](_url_3_), and you can find tons more links on [_url_1_](_url_2_) right now as well. edit: there are some articles online from back in the mid 90's speculating that twa's flight 800 was struck by a meteorite, which some consideration about it's likelihood from the [cosmic variance blog](_url_5_) as well as [scientific american](_url_4_), but both conclude that it's potentially plausible considering the number of flights for the entirety of powered commercial flight (not a fair comparison, since planes in the last 30 years fly higher than in the previous 50), but ultimately very very unlikely given that planes are slender, fast moving targets. it's also very important to note that both of those articles were written well before the official accident report for that flight was released, which ultimately concluded that a short circuit ignited fuel vapors and caused the crash. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://earthsky.org/space/at-what-altitude-do-meteors-become-incandescent",
"SpaceWeather.com",
"http://spaceweather.com/",
"http://www.nasa.gov/connect/chat/geminids2012.html",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=is-it-possible-that-a-met",
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/cosmicvariance/2009/06/04/did-a-meteor-bring-down-air-france-447/#.UMqwocxwARg"
] | [
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does this "bottling effect" have any validity? | the world has more and more water bottled up in drinking water, water tanks, in food that is stored for months, etc. does this attribute anything to our water cycle? global warming? with less water that is able to be evaporated and turned into rain clouds does that explain some of the droughts these past years? | the volume of water we have stored in bottled water is likely insignificant as 97 percent of the earth's water is stored in oceans as salt water. ~70 percent of the rest of our water is stored in glaciers. considering we only have access to a small percentage of our total water, and considering that most of that water we use gets recycled rather than stored, the effect on climate is likely negligible. if anything, liquid water stores are increasing globally as glaciers melt with global temperature rise. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how long would it take to die in a brazen bull? | and what process would actually kill you? | overheating, presumably. once your body reaches temperatures above roughly 42 degrees, you're as good as dead. and how long it would take, would depend on how the fires are stoked, the material and thickness of the bull, the size of the nostrils (they transfer heat, but if they are too small, you might die of oxygen deprivation first, of course). also, if they put incense in there with you, carbon monoxide poisoning may be an issue. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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which type of diffusion do drugs like aspirin use to enter cells? | i'm stuck between simple and facilitated diffusion. both of them have a high to low gradient which aspirin follows. the only difference i found is that facilitated has protein channels. i can't figure out if aspirin need those proteins. aspirin is very easily dissolved and can move in and out of cells quickly which kinda points me towards simple diffusion, but i don't have anything to back that up. edit: my teacher told me that aspirin is hydrophilic and the lipid membrane is hydrophobic and those two don't mix well so the aspirin molecule requires a channel protein to cross through | roughly speaking, requirements for something passing through the cell membrane are: 1. small, no net charge or 2. lipid-soluble, no net-charge if it's large or charged, or it has low lipid solubility, it's going to need help. aspirin is lipid-soluble, so it's going to be able to pass through unassisted if it has no net charge. the next thing you need to realize is that acidic and basic compounds compounds (which aspirin is — hence the chemical name: acetylsalicylic *acid*) can be in charged or neutral state. the balance of the two depends on the acidity/alkalinity of the solution they are in. that means that aspirin is going to be able to more easily pass through unassisted when the balance between its neutral and its charged form is towards being neutral, which — since it's a weak acid — is going to occur when it is in acidic solution (such as your stomach). in short: it can ride simple diffusion into the cell, more easily so when the outside of the cell is acidic. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are the abdominal muscles dealt with during surgery? | it seems they would obstruct access to just about every major organ. | it depends somewhat on the type of surgery being performed and how much of the abdominal cavity you need to access. for surgeries over a very small area, a localized incision can be made and the muscles simply pushed aside during the surgery. for larger surgeries, a common strategy is to cut through the linea alba, a strip of connective tissue running down the middle of the six-pack. [the linea alba is the pale middle area in this picture.](_url_0_) in other cases, muscle must regrettably be cut (preferably lengthwise instead of across, as that heals much more easily). again, it all depends on what specific surgery is being performed. [quick summaries of common surgical incisions.](_url_1_) | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Rectus_abdominis.png",
"http://www.fastbleep.com/medical-notes/surgery/8/8/37"
] | [
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] |
what was it like when cosmic background radiation passed the visual spectrum? | if cosmic background radiation has been 'cooling down' (or stretching out /slowing down) from gamma rays at the beginning of time to xrays/tv static now, roughly how long ago did it go through the visual range? what would that have been like? what about thermal infrared? did everything get hotter for a while? | it started in the visible spectrum - a warm orange. it had an initial temperature of about 2700 k, and you can look on [this wikipedia chart](_url_0_) to see the colour. this might be cooler than you expect. what's going on is that we're not seeing the absolute initial temperature of the universe (if that even exists!). we're seeing the temperature of the early universe at the point that it got cool enough and thin enough to become transparent. ionised hydrogen absorbs a lot more light than neutral hydrogen, so it's only when the hydrogen got cool enough that it stopped being a plasma and started being a normal unionised gas that it became transparent, and the light could then freely fly out and be seen billions of years later. that transition from gas to plasma happens at thousands of degrees (rather than e.g. millions). this actually already was "thermal" emission. we only think of infrared emission as "thermal" because we're used to dealing with things that are around 300 k in temperature. at room temperature, thermal emission is mostly infrared. but at hotter temperatures, thermal emission is red, then orange, then yellow, then white, then blue, and onwards through ultraviolet and beyond. things still absorbed some of this radiation, and it contributed a bit to the heat of the early gas. however, because this gas was *transparent*, not very much of the cosmic radiation got absorbed and converted into heat. and by the time the first stars were forming, the cosmic radiation was already cooling down to far infrared to microwave level, and was a lot less intense. | 29 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_temperature#Categorizing_different_lighting"
] | [
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this is not a medical advice request. lansoprazole - a common ppi (as prescribed to me) states not to take indigestion remedies "2 hours before, or after" taking the medicine. why? i have searched, no actual answers. | **i am not asking for medical advice**. i am struggling to find out why this time line is stated on the pamphlet, and the label my pharmacist(s) put on the packaging. basic searching (as far as i have delved) only results in the actual medicine and its uses, not why you shouldn't take "indigestion remedies" within in this period. i also cannot find what types of indigestion remedies they are saying to avoid. i respect this isn't eli5, but i'd appreciate some clarification as to why, that a layman can understand. if not, i'm happy to read papers relating to this to try and figure my own way around, slowly. thank you. oh, they are gastro-resistant (enteric, if you prefer) capsules. | well since ppis reduce the production of stomach acid, taking additional indigestion medicines (that usually have a component that reacts with stomach acid to neutralize it) would probably throw off the ph of your stomach too much for it to continue functioning properly. this would amplify some of the negative digestive side effects of the ppi. also, there’s a good chance that if you have digestive side effects from the ppi that regular indigestion meds wouldn’t work anyways since it would be pushing your stomach further away from its preferred equilibrium rather than closer. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it safe to eat pigeon? | i'd like a more scientific answer than what i'm finding elsewhere. i don't see how they can be dirtier than chickens packed into an industrial farm or cows packed up their knees in pooh. is there some specific bacteria they carry that is particularly nasty or heat resistant that makes them more harmful? i know people have eaten them forever, but is there something about the city ones in particular that makes it dangerous? | i couldn't give you a specific chemical, but the common sense difference between the farm animals and the city pigeon is there diet. i doubt it makes any difference where they are stood (i.e in poo), but with farm animals you can be relatively sure they have not eaten some of the things a pigeon may eat, which may include industrial waste. this is wear you will find the nasties capable of doing some serious damage. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what causes the black halos around bright objects in some 1950s television programs, such as the those around the participants of this game show? | [here is an example.](_url_0_) | i want to mention that shows in the '50 were so much more entertaining than today. the tv cameras back then were an exact mirror image of a crt (cathodic ray tube). the light hit the photosensitive glass panel, and generated a positive charge while an electron beam scanned the surface of the glass. the black halo, i guess, is caused by either the camera trying to compensate for the bright face over-saturation, or is an artifact of a localized high positive charge on the glass in the bright areas which leaves the adjacent areas positive charge poor, thus darker. more about this: _url_0_ > an image orthicon camera can take television pictures by candlelight because of the more ordered light-sensitive area and the presence of an electron multiplier at the base of the tube, which operated as a high-efficiency amplifier. it also has a logarithmic light sensitivity curve similar to the human eye. **however, it tends to flare in bright light, causing a dark halo to be seen around the object; this anomaly is referred to as "blooming" in the broadcast industry when image orthicon tubes were in operation.** | 4 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/iXT2E9Ccc8A?t=16s"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_camera_tube#Image_orthicon",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_camera_tube#Dark_halo"
] | [
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is there a lagrange point at a binary system's center of mass? | if the two masses were the same, it (the center of mass) would coincide with the l1 lagrange point, but otherwise no. an object passing through the center of mass would have to orbit the heavier body faster (in degrees per second) than the lighter body, and so could not remain at the center of mass. the center of mass is not (unless the two bodies are the same mass, as above) the point where gravity from the two bodies cancels out. | 39 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
purifying drinking water - the nitty gritty | one always hears about how different methods of purifying water filter out and/or kill micro-organisms. however, that is only half the story, right? the main reason things like bacteria make you sick is the effluent that their metabolism produces (their "piss," to use a more standard term). my question is: how does something like chlorine bleach or iodine neutralise the water, chemically? | chlorine bleach will react with and oxidize almost everything that it touches. also, another very important source of contamination that can make you very sick are endotoxins, which are sugar molecules sticking out of bacteria. these are not destroyed by normal sterilization procedures (eg autoclaving). the bacteria might die, but those molecules remain and elicit a (sometimes severe) immune response. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotoxin#Endotoxin_contamination"
] | [
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how were diffraction patterns for crystallography resolved before computers? | was it done using pencil and paper calculations that translated into structures or did the patterns more directly correspond to certain structures? edit: clarified in post body | only the simplest of crystals could be understood definitively, because you can predict the diffraction patterns for a given crystal type. even the dna diffraction pattern in the classic watson and crick paper (done, of course, by rosalind franklin) only gave a general (double) helical pattern, not the exact crystal structure. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beevers–Lipson_strip",
"https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/hodgkin-lecture-1.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterson_function"
] | [
