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why do we have a philtrum? | i am a little embarrassed that i never thought of this before my 7 year old brother asked me about it today. in his own words: > what is [this](_url_0_)? a booger canal? | in humans, it's not a functional thing. it's basically a seam left over from where the two sides of your head came together while you were being made. (if you've ever seen a cleft lip, you've seen an example of how this fusion can fail to happen.) embryonic development is a weird and complicated process, but his picture gives you the idea: _url_0_ in most non-primate mammals, the philtrum helps wick moisture to the nose to keep it moist. | 4 | [] | [
"https://media1.popsugar-assets.com/files/thumbor/r-zzXtBavYNzXHw2MJEdwyXJ0ko/fit-in/2048xorig/filters:format_auto-!!-:strip_icc-!!-/2010/04/14/1/192/1922153/body-philtrum/i/Philtrum.jpg"
] | [
"https://web.duke.edu/anatomy/embryology/craniofacial/headEmbryoImage13.jpg",
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can deinococcus radiodurans survive autoclaving? | i am wondering if autoclaves are really all that sterile when working with extremophiles. cannot seem to find any studies online. | [some extremophiles can survive autoclaving](_url_0_) in general, there aren't many (or any?) extremophile pathogens of humans. one big reason is that the inside of our body isn't too hospitable for something that's used to incredibly high temperatures/acidity/salinity/whatever. i believe there are actually no archaea known to be human pathogens at all, unless that's changed in the past few years! | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014579399006638"
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what do we know about dinosaur penises and mating habits? | how large was the largest dino-dick? did the t-rex have a massive wang? how often did large land roaming dinosaurs mate (t-rex, brontosaurs, triceratops, etc.)? | i'm mostly going to copy/paste from a [response i gave](_url_3_) in an askreddit thread awhile back. birds are dinosaurs, so everything we know about birds falls under the purview of your question. however, for extinct forms, we can also make inferences using a technique known as [phylogenetic bracketing](_url_2_). dinosaurs are [archosaurs](_url_1_), the two living representatives of which are crocodylians and birds. if there's a character that both groups have, it was likely present in their common ancestor. things like a four chambered heart (which evolved independently from the mammalian heart), [unidirectional airflow in the lungs](_url_6_), and nest-building/parental care are present in both birds and crocodylians, so they were probably present in their common ancestor. that means extinct dinos likely had those traits or lost them secondarily. we have fossils that confirm these some of inferences, like [brooding of nests](_url_9_). interestingly, we've also recently found that alligators are monogamous over multiple mating seasons, as are many birds, so that could have implications for how we look at extinct archosaur behavior. alligators will also show nest site fidelity, coming back to the same or nearby areas over multiple nesting seasons. many crocs have [complex mating rituals](_url_0_) as well, so these also seem to be ancestral to archosaurs. as far as dinosaur reproduction goes, we've found a lot of similarities between the reproductive tracts in birds and crocs. for example, [alligators and birds form eggshells in similar ways](_url_8_). most ["reptiles"](_url_4_) have [hemipenes](_url_5_), which are paired copulatory organs that are everted for mating. most birds have lost their penis, but some retained it (ducks and ratites are two examples). i don't know of any fossil dinosaur genitalia, but birds (those that have a phallus) and crocs each have a single phallus rather than the hemipenes of extant lepidosaurs. that's likely what other extinct archosaurs probably had. however, given the range in variation that we see in living birds alone, i'm sure dinosaur genitalia existed in all shapes and sizes. in short: - dinosaurs probably ancestrally had penises similar to crocodylians and some birds, but they could have been lost in lineages like they were in many bird groups. - at least some brooded their nests. - they probably had mating displays like birds and crocs do. - some may have been monogamous over multiple mating seasons like many birds and crocs. [this article](_url_7_) similarly covers these topics. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/05/alligator-mating-physics/",
"http://archosaurmusings.wordpress.com/what-are-archosaurs/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_bracketing",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/rpgtl/yo_you_know_what_just_occurred_to_medinosaur/c47pcvb",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauropsida",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemipenis",
"http://mappingignorance.org/2013/03/29/triassic-lungs-unidirectional-flow-in-alligators-breathing/",
"http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/dinosaur/2012/02/the-anatomy-of-dinosaur-sex/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1547315",
"http://news.discovery.com/animals/dinosaurs/fossilized-dinosaur-mom-found-120221.htm",
"http://www.npr.org/blogs/krulwich/2013/08/06/209284186/the-subtle-mysteries-of-dinosaur-sex?utm_source=npr&utm_medium=facebook&utm_campaign=201308060"
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does illness affect your bmr? | while energy expenditure may be down, your basal metabolic rate should stay the same if you don't lose weight. or, does illness reduce/enhance caloric needs regardless of this? | fever increases your bmr. anything that causes you to put off more heat must be accompanied by an increase in catabolism. energy you take in ends up (after many conversions) as four things: * lost in your stool * used anabolically (to grow, build fat/muscle, etc.) * applied externally (e.g. pushing a cart up a hill) * heat whatever doesn't go into the first three becomes heat. lots of things cause you to put off more heat, such as fever, exercise, or cold weather\*. one other thing: immune reactions usually decrease appetite as well. so while you may burn more calories when you are feverish, you typically take in less. this is why people can quickly lose weight while ill, and why it's good to have a bit of fat reserves. \* in this case, 'putting off more heat' is accomplished by transferring more heat to your colder surroundings to maintain a livable body temperature | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there an electron hammer? | i'm pretty well familiar with the idea of a water hammer when a valve is shut off quickly along a piping system. is there a similar phenomenon in electricity? i was vacuuming and felt uncomfortable accidentally unplugging the vacuum while it was on then replugging (the brave little toaster scarred me with vacuum damage). i thought more about it and decided maybe it wasn't terrible due to ac current but then i wondered heavily about even that sudden cycling. is an "electron hammer" a thing? is the force negligible due to the low mass of electrons? could it theoretically cause damage in the worst of circumstances (high amp dc)? thank you so much in advance! ninja edit: son of a gun aren't most electric motors dc? so yeah back to my original fear of damaging the vacuum with on/offing. | yes, sorta. circuit elements can have a property called "inductance". this happens when the magnetic field that is created when current flows in all conductors, acts back on the very same conductor. typically, this is achieved by making coils of wire. this magnetic field tries to push current in the opposite direction that the current is actually flowing in (so called "back emf".) magnetic fields only create a back emf when the strength of the magnetic field is changing. so inductors only try to produce a backwards emf when the current through them is changing. and do you know when the current through an inductor changes the most? when you disconnect the inductor from the power supply. there the current through the inductor rapidly drops to zero, and the inductor will build up a huge emf to try to oppose that change. inductors are found commonly in filters and amplifiers, but one of the most common places to find large inductors is inside electric motors. the coils of wire that are used to develop the magnetic field that drives an electric motor to turn are inductors, and in fact can be very large inductors. when you turn off the supply of current to them, if nothing was done to stop it, they could create voltages large enough to damage themselves, or the circuit boards attached to them. thankfully, electrical engineers are well aware of this problem. they way you deal with it depends on the motor design to some degree, but in dc motors, one typically installs "flyback diodes" which you can think of like pressure check valves. they are one way valves for electricity that allows current to flow in the "wrong" direction, which means that the back emf can be dissipated, but when power is supplied from the plug, they don't pass any current. in fact, all wires have some inductance. honestly, i'm not sure whether in very large transmission lines this inductances causes problems, but i suspect it does, and they probably have to turn them off very carefully. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hIkNY5xjy5k",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_ram",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boost_converter"
] | [
