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is it possible for something to reach quadruple point? (solid, liquid, gas, and plasma) | i seen a video where a liquid was simultaneously changing to solid and gas (called triple point) and made me curious to know if it's possible for it to be plasma also. | from the comment on [this thread](_url_2_) answers it pretty well: [phase rule](_url_1_) now [this](_url_0_) article published in 2016 says something a little interesting: so i can't say for certain if there is a quadruple point for the four phases you described (solid, liquid, gas, and plasma) but generally the response you will likely get is no. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms12599",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_rule",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/chemistry/comments/2qk6g1/quadruple_point/"
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would it be possible to dissipate a person's heat through a metal heat sink in an environment at room temperature to the point that they get hypothermia? | [relevant](_url_0_) | note: i'm not an engineer. just want to try figuring it out. let's start with some definitions [hypothermia](_url_3_) is defined as any body temperature below 35.0 °c (95.0 °f). it is subdivided into four different degrees, - mild 32–35 °c (90–95 °f); - moderate, 28–32 °c (82–90 °f); - severe, 20–28 °c (68–82 °f); and - profound at less than 20 °c (68 °f). room temperature is usually defined as 20 °c. so far, it look like a room is cold enough if you can get rid of your body heat. [this](_url_1_) seems to show that a human body puts about 100-120w. thing is, if the body really enjoys homoeostasis, so it will likely crank up the heat through shivering, etc. and since it's 12:30am here, that's as far as i'm going to get. [here](_url_2_) is something else to think about. btw, you can get hypothermia from [a/c](_url_0_) if you're by forgets to self regulate body temp. | 2 | [] | [
"http://25.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_lfvhevFsMJ1qghpe4o1_400.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.researchgate.net/publication/5795007_Deep_accidental_hypothermia_during_the_Queensland_summer",
"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/metabolic-heat-persons-d_706.html",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/coobod.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermia#Classification"
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how does one country export usable electricity to another country? especially at great distances? | if a country has generated electricity to excess and wants to sell it what is the scientific (or technical) method that this is accomplished? especially over oceans, mountains across different continents? are there any other challenges or obstacles with this task? i would appreciate any other interesting facts about global electricity or energy trade (especially having to do with renewable sources) | no different than how power within a country's grid is distributed between consumers and the various generators. a transmission line is built two connect the two regions, power flows down it, and you stick an power/energy meter on to see how much is being transferred. the amount of power you can transfer is limited by the interconnecting line's capacity, which is governed by how much current it can take before the conductors (or transformers on the ends) overheat. if our lines were simple dc lines, power flows down a line simply by one end having a higher voltage. the side of the line where the power is being produced would be higher voltage, and the current and power would flow to the other end at a lower voltage where it is being consumed. the power grid is a little bit more complex being ac, with factors like power factor, reactive power, and frequency all butting their head in, but it works the same way. at any given time, power is generated and it is being transported and consumed somewhere at that instant. in real time power flow, power generation, and energy economics are managed within grids and between them. they don't, not unless the gap between the grids is small enough to feasibly build a transmission line over. asia and europe have interconnected grids. france and england have transmission lines buried across the sea. north america and africa are not connected and don't exchange electric power. mainland american and hawaii do not have an interconnected grid. in order to connect two grids, they have to have the same frequency and phase. frequency is the rate at which the alternating current swaps direction, and phase is how delayed the alternating is between two grids (a grid 180 degrees out of phase would be swapping the opposite direction). basically, if the two waveforms don't match, the grids can't be connected. europe and north america could not be simply connected by a standard transmission line because europe uses 50 hz and na uses 60 hz. north america also has several different grids within itself, all in different phases. most of the west (bc, alberta, oregon, california, nevada, etc) is in one grid. most of the east is in another (ontario, new york, carolina, florida, etc.) is in another. quebec and texas have their own grids (shocking it would be those two, i know). these grids cannot be interconnected by a simple transmission line as they are out of phase. to connect grids of different frequencies or phases, you need special dc transmission lines (or a couple other tricks). one ends converts their power to dc, it travels across the line, and then it is transformed back into ac to match the other grid. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it more accurate to say that chemicals will diffuse down a fugacity gradient than down a concentration gradient? | chemical engineer here with a question on everyone's favorite topic in my field fugacity (sarcasm). i have often heard that it is more accurate to say that a chemical will travel down a fugacity gradient than to say it will travel down a concentration gradient. can someone please explain this and give me an example of a time when a chemical will travel down a fugacity gradient while traveling up a concentration gradient? many thanks! | chemical engineers define fugacity slightly differently, but i'll use the definition i'm familiar with: f = e^(μ/t), where μ is the chemical potential, and i'm using units so boltzmann's constant is 1. if you consider the change in entropy during some diffusion process where the volume and internal energy are held constant, ds = -μ/t dn. you can define a generalized thermodynamic force x as -ds/dx where x is the extensive conjugate variable to x. if we look at the case where x = n, it's clear that the generalized thermodynamic force is μ/t. so this is the "force" which causes diffusion. when a thermodynamic system is out of diffusive equilibrium, it will tend to move along the gradient of μ/t until entropy is maximized and equilibrium is restored. applying the gradient to the fugacity, we find: grad(f) = f*grad(μ/t). so you can rearrange this to say that grad(μ/t) = grad(f)/f. so you can relate concentration gradients to fugacity gradients. i'm not sure what the advantage of of one over the other would be. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why doesn't the air pass through all parts of our body? | as far as i understand, small non polar molecules like o2, n2, co2 ect, can pass "freely" though the cell membrane. if this is the case, then why don't the molecules in the air (oxygen and nitrogen) continuously pass through all parts of our body (rather than just the lungs)? is there some equilibrium, where some of the molecules of the air enter our skin, but others don't? or are the proteins in the membrane preventing this? thanks | molecules in the air can and do enter our body from outside the lungs through a process called [diffusion](_url_0_). [however the surface area of our body](_url_1_) compared to the surface area of our lungs is tiny, so it has a negligible effect. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v397/n6721/full/397660a0.html"
] | [
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any basis in the "use a diamond to break reinforced glass" trick that moriarty performed on this week's sherlock? | in this week's episode of bbc's sherlock, moriarty stuck a tiny piece of diamond onto a glass casing and then struck the diamond with a fire extinguisher. later on lestrade and sherlock commented that moriarty was only able to break the reinforced glass because he employed the help of the diamond. i know that diamonds are very hard objects, but i thought that only meant it is more resistant to deformations (such as scratches). i thought the energy of the impact is what determines the amount of damage dealt, not the strength of the weapon. (stronger weapons only enable more energy before shattering/breaking) i find a hard time believing that fire extinguisher would have shattered if not for the tiny diamond. | it's a matter of pressure - force over area. if a fire extinguisher can't break the glass, concentrating all that force over a small point with a diamond can help. it's the same concept when you cut with a knife. you can try to push down on a slab of meat with your bare hand - and succeed in only giving your angus steak a good massage. the knife concentrates that force and allows you to cut it. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://mythbustersresults.com/episode72",
"http://www.lifehammer.com/"
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can lions "meow" like housecats? | alternatively, are housecats capable of "roars"? | you can find examples of large cat sounds easily on youtube. here's a video of a male lion roaring in the same way that a cat would meow. you can see that a roar is a just a large form meow. _url_2_ lion cubs definitely meow rather than roar although it sometimes sounds quite strange: _url_0_ cougars (aka mountain lions, pumas, panthers) make sounds closer to domestic cats purring and meowing: _url_1_ this video claims that they're the largest cat to do this. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QBjKntYuUIk",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-A6zLuXVJ4w",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tso6PZcxJ4Y"
] | [
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why is a laminated wood beam stronger than a beam of the same dimension made of a single piece of wood? | the effect of defects like knots is minimized. it is also a matter of statistics - a single piece of wood of any given strength grade may vary greatly in its actual strength, therefore building/material codes limit the allowable strength value. when you combine many pieces into one laminated beam, the result is that the probability of having a higher strength member increases, even though you are still using the same wood material. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://s3-media2.ak.yelpcdn.com/bphoto/MdTdzeZYoc2agIsfWNn4vw/l.jpg"
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|
is it possible to exercise too much and do damage to the heart/cardiovascular system? | i was reading the comments in the thread about raising heart rate with caffeine vs with exercise, and some of the comments seemed to be saying that making the heart work too hard can lead to negative effects. so, is it possible to run/swim/cycle/lift too much, and damage the heart? | there is evidence that extremely rigorous training can adversely affect health; ultra marathon runners and the like may have a higher risk of getting certain cardiovascular pathologist such as heart scarring. that being said, exercising for the recommended amount (up to an hour a day) seems to be perfectly safe and offers substantial benefits to health, so the risk of over-doing it isn't really a reason not to do it. source: mayo clinic: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(12)00473-9/fulltext"
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why can't humans regenerate extremities like e.g. some lizards can? | to answer simply, it's because our genes don't allow it. in the womb, we get information for somatic formation from a separate layer which later becomes the amnion. this requires stem cells for differentiation, as well. so, when we are born, we lose that ability to form the limb, as we can only do it with additional information from an external source, and we also don't have the ability to externally differentiate cells based on location. we just don't have the genetics to do it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
dieting and mass energy equivalence | in physics energy = mass * speed of light squared. in dieting 3500 calories of calorie deficit = 1 lb of body fat loss. in both equations the left hand side is energy (energy is calorie). in both equations the right hand side is mass (mass is lb). are these equations the same or fundementally different? | fundamentally different...ish. fat is a method of storing energy in chemical bonds. your body can convert one pound of fat into 3500 calories. this is equivalent to 32,000 joules per gram of fat. from e = mc^2, one gram of fat contains about 9x10^13 joules (that's 90,000,000,000,000 joules) in terms of matter-energy equivalence. so only about 1/3 billionth of the energy contained in a mass of fat is able to be converted to usable energy by your body. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do different molecules affect the brain in the same way? | for example, meth vs adderall. i know that they’re similar but they’re not exactly the same molecule. or any other chemicals that release neurotransmitters. why do some have the same effects as each other even though they’re different chemicals? | the simplest explanation is thinking of it as a “lock and key” mechanism. the target protein in the brain is like the lock, but it will accept a bunch of different shapes of keys (and will have the same effect) as long as the functional part of the key that fits is there | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do capacitors produce x-rays? | i read this - "high voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft x-rays even during normal operation" what causes the x-rays to be produced? | if a high voltage capacitor discharges, then electrons will be accelerated towards the anode (positive end) of the capacitor, arriving there with a kinetic energy that reflects the voltage drop across the capacitor (e.g. if 1 kv, then the kinetic energy will be 1 kiloelectrovolt or 1 kev). collisions of energetic electrons (say _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremsstrahlung"