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are there any benefits we know of right now if we were to make it to the "island of stability" with super heavy elements? | after reading about the new element on here it got me thinking. are there any practical uses we know if right now if we were some how able to start producing these? i understand that when we discover new things we generally don't know what practical applications they have until after the fact, but i was wondering if there are things we know of right now that we could say, this would be possible if we had mass quantities of this super heavy element | keep in mind that the half lives of isotopes in the "island of stability" are still likely to be pretty short (a few seconds to days). this is long compared to nearby isotopes, but still too short for most practical applications. also, these experiments typically only produce a few atoms at a time. studying the island of stability is still useful. this insight that we gain will help us refine our understanding of atomic nuclei. for example, this understanding will allow us to build more accurate models for nuclear reactions, and allow us to design better nuclear reactors. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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putting something cool around your neck to cool your jugular vein, does that really help your body cool down? | i've been told for a long time that putting something cold around your neck helps you cool down because it helps cool down your jugular vein. is there any truth to this statement? | great question! i would say yes that can indeed cool you down. so, essentially this directly relates to how your body cools down naturally. when you are too hot your body begins to sweat and because water has a high specific heat capacity, it creates a cooling effect (it takes a lot of heat from your body to evaporate the sweat). your blood vessels also dilate when this happens, so that more blood will pass by the areas of your body that are sweating and experiencing the cooling effect. this is important because the core temperature of your body is what needs to be decreased and the peripheral areas of your body is what usually does the cooling. if you put ice directly near a jugular vein, it will create the same effect as sweating - in that it provides an area of cooling that is near blood vessels which is going to and from the core of your body. | 27 | [] | [] | [
"https://origin-ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0306456513000521-gr1.jpg",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306456513000521"
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does mediation have any scientifically proven benefits? | meditation seems very popular these days, and people attribute it a lot of benefits. i would like to know if this practice has ever been evaluated in a scientific way? | there is wikipedia article [research on meditation](_url_0_) that should get you started. it would be nice if people having new references and information would edit that page. ps. in my opinion, asking that kind of question is like asking: "sports seems very popular these days, and people attribute it a lot of benefits, does it have any?". meditation is very general and sometimes confusing term. there are huge number of different techniques that have different goals and different effects. very often meditation is used just as alternative word for relaxation technique. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_on_meditation"
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how can "spooky action at a distance" happen "instantly" if there is no such thing as a universal "instant"? | maybe another way of asking is: in which reference frame is the moment when spooky action occurs? | different reference frames will have different notions of how one should define the quantum state and they will give contrasting pictures of how the "spooky action" (in the copenhagen story, the collapse) goes down. but it does not matter at all, because everything "spooky" happens to the wavefunction/quantum state, which is an unphysical object which cannot be measured. there is no spookiness in actual observables. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does cavitation destroy propellers? | the explanation i've heard is that the fast moving outer edge of the propellers vaporizes surrounding water, forming small bubbles that then collapse upon themselves. but wouldn't the impact of the water ramming into the blades at high speeds be just as reasonable of an explanation, from a momentum/impulse standpoint? | there will be erosion from water sure, but think of the propeller as something designed to push through water rather than the water just being an obstacle to it, if that makes any sense. cavitation is the main culprit, the explanation is right, bubbles form on the surface of the propeller which will collapse, they collapse like this [image](_url_0_), don't underestimate the pressure of that jet of water, and a lot of these events happen in a very short amount of time, it's historically been a big corrosion issue. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://eswt.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/cavitation.gif"
] | [
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how does an aircrafts surface area affect it's flight path? | hi, ok so for a paper aeroplane, if it's surface area was increased and it's mass/centre of gravity/launch velocity remained the same, how would it affect the flight path (displacement, hang time, max height etc). wouldn't if have no effect as the drag would also be increased therefore cancelling out any gain in lift? thank you! | you need to be more specific about exactly how the geometry is changed. increasing the surface area, and therefore the wetted area, will increase the parasitic drag experienced due to skin friction. however, as the aspect ratio of the wing increases you will tend to reduce the lift induced drag upon the aircraft. there are so many concepts at play here that you will have to be very specific as far as geometry goes. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would it be possible to reuse kinetic energy to power lights/tunnels on highways? | i never really tried to develop anything on this, i was between trying to develop this or my other project in my senior engineering class, but i ended up going with the other project, but i was curious if anyone would have any idea if this would be even possible. (please tell me if this is a pipe dream) i thought of all the kinetic energy we waste when we drive, i wondered if there would be any way to put revolving wheels that could be placed on single lane roads, or perhaps tunnels, so that when cars run over these, it would generate energy that could be used to power lights on highways or in tunnels. has there ever been anything like this attempted ? if i had to guess the biggest problem in this is storing the energy produced by it, or it's not really reusing the energy. if it was feasible though, do you think normal people would be okay with it as having some sort of credit you could take off your power bill for running over these to help generate energy? | as englishdougie commented, it is definitely feasible, though costly. also, any energy you can gain within the road from a vehicle's kinetic movement is going to come from the vehicle, lowering it's efficiency. for instance, lets say you install a series of these panels on the highway, which are pressed downwards for a distance d by the car driving across them, generating energy. when driving across them, the car's potential energy from gravity is being expended into the panel. at the end of each panel, the car will have sank d millimeters, and will now need to climb back up that much to get onto level road. this will be experienced as a slight bump as the wheel crosses the lip of the next panel. what you end up with though is that the car is, in effect, always climbing. take the squeeze distance d over the width of each panel w and you've got your new effective incline grade of the highway. anyone driving on that highway will be spending the energy it would have taken to constantly drive up that incline, rather than to drive flat. it would work better with foot traffic, where there is a lot of wasted energy impacting the ground already with footfalls. in any case the cost of creating a mechanically dynamic road and keeping it maintained in the long run would be far less efficient than using conventional power lines or lights powered by solar panels and batteries. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.physorg.com/news190533213.html"
] | [
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how did the first ever logic gate chip get made? | chips like and, or nand, xand, xor, xnor and such, logic gates basically. we currently make them with factories that are already created with these chips but where and how did it start? | well i am a rising junior in computer engineering so i'll give this my best shot! logic gates are made up of transistors, a device that has been around since about 1925 which you can read here: _url_0_. however, production chips are made of silicon transistors which was created in 1954 by a few guys it would go on to be known as silicon valley for that reason. as you may know, transistors are the fundamental components of logic and so many and, or nand, xand, xor, xnor chips were created for the purpose of making electronics and eventually the computer. many companies sprang up for making and selling these chips like ti and ibm. the rest is history. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_transistor",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/trangate.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-effect_transistor"
] | [
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why do we use or gates in computer chips? why don't we just merge two traces instead? | i mean, if we don't care which input it came from, then why not merge the traces? either way as long as one of the traces is high, then wouldn't merging two traces just act like an or gate? | emitter coupled logic (ecl) is a logic family that does allow implementing or by simply wiring the outputs of two gates together. this is because an ecl gate can only source output current, not sink it. a pull-down resistor is needed at the output of each gate (or "wired-or" combination) to produce a low logic level. however, ecl is not used for computer chips for a few reasons. unlike cmos, ecl gates consume power even when not switching, making ecl typically more power hungry in complex circuits (although it can be more efficient in high-speed circuits that are never idle). and it uses differential signals, resulting in more transistors, and thus more die area, needed for each gate. | 5 | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to "mine" the air, e.g. for carbon? | i'm just asking because the idea has stuck with me since i read red mars and i was wondering if it was pure science fiction, or if there was any plausibility behind it. | argon, nitrogen and oxygen are typically produced by [separating them from the air](_url_0_). taking co2 out of the air would be very inefficient - there are far easier sources of carbon which are much more concentrated. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_separation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-independent_reactions"
] | [
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what is that disease that you can see in someone's eyes when you take a photograph of them with the flash on? sorry if i sound crazy but i know i've seen that before. | you're probably thinking of [retinoblastoma](_url_0_), a relatively rare eye cancer. you can even see a flash picture on the wikipedia page linked. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinoblastoma"
] | [
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|
how do different bases of math work? | i hear people talking about how we use base 10 math, but what is the difference between it and say, base 8 math? | you know how a number like 3214, there's a 1's place (4), a 10's place (1), a 100's place (2), and a 1000's place (3), right? so, 3 \* 1000 + 2 \* 100 + 1 \* 10 + 4 \* 1 = 3214. instead of thinking of it like that, think of the places as powers of ten: 1 = 10^0 , 10 = 10^1 , 100 = 10^2 , and 1000 = 10^3 . what base 8 does, or any base, is replace the 10. so base eight has a 1's place (8^0 ), an 8's place (8^1 ), a 64's place (8^2 ), and so on. so 3214 in base eight is 3 \* 512 + 2 \* 64 + 1 \* 8 + 4 * 1, which converted to base 10 is 1676. and since the places are based on 8's, no digit in a number is higher than 7. you count 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, because you've now reached 1 in the 8's place. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when the baby is in the womb, is it under any atmospheric pressure? | could be rephrased "how much pressure is the baby under in the womb?" | the pressure inside the womb is at a rough equilibrium with the outside air. this is easy to see when you realize that for it to be higher the womb would have to be constantly under tension to resist the pressure inside, and for it to be lower, the womb would have to be a rigid body to resist the outside air pressure. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
question from my father: what would happen if temperature suddenly dropped below freezing during fog? | imagine if you're standing in fog, and you couldn't see more than 5 meters in front of you. what would then happen if the temperature suddenly dropped to less than 0 degrees celsius? | [hard rime](_url_0_). no it's not some new form of gangster rap. it actually happened a winter or two ago here in iowa, and it was one of the most beautiful things i've ever seen. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_rime"
] | [
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is it true that the laws of thermodynamics place an upper limit on the longevity of life. if so how? | i have heard that because the total amount of usable energy in the universe in decreasing there is no way life could last forever. is this true and could you explain it a little more? | it's all about entropy, check out [heat death of the universe](_url_0_) there is currently a lot of free energy. on earth, there are stored forms like hydrocarbons (oil), radioactive materials etc. life is hypothesized to have been formed from pools of certain elements being struck by lightning (the energy from which forms amino acids and then proteins). eventually, all forms all of energy like this will essentially run their course. stars will cease to exist as all basic elements (hydrogen and helium) will have reacted via fusion to form heavier elements. i can't really say more about the topic (from lack of knowledge). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_fate_of_the_universe"
] | [