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can we see the joints where continental plates collide? | mountain ranges like the himalayas and the andes are created by continents crushing up against one another while the underlying plates converge. at least, this is my basic understanding. is there a place, such as in the himalayas somewhere, where we can see the joint? i've seen pictures of rift valleys in divergence zones and the ocean ridge (above water in iceland) that have stark detail of where the plate boundary is. however, those plates are diverging, which makes the line more obvious i should think. can we find it in a convergence zone? if such a thing would be buried and invisible under sediment or something, can we see it with imaging technology? | part of the answer is in a word you used: zone. continents colliding is a messy affair. a huge vehicle collision isn't even a good model to picture, as it doesn't include the way rocks change as they metamorphose under the tremendous pressure (and heat) of the collision. shear zones develop, and rocks from either plate intermingle. here's a good (simplified) cross-section showing how complex these zones are: _url_0_ so in some places you can identify clear demarcations of rock from either plate, but in others, even if you can identify the plates, the rocks are a jumbled mess. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sepmstrata.org/CMS_Images/Contributed/AppGeoStruct/con-con3.gif"
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when someone tears their acl, did they just happen to twist their leg in exactly the wrong way? or was it so weak already that it would have torn no matter what? | was watching the mariano rivera video and couldn't help but wonder if his leg was going to give out no matter what, or if he just happened to twist it the right way. | its a bit of both. over time your knees, shoulders, etc wear and tear, although in some cases (for example when willis mcgahee tore his on that hit in the national championship), can occur from a hit or a twist. on the other hand. for example, most of people that get these athletic injuries, acl or rotatory cuff tear, besides athletes are usually senior citizens, and they can get it doing mundane things, like getting out of their car. people can get them doing simple routines, the exact same way they've always done. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what do physicists mean by "information" in the context of black holes? | when people say you can not retrieve "information" from a black hole (or, with the recent research at the california institute of technology in pasadena, you *can*), what is this "information" they're referring to? is it simply arrangements of particles? | i think a very easy way to understand what information means to a physicist is to ask what do i need to know to predict what will happen in the future. usually we only use a tiny fraction of the total possible information to make a prediction. for instance, i can predict the motion of a baseball reasonably well knowing its approximate mass, velocity, angular momentum, etc. to predict the weather accurately, we need much more information since the system is very sensitive to small fluctuations in the initial conditions. i can also extrapolate the past states about a system if i have enough information. given that a baseball lands in left field traveling at a certain speed, i can predict a batter hit the ball at a specific angle a few seconds earlier. sometimes the reduced information we can observe is not enough to extrapolate the past. most information is hidden, so once a baseball has landed on the ground and come to rest, observing the baseball and the ground can't tell you much about where it came from. but if we had access to all the information, as in every quantum state of every particle in sone sphere surrounding the baseball, we should still be able to extrapolate that the ball was hit by a batter at a certain angle a certain number of minutes in the past. in every scenario we can model with the laws of physics except for black holes (and depending on your interpretation, quantum mechanical *measurements*), information is conserved, even if it is hard to access the information. black holes seem to violate this rule. if i throw a baseball into a black hole, it seems like all the information is lost after the redshifted image of the ball fades away. so that has led some to propose that our model of black holes must be incomplete, and a full theory should preserve information as well. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3S0IGwKGV6s"
] | [
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please identify these eggs (high-res pics) | pics - > _url_0_ found these growing on the underside of a cucumber leaf in my garden today. location: south-central ohio. when: today elevation: 1000 feet. any other info that would be relevant? | definitely [squashbug](_url_0_). i recommend diatomaceous earth. edit: if you close the image viewer and read that article there are much better tips than i could give you. good luck. i found an adult squashbug on my cucumbers today, so i'm right there with you. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/X0oV7#9b1qr"
] | [
"http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/images/M1208-2-lg.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/M1208.html&h=432&w=650&sz=54&tbnid=GxG6QW6dm2RVqM:&tbnh=90&tbnw=135&prev=/search%3Fq%3DSquash%2BBug%26tbm%3Disch%26tbo%3Du&zoom=1&q=Squash+Bug&usg=__fBpPiGyvufkfIMtFYT8Qtwkva0E=&sa=X&ei=2-QYTsKwMens0gGV4LCXBQ&ved=0CDwQ9QEwBA&dur=164",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/whatsthisbug/",
"http://www.marin.edu/cnps/pipevine.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipevine_swallowtail"
] | [
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if we have been using hela cells for so many years, how can company still have low passage number hela cells in stock? | wouldn't all the hela cells been already passaging many times in order to generate huge amount of stock for sale? | most types of cells used in a cell culture systems (e.g. hela cells) can easily be grown to really large numbers without having to passage them too often. passaging just means that you take the cells from one surface (or one suspension) onto a new one, ususally with a smaller number of cells. these cells are then fractioned into small numbers (usueally still more than 100k cells) that can be frozen in liquid nitrogen at 77 k (or −196 °c). in this frozen state the cells can survive for several decades and be thawed up and reproduced when needed. there are special institutes keeping copies of these nearly original cells which a company can order and use for their research. or they can simply freeze and store the cells by themselves. source: i am a lab technician working with cell cultures | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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home microscope for fun? | i always wanted my own electron microscope, but the range i've been told was like greater than 35 thousand dollars. i don't have that money yet... but one day. mark my words. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do mantis shrimp get the energy required to falcon punch everything? | the punch of the mantis shrimp is known to break aquarium glass, make water boil, and kill other sea life instantly. its as powerful as a .22 bullet. how do they get the energy to attack like this? | energy is less important than power. they do it by storing up energy in elastic parts and releasing it all at once. if you watch mantis shrimp [in slow motion](_url_1_) you will see them drawing their arms back to charge up before a punch. this is analogous to an archer winching back a crossbow; they have [bony elastic structures in their bodies](_url_0_). there are ct scans of a mantis shrimp and pictures of the mechanism in that study. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://ib.berkeley.edu/labs/caldwell/Caldwell%20pdfs/Patek%20Caldwell%20Stomatopod%20Strike.pdf",
"http://youtu.be/ti2Uoc1RXuQ"
] | [
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cryo transmission electron microscopy | i'm having trouble getting my sample to stay within the holes of the holey carbon. it really likes to stick to the carbon film scaffolding around the holes, but it just doesn't stay in the holes where it needs to be. here is a picture of what i'm talking about: _url_0_ in short, does anyone have any experience with a) cryoem, and b) with getting a sample that doesn't like to stay in the holes, to stay in the holes? my buffer is 20 mm tris-hcl, ph 8.0, with 50 mm nacl, 5 mm mgcl2, 1 mm dtt, and 0.05% np-40 detergent (non-ionic). i've tried cationic and anionic blotting paper, in case it was being whisked away by the paper but it made no difference. | i have quite a bit of tem experience but not in cryo. how are you preparing the samples, and what are they? | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/nuHbp.png"