] | [
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why does (automated) oscillometric blood pressure measurement underestimate blood pressure in pregnant women with preeclampsia? | i have been informed that automated oscillometric blood pressure measuring devices are often unreliable in monitoring the blood pressure of pregnant women with preeclampsia due to the potential of an underestimate, and hence auscultatory blood pressure measurement with a mercury sphygmomanometer is now recommended instead. which aspects of auscultatory measurement with mercury sphygmomanometer makes it superior to oscillometric blood pressure measurement? there isn't an abundance of scientific papers detailing the reason or mechanisms behind the discrepancy observed with different methods of blood pressure management. while the current consensus in the medical community is that oscillometric blood pressure measurement produces an underestimate, how can we be sure that it is not **other measurement methods** producing an **over**estimate instead? there is a consistent variable in the methods of blood pressure measurement in the relevant papers i have read (some of which are over a decade old) - in these studies, they often measure blood pressure with a mercury sphygmomanometer first (and occasionally takes multiple readings this way), **then** followed by oscillometric blood pressure measurement. could it be possible that the lower blood pressure recorded with oscillometric measurement is caused by transient parasympathetic activation due to the inflation of cuffs during initial measurements (which causes a small, sudden, transient spike in blood pressure)? after all, cuff inflation increases total peripheral resistance (vascular resistance), which directly influences the blood pressure. | [this study](_url_0_) looks like it would answer your question (i didn't read past the abstract), because it compares both manual and automated method with invasive monitoring, it specifically does so during an hypertensive crisis of preeclampsia, and it looks to only at the difference between means but also at the correlation between invasive monitoring and non-invasive measurements. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/48339865_The_accuracy_of_non-invasive_blood_pressure_monitoring_when_compared_to_intra-arterial_blood_pressure_monitoring_in_patients_with_severe_pre-eclampsia_during_an_acute_hypertensive_crisis"
] | [
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are there any solid substances that light up when they come in contact with each other? | these aren't quite what you are looking for, but [chemiluminescence](_url_1_) allows certain liquids to glow when mixed together and phosphorous glows when uv light is shone on it through [phosphorescence](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorescence",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemiluminescence"
] | [
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|
how many square miles would it take to fit every person in the world? | i just want to have a basic *visual* grasp of how many people are in the world. i guess we could take into account average human height and weight. you could say shoulder to shoulder. then maybe to get a better idea, since i don't understand visualizing square miles that well, maybe we could give something to compare that square mileage to. | let's say the average person, viewed from above, takes up 0.5 meters from side to side and 0.3 meters from front to back. the population of earth is 6.9 billion, so 6.9e9 * 0.3 m * 0.5 m ~ 1 billion m^2 ~ 400 mi^2. this is a little smaller than the land area of [los angeles](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_angeles"
] | [
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some cyclists drink a large amount of water the day and hours before a long ride so that they have to stop to get water less often. does this actually work? | some cyclists claim that by drinking a lot of water before a ride (the evening before, through the night, and the morning before), they will need to drink far less on the ride itself, meaning they'll need to stop less to take on water. does this actually work, or is it something else cyclists are wrong about? | i guess it works in the way that if you're dehydrated before, you'll have to stop more because you'll have to replace what you swear and a pre existing deficiency... but if its the evening before you should have pissed it all out, however your body will be starting the race at a more hydrated level. i think it may help but i don't think it'd make a huge difference! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why can't i take flea tablets? | odd question i know. just looking at a box of flea tablets for cats and it says "for animal use only" on the box. i'm curious to know if humans can take them without harmful side-effects the same way a four week old kitten can? for reference, the tablets contain 11.4mg of nitenpyram. | according to [this msds](_url_0_) the average oral lethal dose (ld50) of nitenpyram is 1575mg per kilogram of bodyweight in rats. as a comparison, table salt's ld50 in rats is about 3000mg/kg, so it would take almost twice as much table salt to kill a rat as nitenpyram. it doesn't appear that it has been studied in humans. the manufacturers just don't want you to injure yourself in case it causes toxicity in humans via some pathway that doesn't manifest itself in rats, and because it isn't meant for humans and they don't want people trying to decide what dose to take or otherwise self-medicating. you (most likely) wouldn't die or even notice any side effects if you took it yourself although the msds lists it as an irritant and that it can cause sleepiness and convulsions. i would not recommend you test this. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/DisplayMSDSPage.do?country=US&language=en&productNumber=46077&brand=FLUKA&PageToGoToURL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaaldrich.com%2Fcatalog%2Fproduct%2Ffluka%2F46077%3Flang%3Den"
] | [
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for which types of molecules do repressors exist? | the existence of repressors, as pre-existing chemicals tailored to both products (inducers) and their production mechanism (operons), are fascinating -- it seems that a molecule would be special if such an intricate chemical mechanism evolved to regulate it. other than the lactose, the example i'm familiar with, for which types of molecules do repressors exist? [forgive me, learning biology for the first time] | are you asking for which other genes/operons do repressors exist? if so, it's not all that uncommmon, many important small molecules in metabolism are under pretty tight regulation. lactose is not especially unique in this regard. the lac repressor is the one that is taught is it was one of the very first whose mode of action was experimentally discovered and characterised. it's something of a canonical example as it is clear and easy to teach. there are whole families of sugar based repressors (galr, trer). other classic examples are the amino acid repressor systems (met, tyr and trp being 3 examples). there are nucleotide repressor systems (purr) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can we put charges on an insulator by rubbing, and will that charge flow across the entire surface? | the phenomenon is called the triboelectric effect - when certain types of materials are brought into contact with one another, their surfaces form a very weak type of chemical bond, and when they are separated electrons involved in that bond can sometimes be transferred from one object to another (charging both). rubbing the materials against each other has the effect of bringing the surfaces into contact many, many times, increasing the liklihood that charge will transfer. some metals exhibit weak tribolectric properties, but the most susceptible materials tend to be insulators, which will not distribute charge very well. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is 5-hour energy bad for you? | the little almost 2oz shots called 5-hour energy. are they harmful in any way? and how do they compare to an energy drink like red bull or monster? | in moderation, you will be okay, but i am of the somewhat unpopular opinion that the current "energy" trend is a little out of hand. sure, they're safe compounds in moderation, but there haven't been a whole lot of studies to figure out the full effect of chronic exposure and the like. personally, and i've tried them all in my line of work, monster, red bull, 5-hour, and so forth just make me crash an hour later. if it's in moderation? go for it, it's not going to hurt you in any way since you said it's once/twice a week...your body can adapt and recuperate no problem. honestly you'd do more damage with half of a single cigarette. it's the people drinking 6+ red bulls per day that i am really apprehensive about. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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during a heat stroke, why does a person's pulse rate increase but blood pressure decrease? | i'm doing a case study on dehydration and heat strokes and one of the questions asks "why was mark’s blood pressure so low? would his pulse rate decrease or increase? please explain. why was mark dizzy and disoriented?". i did some research and found that during a heat stroke, one's pulse rate increases but no where could i find an explanation for that or why blood pressure is low. | fundus' explanation is incomplete and partly incorrect and pertains to dehydration. heat stroke, or illness, is defined as having a very high body temperature + associated conditions. the reason why blood pressure decreases: thermoregulation in hot temperatures is maintained in part by vasodilatation. peripheral blood vessels increase in diameter to lose heat by convection/conduction. this peripheral dilatation reduces blood pressure. as blood pressure decreases, to maintain correct blood perfusion necessary to the correct function of the the heart/brain/kidney/liver, heart rate has to increase to compensate for this blood pressure diminution. furthermore, loss of water by sweating causes dehydration and loss of blood volume, thus worsening the already present hypotension. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about cytoskeletons | does anyone know how cytoskeletons are made in plants if they don't have celtrioles? | [here is an article on microtubule organization in plants](_url_1_). a bit of background - the mtoc, or microtubule organizing center, is exactly what it says. in cells that contain centrioles, they are the mtoc. in cells that don't contain centrioles, such as higher plants, the nuclear envelope often serves as the mtoc. so what the above article explains is that there are certain "microtubule-associated proteins," namely map65, katanin p60, and mor1, that are largely responsible for organization and assembly of microtubules in plants. another big question regarding lack of centrioles is how plant cells divide. in animals, the mitotic spindle attaches to the centrioles/centrosomes. in plants, the mitotic spindle attaches to microtubule arrays at cortical mtocs. [here is a perspective from plant cell about microtubule arrays](_url_0_) and [here is a paper about plant cell division](_url_2_) if you want to read further. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.plantcell.org/content/16/10/2546.full",
"http://jcs.biologists.org/content/115/7/1345.full.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3240993/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtubule",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actin",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerization",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7AQVbrmzFw",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeleton",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astral_microtubules",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_migration#Cytoskeletal_model_.28A.29",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2-L-Ts6fsks",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_filament",
"http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/microtubules/images/microtubulesfigure2.jpg"
] | [
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is there an explanation for the way birds flock or fish form a school? | are their sensory organs which help the maintain these flocks and school? do they have leaders? how do they change direction in such a uniform manner? | oddly enough the algorithm to reproduce this behaviour isn't too difficult. usually all it takes is just follow the direction of your nearest neighbors. _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_animal_behaviour",