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how exactly do we determine or calculate the p-value? | i know what the p-value is and how to interpret and use it, but i've never understood how this value is calculated. | you start with your assumptions and null hypothesis. in the case of a point-null-hypothesis -- such as with a typical two-tailed test (e.g. a two-tailed version of a t-test, or wilcoxon-mann-whitney, or sign test, or f test for a ratio of variances, etc), this should give enough information to calculate the distribution of the test statistic when the null hypothesis is true (if not algebraically, then by simulation or in some cases by complete enumeration). in the case of a composite null hypothesis (such as h0: µ ≤ 0) you take a particular "worst case" (in terms of significance level; in this case it would normally end up being µ=0) and work from that. in either case you end up with a specific null distribution, either for the point null you specified or the particular point in the parameter region of the null hypothesis that would make the significance level largest. you can then see that the statistic "orders" (more strictly a partial order) the possible samples in terms of how discrepant they are from the null, in the direction of the alternative (e.g. in a two tailed t-test, if we treat the test statistic as s = |t|, then smaller values of s are more consistent with the null and larger values less consistent with it; for any two samples we can say whether one has a more extreme test statistic than the other. from the null-distribution, we can therefore calculate (perhaps algebraically, perhaps via simulation) the probability of getting a value at least as discrepant from the null as the observed value from the sample. that's the p-value. let's invent a test on the spot! we have a bag with 3 red balls and an unknown number (b) of blue balls. our null hypothesis is that there's no more than 4 blue balls in the bag (h0: b ≤ 4); the alternative is that there are more than 4 blue balls. we mix the bag well and draw a sample of m balls and the more blue balls we observe, the more likely we are to doubt the null; so we'd look to reject when there were more than some critical number of blue ones (reject when the observe number of blue balls in the sample is at least k for some value of k). let's say we draw m=4 balls and observe s blue balls. the "worst case" under the null in this situation is b=4 (it gives the highest chance to reject when the null is true, for some specific k), so we will use that to calculate our null distribution. so for the case where we have 3 red balls and 4 blue balls and we draw 4 balls, what's the probability of each possible outcome? we can work it out fairly easily: s: 1 2 3 4 p(s=s): 4/35 18/35 12/35 1/35 (all other outcomes have probability 0. we can calculate these numbers using elementary rules of probability or we can use the hypergeometric distribution) note also that with this particular test and worst-case under the null, our smallest observable p-value is 1/35 (about 2.86%). we had better set our significance level no lower than that or we could never reject the null. we don't need to choose alpha to compute the p-value, though; we only need it to compare the p-value to (we reject if p is less than or equal to alpha). with the rejection rule "reject when s=4", which gives that significance level of 2.86%, if we drew all blue balls we'd conclude that there's more than 4 in the bag (because drawing so many if there were only 4 blue balls is fairly unlikely). so now say we actually draw our sample and observe how many blue balls there were in our sample. let's say we observe 3 blue balls in our drawing of 4. then for that sample there would be a p-value of 12/35 + 1/35 = 13/35 which is about 0.37. that's it -- we just saw how to build a hypothesis test from scratch, including how to calculate a p-value from it. we could even go on to see what the *power* is when b=5, 6, 7, 8, ... etc for a particular significance level. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could be build a listening device small enough to hear what is going on at the atomic level? | has anyone ever thought to try, and is it even possible, to build an antenna/amplifier that would be capable of listening in to what is going on at the atomic, or even smaller, level? i was thinking about the possibilities of there being (up to) 11 dimensions, and how it might be possible for there to be a kind of wavelength that is only detectable at the atomic or subatomic levels, since it might exist in one of the other dimensions that we are unfamiliar with. of course, i have had a series of extremely long days and just watched through the wormhole for the last several hours, so i could just be really tired. | well think about what sound is, it is the compression and expansion of matter. when you shout, all that's happening is a propagation of air molecule collisions. essentially, when we get down to the atomic level, there is nothing for this sound wave to travel through. much the same reason as not hearing sounds in space. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question regarding failure to detect neutrinos in concert with grb (article linked) | hi guys, i have a relatively simple question regarding the recent article found here: _url_0_ for those unable to access new scientist articles, the bit i have a question about is here: > uhecrs, very high energy protons and charged nuclei, occasionally arrive on earth , where they are detected by cosmic ray detectors such as the pierre auger observatory in argentina. uhecrs are known to come from outside our galaxy, but because they get deflected by magnetic fields en route, it's impossible to retrace their path and determine their source. and this: > theory predicts that icecube should have seen a handful of neutrinos at the same time, from the same region of the sky. but today icecube reports that it saw absolutely nothing – a serious blow to a cascade of processes astrophysicists thought they understood. my question is; if the gamma rays had been bent by magnetic fields en route, they would have travelled further than the neutral neutrinos which would have been unaffected by magnetic fields and therefore travelled in a straight lines. why then are they expected to show up at the same time? surely over the distances involved travelling a curved route would mean they would not only arrive at a different time, but arrive at a **very** different time. edit: resolved, see only post. thanks quarked! | firstly, i just want to warn you that the cosmic rays you mention in your first quote *are not gamma rays*. gamma rays are photons, which are *not* charged and thus not bent along their path due to electromagnetic forces (although they can scatter if they directly hit something still). now i couldn't access the article you posted where i am right now, but i would guess that the astronomers were looking at some cosmological event (such as a supernova or other cosmologically significant event) in our direct line of sight which we would expect to emit both cosmic rays and neutrinos. the cosmic rays, if their path to us is relatively unobstructed, should reach us along with a burst of neutrinos. but i don't know the particulars of the article you posted - i will have to access it from my home network later. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21717-neutrino-noshow-deepens-cosmic-ray-mystery.html"
] | [] | [
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is it possible that some people subjectively experience everything mirrored? | if the universe evolves in the same way in either handedness, then you'd expect that the pattern recognition and experiences of people in either handedness would be unchanged as well. and so this gets me thinking: what if there are people who actually see everything reversed as i would see it, but it looks perfectly normal to them! if they write out a seven, they will write it out in mirrored-but-normal-looking-to-them form, but because their whole surroundings are mirrored as well, it would still look like a normal 7 in the other handed view of the world. is this possible? and if so, is there any conceivable experiment (whether it be superficial, or some advanced neuroscience thing) we could perform to find out if there are indeed people who see everything mirrored from others? of course, this doesn't necessarily have anything to do with actual left-right hand dominance. and i'd imagine it would be somewhat analogous to how it's conceivable that someones blue might be another ones yellow. in the sense that's we'd both agree that this or that object has the color we associate with the word, but we'd "see" the colors differently. | ah, that old chestnut. traditionally, it is impossible to perceive someone else's perception. depending on where the abnormality occurs for someone to see in mirrors, ie the eye, optic nerve or the primary visual cortex. it could be possible to transplant it the structure in the future. for now any structural inconsistencies can be observed and tampered with, to extrapolate an inference on how a subject can see. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the human brain have the ability to actually decode a subliminal message?(e.g. backward message hidden in a music track) | hi askscience! i'm aware this subject is conspiration theorist fuel but i've always had that question and i'm trying to look some serious opinions. i know that the brain may respond to some hidden stimuli, but what about something that requires more mental work?. it is possible to subconsciously decipher (and learn) the information presented that way? *english is not my native language so please forgive any grammatical errors!* | let's step away from the backward music silliness and focus instead on other subliminal messaging techniques. plenty of folks have tried things like flashing images of a product on a movie screen too fast for the audience to see, or subliminal 'self-help' tapes that promise to raise your performance on tests if you listen to them while you sleep. academic research into these questions have found almost no evidence to suggest they work. but that is a different question from if we can process the information. however, the entire point of "subliminal" is that it is below the threshold of conscious awareness. this makes the question of if we can process the "information" fairly tricky to assess because definitionally, if we can say we heard or saw the message, then it wasn't subliminal. ultimately i suspect most neuropsychologists would come down on the side of us not being able to process the information as information. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priming_(psychology)"
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water pressure and deep sea life | the post about the largest deep sea amoeba and how little its studied had me thinking about a way to bring them to the surface for study. if you were to take a submersible down to the bottom of the mariana's trench with an arm capable of sealing some sort of tube or container with the amoebas inside, how would the pressure inside the container work? would it remain under the same pressure it was at the bottom of the ocean when it was filled or would the pressure reduce as you climbed to the surface? if you kept the temperature and food supply at a steady pace similar to the bottom of the ocean would the water pressure have an adverse affect on many or all deep sea creatures? as far as i remember water cant really be compressed but it is more or less just the pressure of the water above a point. if you had a large enough tank and let it fill then sealed it, could a person enter that container at the bottom of the ocean and experience the same pressure as near the surface? would the container effectively break the pressure of the water above it? edit: _url_0_ forgot the link to the page about the amoebas in case anyone was interested. | it would remain the same. the compressibility of water is low, but it does compress. if you constrain it to the same volume while compressed and remove the counteracting exterior pressure, it will put stress on your container walls. | 2 | [] | [
"news.discovery.com/animals/deep-sea-amoeba-life-111023.html"
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what does color mixing look like in terms of math? | while working with photoshop i noticed a blend tool that could blend colors together, and then i realized that i'm not sure how it knows. is there a mathematically process to color mixing using rgb, hex, and/or cmyk? if so, what does it look like? | every image reproduced with rgba or cmyk is a color blend, that's how they work. you blend between the three primary colors and the alpha/key for brightness. so it's not so much an algorithm as manipulating the fundamentals behind how we represent color in the first place. in image processing, color is really a single point in a fourth dimensional space. r, g, b are your color axes, and alpha is the brightness axis. if you want to blend between two colors, you're asking "what points lie between these two endpoints in my color-space?" to find all color blends between those points, you just draw a line between the two endpoints and pick a value at a certain distance along the line. and just remember that hex is rgb, just truncated to a finite number of bits per channel. and cmyk is translated into a subtractive color synthesis model for printing, as opposed to additive color synthesis model for viewing on a screen. hsv is is a bit different in that color is represented as an angle, saturation a radius, and brightness a height in a cylinder. so picking another point and drawing a line to it won't work, as you can imagine you'd wind up with totally different colors and brightness in between! i'm not sure if adobe has their own interpolation scheme for hsv color as opposed to rgb or if they just convert to rgb for blending. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the ground feel like it's moving after i get off a treadmill? | it's how your sense of balance works. it's called a vestibular illusion. as the fluid in your inner ear gets used to a certain pace or frequency of movement and what you are seeing matches up you have balance. once they conflict you get effects like vertigo or a sense the ground is moving, etc. _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusions_of_self-motion"
] | [
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|
if you have an arm rotating around a point and another arm rotating around the outer point of the first arm, can the outer point of the second arm be anywhere within the circumference of both arms? | as you probably notice, i had a hard time explaining that. but i saw [this](_url_0_) on /r/oddlysatisfying and started to wonder if the outmost point is limited in some way. what is the easiest way to prove it does/doesn't? | yes. you can consider the two arms to be legs of a triangle, and then draw the imaginary third leg between the center and tip of the second arm. the imaginary leg can become any length between 0 and 2l, where l is the length of each arm. you can see how if you hold the inner arm vertically and rotate the second arm 360 degrees around the joint. then, you hold the first arm at any arbitrary angle, or all angles, which shows that the outer tip can pass through any point. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/S6aA4hc.gif"
] | [] | [