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how do positrons form and what exactly are they? | so my chemistry textbook said that "positrons have the same mass as an electron but they possess a positive charge. they form when a proton decays into a neutron" i don't know why but i just don't quite understand that explanation. also, i always thought neutrons were made up of a proton & an electron? so can someone please explain this to me in simple terms? edit: guys these are all great comments... but i don't do physics. i'm in my last year of high school and i do chemistry. because i wasn't doing physics, i promptly forgot everything i learnt in 10th grade (sophomore year for you americans :) ) about physics & the structure of an atom. dumb decision. we just got to a unit about nuclear chemistry. i don't understand what all this means. how does a proton decay into a neutron? up quark, down quark, neutrino, anti-electron, anti-electron-neutrino... all these terms are confusing me. | positrons are what we call the anti-particle to the electron. they have the same mass, but opposite electric charge. when a positron and electron meet, they can annihilate, destroying both and converting their mass energy into two photons (or z bosons, at high enough energy). this is why we don't see positrons very often. with the abundance of electrons around us, any positron formed will rapidly find one and annihilate. now about the questions with the neutrons. neutrons can decay into a proton and electron and neutrino, but this does not mean a neutron is made up of these things. this decay, known as beta decay, is mediated by a force we call the weak force. there are other ways a neutron can decay. a proton can decay as you said into a neutron, a positron, and neutrino. this is also mediated by the weak force, and can only occur within a nucleus for conservation of energy to work. these facts don't really make sense in combination classically, which i think is leading to your confusion. in these decay processes, the particle is **not** broken down into constituent parts. matter and energy are **transformed** by the weak force. here is an analogy: imagine i smash a clock with a hammer, but instead of a bunch of gears and junk flying out, i get three little watches. it really is that weird, and there really isn't a great way to explain it in simple terms, but this is about the best i could do. i'll clarify points if needed. also, i think this would be better labeled as a physics question, since it involves nuclear reactions, rather than atomic reactions. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where are all the positrons? | if the standard model predicts every electron has a corresponding positron... then where they? | this is an unsolved problem in physics, we have seen antiparticles but the fact that there appears to be almost no antimatter in the universe is still unexplained. look up cp violation :) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why cant you grow cherries without stones? | i cant remember the last time i bought grapes that had seeds in them. seedless grapes dominate the market, but cherries, my favourite fruit all have stones in. so why cant the same process be used to grow cherries with no stones? is this biologically impossible or has no one thought of it?. | while it is likely not impossible to create a "seedless" variety of cherry, the question is whether doing so would be commercially viable. as you can see in the case of the [saturn peach](_url_1_), reducing the size of the pit also reduces the size of the overall fruit. peaches are a stone fruit of the same genus [(prunus)](_url_0_) as cherries and plums. i think it likely that modifying a cherry in a similar manner would reduce the yield of usable fruit to an unacceptable level. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prunus",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_Peach"
] | [
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strange behavior in squirrels [x-post from r/biology] | my office and i recently noticed some odd behavior from the squirrels outside our window. they started picking the leaves off the trees and dropping to the ground. we noticed it on a thursday afternoon, and this morning on monday, they are still at it. leaves are getting all over the landscaping and the [sidewalk](_url_0_). can someone please explain what they are doing? | depending on where you are and what species are endemic, i assume this is nesting behavior. squirrels generally give birth one-two times a year - usually once in spring and maybe once again in late fall. they might be gathering leaves for a nest. ~~then again, their brain is the size of a large walnut, so let's not overanalyze their behavior.~~ edit: [actually, no, i think it really is leaf nest building.](_url_0_) keep on the lookout for the nests in a few weeks. | 15 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/33G0c.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.wvdnr.gov/wildlife/magazine/archive/04winter/clumps_of_leaves.shtm",
"http://i.imgur.com/No3LD.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/NTAJb.jpg"
] | [
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could a physicist explain why these simulations of higgs decay are helpful? | _url_0_ i'm doing a project about how computer science and simulations are used in physics and would be grateful if someone could explain why simulations like this are useful and how they are used. i had some initial ideas, that these images would be what they are looking for in the detectors, but did not want to write anything until i was sure i was correct. also, any other information about why, how and where cs is used in physics would be greatly appreciated. thanks | you might find this [site](_url_1_) from cern helpful. also, you should know that computer science is not the same as programming. see [this](_url_0_) for a rough breakdown of some computer-related fields. | 2 | [] | [
"http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/1013169?ln=en"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/compsci/comments/pkitn/frequently_asked_questions_on_rcompsci/c3q5q0m",
"http://lhcathome2.cern.ch/high-energy-physics-simulations"
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unintended consequences of alternative power | long time lurker, finally made an account to post a question. based on the fact that you can't get something for nothing would we experience large scale negative impacts from most forms of alternative energy? the most consistent number i've seen pegged total energy consumption for the world at 145k twh. if we got very motivated and quickly changed to a "renewable energy source" i don't see how we avoid catastrophic impacts unless we reduce our actual consumption. all energy is a limited resource and the renewable resources are part of a balanced eco system. how do you drain our current usage from any of them without upsetting that balance? let's take wind power as an example - how much wind power could be drained from high altitude wind farms before you change global wind/weather patterns. currently wind turbines operate at about 50% efficiency so generating 145 twh would drain 290 twh in energy from the atmosphere. as i understand it, one of the primary benefits of wind is in regulating heating and cooling patterns across the world. could a massive shift to wind power actually make global climate change worse instead of better? when you drain the energy in the atmosphere it would not suddenly replace itself? am i missing something? to much of a good thing or am i overlooking a scaling issue that makes this a non problem? you could (if bored enough) expand this to solar, geothermal, bio-fuels etc edit: what if we turned it into a thought experiment. how much power would have to be drawn from the upper atmosphere via wind farms to cause global change on par of exceeding the impact of fossil fuels. thanks and i look forward to your comments the polite atheist guy | i don't have a complete answer for you, but i don't think you are correctly understanding wind power efficiency. if a turbine is 50% efficient, that means that of the available wind energy in the air, 50% is converted to electricity. most of the "waste" 50% continues along as wind, although some waste goes to heat in the turbine assembly. think about it this way - after wind passes over the wind turbine, it's still moving (and still has energy) - the turbine doesn't stop the wind in it's tracks. so, if the wind turbines were generating 145twh, that is (almost) the amount of energy they are draining from the atmosphere. there would still be ~145twh of wind energy left in the atmosphere, in addition to any unused wind. slightly related, but very interesting, is that the maximum possible wind power efficiency is ~[59%](_url_0_). | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betz%27_law",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy#Energy_from_the_Sun"
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what is the scientific consensus on will power? is it quantifiable and can it be gained/strengthened? | thank you. | i don't have any proper references i'm afraid but i remember reading some interesting stuff that claimed willpower is like stamina, i.e. it is a finite recharging resource that you can train by practising. for example the article suggested that just doing little, seemingly trivial, exercises like forcing yourself to take the stairs vs elevator (ok, this may have been related to weight loss) will help practice for other more major decisions. but at the same time, constantly forcing yourself to go against your base will can exhaust you and leave you vulnerable to negative binges (ok, this was definitely about weight loss). i don't think there's any proper scientific consensus, it's psychology atm, neuroscience isn't mature enough to answer this. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the rozenburg wind wall stop the wind? | i learned about it from this video: _url_0_ it was necessary because strong winds make boat navigation difficult around an important canal. "the rozenburg windwall utilizes around 125 individual concrete slabs shaped and grounded in a particular pattern, along a length of 1.75 km that reduces the wind onslaught by 75%." more pictures and information about it here: _url_1_ this (dutch) youtube video shows the tricky passage that boats have to go through: _url_2_ i've searched but i haven't been able to find a single source explaining how it works. curiosity is killing me. why is it that particular shape? how does that stop 75% of the wind? if anyone can help, thanks! | as to how this works, it's just a simple barrier. not too much fancy physics going on. to spell it out: the wind has a drag force on the barrier, thus the barrier also has a force on the wind (action - reaction). this force on the mass flow of the wind slows it down because of newton: f_wind = f_barrier = mass/second x dv dv is this 75% of loss of wind velocity: dv = v_wind - v_end. v_end is the final velocity far behind the barrier. mass/s is the mass flow and is air density x area x v_wind. to close the problem you simply need to know the force on the barrier, which is just drag: f_barrier = 0.5 x density x area x c_d x v_1^2 where v_1 is the velocity at the barrier (it is already slowed down from the freestream velocity a bit). it can be shown with bernoulli that v_1 = 2 v_end. the drag coefficient for a hollow semi-sphere is somewhere between 1.1 and 1.3. this should give you enough to calculate the effectiveness once you know the dimensions. there's a whole lot more though, turbulence, mixing, vorticity around the edges, but this momentum is the basic principle. i simplified the barrier a lot. as to why they choose this specific shape. i can only guess, but i think there's two reasons: 1. a hollow semisphere has a higher drag coefficient than a flat plate. here in the netherlands we have a pretty dominant south-west wind direction, which is also the direction these things are facing. 2. structurally a semi cylinder is better at coping with the drag force than a flat plate. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jkdwK_74eEs",