"http://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/geese.html",
"http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/331503/lateral-line-system"
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i'm partially colorblind - does this mean i do not get the most out of a 3d movie? | the way i understand it - the glasses are designed to filter different light spectrums between left and right eye, giving the illusion of a third dimension based on the space between those sources... but i have trouble distinguishing between shades on pretty much any spectrum myself. i've always wondered if i am missing out on some of the crispness/detail that someone with regular color vision gets or if the glasses actually do all the work for me with respect to 3d. | you won't lose any of the movie due to your condition. at least not specifically in a 3d movie (the movie's picture can never be better than what you usually are capable of seeing, of course). the glasses currently in use for 3d movies are based on polarity. circular polarity, to be precise, to prevent tilting your head from ruining the picture. you have one glass polarised "left" and one polarised "right", and the projection consists of two images with the according polarisations. the coloured glasses are pretty much out of use by now, but even they would have worked, because they filter the light directly. since the actual light rays travelling towards you would be filtered, and you would only see the filtered image for each eye, the 3d effect would work, even if you had no colour perception at all. | 25 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_polarization"
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how does my brain instantly calculate that i can toss an object into a small area from several feet away while walking? | yesterday, as i was walking about 8-10' past a recycle bin with a soda can sized opening, i had a small wad of paper trash in my hand and in less than a second i had a feeling i could toss the paper into the hole. i tossed it and it went perfectly into the opening. i had no time to contemplate the weight or air resistance of the paper wad or the speed at which i was walking. i just had a sudden "whim" that it would work. i didn't slow down or anything. events like this almost feel jedi-like though i know my subconscious must have been doing the math, i could never have made it if i had spent any amount of conscious thought on the effort. | it's an interesting question; do you mean for something you are doing for the first time, something you have practiced, or something you do often without thinking too much about? the same question could be asked about how people are able to react in sports to balls, for example. how does a tennis player know exactly how and when to hit a ball, how do they calculate in real-time, the exact direction and path of an incoming ball etc. is the answer simply trial and error? are our brains simply advanced enough to calculate spatial awareness, coupled with intuitive movements that we know we are capable of? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when throwing stuff, does our brain actually try to calculate how hard it has to throw for the item to land at the desired point? or does it just estimate based on experience? | i am just wondering wether the brain is secretly awesome at physics or just good at weight / strength estimation. | the idea that the brain does complex newtonian physics calculations on the fly in order to catch an object is **completely wrong.** that is **not** how evolution solved the problem: _url_3_ there is no explicit "calculation" happening, in the sense of solving a physics differential equation or something. instead, it is a relatively simple feedback mechanism involving your senses, your brain, and your movement. in fact, /u/murdalok has the arrow of causality exactly **backward** when he says: in reality, it is the movement of your body that tells your brain how the object is travelling! there are similar "fast and frugal" heuristics for many other things we do, including throwing things, which do not resemble formal physics calculations, but have more in common with [feedback control systems](_url_2_). i suppose in a certain sense they can be called "calculation", since they get approximations to the right answer, but the term gives a [misleading sense](_url_0_) of what is actually going on. really, the idea is ludicrous if you give it a minute's thought. the aristotelian system, where heavier objects fall faster than lighter objects, and objects require a continuous impetus to sustain uniform motion, went mostly unchallenged for over a millennium! each new generation of physics students needs to have this stuff [beaten out of them](_url_1_)! our model of reality is chock-full of utilitarian rules of thumb. | 28 | [] | [] | [
"https://media.giphy.com/media/ohdY5OaQmUmVW/giphy.gif",
"https://my.mixtape.moe/moxkvd.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810014001962"
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would it be possible to code evolution? | i know we don't have all of the information for the various branches of evolution. but assuming we did, would it be possible to create a base class as some initial prokaryotic organism (maybe even a simple organic compound) with primitive behavioral functions, keep creating sub classes that build upon it iteratively adding more basic functions based on a rough concept of how evolution happened? coding even a basic eukaryota organism would be pretty hard, but could building upon it incrementally work to create an organism, as a simulation of evolution? i'm sorry if the question seems poorly thought out, because it is. it's just a thought i had studying software design because inheritance diagrams look extremely similar to the evolutionary tree (which is kind of the point). | there's a concept called "genetic algorithms" that more or less mimic evolution. these algorithms are used for optimization problems. the basic idea is that any solution can be expressed in a limited set of variables, called the genes. if you take a solution, you can run it through the original problem and score how good the solution is. this is called the fitness function. now, you start with a large set of different solutions (made up from different genes) and run them all through the fitness function to measure how good each solution is. you then pick the best x% and "breed" them. that means, select some variables (genes) from one solution (organism) and some from the other and combine these to create a new solution (offspring). you can randomly make small modifications to the variables in this step as well (random mutations). you run the next generation through the fitness function again and select the top performers to breed a new generation with. as you repeat this process, the solutions should gradually improve. it's not a complete replication of the evolutionary process in nature, because in nature the conditions change constantly and this would be represented by a changing fitness function. what was a good solution in generation n might not be so good anymore in generation n+100. a nice example to see this in action is _url_0_ . on this website, a simulation runs that tries to optimize the shape of a car so that it can cross a stretch of a highly irregular track. the "genes" of a car are the number, position and size of its wheels as well as the number, position, shape and size of other geometric shapes that connect everything. as you leave the simulation running, you'll see certain car-configurations emerge as being very successful and reaching further and further on the track before coming to a halt. sometimes elements from two very different configurations are merged into a new setup, often with wildly varying success. | 26 | [] | [] | [
"http://boxcar2d.com/"
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] |
how was the length of a second calculated? | the second is actually a base unit, so it was defined arbitrarily. the exact nature of the definition has changed a few times. originally it was (duration of a day)/((24hr/d)*(60min/hr)*(60s/min)). currently it's defined as "the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom." | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
why does the skull have indentations at the temples? | the indentations on the skull allow room for muscles which allow us to bite and chew. if you place your fingertips on your temples while you chew, you can feel the muscles flexing. if you compare a human skull with a gorilla skull, you can see that the gorilla has considerably larger chewing muscles, which attach to a ridge at the top of the skull. | 95 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsid#Temporal_openings",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diapsid"
] | [
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|
could a super hydrophobic compound be applied to skin and if so, would applying it to the face be an effective countermeasure for pepper spray? | i suppose a means to remove it from the skin would also be required. alternately, could you use a piece of cloth treated with super hydrophobic spray to shield yourself from pepper spray? | pepper spray is oleocapsaicin - it is itself hydrophobic, so it will actually cling to a hydrophobic item *better* than it would to normal skin. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes certain materials perform well under pressure but poorly on impact(ie concrete, carbon fiber, etc)? | it sounds like you're talking about [brittleness](_url_0_) or lack of toughness. just to draw a contrast, some materials (notably, metals) can relatively easily permanently deform in response to high stresses. (in the case of polycrystalline metals, the deformation process involves the generation and shifting of line defects called [dislocations](_url_1_).) a useful consequence is that these materials tend to fail slowly and absorb a lot of energy as they fail; in addition, defects such as cracks tend to blunt at the tip rather than propagate. when dislocation movement or some other ductile or gradual-failure mechanism isn't available, however, as is the case in brittle materials such as concrete, then cracks tend to propagate rather than blunting. this response is more prominent for tensile (pulling-apart) forces than for compressive (pushing-together) forces, but brittle materials can still fail from a compressive load that isn't balanced in all three directions. here, the energy that goes into mechanically loading the material has no other outlet than to create a new surface. in other words, the material fractures or shatters. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittleness",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dislocation"
] | [
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|
how long before death when jumping from leo? | you are on the iss in leo. you are outside the station with the earth 'above' you and you jump (average human jump) and begin traveling towards the earth. how long until you burn up? assume you don't need to breath. | lets assume that you are wearing a space suit and have lots of oxygen.the [iss](_url_0_) orbits at approx 7700 meters/sec at an altitude of approx 230 miles. by jumping, you might try to change your orbital velocity. you wouldn't change it by any significant amount, but to the extent that you did change it, you would gain or lose a very small amount in your orbital altitude. you wouldn't de-orbit until friction with the sparse atoms and molecules up there slowed you down to the point of reentry. you would run out of oxygen, electricity, food, and you would die long before reentry | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"
] | [
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[biology]why do molecules move to a an area of high concentration across a membrane? | (sorry if title is unclear)in my biology class we did an experiment about diffusion and osmosis. we placed a shell-less egg in corn syrup and water, and the egg in corn syrup lost mass, and the egg in water gained mass. my teacher explained that there is less h2o in glucose than egg white, so water diffuses out of the egg to corn syrup, and there is less water in egg white than in pure water so water will diffuse into the egg. but this doesn't make sense to me because the corn syrup seems denser than water, so why would water diffuse into a denser area just because there is less water there? from my understanding diffusion works through any molecules bouncing off each other and therefore spreading out out to less dense areas, but how come in this experiment the molecules seem to move to the denser areas? | this really belongs in chemistry, but i'll have a go. density determines where the egg will sit in the liquid (float to the top, or sink to the bottom). it doesn't determine where water will go across the membrane. really, what is happening here is the second law of thermodynamics in action. you have two solutions of different concentrations. this separation is more ordered than if the concentrations were equal. (it helps to think about the reverse --- imagine you dissolve 100 g of sugar in a cup of water and you want to then separate the water into half a cup of pure water and half a cup of water with 100 g of sugar in it; it takes work to separate the two. now imagine you want to take each of those half cups and combine them; they will mix on their own if put into the same container.) because systems favor entropy, the equalization of concentration on each side of the membrane will occur as long as there is nothing resisting the flow of water from one side to the other. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are furnace air filters directional? | when i buy an air filter for my house's heating system, they have a little arrow on top (_url_0_) that show me i have to install it facing a certain direction. why do i have to install it in a particular direction? aren't air filters just materials with little tiny holes, and aren't holes symmetric? edit: thank you for the explanations. this makes a lot more sense to me now. | some filters aren't symmetric in that they are made up of layers of materials with different pore sizes. to get maximum airflow and maximum filtration, you want to catch the big particles first in the larger pores, then filter out the smaller ones in the smaller pores. if you have the small pores first, it reduces the effective filtering area. they clog up with big particles and the ~~smaller~~ larger pores never get a chance to do much. edit: fixed dumb mistake. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.furnacefiltercare.com/images/installing-furnace-filters-air-flow-arrows.JPG"