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what is the difference between a retrospective cohort study and a case control study? | as i currently understand it, a case control study is finding people with (and without) a disease and then conducting an interview of sorts to determine whether they have been exposed to a stimulus. (for example an adult with heart disease is asked whether they ate a lot of sugar as a child) i understand that a prospective case control study is meeting them as children and tracking their dietary habits to determine whether a stimulus causes an outcome. (for example, recording the amount of sugar a bunch of children eat and then seeing if they develop heart disease as an adult). but a retrospective case control study is again, looking for people with (and without) a disease and asking if they have been exposed to a certain stimulus. my professor tried to explain the difference between a case control and a retrospective cohort, but i still have no idea what (or even if) the difference is. | case control creates their study population by identifying cases and matching each case with one or more control people. any cohort (retrospective or prospective) identifies a cohort of people to study, not cases, and follows them for a period of time. retrospective finds a historical cohort (group of people) and then looks at a period of time that is in the past. prospective recruits a cohort today and follows them into the future for a specified period of time. the cohort studies might be concerned about a specific outcome (a disease or something) but you aren't picking your cohort based on "cases" of that outcome. in case control you are specifically identifying cases and then matching them with control subjects to create your study population. i hope that makes a little more sense for you. happy to try to explain further if it doesn't. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the mesh made of that is used for hernia repair? no medical advise. | wikipedia has an article on [inguinal hernia surgery](_url_1_) with a section on [meshes](_url_1_#meshes). sounds like you may be getting a type of [biomesh](_url_4_). these are still an emerging technology. [cook biodesign](_url_3_) has very interesting resources on their own product. if this turns out to be the one your doctor suggests they are using for your procedure, it would be made from the [small intestinal submucosa](_url_6_) of a pig. there are four major layers of tissue comprising normal gastrointestinal tracts: mucosa, submucosa, muscular stuff, and the smooth outer serous layer. producers strip out everything but the submucosa and end up with a rigid, sturdy material full of [collagen](_url_2_). they sterilize it before providing it to doctors in various shapes and sizes. pigs are used because it they are generally accepted as the best non-human donors for us for a variety of reasons. see [xenotransplantation](_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenotransplantation#Potential_future_animal_organ_donors",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inguinal_hernia_surgery",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collagen",
"http://www.cookbiodesign.com/procedures/hernia-repair",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomesh",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inguinal_hernia_surgery#Meshes",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_intestinal_submucosa"
] | [
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|
why is it that the bottom of our feet tends to be more sensitive than the top? | after all, we use the bottom of our feet to touch the ground as we walk. from an evolutionary standpoint, shouldn't the bottom of our feet be less sensitive so as to avoid pain when walking over hard/jagged ground? | that's exactly why they're so sensitive. because you use the bottom of your feet to walk on, your body needs to keep a better track of when they get damaged so you don't hurt them further by walking on them. pain sensors are more clustered where the area of body they're innervating is more likely to get damaged. they're there to tell your body when it's been damaged so therefore they're more clustered in those regions. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how does the concentration of a particle in a solvent and temperature affect the ultrasound velocity passing through the medium? | i'm working with ultrasound spectroscopy but having trouble understanding how temperature and concentration can affect speed of sound that passes through it. | in a gas its relatively simple. humidity would be an example. since the ideal gas law works so very well, the behavior of a mixture of molecules depends mostly just on the average weight of the molecules. since h2o weighs just over half as much as o2 or n2, humidity will [dramatically raise the speed of sound in air](_url_0_). in a liquid it is more complicated. for one thing if the viscosity changes, the damping coefficient will change. the speed of sound in a material is very roughly given by: c=sqrt(k/ρ) where k is the bulk modulus (compressibility) and ρ is the density. most obviously, density will be affected. under certain circumstances the bulk modulus could also change- gas dissolved in water under high intensity sound, for instance. cavitation would make for extremely nonlinear transmission. chemistry isn't my thing so i'm guessing here, but i would think at low sound intensity with low concentrations of solvate, the bulk compressibility of liquids will stay relatively constant. in solids this isn't true- .3% carbon by mass in elemental iron will cause huge changes in the speed of sound. in liquids, maybe the compressibility will just be the average of the components? | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.phy.mtu.edu/~suits/SpeedofSound.html"
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secret behind lizard regeneration? | hi guys! does anyone know what the genetic code for the lizards regeneration of lost limbs is? help is really appreciated! ( no, google does not help :c.) | i don't think your question can be answered, as written. there isn't some specific, one-line type of "code" that rebuilds a tail. it's an interaction between a whole bunch of different genetic induction factors. a lot of genes that are involved in initial growth become reactivated during regrowth (this is cool because these are usually only active during embryo development, but are then silenced or take on other functions in mature individuals) -- that means that a lot of what a lizard needs to regrow it's tail is already in it's genetic code, somewhere! (same as you and me, the major difference being they have some other activation pathways to get them going, which we do not). it doesn't work for every type of cell growth -- bone, for example, is not regrown in lizard tail. there's a [really cool blog entry here](_url_0_) that goes through more detail and focuses on some of the key playing genes in tail regrowth in geckos! they give a great outline of all the different steps that have to occur for regrowth, and have a couple key examples of gene function and activition that are important for the regeneration that we are beginning to understand. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.devbio.biology.gatech.edu/?page_id=2641"
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] |
if you could flip a coin in a vacuum with the exact same force and at the exact same angle each time, would it always land on the same side? | yes. if all the variables are controlled, the outcome should be the same. now, a perfect vacuum is experimentally impossible to achieve, but if we're talking about something as large as a penny, subatomic particles really won't make much of a difference on the penny. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is the recent italian cold fusion test bs? | _url_0_ i've never really been clear about why cold fusion is always twenty years out, but since i've grown up with that idea anybody who claims to have solved it strikes me as a snake oil salesman. do the experts have qualms about this guy? besides the fact that he left an external generator plugged in to the 'fusion' device during the test. if real though, wouldn't this completely change the world ?? | this was asked about a week ago. anyway, nothing's changed since. first off, this isn't 'cold fusion', even rossi himself seems to have distanced himself from that claim. although he doesn't really have a credible explanation himself for what's going on. there's _no evidence at all_ that there's actually anything nuclear going on whatsoever (gamma rays, neutron production, stuff like that, which would be incontrovertible evidence of nuclear reactions). that's only something people inferred from the quantity of energy that's _supposedly_ generated by the thing. but that's the entire bone of contention in the first place, whether or not it's actually putting out significant amounts of energy. the problem with this 'test' is that it still (from what i can tell) utilizes the same flawed methodology as previous ones. they don't measure the actual quantity, [quality](_url_0_), temperature and pressure of the steam output. in other words, they _don't_ measure the amount of energy coming out of the device. rather they're measuring the (supposed) amount of water coming out and subtracting that from the water going in, _assuming_ the rest is saturated steam. also, the machine leaks(!). (and frankly, the quality of some of the 'reports' on this thing are lower than i'd expect from an undergrad student project). it's a non-trivial thing to calculate the amount of energy in steam. as i said a week ago (and others have apparently pointed out), it would be _much_ easier to just up the water flow rate to keep the thing at below-boiling temperature and just measure the outgoing water temperature, which would avoid the difficulties with steam and make a much simpler (and thus more convincing case). but rossi hasn't done that. why not? the data provided is pretty opaque. lots of irrelevant detail while not actually measuring lots of important things. what i'd expect is a straight up-and-down accounting of mass and energy flows, of the kind that every chemical/energy process engineer knows how to do. how much electricity went in? how much hydrogen? how much water went in, and at what pressure and temperature? how much water came out (including "leaks"), and at what p and t? and of course all the parameters from the steam as well. i don't see much reason to take it seriously otherwise. if you claim to have a revolutionary new invention, then the burden of proof is on _you_ to check and double-check and make everything as rock-solid as possible. accounting for mass/energy flows correctly does _not_ actually require revealing any details about what's going on inside the 'black box'. there's little excuse. as long as you leave room for a methodological/calculation error, i have little reason to assume it's anything else. | 80 | [] | [
"http://pesn.com/2011/10/28/9501940_1_MW_E-Cat_Test_Successful/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_quality",
"http://www.nyteknik.se/incoming/article3303817.ece/BINARY/Updated+analysis+Ecat+Oct+6+Roberson+%28pdf%29",
"nyteknik.se",
"http://www.e-catworld.com/2011/10/what-did-the-e-cat-test-achieve/",
"e-catworld.com",
"http://translate.google.com/translate?js=n&prev=_t&ie=UTF-8&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unibo.it%2FPortale%2FPersonale%2FLavorare%2BUnibo%2FIncarichi%2Besterni%2Fincarichi.htm%3Fpagenum%3D1",
"http://translate.google.com/translate?sl=it&tl=en&js=n&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=2&eotf=1&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unibo.it%2FPortale%2Fdefault.htm"
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what happened to the alleged cold fusion that italian andrea rossi was working on? | what happened is that rossi is still doing whatever he thinks he's doing. he hasn't allowed anyone to look at his thing, or perform their own measurements. (and quite a lot of problems have been pointed out with how rossi measured things) it's a media story really, not a scientific one. the burden of proof is on rossi, and he hasn't shown any. see also: [other threads](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=rossi&restrict_sr=on",
"http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46342612/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/fraud-claims-over-e-cat-cold-fusion-machine-heating/"
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|
why do animals have a fixed body plan? why don't plants? | maybe because animals can move, and plants can't. meaning, a plant must adjust it's shape to maximize sunlight. it can't take five steps to the left or right, to step out of the shade of an older larger plant. variable shape is a way of "moving". | 36 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how seriously is dave grossman's 'killology' taken by scientists? has there been further research in this field? | (psychology/military science/social sciences) dave grossman, a retired lieutenant colonel of the us army and psychologist, coined the term [killology](_url_1_) in the book *[on killing](_url_0_)* (1995). the main thesis of that book is that most humans have a strong innate revulsion towards killing another human being, and that having to kill in a personal way is a major source of psychological trauma in war. it seems to be taken quite seriously by the us military. i found this book to be quite flawed (many unsubstantiated claims and unscientific flights of fancy), but i wonder how well the overall thesis of the book is received by scientists in relevant fields. one of the main problems with the book is that grossman drew his evidence primarily from the last two hundred years of western military history. has there been more research in the same vein that looked at other time periods and cultures and/or came to a different conclusion? | while i'm not familiar with the term "killology," there is a lot of moral dilemma research on what modulates someone's willingness to kill someone. this research is often done using some variant of the [trolley problem](_url_2_), in which a participant basically has to decide which set of people she/he's willing to let die in a train accident. for instance, consider you're standing at the point where a train track diverges. on on track are tied five people. the oncoming train is going to hit these people if you don't do anything. on the other track is tied one person. if you flip the switch in front of you, the train will divert and hit this person. most people given this paradigm will make the utilitarian choice, and have one person die instead of five. however, some changes to the picture will decrease the percentage of people who are willing to kill the one person. there are two findings i know of that relate to your question. [the first](_url_0_) says that when there is more *personal force* involved in the decision, you're less likely to kill the one person. that is, if the decision was to push someone onto the tracks to stop the train, you're less likely to say yes than if there was some switch you flip so that you indirectly cause their death. the second finding (same paper and [this one](_url_1_)) describes how you're less likely to kill the single person if their death is considered a means to a greater good, rather than a side-effect of achieving a greater good. that is, it's harder to move a person into harm's way to stop a train than it is to move the train out of the way, which then as a side effect hits a person. building on these, there's some affective neuroscience work that shows how making the more difficult moral choice is very stressful and emotionally impactful, as suggested by self report and neuroimaging. it seems to me that this would help support grossman's assertion that killing in a personal way (using personal force as a means to an end, like in my examples above) would be traumatic. | 2 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Killing",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killology"