"http://www.amusingplanet.com/2013/06/rozenburg-wind-wall.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H4ZIMXjMRJk"
] | [] | [
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how fast do you have to go before redshift / blueshift is actually measurable? | if i get in my interstellar car, and drive directly away from my local radio station, how fast do i need to go before i would need to re-tune the radio to pick it up? how fast before any of our instruments could measure the frequency change? | this isn't my field directly but we do use doppler shift in my lab. with our relatively modest equipment we get down to 60m/s (~200km/h) of precision. i believe the police radar use doppler shift too and they are accurate down to a few ~~km/s~~ km/h. the car radios have relatively large bandwidth (+-75khz according to wikipedia). so to get "out of tune" on your car radio you would need to go 225km/s! | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happened first? | did early humans create protective clothing before losing their fur, or vice versa? we've all seen renditions of relatively hairless cavemen wearing pelts as clothing. when did the earliest humans lose their body fur and does that correlate to the advent of clothing? | it is hypothesized that clothing originated with our ancestors moving north out of africa. in africa it was warm enough to not need clothes even without body hair, but as they moved north they adapted and began creating clothes — so it's generally thought that humans lost their body hair first. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes corrosion on positive terminals? | in work, i am an apprentice electrical engineering and i was asked why this happened. i wasn't sure and asked my boss but the answer he gave was satisfactory. i also searched online but people also did not give answers of a decent level of detail. if someone could explain why is happens on the positive terminal and not the negative with chemical equations etc, it will be much appreciated. | quite probably due to redox half-reactions, although you'd have to describe the exact situation in more detail. battery terminals are usually made of some sort of metal, let's assume copper. this metal can oxidize, forming salts like copper oxide, cuo. copper oxides separate ions are cu^2+ and o^2-. the negative terminal can release electrons, binding cu^2+ + 2e^- back into cu. the positive terminal draws electrons instead, turning cu into cu^2+ + 2e^-. as such oxidation and corrosion are suppressed at the negative terminal, while they are promoted at the positive terminal. this phenomenon can be used to prevent corrosion of important things like ship hulls. putting another block of metal into the water next to the hull and connecting them via a battery causes the sacrificial block to corrode instead of the more critical part. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the aspect ratio of a nuclear reactor and why does it matter? | i've been reading about nuclear fusion and its limitations and a word that keeps coming up is the "aspect ratio". i believe it has something to do with the size of the area confined by the magnets but i'm not exactly sure because googling it is bringing me to journals i can't really understand... according to wikipedia the aspect ratio is "the limiting factor in reducing the beta size" which has confused me even more because i thought beta was supposed to be as big as possible in these reactors? although there's no sites so not really sure if that statement was accurate. anyhow if anyone had an information on this it would be greatly appreciated :-) | for toroidal magnetic confinement devices, such as the tokamak, the aspect ratio is defined as the major radius divided by the minor radius. [this picture](_url_0_) might help. r is the major radius and r is the minor radius. basically, a high aspect ratio device looks like a big circular tube (kinda like a bicycle tire) while a [low aspect ratio device](_url_1_) looks more like a cored apple. the aspect ratio of a tokamak affects the way the plasma behaves pretty significantly. the quote you found on wikipedia is just one among many things that aspect ratio changes. historically, most early tokamaks had high aspect ratios because it's theoretically easier to analyze how they behave (you can make some mathematical approximations that simplify things). in the last 20-30 years or so there has been increasing interest in low aspect ratio tokamaks (also called spherical tokamaks) due to various improvements. the primary advantage is that spherical tokamaks have better mhd stability properties. basically this means that the plasma is easier to control, especially at high temperatures and densities. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/a/DW22u",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/MAST_plasma_image.jpg"
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why does a large percentage of the younger generation say "on accident" while the older generations say "by accident"? | this has really bothered me, as i teach younger kids, and i hear "on accident" all the time now, and i have no idea what started that. i feel like it's grammatically incorrect. | it appears to be an analogy with *on purpose* that was not explicitly stigmatized when it innovated. see [this study](_url_0_) for more. as for feeling like it's grammatically incorrect, it might not in fact match your grammar, but it certainly works in the grammars of its users, despite the social (i.e. non-linguistic) stigma cast upon it. edit: since you're a teacher, this might be a good place to highlight the difference between casual speech and formal speech. what they say among each other is fine and dandy, but they should be made aware of written and formal spoken norms, without any sort of denigration about how they themselves speak (i.e. don't call what they do 'incorrect'; call it 'informal' and let them know that you want them to get practice in how to speak and write formally). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.inst.at/trans/16Nr/01_4/barratt16.htm"
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in delayed choice quantum eraser experiment, what is the purpose of the lens before d0 ? | i have no experience in the field- just trying to understand the experiment conceptually. the paper says "the use of lens ls is to achieve the “far field” condition, but still keep a short distance between the slit and the detector d0". i think i understand purposes of every other setup except the lens before d0 , what does it suppose to do/what is far field condition? link to the paper: _url_0_ | they want to take the fourier transform. there are two ways to take an optical fourier transform. you can just let the light propagate in free space, which means it propagates into the "far field." however, for the far field condition to be met with only free space propagation, the propagation distance often has to be unacceptably long, as in ~2000 meters for visible light and a 1-in aperture/beam size. the second way you can achieve an optical fourier transform is with a lens of focal length 'f', where you place the object and "imaging" plane a distance '2*f' apart with the lens in the middle. this also achieves the fourier transforming action, but doesn't require the huge distances. this is a very common thing in optics; you can read more in goodman's "introduction to fourier optics." | 17 | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/quant-ph/9903047.pdf"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_diffraction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraunhofer_diffraction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huygens%E2%80%93Fresnel_principle"
] | [