] | [] | [
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why does silly putty break if yanked and stretch if pulled slowly? | asking for my inquisitive kid, who noticed that if he pulled hard on his silly putty, it would break cleanly. but if he pulled gently, it stretches. you can even combine these by pulling gently to stretch it, and then doing a quick yank to break it cleanly. what is the science behind that? thanks! | to expand on the above answer, i'll provide more of a molecular level explanation. silly putty contains a couple of different things, mostly a soft flexible polymer and a bit of finely ground silica. the polymer is linear, not crosslinked (like a rubber band is), but the silica is able to act like a physical crosslinker giving the silly putty a more solid mechanical response. basically that just means that the polymer interacts with the solid fillers, but the interactions are not permanent and are constantly breaking and reforming. when your kid quickly stretches the putty, many of those polymer-filler interactions are broken at the same time, and they aren't able to reform quickly enough to prevent new surfaces from forming. once a new surface is formed, then the putty tears pretty easily as that crack propagates. there are additionally some polymer entanglement considerations that add to the viscoelastic behavior, and i'm unsure of how much those contribute. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/BleCJJAKkgw"
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what would be the smallest thing from which to observe the effects of time dilation? | i understand that atoms for instance with their half life could show wether they've "jumped ahead" in time... or do they? i have this impression mainly because of the vague understanding i have on how atomic clocks work. but could you go smaller? could a single subatomical particle show time dilation's effects? | there was an early experiment measuring the flux of atmospheric muons at different altitudes, and found that the muons were lasting longer than they normally would, because their lifetimes were being extended in our reference frame by time dilation. _url_0_ | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tnao7JWo8mA"
] | [
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is it possible for nutrition to influence bone structure (narrower shoulders/widerh ips), or is this determined genetically? | its no secret that nutrition does influence your bone growth. people who have gone through periods of malnutrition during childhood are at a higher risk of losing inches they would have normally grown to. now if you are talking about whether nutrition can actually change the position of the bones in your body then you are talking about rickets. rickets is a softening of the bones caused by malnutrition. its caused mostly by lack of vitamin d and can be treated and reversed if found early enough. the most common sign is a bow legged appearance. like someone who has been riding a horse. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a limit on the amount of things that a brain can retain? | there's a physical limit a to how much information can be stored in a certain volume. this has been asked before and i think the number i calculated was around 10^66 bits for the size of the brain. the actual number is certainly much smaller, but at least it's an upper bound | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is my blue the same as your blue? | when we look at the sky we both see the colour blue. we have come to agree that the sky is "blue" but how do i know that what you are seeing is not a different colour to the one i see. for example, you see my version of the colour "red". this could be the case for all colours meaning we see the world in a completely different way but simply agree on the names of colours. light of the same colour has the same wavelength but do our brains interpret colours differently? can we ever know? | your brain structure is quite similar to mine, as are your eyes. your life experiences have been roughly equivalent to mine in terms of the visual environment. we both attribute about the same set of phenomenon to the same color category. so in the absence of reasons to think otherwise, i think it's most parsimonious to think that your blue is the same as mine. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what does it mean to have a viscous blood? | it could mean a lot of things- anything that causes your bone marrow to hyperproliferate/make more cells than usual. issues such as certain congenital heart defects and altitude sickness that cause your body to produce more red cells to compensate for decreased oxygenation. this raises your hematocrit, making your blood more viscous. dehydration will also raise your hematocrit, but by decreasing the fluid content related to the # of rbcs. i would assume if you have normal blood counts and dope w erythropoietin as some athletes do, this would also cause viscosity. immunoglobulins can also accumulate and thicken things up. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do we determine from experiments the charge of a muon particle? | i understand that we can determine its charge to mass ratio by looking at deviations of the particle in magnetic and electric fields. but how did scientists determine the charge or mass on a single muon particle, without prior assuming it to be equal to charge of electron. | from the [particle data group](_url_0_): (µ+ e− atom) but there are other ways, such as assuming we know the charge from charge conservation, calculating indirectly through the decay rate formula, or kinematics in collisions or pair production. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://pdg.lbl.gov/2014/listings/rpp2014-list-muon.pdf"
] | [
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] |
do all animal species have reproductive cells with flagella? | nematodes and some arthropods have sperm without flagella [link]( _url_0_). their sperm moves more like an ameoba. in fact, nematodes lack flagella altogether. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://books.google.com/books?id=I1wMBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA254&lpg=PA254&dq=sperm+without+flagella+animal&source=bl&ots=7bDSHLNWBE&sig=1U3YGsomDQMHrkKuezb3UdTUbyg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjhgN_bma3VAhXCiFQKHW4uDaUQ6AEIaDAP#v=onepage&q=sperm%20without%20flagella%20animal&f=false"
] | [
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|
if i move something, e.g a metal rod, does the other end move near instantaneously? | if i had a metal rod, 5 miles long, and i hit one end of it so that it shifted by 1 inch - how long would it take for the shift to be realised on the other end of the rod? why isn't it instantaneous? obviously it can't be because nothing can travel instantaneously, but you can't shift one end of a stick without shifting the whole thing automatically. my head hurts. | you are right, the other end cannot move instantaneously since this would violate special relativity. the reason this does not happen is easy to see if you think of the problem microscopically. when you press on the rod, your hand only comes into contact with the atoms making up its surface. those atoms in turn will push on their neighbors, and so on, and so on. essentially what you are doing is you are creating a compression wave. this wave will then propagate through the rod at the speed of sound in that medium. for a thin metal rod, the speed of sound is approximately given by (y/p)^1/2 where y is [young's modulus](_url_0_), which is a measure of the stiffness of the material and p is the density. the speed of sound will always be much less than the speed of light (in vacuum). for instance for steel the speed of sound is about 6000m/s, which is about five orders of magnitude less than the speed of light, 3*10^8 m/s. so rest assured, the principle of special relativity still stands. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young's_modulus"
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if i put a 24 hour clock on the snow at the north pole, is the clock staying still and the hour hand moving or is the hour hand staying still and the earth moving? | it depends on your frame of reference. if the sun is your frame of reference, then the earth is spinning, and thus, the clock housing is spinning, and the hour hand is essentially not moving (except for moving with the earth as it makes it's orbit around the sun). if your frame of reference is earth, then earth is not moving, the housing is not moving, and the hour hand is rotating. you could also choose some other frame of reference and get an entirely different answer. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does limping actually help you heal faster? | i'm gonna have to use common sense and tell you that limping is caused by pain. we limp because it makes the pain more tolerable. pain generally means we are hurting ourselves, so limping clearly prevents us from hurting ourselves. i'm not really sure what you want to hear. what do you mean your limping is "a choice"? eating is "a choice", too, because we consciously do it. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what would it take for scientists or doctors to be able to see what a human is currently thinking? | say you're in a lab, hooked up to this machine and the scientist says "think of a happy memory" and as you see it in your head and the scientist also sees it on a screen. what would it take for this to become real? | we don't know yet -- that's what makes it research! there are many people working on [brain-computer interfaces](_url_1_) to try to develop algorithms to 'decode' brain activity. at this point, however, the outputs that can be measured are relatively crude, e.g., sending a signal of "up", "down", "left", or "right". [this](_url_0_) is probably one of the most promising achievement to date. the idea is to match patterns of brain activation, measured by fmri, to known responses to a series of videos. but this is still a *long* way from what you are suggesting, since: * the method required hours of calibration for each individual participant. * the researchers knew that the participants were watching one of a certain set of videos. the reconstructed images were then also based on those videos (i.e., which video did the brain activity most closely match), not just on the measured brain activity. * the participants were watching a video, not just imagining something. probably the biggest challenge -- besides not fully understanding how the brain computes information -- is the fact that we don't yet have any imaging technologies with the spatial and temporal resolution necessary to reconstruct any detailed imagery or thoughts just from brain recordings. supposing we could get a much more comprehensive read-out of brain activity, we could probably develop very detailed algorithms to pull out a lot of information using various signal analysis methods. mind you, that in itself will be an enormous computational challenge, especially since any such algorithms will likely have to be trained for each individual before the outputs make any sense. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://abcnews.go.com/Health/MindMoodNews/scientists-youtube-videos-mind/story?id=14573442",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface"
] | [
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how does a rock like this even form? | _url_0_ so my friend found this strange rock out by the montauk lighthouse and we have no idea how this happens. is this a natural rock formation, or is this actually a rock within a rock? pls halp. | fear not ... halp is on it's way ... so ... what you have there is a rounded cobble with a bit of sequential history. the material the rock is made of was formed ... somewhere, i don't know where, and i can't tell what it is just from the picture, but probably to the north or north-west of where you picked it up (more about this later). that specific piece was picked up by a glacier and carried around for a while. i can say this because it has a shape characteristic of such glacial cobbles, where the sides are flattish yet smooth, and the angles rounded ([example](_url_0_). so, at some point, the last glacier to swing by your parts gave this guy a lift, and dumpted it around montauk at the end of the glaciation, sometime about 12 000 years ago. in those parts, glacial transport was mostly from the nw. once out of the ice, weathering set in, and soil develloped on top of the horizon containing this cobble. this resulted in the deposit of iron oxydes which forms an easily detacheable crust around the cobble. the coating is the result of surface water dissolving iron from surface minerals, and redepositing it in the vadose zone as mineral precipitates on the underlying substrate. at some later date, that soil was broken up, possibly by natural erosion (although local contractors will have the same effect), and transported where you found it, probably by a nearby river. | 19 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/IgO6K"