] | [
"https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/4264763/Greene_MoralButtons.pdf?sequence=2",
"http://pss.sagepub.com/content/18/3/247.short",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trolley_problem"
] | [
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does our visual field have a sense of location? | so basically i'm asking about the vision perceived in our mind. the perceptual space we call our visual field. to me it seems as if it's located right behind my nose. everyone tells me that there's no space in the mind so why does it actually feel like it's located right where our eyes are on our head. if you imagine your eyes are on your forehead and your still perceiving the image exactly the same way in the mind that space still feels to me as if im looking straight into a space that's located right behind my nose. any insight interesting to think about. if you imagine your eyes are in your stomach it still feels as if the image is in the head behind the nose to me just i'm like watching a movie filmed at a different angle. | so the term "visual field" has a specific definition: it is the area of space that we can see, kind of equivalent to the idea of a field of view. what you seem to be asking is whether our conscious perceptual experience appears to be from "inside the head", like we're a [homunculus](_url_3_) trapped inside of our skulls looking out through windows which are our eyes. importantly, we're talking about our experience here -- what it is like to see the world -- not about how we represent space and objects in space relative to our bodies, i.e. [egocentric vs. allocentric reference frames](_url_0_). your description seems to be the general way that people describe their perceptual experience (i.e. centered within our body / head). however, "out of body" experiences can easily be induced by, for example, having a display in front of you that always shows the back of your head (recorded with a camera behind you). in such a set up, people report that they are watching their body from behind ([ehrsson 2007](_url_2_); see [blanke and metzinger 2008](_url_1_) for a review). i think that's sort of what you are getting at. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/mkozhevnlab/?page_id=308",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas_Metzinger/publication/23626088_Full-body_illusions_and_minimal_phenomenal_selfhood/links/02e7e52fb2b15ef03c000000.pdf",
"http://www.neuro.ki.se/ehrsson/pdfs/Ehrsson-Science-2007-with-SOM.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homunculus"
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if i wear an antistatic wrist strap without connecting it to the ground, then generate some static electricity on myself, can i discharge the electricity by grounding it now, without getting shocked? | i'd like to move around freely, and only ground myself when i realize i have of a buildup of static electricity. is this possible? thanks! | how do you know when you have accumulated a static charge? unfortunately, as soon as you aren't grounded, your charge begins to accumulate. an anti static wrist strap has a resistor built in to protect the user from high current discharge while it slowly discharges any static build up. this is why you never ever just wrap a wire around yourself. while you will not be shocked after a pause thanks to the slow drain, they are meant to be worn and grounded continuously. the static buildup may destroy sensitive electronics if you allow periods of unprotected contact. keep in mind, most components are robust enough that a strap isn't even necessary, but others can be damaged by static much lower than the levels that cause noticeable shock. in other words, if you really need to be wearing a wrist strap for sensitive components, you should keep it grounded. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the foundational axioms (empirical statements) of the theory of electromagnetism? | to be more precise, i am not referring to laws like biot-savart law, which is derived from said empirical statements. this question arose when the lecturer said that we don't really know why lorentz force behaves the way it does - we take it for granted as an empirical statement. | the foundation of classical electromagnetism is maxwell's equations, and the foundation of quantum electrodynamics is the qed lagrangian. your professor was perhaps referring to the fact that we can never figure out why we live in a universe that has the properties it does. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do cells know their 3d position, in order to make the correct shaped organism? | there are multiple mechanisms at play at different times in different tissues, and i'll just list a few. one common mechanism is a gradient of a secreted factor. in the developing spinal cord, for example, the cells at the ventral side (bottom) secrete a signaling molecule called sonic hedgehog (shh). shh diffuses away from the cells that secrete it, so the area closest to the ventral side has the highest concentration of shh, and the area farthest from the ventral side has the lowest concentration. a developing cell just needs to sense how much shh is in its environment to identify its position. as you can imagine, if there were multiple gradients along different axes, a cell would be able to define its 3d location with more precision, and this happens in other parts of the nervous system. another common mechanism is through cell-cell contact, where cells migrate to be with other cells that express complementary proteins on their surfaces. it's as if some cells have the sticky part of velcro and some have the fuzzy part, and the sticky cells find the fuzzy cells and stick to them. a third mechanism might be considered the "just keep swimming" mechanism. in the developing cerebral cortex of the brain, newborn cells migrate out past their earlier-born cousins until they reach the outer limits of the previously-born cells, and then they stop. they don't "know" that they're supposed to be at any particular level, but they keep migrating until they see a "stop" signal (which is provided by another layer of cells on the surface of the brain). | 31 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what determines whether a conch shell spirals clockwise or counterclockwise? | for snails, although i'm not sure if this holds true for conch shells. in short the summary seems to be genetics. "the coil of a snail shell can be either right-handed (dextral) or left-handed (sinistral), based on whether the shell spirals out clockwise or counterclockwise when viewed from above. most species are composed entirely of individuals that are one or the other type; in exceptional cases, populations may differ in their handedness, or chirality, but within a single population, all individuals tend to be alike. this makes sense, since the mechanics of reproduction are harder between two individuals of opposite chirality (their genitalia are also reversed), reducing the likelihood that they will successfully mate and produce offspring. over time, therefore, the rarer type will become rarer and rarer until it goes extinct." _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1182695/"
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|
have all the manuscripts saved from antiquity been read? | all that we know of, sure. but then you have things like the [dead sea scrolls](_url_0_), which survived stuffed in the back of some very dry caves in the southern levant, and turned out to contain never-before seen variants of biblical texts (and you would think the bible would be the best preserved document from antiquity). you never know when something like that is going to turn up. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls"
] | [
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|
does the liquid excreted from our body, e.g. tears, saliva, sweat, all originate from liquid in our blood? | yes. in particular the bit of blood that does not contain the red cells known as plasma. different ionic pumps control the salts and sugars that enter the cells and the cells in turn use various ionic pumps and ion specific channels to secrete whatever special fluid is required. e.g. saliva, tears, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, bile... btw: the 'water' bit usually gets drawn through my osmosis though it is ultrafiltered in the case of the kidney... | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does the observer effect only occur because the act of measuring particles causes interference? | is it interference that causes the breakdown of the wave or is it the creepy possibility that simply watching quantum events changes them? | how do you watch without causing some sort of interference? think of it like this. before observing the particle, we are not certain of the particles location. we therefore represent it with a probabilistic function. this probabilistic function basically gives us the probability of finding the particle in a specific location if we conduct an experiment to measure the particle's location. well, if we conduct that experiment, we will deduce the particle's location. so, the new function representing the particle is just a peak at the point we found the particle. it's not glamorous | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do isolated creatures like the tuatara or coelacanth seemingly stop evolving? | isn't the always room for "improvement" even if their environment doesn't change? is it because of their very small population? | yes, there is always room for improvement. however, sometimes there is no drive to improve. improvement is not driven by the animal, because evolution is not conscious. improvement is driven by something called **evolutionary pressure**. examples of evolutionary pressure are sexual selection, predation (whether the animal in question is chasing or being chased) and, as op identified, changes in the environment. if there is no pressure, there is no evolution. the deal with the tuatara is that it has had it damned easy. when new zealand split from gondwana so many millions of years ago, animals that ate tuatara either were not present at the time of the split, or died out very soon after, so tuatara (along with most of new zealand's larger native fauna) have not had to worry about being targeted by another animal. there are likely to have been occasions where the population has been in danger from the environment: the oligocene drowning is one that immediately comes to mind. however, since these often happened quite quickly, too quick (on the time scale of evolution) to adapt against, there is little to no change in the tuatara. there are other examples of animals apparently ceasing to evolve, notably the lungfish, which developed a mechanism to survive droughts. however, this mechanism avoids the pressure rather than adapting to it, so the fish have effectively put themselves into an evolutionary bottleneck. tl;dr: it's because they don't have to. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to make it all the way around the crossbar on a swing set? | if you mean by having a person push or 'pumping' with your legs on a traditional (chain or rope, nonrigid) swing, no. when you get to a point close to horizontal chains, you'll notice the swing skips a bit at the peak. you come out of the seat for a second while you change direction. that skip costs you some of your precious momentum, more than you can add by pumping your legs in one swing, or by having someone push. if we are allowed to accelerate the swing some other way, you can get it all the way around. if the support is rigid, you won't skip, and you can get it all the way around with just 'pumping' (and holding on while you're upside down.) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do people startle? | if you really scare someone, their whole body convulses for a second and they let out a yelp. what benefit does this give us evolutionary? | an involuntary reaction and warning mechanism. think about what happens when you get startled: you usually back away, jumping, from whatever startled you (assumed to be dangerous, a predator perhaps or some event), and this motion, combined with that yelp, would serve to warn the nearby humans of something wrong. at that point, they can either make their escape more quickly, or assist you if you need it. it would also serve the individual, in a fight or flight sense. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Startle_response"
] | [
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will the constant use of our hands and fingers tapping, typing, swiping, etc. due to technology affect the future of evolution? | no. we need to start having a blanket answer for all of these evolution questions. i don't think people fully understand the concept. ask yourself, will x affect an individual's ability to reproduce? if the answer is no, then it wont affect evolution. just because something is very prevalent in society, or because it is becoming more of a trend, that does not mean it will lead to a change in evolution. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
in what sense were electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force unified in the early universe? | what did the electroweak force do that was different to both forces acting separately? which particle(s) carried it? what did it do, and what did it act on? is the unification as physically understandable as the joining electricity and magnetism, or is it more of a mathematical result? | this is tough to answer in a simple way, because there are some interesting subtleties. in the early universe, there were 4 massless particles that carried the electroweak force: the w^(+), the w^(0), the w^(-), and the b^(0). it would have been nice if there was one strength by which all 4 particles interacted with others, but this wasn't quite the case: the three w particles had one interaction strength, and the b^(0) had another. then something called *spontaneous symmetry breaking* occurred. after this happened, the w^(+) and w^(-) gained non-zero masses (quite large, in fact -- about 80 proton masses). in addition, two mixtures of the w^(0) and b^(0) formed. one is the particle known as the z^(0), which has a mass about of about 91 proton masses. the other mixture stayed massless, and it is what we see as the photon today. notice that the three w bosons and the b boson all had the same mass (zero) in the early universe, but in the later universe, only the photon keeps its original mass, and among the other three particles, you see two different non-zero masses. some symmetry that was present in the early universe is no longer present. the electroweak merger is different from the joining of electricity and magnetism -- not because it is any less physical, but because its origins are quite different. special relativity tells us if there are electric fields, then magnetic fields must exist, too. in the electroweak case, there is nothing (at least so far as we know) that forces us, if we have one of the forces, to have the other one as well. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