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do people bleed slower in space? | my limited understanding would lead me to guess that the blood vessels are still applying pressure that would force the blood out, even in a zero gravity environment. but does the lack of pressure from gravity cause the pressure to be substantially less? i remember reading that blood pressure in general is lower in space. | while i'm not aware of any studies on the topic, my hypothesis would be that the rate of bleeding is a function of air pressure. the air pressure of a space-faring vessel being set at atmospheric pressure, i would not expect the rate of bleeding to be different. perhaps you would see slight variations depending on the angle of the wound in relation to the ground on earth whereas you would see no variations in space. have there been experiments done to measure the rate of bleeding at different air pressures? | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are firewalls necessary for protection on the internet? | i know the short answer. "for security." but i'm looking for a long answer. what makes a computer connected openly to the internet inherently insecure? an attacker could only attack me on ports i have open, running a server of some type, correct? and outbound traffic shouldn't be a concern unless i have malware on my computer trying to "phone home" in which case i have bigger worries than whether or not a firewall will prevent it. | in the earlier days windows would open up all sorts of shit by default like samba and remote desktop. even many linux distros would install sshd by default. while your "supercool" password may be supercool ... an attacker running a dictionary attack will eventually guess it. other oses like win2k installed iis by default which was vulnerable to code red out of the box. in the height of the virus it would take a pc no more than about 30 mins to get infected which is why it was important on first boot to either be behind a firewall or to unplug your network and disable iis. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does a steel bar resist bending until a certain amount of force is applied, or does all force bend it, however slightly? | imagine a thick steel bar 2 meters long, suspended at its ends, and that you hang a dress shirt on a hanger in the middle. mathematically, even such a slight mass/force would yield some bend in the bar. but just like a force needs to overcome static friction before it can move an object across the floor, is there a certain amount of force that is required to start bending the bar? assume here that we can measure even the slightest bend in the bar, and that it's perfectly straight to begin with. | yes. all solids undergo small elastic deformations due to even small applied forces. the ratio of applied force to displacement (normalized by the area and length) is called the elastic modulus, or simply modulus. the elastic modulus for steel is around 200 gpa. interestingly, this extends to even tiny displacements that we don't normally see - this is how sound propagates in solids. what you are likely used to is observing permanent, or plastic deformation. this only occurs when we exceed a certain inherent stress - the yield stress. the yield stress of many common steels can be quite high, around 1 gpa. it therefore takes a lot of force to deform a piece of steel by a large amount, with the force scaling with the area of the piece. so it seems like the steel is unmoving, just because we cannot bend it as much as we are used to. in this specific scenario, you would need to take the geometry into consideration by calculating the bending moment of the beam (wikipedia "bending"). | 61 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i read somewhere that in intergalactic space, it's a pitch dark void, is this true? | i don't understand how we would be able to see galaxies from within our galaxy, but not between them. | see [this thread](_url_0_) from earlier today: lots of answers there, some of them even good. none put exact figures on light levels in intergalactic space, unfortunately. the upshot is: if you were within a couple of million light years of a nice bright galaxy (like our one, or andromeda), you ought to be able to see it at least as a blurry splodge. but much beyond that, photons would be too few and far between for your eyes to register them very reliably. a long exposure camera or a telescope would change that, of course, but they have limits too. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/nw54j/if_a_man_was_out_in_deep_space_would_there_be/"
] | [
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when part of a brain is removed, how do they deal with the cavity? | i am watching house and they removed part of someone's brain - half of their brain. while i doubt this is done very often, i assume that there are many instances when people need small portions of their brain removed. so what happens with the cavity left behind? do they fill it up? or fold the skull over to hold the brain in place? i would think that having a large space would allow for a lot of movement and the brain could more easily move around. | this is called a hemispherectomy! and it's done rarely to treat certain cases of epilepsy. the skull is put back in place as it was and the cavity that is left behind fills with csf (cerebrospinal fluid) naturally. in addition to floating in the csf, the other half of the brain is still held in place by the meninges on the remaining side. [see photo](_url_0_[1].jpg) | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://my.clevelandclinic.org/PublishingImages/Neurological_Institute/coronalmriA"
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is av nodal re-entrant tachycardia always caused by wolff-parkinson-white syndrome? | every time i try to search for the causes of avnrt, they always just say it's the "presence of an extra or abnormal pathway," but isn't that the definition of wpw, or is there something else that that could be? | i work in the electrophysiology field and can answer this. the short answer is no; those are two different conditions. avnrt is the presence of dual pathways through the av node itself and the ability of those pathways to conduct a re-entrant tachycardia. wpw is the presence of a pathway between the atria and the ventricles that is outside of the av node, thus creating a small channel in which signals can pass from the atrium to the ventricle without going through the av node. to your original question, how does avnrt start, the two pathways through the av node conduct at different velocities. one pathway is fast and one is slow. typical avnrt is when the atrial signal is conducted down the slow pathway from the atrium to the ventricle, and then when it reaches the ventricular side of the pathway, it then conducts back up the fast pathway from the ventricular side of the av node to the atrial side. by the time it gets back up to the atrial side, the slower pathway is now able to be depolarized again, and the signal again travels down the slow pathway. this re-entrant loop is now capable of sustaining tachycardia. the most common way that this whole process starts is by a premature atrial beat which reaches the fast pathway when that pathway is refractory, and thus it conducts down the slow pathway instead. from there, it goes back up the fast pathway, which is no longer refractory, and it's off to the races. let me know if that helps! | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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occasionally we see plans to “bring back” extinct mammals like mammoths, but in reality they would be mammoth-elephant hybrids. would this method work with non-mammals like bringing back the moa using other ratites like the emu or ostrich? | as noted in the title often when talking about bringing back an extinct species it’s usually in regards to a mammal that went extinct fairly recently due to (from my understanding) the fact species exist today that are closely related enough that it may be possible to produce a hybrid offspring. however i never see any talks about being back extinct birds or reptiles or other egg-laying creatures. is there some biological reason why it would be harder to produce hybrids using egg-laying creatures. is artificially inseminating egg-layers not a thing? or is it simply a case of mammoths and tasmanian tigers etc are easier “first steps” on the path to bringing back extinct animals? | there’s talk right now of de-extincting the passenger pigeon ([genome sequenced late 2017](_url_1_)) and the moa ([2018](_url_0_)). although this is a smaller moa than the *great* moa, where work is still ongoing. by contrast, we’ve had a full mammoth genome since 2015. (it helps, a little, that mammoths occasionally died in massive blocks of ice. moa were not so considerate.) if anything, mammoths represent a *worse* candidate for “first” de-extinction, because elephants take so long to reach sexual maturity and so long to gestate. every failure along the road to success will represent months or years of investment, whereas passenger pigeon clone attempts could be cranked out by the hundreds, with incubation periods of just a couple weeks. but mammoths make for better article headlines and book titles, too. more people will recognize “wooly mammoth” at a glance, and mammoths were big and cool. “more, but slightly different, pigeons” isn’t nearly as sexy a lede, which might be why you don’t see it as often. | 58 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.biorxiv.org/content/early/2018/02/11/262816",
"http://science.sciencemag.org/content/358/6365/951"
] | [
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stingray digestive tracts, how do they handle hard shells? | i was on the youtubes earlier and came across this video where a stingray eats a crab (_url_0_) and upon further investigation i learned that stingrays eat many shelled creatures. i was wondering if there are any stingray experts out there who could tell me a little more about how the stingray digestive tract deals with the solid, and perhaps even sharp, casings to its food? tangentially, i found out that stingrays have cloacaes, like birds. this seems like a case of convergent evolution since the nearest taxonomic group stingrays and birds share is chordata. i'd like to invite speculation on the common selective pressures between these two groups which may have invited this specialization. ps i'm going to bed since i have work early tomorrow, but i'll check back in the morning. | many animals that eat tough things have much stronger digestive tracts than we do. scavengers that ingest bone shards and the like survive without constant punctures in the same manner. various tissues can be toughened up. if you've watched a documentary showing lions hunting cape buffalo, notice that the lions have quite a bit of trouble biting through the skin on a buffalo's neck. it is significantly tougher and thicker to defend against just such an attack. the buffalo is usually killed by crushing the windpipe rather than biting through the throat. also consider that stingrays crush up their prey some before swallowing it. [here](_url_0_) you can see that stingrays' "teeth" have evolved to become bony crushing plates that allow them to crunch up their shelled prey some before swallowing it. as for your other point about stingrays and birds both having cloacae, fish and birds are more closely related than you would think. it is not just birds that still have a cloaca, but also reptiles which birds evolved from. reptiles are some of the least-derived terrestrial vertebrates. they are cold-blooded just like fish, they have scales, (mostly) lay eggs and so on. the first vertebrate that walked out onto land was likely pretty much a lobe-finned fish which then likely became something that was essentially amphibian. amphibians still require water to reproduce as they lay eggs in water and go through a gilled aquatic stage before becoming air breathers. the first purely terrestrial vertebrates were reptiles, as they are the most basic, for the reasons i listed earlier. you can see in current reptiles how they moved towards mammals. some snakes hold eggs in their bodies and give birth to live offspring. recently discovered evidence also suggests that some dinosaurs had the ability to thermoregulate since their fossils have been found in regions that were above the arctic circle at the time that they lived. mammals are the most derived physiologically of the vertebrates. they are warm-blooded, have the most well-developed internal systems and showed up most recently in the fossil records. so, fish and reptiles/birds actually share quite a few features thanks to the fact that they didn't separate far from each other. hope this helps and i hope your friday is good. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=evd6NTD1wf4"
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i know this isn't your standard askscience question but i thought i would ask the experts. any gift suggestions for a 5 yo who loves science? | a newtons cradle is a great physics toy, as is a gyroscope (they even have some really cool looking ones you can blow into instead of pulling the string on, since kids tend to have poor fine motor control). depending on your budget and environment, a telescope would be cool - especially if he likes astronomy. i'd skip a pair of good binoculars, which is what i usually recommend to beginning observers, because they may be difficult for a child to hold or use. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do contrails stay in the sky for so long? | when planes fly by over my apartment complex they leave a contrail over the sky. they persist for a really long time and i have a few questions about contrails. - how long do they generally persist, and what affect the duration? - why don't they disappear faster? something to do with temperature? thanks! **edit: i've gotten some really good answers, thanks!** | contrails form when the mixture of a jet's exhaust and the ambient air creates a situation where the air is more than saturated with water vapor, and some condenses out to form the contrail. it's the same process that allows you to see your own breath on a cold day, or watch a cloud-like feature pour out of a "smoke-stack" on an industrial building in the winter. they persist until they have mixed in enough of the ambient (colder, drier) air such that the mixture is no longer above saturation. the amount of time they stick around is a function of the temperature and humidity of the air parcels that combine to form the mixture. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://contrailscience.com/how-long-do-contrails-last/"
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what atmospheric conditions are necessary to cause contrails to linger and spread out over a large distance in the sky instead of dissipating quickly? | yesterday i was looking at a large lingering contrail in the sky that seemed to take a very long time to dissipate making it appear similar to a cirrus cloud. while viewing this contrail i noticed a plane crossing its path at a high altitude with a contrail that dissipated almost instantly. i'm curious as to what differences in atmospheric conditions cause contrails to linger and spread over a large distance before dissipating and ones that dissipate almost immediately. i would imagine it has something to do with differences in altitude, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, and possibly other factors as well. could a higher temperature and a higher humidity cause a contrail to spread out over a larger distance compared to lower temperatures and humidity? what differences in atmospheric conditions cause this? | a higher temp would cause the contrail to dissipate faster, making the sublimation process faster from ice to vapor. was the quickly dissipating contrail of higher altitude? often the higher the altitude the more likely a contrail will form from humidity and cold air. another possibility could be cloud seeding programs where silver iodine or other are sprayed to emulate precipitation and create artificial clouds which is a geo-engineering program used to mitigate global warming (solar radiation management) albeit ineffective | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do some species have trouble reproducing in captivity compared to the wild? | while the answer of /u/jackithug is not wrong, it paints an incomplete picture. why aren't their hormones responding the way they do in the wild? is it the lighting, the food, the size of the enclosure? what are factors apart from hormones? and the truthful answer is: we don't know. marine fish are especially bad at this. they very rarely, if at all, reproduce in the wild and it is certainly the exception and not the rule. i have heard of sharks sometimes reproducing but i don't know of a single marine bony fish species that reliably reproduces in captivity, though i have heard rumours that it worked with sturgeons. they just don't, even though all other requirements are met and they often live long lives there. so maybe they need to feel threatened by predators to reproduce? no idea. those beautiful tropical fish you see in aquariums? all captured in the wild and transported around the world under great loss of life. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does red meat stay in your digestive tract? | i know this sounds ridiculous. and i, for one, do not believe it. but, a friend of mine stated that by the time you die you potentially have 9 pounds of undigested meat in your colon. i told him that it was absolutely ridiculous, and even if you didn't digest it; your body would purge the remnants just like corn. he said it breaks down but collects to the walls, which is also ridiculous. i tried searching the interwebs but i could not find any credible sources on the matter. does anyone have insight on this? there is an (easy?) $20 wager on this matter. | i'm a medical student, could use 25% of the winnings to help pay off my loans ;). having seen a myriad of cts of very old people (fancy x-rays that give you a good glimpse of different body structures) i can attest this is very very wrong. nothing sticks around inside the colon walls making them thicker unless the person develops either colon cancer, little outpouchings called diverticula, or inflammation from either autoimmune diseases or infection. the only other thing he might have been referring to is atherosclerosis which has been linked to dietary factors including consumption of red meats. in atherosclerosis blood vessel walls (not intestinal walls) can get thickened with cholesterol plaques. very common in older people, but i'm fairly certain there's nowhere near 9lbs of these plaques in the average senior citizen. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what specific data/interpretations/patterns (if any) in theoretical/elementary physics resemble computation? | i've read, over the years, a number of references to theories or findings in particle physics where the smallest structures in the universe exhibit behavior that looks computational in nature, or other words to that effect... it's always fascinated me, but i feel like i've mostly encountered hand-waving or lack of detail when the question comes up, and i'm wondering how seriously this is taken and which specific theories and models it's associated with. | what do the phrases "resemble computation" and "looks computational in nature" mean to you in this context? if you're asking whether maths accurately model reality, the answer is of course yes. if you're asking whether something something blah blah living in a computer, the answer is a derisive, scolding no. but i suspect there must be much, much more to your question than either of those. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Thompson_Jaynes"
] | [
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] |
are pessimists less likely to be affected by placebos? | in short, [yes](_url_1_). it should be noted, though, that not all of the placebo effect is "mind over matter" and "expectation of results". it has a number of components (some of which come from the physician/researcher, not the patient/subject) and would be better described as "non-specific effects". [here's an article](_url_0_) by the great steven novella, who has written about and discussed placebos to great length. | 26 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.csicop.org/si/show/the_poor_misunderstood_placebo",
"http://ge.tt/2pqKz4W/v/0"
] | [
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|