] | [
"http://blogs.agu.org/mountainbeltway/2011/03/22/glacial-cobble/"
] | [
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for human biologists: what is the enzyme that binds to hypoxia inducible factor in the kidneys? | i can't seem to find the name of the specific enzyme that binds to hif in order to control epo synthesis. thank you! | your question is ill-defined. hif-1/2alpha (stabilized during hypoxia) binds to hif-1beta to form a transcriptional transactivator complex together with p300. these proteins then translocate to hre (hypoxia-responsive element) sequences in promotors of hypoxia-inducible genes (epo is one of those genes). there is no "enzyme" involved in this process. in the kidney, hif2alpha is the main hif protein regulating epo synthesis. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when measuring blood pressure using sphygnamometer and stethoscope we hear korotkoff sounds. what actually happens in the arteries to produce them? | in short, turbulence. when you bring the pressure past the person's measured systolic bp with the cuff, you completely close the vessels. as you bring the pressure down in the cuff, the point at which the heart has enough pressure to spurt blood through the blocked vessel is the systolic pressure. this is the korotkoff sound, caused by the turbulent flow of blood (like water being shaken in a bottle). as you continue to bring the pressure down, the point at which the heart has enough pressure to fully open the vessels is the diastolic bp. the korotkoff sounds disappear because the blood now has laminar flow, which creates no sound. source: i am a medical student | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what happens during that "heart drop" feeling? | that feeling you get in your chest when you receive bad news or are nervous about something. i am curious to what is going on physically and chemically inside my body to produce that pain in the chest. what's going on with our bodies, reddit? | it's a bit disappointing that no-one has given an answer after 5 hours, so i submit the following article: _url_0_ please feel free to downvote/delete if someone gives a proper answer. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.health.harvard.edu/fhg/updates/Surprise-of-palpitations.shtml"
] | [
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what are some of the tools used in big data management? what kind of analysis are to be done when analysts receive huge data dumps? | im curious as to what kind of tools data scientists use to draw meaningful conclusions, other than the usual use of variance, mean and other common statistical tools a common high schooler will use. any links to educate a data greenhorn like myself? | honestly, there are whole masters dedicated to this. you have machine learning techniques to classify data. you can use various models to predict variables (amongst others regression in all kind of forms). there are inventory control models, stochastic time series analysis. all kinds of tests to test for distributions and hypotheses. there's just so much, it all depends on the data and what you want with it. if you just want to read up, i'd advise googling "predicting churn". the concept is easy to understand, and there's a lot written about it! | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mmds.org/#ver21",
"https://lagunita.stanford.edu/courses/course-v1:ComputerScience+MMDS+SelfPaced/about"
] | [
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why do your arms float up after pressing outwards on a door frame with locked elbows? | i make educational science videos and i wanted to make one about this phenomenon a while ago, but i was unable to find any satisfactory explanations. my understanding is that it's a generalized muscle effect - you can induce something similar by making a fist and squeezing really hard for a while, then gently trying to open your hand. it will feel 'locked up'. i saw various sources claim different effects were responsible: that excess calcium buildup was stimulating the muscle fibers, that muscle spindles were somehow getting confused and setting a false equilibrium point for muscle lengths, or that the opposing set of muscles were getting tired trying to oppose the anticipated movements leading to mismatched muscle tone. can anyone shed some light on the accuracy of any of these claims? i'd love to make a video about it if i can get a well-supported explanation. thanks for your help! | edits: here is how i think it happens, and here is a picture for reference : _url_0_ when you contract the triceps (extrafusal muscle), an intrafusal muscle also contracts, wich slows down signaling along the 1a sensory neuron. a gamma motor neuron then activates to stretch out the intrafusal muscle fiber (if) again. this alows the brain to tell if there is further contraction. if you release your arms, the signal to the gamma motor neuron will also stop. this causes the if to shrink to its normal size slowly, which tells the brain that your arms are raising. however, now its contracting on its own, without the triceps actually contracting. the sensory sytem sends collaterals to the motor system, telling it the arm is raising, which in turn makes your arms raise. the brain wants sensory and motor systems to be in synch, which is why unless you try to stop it, if you feel your arms rising, they will rise. it can't be muscle memory as it is a form of procedural memory that involves consolidating a specific motor task into memory through repetition. this works first time. it also can't be fatigue, as your arms travel the same direction you were pressing. you were using the extensor (triceps) to push the door jam, and they continue to contract afterwards. this is not like a reflex, or sensory adaptation. it is a result of the if muscle fibers resetting after extended periods of load. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/PaYsC"
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why do some people snap better/louder with their non-dominant hand? | me and a few of my friends all noticed that we snap louder with our non-dominant hand. why does that happen? is it normal? | the snapping sound is caused by your middle finger hitting your ring finger. if you haven't practiced this with your hand your middle finger will hit your palm and make a much quiter noise. however i don't know why you would only be able to do this with one hand and not the other. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do people who can’t keep eye contact have trouble also via softwares like skype? what about a picture of someone? | as a person with said problem, no, i personally do not have problem with skype or a picture for various reasons. skype does not have actual eye contact. if i stare at the person's eyes, they are not staring into my soul. also, they are not under my inquisitive stare, so i can relax. for pictures, even more so, since i am sure i am not weirding them out nor they are gazing into my deepest thoughts. in the end, it's just that i find maintaining eye contact stressful for vibes i give and receive. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are the laws of physics the same as far as we can "see?" is there weird patch of the visible universe that isn't behaving properly? | i understand that maybe somewhere out there roses are blue and up might be down but i'm talking about as far as humanity can see using telescopes. | observations of spectra give solid evidence that things far away from us are made of the same materials as we are and follow the same laws. calculations of nucleosynthesis in the first few minutes of the universe match the abundances we see observationally, indicating that our understanding of nuclear physics is valid throughout space and time. the behavior of supernovae gives more confirmation that our detailed physical models are correct. and so on. as we make observations, we find that over time and space, the principles of physics that we have studied here on earth provide accurate explanations for phenomena observed elsewhere in the universe, no matter how far away. there is the phenomenon of dark matter, which we cannot yet explain. some physicists think it points toward modifications in gravity, but the majority see dark matter as fitting within the framework of gravity as we know it. and for those who would modify gravity, they would modify it everywhere, so we'd still have a common set of laws applying everywhere we look. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postulates_of_special_relativity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_principle"
] | [
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why is mortality from measles in the philippines so high? | hello. i am not asking why there is an outbreak of measles. i am asking why so many people are dying. this source for the u.s. indicates that the expected mortality rate is one per thousand cases: _url_1_ this source indicates that 12,700 cases of measles have been reported, leading to 203 deaths: _url_0_ that's one death per 63 cases. that's 150x higher than expected in the u.s. | copied directly from one of the sources you provided in your post: *"the measles case-fatality rate in underdeveloped nations,* **where vitamin a deficiency is prevalent**, *is about 3–6% of reported cases, 30 to 60 times higher than in developed countries."* •world health organization. measles: fact sheet [updated 2017 oct] | 7 | [] | [
"https://www.who.int/philippines/news/feature-stories/detail/questions-and-answers-on-the-measles-outbreak-in-the-philippines",
"https://physiciansforinformedconsent.org/measles/dis/"
] | [] | [
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what makes egg cartons so effective? i'm pretty rough with my grocery bags, and have yet to break an egg. | the material provides some cushioning but it's mostly the shape. it apparently redistributes any force around the contents to the negative space in the carton. that was the explanation i got from a friend who worked in packaging design. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
in quantum teleportation, where does the energy go? | two photons are entangled. one is routed 20 miles away where it is obliterated by a collision. the second photon is obliterated essentially at the same time. where does the energy from the second photon go? | you have a big misunderstand of what entanglement means. the two photons have correlated quantum numbers, so if you measure say the polarization of one of the photons and get a, then it means that the other photon has polarization b. why this is a big deal is that before measurement/interaction/etc... each photon was in a quantum mixture of both states. when one photon gets *obliterated*, the other photon assumes the opposite quantum state and keeps on going. the energy from the collision is conserved and will probably end up manifesting ultimately as heat in your detector. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do your veins move? | do your veins move in your body? what makes them move if they do? my question is based on whether or not a tattoo like this would be stupid because your veins would move. _url_0_ i don't want your opinion on how the tattoo looks or on tattoos in general, that's not what this is about. i just want to know if your veins move and why. thanks. | they will stay basically in the same place. much of the venous system is surrounded by muscle tissue / soft tissue so they can't really shift. they need to be in these tissues because skeletal muscle movement is an important factor in actually getting the blood in the venous part of the blood system back to your heart. | 3 | [] | [
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why don't you feel blood moving through your veins? | in order to feel something in or on your body, some sort of mechanical force needs to be detected, interpreted by receptors, transferred into an electrochemical signal, and sent to the brain. in the case of blood flowing through arteries, we have [baroreceptors](_url_0_) which sense blood pressure. changes in blood pressure are signaled to the brainstem, which then tells the heart to increase or decrease its output. because the signal is sent to the brainstem, the pressure isn't interpreted as force or some sort of "touch" because that part of the brain isn't involved in that sensation. anything we perceive as feeling is signaled through the thalamus and then up to the somatosensory and supplementary somatosensory areas of the cortex. this makes sense in terms of evolution because would you really want to be able to feel your blood flowing through your body? what purpose would that serve? | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroreceptor"
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|