this is cool but what is the crab doing? | in [this](_url_0_) picture | what you're seeing here is [crab autotomy](_url_1_), which is the crab [amptutating](_url_0_) it's own injured or diseased limb. this isn't my field, but if i remember correctly, most (if not all) crabs can grow back claws and feet if they are lost, and they will self-amputate injured ones in this fashion to prevent further problems | 13 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/gallery/5vQxV"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotomy",
"http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=crab+autotomy"
] | [
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] |
why is it so hard (or impossible) to keep our hands steady? | i mean, i don't have particularly shaky hands, but if i shine a laser pointer across the room, the dot isn't going to be stationary. somewhat related (or maybe not), why is it so hard to control our bodies in general? for example: typos, mistakes when playing instruments, messing up inputs in games, etc. would improved proprioception reduce error? | when it comes to keeping limbs steady, the issue is due to the nervous system. you see, to keep your hand steady, you need to use muscular force to keep the hand up. the muscle flexes because the brain sends impulses down the nerves which excite the muscles and the muscles contract. this is a discrete phenomenon, muscle fibers contract many times a second. the stronger the force they need to provide, the more they vibrate. that's why it's hard to keep a steady hand with your arm all out in front or to the side but pretty easy when you just let it hang on your side. you'll notice that as your arm gets progressively more tired, your hand starts to shake more and more. your muscle fibers are basically switching between resting and flexing. the transition between the two is not always smooth but you can get better at it with practice and improved endurance. | 135 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0099239910001937"
] | [
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is it the case everything we know about chemical processes is just from visual observation? we do not really know how the subatomic structures actually mathematically operate? | when we draw diagrams like this :- _url_0_ do they only depict what we visually have observed before? we never have a pure mathematical formulaic explanation of what is going on at a subatomic and quantum physical level? why is this the case? are humans so ignorant? central high command will be intrigued if this is the case. | well no molecules can be "visually" observed, as they're too small for visible wavelengths of light. the closest one can get is via x-ray crystallography, where atomic positions can be determined. other techniques such as nmr can also give a wealth of information on the molecules, and other techniques such as mass spec can also provide evidence for the protein doing the work. mathematical models do exist. [computational chemistry techniques](_url_0_) exist for you to calculate all sorts of molecular parameters. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v393/n6683/images/393365ad.tif.2.gif"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_functional_theory"
] | [
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what causes crts to seemingly vibrate distinctly from other vision? | when you 'growl' or roll an 'r' sound, the vibration in the skull seems to make crt style monitors / old tvs shake out of sync with the rest of the visual field? why is this? | the crt sweeps the beam across each row, then down, then back to the start to make the picture. when you're holding still, you see this as one smooth picture-- even though it's not all drawn at once. but when your head vibrates a bit, the image gets smushed a bit due to the motion of your head and the incomplete picture. essentially, you're moving your head a tiny bit back and forth with the vibration from the "growl" *while the picture is being drawn*. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
/r/askscience, please give me websites i can look at to learn more about science in general | hi! i have a problem. the problem is, while i'm scientifically sound on some subjects, i am scientifically illiterate on others. please, guys, i want how-to guides, simple science websites or easy-to-understand-for-a-layman sites that will help me learn science! i would like to learn specifically about these topics: -human biology -chemistry -medicine (with heavy emphasis on this) i am actively trying to educate myself but i don't know much yet! please give me your good sources! | ianas and i'm sure at least one will quickly tell me how wrong i am, but i think wikipedia is absolutely fantastic for this purpose | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how many muscles do you use in a golf swing? | i've had trouble finding sources that reference reputable sources or just say "most" of the muscles in your body. i am looking for a more specific number and hope reddit can help me out! | when i was in grade school my friend had a paintball magazine that said that golf is more dangerous than paintball....i still don't believe it but golf is a violent motion that can cause tears to any muscle in your body. you use your arms, legs, hips, shoulders, hands, feet etc. all in a twisting motion. it doesn't happen that often because most people stretch before they start swinging. i've never had a hole-in-one but i did hit a guy. that is way more satisfying. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would dumping molten gold on a person's head actually do? | okay, this question intrigued me, so i did some sleuthing. unlike the other poster, i don't think suffocation is the primary way to die because of this, i think rather it'd be the immense temperatures being inflicted on the brain. think of how dangerous it is for someone to have a fever of 105 f (sorry for non-si units). obviously, this is acute so the threshold is likely higher, but i do think it is illustrate of the danger of high temperatures. now, obviously, your skull is a very good thermal insulator, and it would likely protect you from a lot of the thermal shock. it'd actually be a pretty cool heat flow problem, actually, but unfortunately i don't have the time to sit down and figure that one out. but my best guess is that you would get perhaps a couple tens of c increase in t at the brain skull barrier in areas where the skull is thinner. this would cause severe problems. it would essentially stop all brain function in the affected region. the blood brain barrier would [cease](_url_1_) to really function, causing brain death in short order. i'm very far removed from biology, so i don't know if that strictly would be enough to kill you, or whether it'd be the shock, but anyways, that's my 2 cents. interestingly death by molten gold has been done before, at least in [legend]( _url_0_), though that mechanism was ingestion. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1769869/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/16430926/"
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] |
|
for how long will a bug survive if i swallow it whole? | i just swallowed a fruit fly which had invaded my beer and *obviously* i can't waste a single drop of it. i'm sure it's long gone by now, but how long did it survive? what if we upped the ante and considered a cockroach instead? are there any non-parasitic multicellular animals which could survive the whole process and come out alive? | it's quite unlikely that the fruit fly lasted very long once it hit your stomach. the sheer acidity of the digestive fluids would have dissolved most of the chitinous tissue within a minute or so. even if you were to indadvertedly swallow an entire cockroach within damaging it, the chances of survival are quite low. moreoever, it wouldn't be a pleasant way to go... it could potentially die by means of: * dissolution in gastric juices * haemolymph leakage due to breaks in the cuticle * blockage of spiracles, thus resulting in suffocation * starvation, if it somehow found a suitable microenvironment since these insects are in no way parasitic, they lack the essential adaptations to survive such conditions. there is however a group of organisms called facultative parasites that under normal circumstances can live independently, but will resort to parasitic behavior if the certain conditions are met. soldier fly larvae, for example, normally develop in cow manure, feeding of the larvae of house flies. if they are for some reason ingested - say, from overripe fruit or undercooked meat - they can actually colonize the intestine and lead to myiasis. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/14048754"
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how much psi would it take to actually blow the lid off your standard sewer system in america? | if we're going to do this, we're going to do this right. you want to blow the lid of a sewer system, so i'm assuming that you literally want it launched into the air. this is going to require a large burst of air pressure in order to actually give it a decent start velocity as well as to not allow sufficient time for air to leak out of any holes. let's start off with a base height of 15 meters. in order to achieve this 15 meters, we're going to need an initial time in the air of 1.7479 s. this gives a velocity (based on it's deceleration time) of about 17.1464 m/s. i think that's a reasonable height to launch something. i'm going to go with the assumption mentioned earlier that the manhole cover is about 18 inches in diameter, which is about 0.4572 meters. this gives us an area of 0.656693 m^2 . now [1][wikipedia](_url_0_) says that the covers usually have a mass larger than 50 kg, so we'll go with that as the baseline minimum. since a manhole cover's diameter is usually much larger than it's thickness, i'm going to go ahead and ignore the drag force resulting from it (i may pick it back up later if i feel like it). now, since we know the velocity right after the event that launched the manhole, we need to figure out that burst force. i don't currently have the resources to look at response times from explosions so i will assume a time of 0.0001 seconds. this manhole cover is going to move very quickly. we are going from 0 to 17.1464 m/s in 0.0001 seconds. that's an acceleration of 171,464 m/s^2 . now, multiplying that acceleration by the mass and we get 8573200 newtons. that's some nice force there. now we divide this by the area and we get 1.3055*10^7 pascals. this is equivalent to 1,900 psig (appropriate sig figs for final answer) in a single burst. **tl;dr** after many basic assumptions, the pressure needed to **launch** a manhole cover is about 1,900 psi (gauge). edit: grammar, sig figs | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhole_Cover"
] | [
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|
bugs in microgravity | hello askscience! i've heard experiments were conducted to see: - if a common housefly can fly in microgravity - how do ants behave in microgravity they carried the bugs onboard space shuttles (?) to see what happens. does anyone know what were the results? | here is an abstract from one of the papers: influence of cosmic radiation and/or microgravity on development of carausius morosus advances in space research volume 9, issue 10, 1989, pages 161-173 | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do bodies of water in higher elevations ever experience a decrease in water level to due water exiting towards a lower body of water? | i kinda thought of this in my head. like if you had a high elevation lake with a river leading to the ocean wouldn't the lake decrease in water level over time? | yes, this is exactly what happens. all water above sea level has potential energy and wants to travel down to sea level. the reason you have lakes is because there is some sort of material surrounding it creating a reservoir (bedrock, clay, etc) so the water stays put. any time the lake gets enough water (through runoff, rain, snowmelt, etc) so that the water level raises above the top of its reservoir and causes water to flow out. the water level will then drop until it’s no longer overflowing, and the reservoir stops flowing. the reason all rivers don’t dry up is because there is often small streams and groundwater spilling into the lake so that the level of the lake is constantly “overflowing”. in this case the water drains out of the lake through the river as the streams and groundwater refill it. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Tahoe"
] | [
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are certain things (like fear of spiders or a dislike for certain tastes/smells) preprogrammed in our brain? | my mother always told me that people learn most things during life but that some codes are already in our brains when we are born. those codes obviously help us survive because most of them are fear/dislike of things that are bad and/or potentially fatal for us. she also said that some people don't have those codes and that they are either geniuses or madmen (or both), which i always thought was kinda cool. so my question is, is any of that true? do we truly have codes embedded in our dna that help us survive? if so, how did they first manifest themselves to be able to be passed on to the next generation? | we are are animals, and thusly, we have instincts like any animal. we have been farther removed from natural selection for much longer than any other animal, so our instincts are not as widespread as most animals'. consider that a lot of the animals we innately fear can hurt us without you ever knowing they were there. spiders and snakes, for example, can be extremely deadly to humans. they are much smaller than we are, so by a judgement of strength, we shouldn't be afraid of them. you are not afraid of a chipmunk by instinct, or a frog or newt or bird. spiders and snakes are about the same size as some of those animals, and really not any stronger, and yet we have a natural aversion to them. that is because they have venom that can kill us, and so over time, we have developed the instinct to avoid them. it is the same way that newborn antelope instinctively try to stand as soon as they are born. they have no concept or understanding of the fact that the faster they stand, the more likely they are to not be eaten by a predator, yet they try anyway. instincts are written in our genetics since they are innate and not learned. almost all living creatures have innate knowledge present at birth that, without which, they would not survive. "knowledge" can be pushing it in some species, like a jellyfish, which is an incredibly simple creature with no brain to speak of, yet it still knows to reel a fish in and digest it when it is harpooned on its tentacles. as far as the part about people not having them being madmen or geniuses, while a cool saying, i'm not sure how much relevance it has to our instincts. while i think genius is a genetic trait, since relative intelligent capabilities is genetic, but madness or insanity is often more a product of psychology. while i'm sure there are some exceptions (like some sociopaths), traumatic events in childhood seem to be the larger cause of insanity. there was a famous study done of serial killers in the early 90s i think (i found [it](_url_0_)). the psychologists involved discovered that of all the serial killers they spoke with, almost all of them had some form of environment problem during childhood. parents' divorce, abuse, neglect and so on can cause developmental problems that will affect the child for life. since we are such an intelligent species, most of our knowledge and behavior is learned rather than instinctive, so problems during childhood have a great impact on the people we become often. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_killer#Development"