what percentage of people are significantly affected by placebos? | [deleted] | for treatments where placebo effect is significant (e.g. pain reduction), it tends to work on almost everyone, it causes a measurable effect (though less) even if honestly labeled as a placebo. as in, there are domains where giving a placebo treatment objectively causes improvement compared to not giving the placebo. for treatments where placebo effect isn't significant (e.g. cancer survival) it doesn't work on anyone. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i stuck one hand in a vacuum, would it feel much lighter than the other because 14.7 pounds per square inch of air wasn't pushing it in all directions? | the cross sectional area of your hand is the same from the top and bottom; the atmospheric pressure isn't exerting a net force down. air exerts a slight buoyant force on us upward, so the hand might actually feel heavier. this slight variation would probably not be noticeable, especially with the other distracting effects of the vacuum. actually, one of those distracting effects would be your hand filling with more blood than usual. definitely heavier. | 31 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the future of airline travel? | i recently saw a previous askscience about supersonic air travel and how inefficient and damaging it is. so, i was wondering what is the future of airline travel? will we be stuck with subsonic speeds and just try to improve the overall comfort, safety, and fuel efficiency of flight (e.g. the dreamliner)? | a few technologies are either being developed or coming on line now that will factor heavily into future airliners. 1. composite construction. boeing has had a difficult time getting their "dreamliner" up an running because of the difficulty of building large composite structures. however, the weight savings and fuel efficiency increases are too promising, many other manufacturers are planning composite airliners. 2. very [high-bypass turbofan engines.](_url_0_) currently, these are ubiquitous in commercial aviation. the bypass ratios keep getting higher with new models, to improve fuel efficiency. speaking briefly, i wouldn't look for revolutions in air transport. higher fuel efficiency and lower operating costs are the only major motivating factors in the aircraft design industry right now. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbofan#High-bypass_turbofan"
] | [
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why does the brain make kynurenine in response to inflammation if it is neurotoxic? | there has to be a reason the brain would make a toxic substance instead of making serotonin, right? what does kynurenine do for the brain other than be toxic in response to inflammation? does it help in any other way, and the end result is collateral damage of the nerve cells of the brain? | kynurenine has immunoregulatory functions, immunosuppressive to be specific i believe. for example try this paper which talks about the role of the kynurenine pathway in maintaining immune privilege (to the extent that that is a thing) in the brain and other areas of the body. _url_0_ here is a useful quote from a different article: there also reports that some metabolites in the kyn pathway are neuroprotective rather than neurotoxic: _url_1_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5063567/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4443961/"
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[physics] how do motorcyclists ride the "wall of death"? | **i know about 'centripetal force' and how banked turns work already!** for anyone that doesn't know, the [wall of death](_url_0_) is a funfair/carnival attraction in which trained motorcyclists perform tricks whilst riding around a cylindrical wall. what i'm specifically confused about is how the *motorcycles* stay up there, on a vertical wall. i'm into rollercoasters so i already know that if you go fast enough around a corner, you get flung outwards, and putting more roll/banking on the turn decreases the lateral force and increases the vertical force (on the rider). but, if you bank a corner too steeply, then the rider will experience lateral force 'inwards', because there's not enough lateral force pulling 'outwards', so gravity will pull the riders down. if the turn is *vertical*, then there's no longer *any* lateral force pulling the rider outwards. i can understand how a four-wheeled buggy could ride the wall of death - even though there's no lateral force pulling the car up the wall, there's enough friction caused by the reaction force of the wheels onto the wall that the car won't slip down. but... i don't get how a two-wheeled motorcycle can ride a vertical wall without falling over. on a 45 degree banked turn, they can ride at the right speed such that gravity pulls them inwards just as much as 'centripetal force' pulls them outwards, and so they can stay upright, or rather perpendicular to the 'track'. but on a vertical wall, even if they're going fast enough to generate enough friction on the wheels so they don't slip, there's no outward lateral force on the rider themselves, so i don't understand how the bike itself stays perpendicular to the wall. sorry if it's a very long-winded explanation - in my mind there's 2 reasons why a car can 'stick' to a banked turn - friction and lateral force. i can see that friction would still apply with any amount of banking on the turn, but surely at 90 degrees there's no lateral force pulling the rider back upright... **edit**: i guess i didn't explain my question enough, because most/all of the answers i'm getting so far are telling me how the rider uses friction to stay up on the wall. i already knew all this! everyone seems to be treating the motorcycle as just a 'blob' - as long as it has enough friction, it'll stay on the wall... but motorcycles are tall, thin objects which require balance even on the ground. imagine if you're riding a motorcycle in a straight line across flat ground, and then suddenly a very strong gust of wind blows across your path. to correct your balance, you'd have to turn slightly away from the wind, else it would push you over. surely the same thing should happen on the wall of death - no matter how much friction is keeping the *base* of the wheel steady and level on the wall, the top of the bike should be pulled downwards... **e2** i got my answer! do i need to tag the thread as 'answered' somehow? | when in doubt on a mechanics problem, draw the free body diagram (this is just a fancy term for drawing a picture of the problem, and labeling all the forces) and then apply newton's second law (f = ma). if we imagine a motorcycle going around in the cylinder, and not moving up or down, then we can reduce the problem to a pretty simple one: (that is, the sum of the forces in the y direction- choosing up and down to be y- is zero because the acceleration in that direction is zero). therefore, something must be making the force zero in the y-direction. we know there is at least one force acting in that direction (gravity) and it is pulling down with a force equal to -mg (where 'm' is the mass of the motorcycle, and g is the gravitational constant on earth, negative because it is going "down"). so, what that means is, if everything is true, then we must find some other force, call in f_f (the f will be clear later), that is equal to mg, so that f_y = mg + (-mg) = 0. what's the only force left? well, there is a force between the tires and the wall from friction. the force of friction is dependent upon two things: a constant called the coefficient of friction (this is just something we measure- and object with a higher coefficient has more friction, so for instance sand paper has a higher one than normal paper) and then the calculable part, the normal force. the normal force is simply the force that a surface pushes against an object with (the term normal force comes from the fact that the force is perpendicular to the surface, and in math perpendicular and normal are interchangeable). so, for an object sitting on the the ground, the normal force is the force stopping gravity from just "pulling the object through the ground" (since of course there is a force of gravity pulling down, but the object isn't moving, it means the ground must be pushing up back on the object). so, where does the normal force come from when there is a motorcycle on the wall? the centripetal force (some people will say "that is a fictitious force, and it is. but it sure is handy. you can also calculate this by looking at how the motorcycle wants to keep going straight, and the wall pushed it away from going straight, thus there is some force there, but using the centripetal force just makes life easier). the magnitude of that force is mv^(2)/r where m is the mass, v is the velocity (and since we're squaring it, it is really just the speed squared) and r is the radius of circle. so really, these things make sense- you know the faster you go the more force you feel, and the tighter of a loop you're in, the more force you feel. thus, since the motorcycle isn't neither pushing away from the wall, or going into the wall, then the normal force must be the same as the centripetal force, so the normal force is just mv^(2)/r thus the force of friction, f_f is just the normal force times the coefficient of friction (u) for tires against the material. therefore, if u*mv^(2)/r = mg (hey cool, the m can cancel- so really if u*v^(2)/r = g) then you will stay up on the wall. this will tell you how fast you need to go (or alternatively, how small of a circle you have to drive in for the speed you are going) to stay up on the wall. note that no where does the number of wheels (or even having wheels!) come into play- the only relevant number here is that coefficient of friction. in every other way (how many tires, how large the tires are, how heavy the object is, etc) the answer remains the same. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.fstoppress.com/articles/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/FSP_web_WALL_OF_DEATH_038.jpg"
] | [
"http://imgur.com/ziiCY2P"