a question regarding evolution. | does the life cycle of a human being act as an example of evolution? as in, from birth to death? the process of growing from infant to adult? just wondering. thanks! | short answer: no. evolution is characterized changes in frequency of heritable genetic traits over generations. individuals do not evolve. pickier answer: ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny so while an individual can't evolve, it's often possible to trace its the evolution of its line over many generations by observing its embryonic development. the development of human kidneys are a good example of this. it's not a flawless technique, but it's a useful one. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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slinky hovering? | in [this gif](_url_0_), a slinky is dropped. the bottom of the slinky appears stationary. is this because the whole slinky is pulling itself together, but the bottom part of the slinky is working against gravity, and they cancel out while the top of the slinky is working with gravity? | kind of. the short answer is that the bottom of the slinky is still feeling tension from the upper part of the slinky. | 5 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/zlnXf.gif"
] | [] | [
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why didn't the human ribcage evolve to to completely surround our torso? | our backside seems well protected, but our stomach and other organs don't have that protection. what gives? | evolution doesn't perfect living beings, it just optimizes them for reproduction. basically, if a better ribcage doesn't result in more babies, it doesn't get passed on. an unprotected backside results in fewer babies, so those with protected backside pass on those genes. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the uncertainty in the mass of the earth? | ahhhh, interesting question. you see, we can *weigh* the earth far more precisely than we can determine its *mass*. we can measure the gravitational attraction of the earth extremely precisely, down to 2 parts per billion, actually. however, to determine the *mass* of the earth we need to divide that measurement (the gm product that is the distance independent part of the gravitational force of the earth) by the gravitational constant, g. the way we determine g is by measuring the attractive force between known masses, which is a very difficult experiment. currently our best value of g is only accurate to about 150 ppm (0.015%), which means that our estimate of earth's mass is only accurate to that level as well. in concrete terms, the accuracy of earth's mass is roughly 9e20 kilograms (900 thousand trillion tonnes). if we had a precise value of the gravitational constant the accuracy of earth's mass would be down to an error of only 12 trillion tonnes. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what qualifies something to be an organ, and how is it that we're still discovering new organs like mesentery? | just as a counterpoint, it is not yet generally accepted that the mesentery or interstitium should properly be designated organs. as your question suggests, there is not universally accepted definition of an organ leading to the controversy. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/d-brief/2018/03/28/interstitium-new-organ/#.WszJU9TwZaQ"
] | [
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|
why would gaddafi implementing the african gold dinar have destabilized the american dollar? | [removed] | some people (mostly not economists) have an obsession with the [gold standard](_url_0_), because they believe it helps prevent government overspending. this is arguably true, but ignores the many other disadvantages of a gold backed currency, such as the inability of governments to act in the face of major economic crises (which is why they have largely been abandoned). those people believe that investors would flock to a gold-backed backed currency, which would increase investment in countries that have it. they also believe that, by forcing governments to limit their spending, the increased role of the free market would also benefit countries on the gold standard in the long run. those are largely matters of faith; this didn't really happen in the past. what is likely is that a gold standard would benefit countries with large gold reserves. many of these are in africa, so they may benefit. that wouldn't help for countries without large gold reserves, though. tldr: some people believe that fiat currencies are bad and that countries that follow a gold standard will do better economically. if africa was on a gold standard and the usa not, they believe that africa would benefit and the usa suffer. most economists would probably disagree. p.s. if you could link the article that made those claims, it would be possible to address the points made directly, rather than speculating about what the reasoning might be. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_standard"
] | [
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what determines whether an object is positively or negatively charged when it's charged (by rubbing)? | i'm learning about charges in physics. a balloon rubbed on your head becomes negatively charged. nylon rubbed with a polyester cloth becomes positively charged. why are they different? what determines if it's a negative or positive charged when they're rubbed? | when you rub something and it gains a charge, it is either gaining or losing electrons to whatever it is rubbed against. whether this happens depends on the electronegativity of both materials. electronegativity is something's ability to attract and hold onto electrons, it is the basis of almost all of chemistry. if a more electronegative atom rubs against a less electromagnetic one, you will see a negative charge build up on the more electronegative of the two. with macroscopic materials the process is more complicated, but all that really changes is how ready to accept electrons your materials are. (also known as the potential difference between your materials) | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how fast does information travel up/down the spine? | i'm just wondering how it compares to a system like fiber optic wire. | very slowly compared to fiber optics. the fastest neurons (motor and fine sensory) travel at a blistering 70-120 meters per second, whereas the slowest are around 0.5-2m/s. this of course not counting the fractions of a second that are required to transmit information between the neurons. _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_conduction_velocity"
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is there a way to get a large cut on your skin without breaking any blood vessels? | i don't mean like little microscopic cuts, i wanna know if there is a way you could get a large-ish cut without bleeding at all. | yes and no. you can have cuts that don't affect major blood vessels such as veins and arteries but without bleeding at all the cut can not go deeper than the epidermis (outer most layer of the skin). once a cut reaches the dermis (2 mm at the most) you will start to notice some bleeding from sub vessels in the dermis. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/depression/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/SuicideWatch/"
] | [
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did celsius and fahrenheit ever meet (or correspond)? | celsius and fahrenheit meet at -40, but did anders celsius and daniel gabriel fahrenheit ever meet? i'm curious to learn if the two engaged in some form of debate around the merits of the two systems, in person or through correspondence. | it doesn't seem like there is evidence that they ever corresponded, and it is unlikely that they would have because fahrenheit died in 1736, at which point celsius was focused on measuring the shape of the earth. he didn't begin investigating temperature scales until the 1740s. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the molecular clock hypothesis conflict with the punctuated equilibrium formulation of evolution? | nobody has anwered this so i'll try. basically, no. punk-eek has to do with morphological change. molecular clocks come from kimura's neutral theory. the nt suggests that most fixed molecular sequence mutations are neutral and are driven by drift. neutral mutations don't have a big effect on morphology. so one is about the rate of adaptive morphological change and the other is about neutral molecular change. these two concepts are effectively independent of each other. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what's the minimum number of animals in a species required to repopulate? | i heard a while back that the number is 50, and if the number goes below that, there isn't enough diversity to repopulate. i figured i should ask a scientist about this. thanks. | there is (probably - this is a bit debated in the literature) minimum population sizes required for species to persist. the specific population is very much debated and depends on a lot of different factors. the basic phenomenon is part of what's called the [allee effect](_url_1_), where for a population of a species to grow, there needs to be some minimum population density. there's lots and lots of research that's gone into trying to assess viable population sizes. a quick search showed me estimates of 100-10,000 individuals, other ranges were 50-5000 and 12-1000, all for different kinds of viability and different generation times. it's complicated, and something conservation biologists are actively working toward. let me know if you want specific citations - i got a lot of this from an overview [here](_url_0_) but also found a couple of good journal articles you might like. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/154633/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allee_effect"
] | [
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] |
i was wondering if you could help me identify this bug? [x-post from answers] | [this](_url_0_) bug was found on vancouver island in bc canada. i have never seen anything like it before, and was hoping someone could identify it for me, thanks. | looks like you've got a snakefly! ( _url_0_ ) not actually a true fly, but it's a cool little guy. i can't tell you any more than the order, though. i'm more a vertebrate person. heheh. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/3HeXG.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snakefly",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/whatsthisbug/"
] | [
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why can't macroscopic objects be difracted according to the de broglie equation? | if wavelength= h/momentum, what prevents scientists from performing diffraction experiments with objects that can be seen with the naked eye? say a penny-sized chunk of aerogel moving slowly? | a fastball would have a wavelength on the order of 10^-34 m, in order to observe diffraction you need to have that pass through a slit of approximately the same size as the wavelength. the probability that you can get a baseball to travel through a slit of width 10^-34 m is so small that your experiment would take an eternity to produce any meaningful results. with that said, large microscopic objects have been shown to demonstrate wave-like properties: buckyballs (c60) produce interference patterns in the double-slit experiment. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the body change where blood flow is directed to? | i was reading [this wikipedia article on hypovolemia](_url_0_) and noticed under the section of stage 2 of hypovolemic shock that one symptom is "pale, cold, and clammy skin as blood flow is directed away to major organs such as the heart, lungs, and brain." how exactly does your body know to do that and what mechanism is used to cause that to happen? | there are 2 ways that your body accomplishes this. first, all of your capillaries have smooth muscle sphincters called [precapillary sphincters](_url_0_) that shunt blood away from your capillaries. however, for hypovolemic shock, this is not sufficient. the way your body shunts mass blood away from your peripheral processes is by vasoconstriction (constricting the peripheral blood vessels). all arteries have smooth muscles that can constrict the diameter and reduce blood flow to specific areas of the body. | 8 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypovolemia"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precapillary_sphincter"
] | [
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] |