] | [
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how many halfings would it take to reach a planck length if achilles race was 100 yards? reply | now a follow up. if a planck length was an inch, how far would achilles race be assuming the same number of halfings occurred when it was a mile and actual planck lengths were used? | first question is pretty easy. the length of each halving is given by h(x) = l*(1/2)^x where h(x) is the length of the each half. l is the length of the initial race, and x is the which halving we are on. plank length is about ~1.6×10^-35 meters 100 yards is 91 meters. so we are trying to solve 1.6×10^-35 < 19*(1/2)^x (where x is an integer) x = 120 edit i solved with l = 19, not 91. if i had done it correctly, the answer would be 123. so 120 halvings. i don't fully understand you next question (where does the mile come in? you said 100 yards) but if you are asking, if we did 120 halvings, and got to a length of an inch, how long was the original race. then given that 1 inch is 0.0254 meters, you're trying to solve the equation ///all wrong//// 0.0254 = l*(1/2)^120 l = 3.4x10^24 meters l = 360 million light years l = 1/200th of the diameter of the observable universe edit if i used to correct value of 123 now i get 2.7x10^35 meters... which is much much larger than the size of the observable universe. i totally screwed up the previous stuff. no idea how. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about the future night sky | assuming that there are stars in all of the black in the night sky. and that black is only because the light from other stars hasn't reached us yet. so is it safe to say that somewhere on some planet or in the future the night sky will eventually be completely filled with stars. and when i say completely filled i mean absolutely zero black in the night sky. i also wonder how this would effect seeing the constellations. | no, due to the universe having a beginning in the big bang, and the fact that the universe is also expanding. see this article on olbers' paradox: _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox"
] | [
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what caused my ice cube to form an appendage? | [ice spikes](_url_0_) ice cubes are created by freezing water from the outside of the cube towards the inside. as the outside freezes it expands taking up more space, which in turn puts pressure on the liquid water in the center, sometimes this causes water to push up through the top layer of new ice and freeze. the process repeats its self as a sort of mini fountain, creating that neat ice spike. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/icespikes/icespikes.htm"
] | [
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|
what steps would you take to identify a truly unknown substance? | obviously in [this news story](_url_0_) you have clues based on location and the reactions that are removing the "goop", but in the more general case, what tests do you run to identify something without accidentally creating poison or an explosion, or misidentifying along the way? | there are many ways to analyse an unknown substance, but combining as many as possible gives a better picture of what the substance actually is. more methods = less likely to misidentify. that being said, in this article they describe the substance as a *goop*, and from that we can always assume it is a substance which probably is organic. further they explain it was oil (but that is irrelevant to the question as a whole). and from there we can use the methods that you would use do make sure what you've made isn't a poison etc. as stated before, data from many methods of analysis combined makes a greater picture of what you've actually made, and the combination of nmr, ir, and ms is for me a very good start. (h)nmr splits the individual hydrogens and make them visible for us on a specta, from there we can start to assume a structure. the ms gives us the mass of the most common pieces in the molecule and ir is good to detect functional groups as alcohols, amines, carboxylic acids etc. now you can start to build lego with the information you have to perhaps create a picture of what it can be and what it looks like. from those three we can get a pretty good hint if we've made a poison or not. one can also attach other machines, such as hplc and gc chromatographers. these are good for separation of the molecules if we have a mixture of several different components in the same blend. they are good for analysis and separation of organic compounds to get qualitative data. if it would be a macro-molecule, perhaps a protein, we could use electophoresis to compare how big the proteins to others and such, as well, and use silica gel tubes to separate them. i hope that answers the question! edit: typo | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.cnn.com/2015/01/20/us/birds-goop-bay-area/index.html"
] | [] | [
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ubiquitin antibody recommendation? | the anti-ub antibodies i've used are: [p4d1](_url_2_) which is a mouse monoclonal and [fl-76](_url_1_) which is a rabbit polyclonal. i use this in western blots of yeast extracts/ips. personally i've had better luck with the fl-76. you generally have to use higher concentrations of antibody since (unless you're doing *in vitro* work) such a small proportion of the protein is probably ubiquitinated. this [protocol for autoclaving blots (pdf)](_url_0_) to help detect ubiquitin does actually help somewhat. before actually ordering new antibodies you should try and find some from nearby labs to test in your system for something that works well in your hands. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://encrypted.google.com/url?url=http://hamptonlab.ucsd.edu/Protocols/AutoclavingBlots.pdf&rct=j&sa=U&ei=qmA9T6jpHYXZiQKwvrCiAQ&ved=0CFAQFjAC&q=ubiquitin+western+blot+protocol&usg=AFQjCNH8tuHuTM88tIsQz_COUL4Pjg9_cA",
"http://www.scbt.com/datasheet-9133-ub-fl-76-antibody.html",
"http://www.scbt.com/datasheet-8017-ub-p4d1-antibody.html"
] | [
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|
what happens to the sperm and egg cells that start off an embryo? are any of their parts identifiable in the developing embryo? can we say anything statistically about their atoms and whether they persist in the fetus? | well, i'm sure someone else will be better able to explain this, but the proportion of sperm to egg would be highly skewed towards the egg. of course, most of the atoms present in the fetus will be from nutrients obtained from the mother during development, and not the original gametes. proportionally though, the sperm contributes much less to the original zygote. i believe it mainly just contributes the haploid paternal genome and a centrosome. all the other organelles and cytoplasm are from the egg. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does bell's inequality only apply to entangled particles? could radioactive decay still have hidden variables? (more in comments) | i am an amateur so please go easy on me if i am misunderstanding. bell's experiments showed that for two entangled particles either a. there is faster than light hidden variable communication between the pair or b. no hidden variables are present, and the outcome of the measurements truly is fundamentally unknowable prior to measurement. does this apply to non entangled "random" processes such as radioactive decay? i guess i am just very uncomfortable with the idea that decay is "acausal". that is very hard to swallow, though i accept that it may be true. | bell's theorem shows that in general, a local hidden variables theory can't explain the correlations within quantum mechanics. as you have pointed out, the demonstration used within the proof is to consider a maximally-entangled pair of particles. in principle, each nucleus in the universe could have a hidden variable attached to it counting down the time in its inertial frame until it will decay. this is a pretty terrible scientific theory for a few reasons: firstly, it's completely untestable; secondly, we have a good enough theory of beta decay (caused by the weak force) to the extent that we don't need to invoke these variables in order to understand the phenomena. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPR_paradox"
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from orbit, if i threw a hammer in any direction, would it always come back? | assumption: i can't throw hard enough to cause the hammer (or me) to hit the upper atmosphere and de-orbit, or escape from the current gravity well. from what i learnt playing kerbal, i'm pretty sure the new orbit of the hammer would intersect my new orbit at the point where i made the throw. what i'm not clear on though, is the effect on the the orbital period - would we miss each other? if it's not true that it works for every direction, does it work for some? | you're right that the orbits will always intersect, the question is, will both you and the hammer be on the point of intersection at the same time? if you throw it forward or backward in your own reference frame then it will count as a speed up or slow down in an earth-centered frame. so in these cases the orbital period will change and you will miss each other. on the other hand, if you throw it sideways then you will just change the inclination of the orbit, so the period will remain the same and you will intersect at the same point. the good news is that the collision will also be at a low relative speed. that's quite correct. you need 100 m/s or more to de-orbit. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why are single celled organisms or individual cells not crushed by gravity or air pressure? | our interiors are pressurized to match our environments, a force that pushes back against the pressure on us. you'll notice that an empty liter bottle is just fine, but if you suck the air out of it it suddenly becomes crushed by the atmosphere, as there doesn't exist a countering force anymore. gravity is extremely weak, and the strength of the organism is sufficient to resist it. consider that your fridge magnet has enough strength in its magnetism to defeat the pull of gravity of the entire earth. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why isn't the kuiper belt a shell like the oort cloud? | why is the kuiper belt a "ring" shape, while the oort cloud is a shell of objects? | because it's affected by the gravity of planets. orbits that are far out of the ecliptic plane are less stable the closer they are to planets. the real question is why the oort cloud *isn't* a ring, and the answer is because it's far enough away that the gravity of planets is irrelevant. also, the oort cloud hasn't been directly observed, it's just inferred from the presence of long-period comets. we don't have a good idea of the distribution of oort cloud objects, although it's hypothesized to be more or less spheroidal. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are reactions on a reversible/irreversible continuum, or are they categorically one or the other? | in chemistry we talk about reversible and irreversible reactions. for example, take the reaction 2h2 + o2 - > 2h2o. we describe this reaction as irreversible because none of the reactants are still there by the end. for reversible reactions, the reactants and products both exist in a dynamic equilibrium. as i was thinking about this, i wondered, couldn't an h2o, very rarely, gain enough energy to split up and form h2 and o again? wouldn't this technically make it a reversible reaction too? is there some sort of cut-off that chemists have decided makes a reaction reversible or not? i know this is a really specific and niche question, so i don't expect it to get very popular. still, i've been wondering it for a long time and i think it would really help me understand chemistry on a deeper level, so i'd really appreciate an answer. thanks! | reversible reactions are simply reactions that _readily_ proceed either way. as a result, an equilibrium exists where there is _some_ species on either side of a reaction equation. the degree that a reaction proceeds one side or another is measured by the [equilibrium constant](_url_2_), and this number can be very small to very large, and it exists in a continuum. the [wikipedia article](_url_0_) refers to log k there _are_ some reactions that are driven by continual removal of a product (thus constantly putting the [reaction quotient](_url_3_) out of equilibrium.) one such example is [decarboxylation](_url_1_), where carbon dioxide is produced and removed from solution as a gas. some of these reactions can be considered "reversible" by examining k, but in practice is irreversible. although, again, there is nothing stopping someone from creating a condition where there is an excess of carbon dioxide (i.e. dry ice). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversible_reaction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decarboxylation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibrium_constant",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_quotient"
] | [