how does electricity know what path to take before taking it? | like if i'm in a car how does it know that the rubber on the tires is a good insulator? i guess what i'm asking is how does it know the path of least resistance before going through? | the idea that electricity takes the "path of least resistance" is wrong, and can even be dangerous! electricity takes *all* paths available. the path with the least resistance gets the most current, the path with the most resistance gets the least current. think about rush hour in your city. most cars will take the highway, but once that fills up a few clever people will take surface streets instead. but it doesn't take much to jam up the surface streets too, so in the end, traffic takes every possible route, every route is jammed, and the high-capacity roads take a larger share of the traffic. | 43 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any process that keeps ocean salinity in check? ie a salinity cycle akin to the carbon cycle. | is there any process that removes salt from the ocean. as rivers run across land to the ocean and dissolve salts along the way, it seems like the oceans are doomed to get saltier and saltier. i know melting ice due to global warming reduces salinity from releasing lots of fresh water, but that's only recently and i'm guessing will only last so long as there's still ice to melt. is there maybe some chemical reaction that is naturally occurring to remove salt from the ocean? otherwise won't the ocean get forever saltier and eventually intolerable to the organisms that live inside it like the dead sea? | yes. there does exist a salt cycle in the oceans. the major process removing salt from the oceans is salt pan/evaporite formation[[1]]( _url_5_), such as that which formed these [salt mines](_url_4_). the [caspian sea](_url_3_) is a cut-off remnant of ancient paratethys sea, and much of the salt in the water that was separated from the rest of the [world ocean](_url_6_) now exists as underground deposits in the region. sea organisms such as plankton also remove ca (calcium carbonate) and si from the water to form their shells. after they die, their shells fall to the sea floor as sediment, much of it later removed by plate tectonic subduction.[1] additionally, at geologically active regions on the sea floor, as water seeps into the pores and fissures in the rocks near hydrothermal vents, the salts in the water react with the basalt rock. mg is removed from seawater to form clay minerals, and calcium sulfate precipitates into anhydrite deposits.[[2]]( _url_1_) [see also this older askscience post.](_url_0_) the references i listed aren't the best, but [here's a little more background](_url_2_). | 19 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3nn3va/why_dont_the_oceans_get_more_salty_over_time_and/",
"https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/exploring-our-oceans/0/steps/733",
"http://cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/s/Seawater.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Sea#Formation",
"https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2013/04/the-strange-beauty-of-salt-mines/100492/",
"http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Mi-Oc/Ocean-Chemical-Processes.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Ocean"
] | [
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how can position to term rule be applied in daily life? | asking for my stepson. the teacher has failed to answer his question so i am reaching out. what can it be used for? what are its applications in everyday life? what is the point of learning it in addition to term to term rule? | you start out with $100 in the bank with 2% interest compounded monthly. how much money will you have after n months. after 0 months, you'll have 100, after 1 month, you'll have 100\*1.02, after 2 months you'll have 100\*(1.02)^(2), after n months you'll have 100\*(1.02)^(n) dollars. simple rules like this are used everywhere, this is just a simple toy example to convince people that it has application. most practically, though, you need to use this stuff all the time in programming. even if your stepson doesn't want to go into programming, it's becoming increasingly clear that it is one of the most marketable skills to have and basic math like this is 100% necessary to do well, and he should have the opportunity to pursue it if he wants (at least not be held back from it by a lack of math skills). but, aside from this, looking for the *use* of something is not a very good way to motivate learning and i feel that learning on its own right is *much* more valuable than any practical skill you can learn in school. the more you learn, the more you learn how to learn, the better you'll be at picking up new things and being able to critically think about things and solve problems. plus, learning is super fun. it doesn't matter whether or not some particular math skill has a practical application or not, because it is the process of learning *itself* that is the greatest benefit to your stepson. math, in particular, is very valuable to learn because it forces you to practice abstract/critical thinking more than any other subject, two skills with are invaluable for all parts of life. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[fluid dynamics] what's going on with these vortexes as the wave passes overhead? | [this](_url_0_) image has been posted to reddit a few times lately. while pretty neat visually, i'm very intrigued at the vortexes that form perpendicular underneath the wave; i've never seen this before and it doesn't seem clear what's forming these or what's "keeping them alive" through the whole shot. | the wave you are seein is moving and breaking right to left in the animation. as the crest of the wave pours over on itself the falling cresting water the top of the wave the wave at this point. when this falling water hits the lower part of the trough of the wave it is sucked into this water, where it makes these vortexes or spirals you see is dependant on all kind of forces within the wave, wind directions, etc. but hopefully this helps source: i am the ocean | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/siQnEFS.gif"
] | [] | [
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how hard would it be to develop a viagra-like drug to help panda bears or other similar endangered species? | viagra, cialis etc work for erectile dysfunction. they do not increase desire. they just plump up the plumbing when the person taking it is in the mood. and even if they did increase libido, the female would have to be receptive. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
michelson-morley: why is light wave parallel to aether movement supposed to take longer? | i've been trying to understand this experiment and i get every other part but literally nothing anywhere explains this part. i feel like i'm missing something super obvious. the most i've found is that this is because "time gained from traveling downwind is less than that lost traveling upwind." ok...that makes no intuitive sense. why? shouldn't time gained and lost be the same since the distance traveled and the speed of the "aether" is the same? obviously not but i don't get it. | i'll consider the analogy of a boat in a river. let's say the boat will go a mile upstream and back downstream and the boat does 10 mph. if the river was still, the boat would take 2 miles / 10 mph = 12 minutes to do the trip. if the river flows at 5 mph, the boat will go upstream at 5 mph relative to the bank taking 1/5 hour (12 minutes), and downstream at 15 mph taking 1/15 hour (4 minutes). 16 minutes total. the michelson-morley experiment was the same idea, but with light in the 'flowing' ether (actually because of the moving earth). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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you're standing on the moon. you're at the edge of the dark side. what do you see? | i hope that's clear enough. so you're standing on the edge of where the sun stops hitting and dark side of the moon begins. would it be completely black since there is no atmosphere? and if you were to say, reach your hand over into the darkness, would it freeze instantly because it's so cold on that side of the moon? | it would depend on the phase of the moon. during a new moon, for example, the light reflected off of the earth would illuminate the surface. during a full moon, there would still be stars and planets to illuminate the surface slightly. it will never be completely dark. and no, your hand would not freeze instantly. convection is something that facilitates cooling. without a medium to convect, the cooling would not be very fast. sufficient cooling is actually a major issue with space suits. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.universetoday.com/19623/temperature-of-the-moon/"
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why doesn't air unmix? | if "air" is a mixture of light and heavy gasses, why doesn't air unmix? (i am sorry for not knowing a better word to use here) why exactly don't lighter gasses like oxygen float above a layer of heavier gasses like carbon dioxide, like some fluids would? | the real reason air doesn't separate into layers is entropy. there is an enthalpic component to mixing that would favor the heavier gases being on the bottom (that depends on the strength of gravity), but the dominant factor at room temperature is the favorable (positive) entropy of mixing. it's not a question of giving air enough time to settle; it's just straight thermodynamics saying that it's more favorable for the gases to be mixed. for certain extreme cases (h2 mixed with xe), they might separate, but i have a hard time believing that air would separate at room temperature (i don't feel like doing the calculation). | 50 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1PJTq2xQiQ0"
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what is the difference between natural selection and survival of the fittest? | i've had a philosophy prof try to explain it, and i'm currently reading a book which explains it. i still don't get the difference. i've re-read the pages where it explains it several times, they still seem like the same thing! | "survival of the fittest" gives a connotation which is not entirely accurate, because the word "fit" is ambiguous. it makes it seem as though evolution is a process of continual "advancement" or betterment, but that's not how it works. evolution can cause a population to "regress" if it enables an exploitation of a new ecological niche or an improvement in that exploitation. organisms can become "dumber", weaker, flightless, etc. in the service of evolution. they could become more vulnerable to predators or disease as well. everything in life is a tradeoff and evolution is about finding successful tradeoffs, successful strategies for existing in an ecosystem. consider an extreme example, a population of organisms deep in a cave system. life in these circumstances tend to lose things like eyes and the ability to see. from a "survival of the fittest" perspective this may seem backwards, because an organism with the ability to see is seemingly "more fit" than one without, but the metabolic cost of maintaining eyes without it being useful is a detriment not a benefit, so in reality the sightless organisms are "more fit" for the environment they're in. this is why evolution tends to be taught using terms like "natural selection" in preference to "survival of the fittest" because it's less ambiguous and gives a more correct impression of what's actually happening. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can some people "fight" illnesses and have a better success rate than those who give up? | i'm specifically interested in acute illness, e.g. can someone with stage iii esophageal cancer survive longer than a similar patient with the same diagnosis if she "fights" harder? | there was a [study](_url_0_) published a few years back examining a related phenomenon in which it was commonly believed that people with terminal illnesses could "hold on for the holidays" through sheer will. the statistical analysis showed that this was not the case, and that the death rate was unchanged by the holiday season. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.healingwell.com/index.php?p=news1&id=523009",
"http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=7399362n",
"http://scienceblogs.com/insolence/2007/10/does_a_positive_attitude_prolong_cancer.php"
] | [
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] |
a couple questions about simultaneity and existance | since [simultaneity is relative](_url_0_), all reference frames are valid when speaking about the order of events, correct? so for example, even though the [pillars of creation](_url_1_) have been destroyed, we haven't seen it yet, because the light hasn't gotten here. is it a valid statement to say that the pillars of creation have **not** been destroyed? since from our reference point, they still exist? and to take that line of thinking further... is it a valid statement to say that *nothing exists* outside of the observable universe? | relativity of simultaneity is the notion that there are different, equally valid frames of reference in which the same events happened in a different order. you also mention that light has a finite speed, so we see the pillars of creation as they were a long time ago. but these are two different effects, which should not be confused. from earth's reference point, the pillars were destroyed about 6,000 years ago, and the light from their destruction is currently on its way towards us. we can't see it yet, but they are gone. on the other hand, if you were in a spaceship moving away from earth at... about 0.95c, you'd be using a different frame of reference in which the pillars still existed, but would one day be destroyed. similarly, as far as i know, the unobservable universe exists, but the light from it hasn't reached us yet. there are frames of reference in which parts of it don't exist yet, but there are no frames of reference in which the observable universe is the only thing in existence. (oh, and relativity of simultaneity only works properly in special relativity. in the heavily warped space of general relativity, what constitutes a "reference frame" is far from clear.) | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Creation"
] | [] | [
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what is the evolutionary reason for saccades? | i don't understand why it would be beneficial to go temporarily blind, albeit a very small amount of time. | i assume you're talking about saccadic masking, rather than the broader saccades, which is the whole process of looking at different parts of whatever you're looking at. masking is the part of the process where the brain masks out the motion blur in the transition between two focal areas. it's important in any question about why something evolved to note that there is no such thing as an "evolutionary reason," because that suggests that evolution is a deliberate process - i.e. that a lemur at some point decided to start a process to evolve into humans and so that's why humans are here. evolution is simply passing on or weeding out of genetic instructions based on how effective those instructions are at making a life form that can survive. so, for instance, if you were a mutant cheetah who's mutation helped you run faster than other cheetahs, you'd be more likely to catch prey, therefore more likely to eat, therefore more likely to survive long enough to impregnate another cheetah and pass your mutant fast-cheetah genes on to the next generation. if, on the other hand, you were a mutant cheetah who only grew 2 legs, you'd be very unlikely to survive anywhere near long enough to mate, and so your non-beneficial mutation would not be passed on. what this has to do with saccadic masking is that it's not hard to imagine that a creature with the brain structure that processes vision as we do (not all animals do), but who is incapable of saccadic masking, would be in a living hell. every time its eyes moved, the world would blur like an extremely fast swish pan in a movie. this would be incredibly disorienting, not to mention nauseating. now put that non-masking creature next to a masking creature and consider the differences - while the masking creature sees an ordered world and walks gracefully through it on its way to food, shelter, and sex, the non-masking creature sees brief flashes of distinguishable images interspersed with insanely disorienting motion blurs. it would stumble about, possibly throw up, have a hard time finding food - in short, its survival would be very much in question. hence, saccadic masking would logically be naturally selected to be passed on. it should be noted that, as with most "how did this widget in the body evolve" questions, this is highly speculative. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does online money work? what's stopping a bank (or some other entity?) from just using computers to make money from nothing? | laws and regulations. let's say i'm a bank and i just decide to virtually print my own money from nothing. that's fraud. if and when it is uncovered through audits and reporting the result will be that the people who did it will go to prison, so people don't do it. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would drafting (like what racecars do) work on the moon? | hypothetically speaking, if there was a nascar race on the moon, would cars have the ability to draft on each other's tails? | no. drafting involves riding advantageous air currents, lessening the effect of air resistance on your vehicle. with no air, air resistance is not an issue on the moon and therefore drafting would have no discernable effect. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to charge a phone with fruit? | okay, this is a stupid question, but i don't see why it's that absurd, i mean a potato can run a clock, this can't be that far off. i have friend claiming that if you were to just take the usb end of a cable, and spear that into a banana that phone will charge. is there any validity to this? | first, let's examine how a potato/fruit battery works. in this example we use a [lemon](_url_1_): you stick two pieces of metal into the lemon, commonly copper and zinc. you hook up the two electrodes into your load, and voila, it powers something. the key here is that you're using two **different** metals. that's because different metals have different [reduction potentials](_url_0_). so it is actually the fact that the two metals hold onto electrons differently that allows electrons to flow and the battery to run - it has little to do with the lemon/potato. so if you just plug a usb cable into a potato, nothing will happen, because the positive and negative pins are made of the same material. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_potential",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemon_battery"
] | [
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does the cmb show us anything beyond our observable universe? | or is the observable universe the only thing we have information on? | not really, no. the cmb is just about at the very limit of what can constitute our observable universe. there are some theories some are trying to test that some of the patterns in the cmb could possibly be correlated with out-of-universe things, but i personally don't give it much stock. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there really such a thing as "plastic rice"? is burning really a way of identifying it? | i'm tired of seeing all over the internet and facebook people burning rice as a mean of identifying "plastic" rice. in brief, if the rice turns black and burns, it contains plastic, if it doesn't, then it's safe. the only thing i get when searching for the veracity of this is even more videos and tips on how to detect this new kind of super toxic rice of doom and i'm calling bs. i don't know if this was the correct subreddit for this question but just one answer would suffice. | the "plastic rice" urban myth came about because many asian countries make sculptural displays as a menu to order from. so this artwork uses lots of plastic rice. the reason that they make displays of their delicacies that you can point to is that often there's many dialects within a region. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the temperature have any (noticable) effect on air resistance? | while riding my bike in cold weather, i seem to notice a bit more drag compared to biking in warmer weather. does the increased density have noticable effect? | for something like a cyclist, the air drag is approximately proportional to air density, which is inversely proportional to absolute temperature. so, for example, from 20 c to -10 c (293 k to 263 k) there's about a 10% increase in density and thus a 10% increase in drag. tire rolling resistance also increases at lower temperatures. the rolling resistance is due to hysteresis in the rubber of the tire, and that gets worse at low temperatures. it seems like that effect is minor above 0 c, but becomes quite substantial at some lower temperatures. it of course depends on the specific compound used in the tire. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does time dilation affect organs/health | ok, so i know the equation t’=t/sqrt(1-v^2/c^2), and if you travel at 3/4 times the speed of light for a year, the person on earth would experience 1.5ish years, and would be about a half year older than the person travelling in the space ship, but do the cells in the space traveller’s body actually age/die/regenerate slower? how does this work? | i think what is very important to remember when thinking of this sort of question is that no matter where you are, what you are doing, what anyone else is doing time for you will always flow at one second per second. so if i wait 1 second then my clock says a second has past. time dilation is when i look over there and see that guy's clock and it has passed only half a second for my clock's second. nothing special has to happen with the cells in either persons body, mine still age at the normal rate just when i look over there it *looks* like his are ageing at a slower rate. from his point of view though, his stuff is ageing normally and its me that's slow. so basically: no, the cells in the spaceman's body do not age slowly, they age normally, same with the person left behind on earth. however, when they both look at each other it appears that the other person is ageing slower. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do medicine that are intended to reach the brain get there? | i'm doing research on nanoparticles, specifically pegylated liposomes, which can pass the blood brain barrier and carry drugs, but i was wondering how scientists make sure that the drugs that are carried via nanoparticles get to the brain (or any other target), as it circulates around in the bloodstream after being injected. also, is an injection the most effective way to administer drugs in this way? & #x200b; thanks. | the blood-brain barrier, as a passive barrier, would literally block every molecule over a certain size from reaching the brain, and those small enough to cross would only do so by passive diffusion. to overcome this (huge) limitation, the brain capillary endothelial cells (bcec) have specialized transport proteins that ferry important molecules across the barrier. glucose, insulin, amino acids...all of these are actively ferried across the bbb by the bcecs. so the way to get a pegylated liposome into the brain is to cover the liposomes in molecules that one of the bcec transport proteins will grab onto, dragging the liposome and its cargo along for the trip, and thereby actively crossing the bbb. some (like molecules targeting insulin transport proteins) will get *some* drug to the brain, but some drug will also be caught by insulin transport proteins elsewhere in the circulatory system. others, like transferrin, are more selective...the only capillaries with transferrin receptors are brain capillaries. so if you can get your drugged liposomes to be picked up by transferrin transport proteins, and you inject the liposomes into the bloodstream...the only place in the bloodstream targeting uptake of the liposomes will be brain capillaries, so almost all of the drug ends up in the brain where you wanted it. for more reading, check out these two papers (i’m on my phone so i can’t make prettier links): _url_0_ _url_1_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1602/neurorx.2.1.99.pdf",
"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1097/01.WCB.0000135592.28823.47?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed"
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if you put one foot on one bathroom scale and the other foot on another scale and stood between them so your center of mass was exactly between the two scales (say your feet/the scales are x distance apart, and you weigh w), what would each scale read? | you're 6 feet tall, say. i'm thinking since your weight force is acting in diagonal directions on each scale, the scale will only measure the vertical components of your weight on each scale, but i'm not sure. | each will show half your weight. it doesn't matter whether it's diagonal or not, the scales are the only things supporting your weight so the vertical component measured will always equal your weight. if your legs are at a diagonal you would apply more force to the scales than if they are vertical, but the extra force is sideways in the form of friction. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do birth controls such as ortho tri-cylcen sometimes cause blood clots/breast cancer/infertility? | this is not a forum for medical advice, the decision whether or not to use birth control is one that should be discussed with a medical professional, not random people on the internet. that said, here's some information on your non-medical questions. clotting: [contraceptives can cause elevated levels of clotting factors.](_url_2_) breast cancer: we don't know for sure. cancers are very complicated diseases (yes, the plural is intentional), and why they occur is still the focus of much research today. [here's a summary of what we know.](_url_1_) infertility: [nothing more than a myth and misconception, as far as the scientific literature goes.](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://infertility.about.com/b/2011/04/26/myth-birth-control-pills-cause-infertility.htm",
"http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/cancer-questions/the-contraceptive-pill-and-cancer-risk",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2960241"
] | [
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|
how much would the planet, psr j1719-1438 b, be worth? | nothing (well...not much). things are valuable on earth when they are rare. how much would you pay for a leaf or some sand? probably nothing because there is a helluva lot of it lying about. if you could bring a planet sized diamond to sell diamonds on earth then diamonds would become even more common than sand or leaves. in short, they would be commoditized and would have only the value of the effort it took to bring it to market for various uses (e.g while stuff may be lying about for the taking people will pay you to collect it and bring it to them). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how/why do buildings trap wind and suck it down to ground level? | where i go to school we have a 30 some-odd story library in the middle of campus that is consistently windier than any other place on campus. it's terrible, actually, and i'm curious how that library takes the wind and funnels it down all around on the ground. | wind that hits a building or any other inflexible object tends to form a vortex around the edges of the object. the taller the building, the more air is forced into these vortexes. most building do this, however, some architectural features such as rounded sides, above-ground terraces, and holes can redirect the wind flow and prevent the large gusts you normally experience at the bottom of the building. [source](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/eng/ibp/irc/cbd/building-digest-174.html"
] | [
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