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does any substance exist that has a triple point at stp or standard pressure? | 1. you you should clarify which "stp" you're referring to. * iupac defines standard temperature and pressure as as 0 °c and 100 kpa (0.9869 atm). * the national institute of standards and technology uses 20 °c and 1 atm (101.3 kpa). * many people use 25 °c and 1 atm (101.3 kpa) as standard *ambient* temperature and pressure. * etc. 2. this is a difficult question to answer. how many substances should one consider before he or she can assume the answer is probably "no." that said... *i'll assume you meant the iupac stp.* of the substances listed at _url_0_ * water comes the closest to standard temperature (just under 0 °c), but it's far below standard pressure (0.6117 kpa). * nitrous oxide (with a triple point at −90.81 °c and 87.85 kpa) comes the closest to standard pressure, but is far bellow standard temperature. * uranium hexafluoride is the closest over all (64.02 °c and 151.7 kpa), but is definitely not at stp. edit: formatting | 16 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_point#Table_of_triple_points"
] | [
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] |
|
is our new year always completely accurate? | are we off by a few minutes or seconds? | we are off, not only due to the timezones, but also because it takes roughly 365,25 days to a complete cycle around the sun which is why we have leap years. in fact, we even have leap seconds every once in a while and if you measure accurately enough, the length of a year changes over time. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there an animal who can control their digestive systems? | is there an animal that can decide when they want to digest the food and when not to? | many animals including birds and insects have the ability to purge their stomach contents on command. bird feedings and flies vomiting stomach acid is an example of this phenomena. once it goes past the stomach there is usually in mammals at least a one way valve that prevents food from going in the opposite direction. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can bacteria and other microorganisms stay on the ceilings or does gravity compel them to fall? | they can quite easily stay on pretty much whatever surface they want, and gravity has next to no say in the matter. this is due to a few different reasons. first, the smaller you get, the less influence gravity has on you *compared to other forces* (assuming density stays constant). things like surface tension, magnetism and static electricity gets a lot more important once you start looking at smaller scales. second, most microorganisms isnt really just the small round blobs we often think of them as. a lot of them are "hairy" due to something called [pili](_url_1_), making it easier for them to stick to things, or move around. third, if a group of cells really wants to stick to some surface, they will produce something called [biofilm](_url_0_). this is some sticky substance, in which large groups or bacteria "live", allowing them to stick to a surface, and making them much more resilient to things like various chemicals or antibiotics. i hope that helps answer your question. feel free to ask if you want me to elaborate on something. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofilm",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=pili&rls=com.microsoft:da:IE-Address&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=AXogU_rdF8bMsgaUxoGADg&ved=0CAkQ_AUoAQ&biw=1920&bih=985#q=bacteria+pili&rls=com.microsoft:da:IE-Address&tbm=isch&facrc=_&imgdii=_&imgrc=3Ov316c1hVcIXM%253A%3B7uugo6x446YAlM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fimg.photobucket.com%252Falbums%252Fv164%252Froland98%252F27-06-Pili.jpg%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Faetiology.blogspot.com%252F2005%252F10%252Fpili-becoming-hot-topic-in-gram.html%3B202%3B300"
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|
language decomposition: can it be done? | given a human language with a written component, is it possible to decompose said language into basic mathematical components? how much of the language would be needed to be known ahead of time in order to properly write the algorithm that handles the decomposition? | there is actually an extensively studied field called [formal language theory](_url_2_). the grammar for a given formal language is a [formal grammar](_url_1_). there is a subclass of grammars known as [context-free grammars](_url_0_), for which all rules can be codified, and computers can decompose them easily. human languages are generally speaking, not context-free. a very simplistic explanation is that the meaning of a particular set of words depends on the context in which they are written, and not just on the words themselves. there are machine learning techniques known as [natural language processing](_url_3_) that attempts to interpret human language, but it not as simple as breaking it down into a set of rules. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-free_grammar",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_grammar",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_language",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing"
] | [
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] |
mycologists of reddit - why is there such a lack of knowledge on the edibility of mushrooms? | i've noticed that a lot of the common mushrooms we take for granted around where we all live have very little information regarding if they can be eaten or not. is there a specific reason for this? i'm interested in the process in identifying toxins in mushrooms and how we relate that to the danger of ingestion. | i'm not sure there is a lack of information on the edibility of mushrooms. most of the "non-edible" mushrooms are not toxic but simply unpalatable. the majority of mushrooms will not kill you, but simply taste bad and/or cause mild gastro-intestinal distress. many of the edible fungal sporocarps actually do contain [toxins](_url_10_) that are only neutralized after cooking. an example of this are [morels](_url_6_) which contain [hydrazine](_url_4_) until cooked, yet are very very delicious. in large part because of their cryptic lifestyle, information on the range and distribution of fungi is incredibly poor when compared with plants, birds, and insects. as for why the lack of information? the conservative estimate for the number of fungal species is 1.5 million and that number could be as high as 5 million species. so far, science has only characterized about 100,000 species. additionally fungi have largely cryptic lifestyles; the majority of the fungal thallus (body) is composed of thread-like hyphae in its substrate and mushrooms and other macroscopic [sporocarps](_url_9_) are analogous to the flowers of plants: short-lived reproductive structures. because of their cryptic lifestyle, the majority of people only come into contact with fungi as the [*pennicillium sp.*](_url_17_) [spoiling their bread](_url_11_), or the [*agaricus bisporus*](_url_2_) on their pizza or salad, but fungi are everywhere! fungi cause the majority of plant diseases, have been, and continue to be, an excellent source for the discovery of biologically active chemicals and pharmaceuticals ([penicillin](_url_12_), [ciclosporin](_url_14_), [taxol](_url_3_), [lsd](_url_5_), [psilocybin](_url_7_)), and are associated with every vascular plant on earth as [mycorrhizae](_url_0_), [endophytes](_url_16_), or [phytopathogens](_url_15_). oh yeah, fungi also have [bacteria](_url_13_) and [viruses](_url_8_) in them and are [living in and on you!](_url_1_) i think we just need more mycologists ^^^and ^^^more ^^^funding ^^^for ^^^mycological ^^^research as to why you cannot just take a random mushroom and see if it contains toxic compounds. . . .metabolomics is difficult, expensive, and still unable to identify the majority of compounds that come out of organisms like fungi and plants. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhizae",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_microbiome#Fungal_flora",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agaricus_bisporus",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxol",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrazine",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysergic_acid_diethylamide",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morchella",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycovirus",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporocarp_%28fungi%29",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxin",
"https://www.google.com/search?site=imghp&tbm=isch&source=hp&biw=1248&bih=664&q=penicillium+bread",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillin",
"http://www.nature.com/ismej/journal/v2/n6/abs/ismej200819a.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclosporin",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytopathogen#Fungi",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_use_of_endophytic_fungi_in_defense",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium"
] | [
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evolution optimizes physiology based on survivability, and we are always taught about how well adapted many physiologies are. since evolution is ongoing, what are some examples of current species that suffer from maladaptation? | the panda. it's basically a carnivore that eats bamboo, which it can barely digest. they can only mate once a year during a 2 day window. they don't even stay together to raise the babies. edit: also, maladapted is not really the right way to think of this. it's not that things adapt badly or incorrectly, it's that their current form/function is not optimal for their current environment. it's "good enough" but not the "best". | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
so i get time dilation. i get that speed is relative. how do those two things mesh? | the faster you move through space, the slower you move through time. i *get* that. it's clicked. but, if speed is relative (e.g., i'm in a car going 0 mph to me but 60 mph to someone standing on the road), what frame of reference does the "faster" from the first sentence come from? | any! that's the point of relativity :p if we're both moving at the same velocity, we'll both see time the same way. but if you're moving 100 kph away from me, i will see your clocks moving more slowly. *however*, from your perspective, *i* am moving 100 kph away from *you* - so you see *my* clocks moving more slowly. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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qft: is there an explanation or model for why the fields of fermions have a constrained or limited 'amplitude' ? | the way i understand what i have read is that the fields that give rise to fermions cannot have an arbitrarily large amplitude when oscillating - which means you cannot 'stack up' fermions- i.e. they take up space. this is in contrast to fields that give rise to baryons. | it sounds like you're asking about pauli exclusion. let's say you have some many-body wavefunction describing some physical system which consists of identical particles. you can write it in general as: ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_n_*). we can define an operator called the *permutation operator*: p*_ij_* which, when acting on a many-body wavefunction, simply interchanges the i^(th) and j^(th) particles. you can prove that this operator commutes with the hamiltonian, so since we're interested in states of definite energy, these states are also eigenstates of the permutation operator. so for example: p*_ij_*ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_j_*,...,**r***_n_*) = ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_j_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_n_*). but we said that these particles are fundamentally identical to each other, so you can't possibly tell the difference between the original state and the permuted state. this implies that: ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_j_*,...,**r***_n_*) = e^(iδ)ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_j_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_n_*). this simply means that the permutation at most changes the wavefunction by a global phase. since any expectation value of a physical operator involves the wavefunction and its complex conjugate, this has no effect on any physical observable. furthermore if you just think about what the permutation operator means, it's clear what this phase must be. if you switch two particles and immediately switch the same particles back, nothing changes. you have the exact same state you started with, without any global phase. mathematically: p*_ij_*^(2)ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_j_*,...,**r***_n_*) = ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_j_*,...,**r***_n_*). this means that p^(2) is equivalent to the identity operator: p^(2) = 1. this means that the permutation operator is *idempotent*, meaning it's eigenvalues are always +1 or -1. that means there are two possibilities: ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_j_*,...,**r***_n_*) = ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_j_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_n_*) or ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_j_*,...,**r***_n_*) = -ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_j_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_n_*). either permuting any two particles leaves the state exactly the same (symmetric), or multiplies it by -1 (antisymmetric). we now define the class of particles called *bosons* to meet the first requirement and the class of particles called *fermions* to meet the second. there have been a lot of words here and some simple equations, but nothing really interesting has happened yet. we just invented an operator which switches particles, noticed that there are two possible ways that it can effect a many-body wavefunction, and given fancy names to the two possibilities. the interesting part comes from the spin-statistics theorem, a result of combining quantum mechanics and special relativity. the spin-statistics theorem says that particles with integer spin are bosons and particles with half-integer spin are fermions. a priori there is no obvious relationship between spin and statistics; this is really an amazing thing. anyway, back to your question. you asked why there is a limit to how many fermions can be placed in the same state. the answer is simple. just look at what happens when **r***_i_* = **r***_j_* (really i should set all quantum numbers equal to each other rather than just positions). let a = ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_n_*). but we know that for fermions, ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_n_*) = -ψ(**r***_1_*,**r***_2_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_i_*,...,**r***_n_*) = -a. but if a = -a, the only possibility is a = 0. this state doesn't exist. there simply is not any possibility of putting two identical fermions in the same quantum state **by definition** of what a fermion is. you can repeat the same thing with bosons, but the sign of the wavefunction doesn't flip for bosons. so instead of a = -a, you'd just get a = a, no issues there. it turns out you can put as many identical bosons as you want into the same state. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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