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what if everyone in the world got in the ocean at the same time? is there enough coastline? | if you could have everyone in the world hold hands, and enter the ocean, how much would the water level raise? also us there enough coastline to pull this off? | the world has a total of about 300,000 km of coastline, which is not nearly enough space for 7000,000,000 people. however, all the people of the world have a total volume of about 700 million cubic meters, which is nearly insignificant considering the 1.3 billion cubic kilometers. with a total area of 360 million square kilometers, all the people in the world jumping into the ocean would result in the ocean rising about 2 microns, or 2 millionths of a meter. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen if a healthy person took the highly active antiretroviral therapy? | it would definitely reduce hiv transmission risk, if that's what you're asking. i don't think anyone knows how much it would reduce it, though. most of the trials for this have been conducted in africa with only single drugs or pairwise combinations, usually the cheapest ones available. i'm guessing that a full-blown haart regimen, particularly including things like an integrase inhibitor, could have much more efficacy. there are some side effects of the drugs, though, particularly the protease inhbitors. they seem to cause metabolic changes like visceral body fat and increased glucose levels. haart probably isn't something i'd want to take long term as a healthy person. the cost alone would be ruinous, as health insurance isn't going to pay for meds for someone without a diagnosis of being hiv positive. there's also a compliance issue, in that you'd have to take a lot of pills pretty regularly. skipping a dose or two could dramatically reduce your protection level. it also depends on what sort of contact you're trying to protect against. female to male transmission by vaginal sex in the us is pretty low risk already. addition of even one or two antiretrovirals to that would probably reduce the risk to very very low. if you're trying to protect against riskier contact, like male/male sex, or iv needle sharing, then a more active combination might be needed to reduce the risk to acceptable levels. it also depends on the meds that the infected partner has. if the partner were already on haart, their viral loads might be so low that transmission is already relatively low risk. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
solutions to the equation a^a = b^b? | after seeing the thread about the possible solutions to a^b = b^a, i was wondering what will happen if we were to look for the solutions to a^a = b^b where a =/= b. one possible solution is when a = 1/2 and b = 1/4. intuitively, the possible solutions for a and b should be in the interval (0,1) since if a > b > 1, then a^a > b^b. by considering the function y = x^x, it can be shown that it achieves a global minimum at 1/e and that the graph concaves up for every x in its domain. so, in the interval (0, 1), there ought to be infinite solutions as horizontal straight lines can be drawn to cut the graph of y twice in this interval. (please do correct me if this reasoning is wrong.) so, the thing is, is it possible to obtain all possible pairs of (a, b) that are solutions to a^a = b^b ? | you can do the same trick. firstly, taking logs turns this into aloga=blogb, which is simpler to work with. set b=a^(r) and plug it in to get aloga=ra^(r)loga, or a^(1-r)=r, which means a=r^(1/[1-r]), which gives b=r^(r/[1-r]). any 0 < a < 1 can be written uniquely in this way and any r if you want rational solutions, we'll need 1/(1-r)=n, an integer, which means r=1-1/n. in this case, a=(1-1/n)^(n) and b=(1-1/n)^(n-1). these are the solutions when a and b are both rational. eg: a=1/4, b=1/2. | 37 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when events occurring in space are explained to us. are they happening real-time or have they already happened? | whenever you see a news report about something in space involving galaxies, stars, planets, etc... and their movements/actions/events, are these happening as they are reporting them, or are they reporting what we are only seeing now which occurred in the past? | all light that reaches us is "from the past". it is just the amount of time between the emission and it hitting our eye that varies. the further away, the longer back in time. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is water like at a plasma state? | several months ago, i read an article about how a planet was found possibly containing an atmosphere (or surface? i can't quite remember..) full of water at a plasma state. what would it be like? or, what would it look like? | water can't exist as a plasma. h2o is a neutral molecule. a plasma is a completely different state of matter composed of ions. you can think of it as a gas composed of electrons and ionized nuclei. at very high temperatures, the weakest-bound electrons in water have enough energy to overcome the force that binds them to the molecule. you get h2o^+ and electrons. at higher energies, thermal energy overcomes the energy keeping oxygen and hydrogen bound to one another. you get oxygen and hydrogen ions, and depending on the conditions, some free electrons. if you have a planet with very high temperatures or pressures, h2o could exist in equilibrium with ionized water, or even hydrogen/oxygen ions. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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have there actually been any links found between keratosis pilaris and vitamin a deficiency? | according to the nhs, there's no strong evidence that retinol (which is derived from vitamin a) is effective in treating keratosis pilaris. [[source]](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/keratosis-pilaris/Pages/Introduction.aspx"
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|
does a cicle with infinite circumference have perfecly flat sections? | considering: infinity > > any number in r section length € r | essentially this same question was [asked](_url_0_) about 10 days ago, but: there's really no such thing as "infinite radius" because infinity is not a number and doesn't behave like a number. that said, in some situations, it's convenient to think of straight lines as being (in some sense) circles "of infinite radius" (with center at infinity). that's not very rigorous though, and isn't perfectly compatible with the notion of circles of finite radius. | 26 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2n1rmy/is_it_possible_to_draw_a_circle_of_infinite_radius/"
] | [
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] |
question about falling bodies, friction and water slides. | a worked a few years as a lifeguard for a water park and observed that people who were more massive consistently went faster down the water slides than smaller people. considering that all bodies accelerate at the same rate regardless of mass, how is this possible? imagining the slide on a 2d graph, i thought that maybe the bigger mass, with f=ma, allows a bigger net force in the positive direction, that could cancel out the negative force of friction. am i wrong? how would you go about calculating this? thanks in advance. | it's exactly the same phenomenon as the idea that a feather and bowling ball both dropped in a vacuum will fall at the same rate, but in normal air the feather will float down slowly. gravity applies a force based on your mass, but since force=mass*acceleration, the force of gravity scales at the same rate as your mass, and every object is accelerated the same amount by gravity. however, that acceleration is being resisted by the force of wind resistance (or in the case of the slide, by friction with the slide). this resistive force does not grow with *mass*, it grows with *surface area*. since mass grows faster than surface area when an object expands, larger objects experience less wind/friction resistance *in proportion* to the force of gravity accelerating them, and therefore they accelerate more quickly. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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boundary conditions of em field around a solenoid in cylindrial coordinates | my first askscience question! how exciting! i am having trouble with some em field simulations and i think my problem is my boundary condition assumption. i am simulating a solenoid with several cylindrical layers of dielectric material inside and outside of it. i am trying to get some numerical solutions to this thing's flux linkage with some exterior conductors. my geometries are all cylindrically symmetric. i have modelled a system where the wire thickness is much smaller than the radius, and so i am approximating b as being exclusively in z, and e as being exclusively in phi. i don't want to get into too much detail with what this is for/about, because i have a specific question which i think is already complicated enough. i am essentially solving for bessel/hankel functions as a function of radius for the phasor values of the fields across a series of boundaries. the equations are continuous across all boundaries, but, not at the solenoid, (as it is the driver). in my simulation, the solenoid is just treated as a cylindrical shell of zero thickness, (actually it has a thickness but nothing happens inside that thickness), with the following boundary conditions at the boundary of the solenoid coil itself: **magnetic field** b_inner(z) - b_outer(z) = b_boost_coil(z) b_boost_coil(z) =difference between interior and exterior of solenoid only system in a vaccum as calculated w/ biot-savart law **electric field** e_in(z) = e_out(z) **reasoning** i am making the assumption that the mag field *difference*, (the boosting effect of the solenoid), is the same as a solenoid in a vaccum. this is simply (interior - exterior) magnetic field at the boundaries of the solenoid as calculated with biot savart in the magnetostatic formulation. i did *not* think i needed to use a retarded time derivation as the driving frequency's wavelength is significantly larger than the entire system i am concerned with. would there be any caveats here? i can't seem to think of any. if anyone has a better suggestion for the mag field, i'd love to hear it. my larger concern is with that electric field bc. my reasoning behind it is that the internal and external electric field will be effectively the same because the skin effect will push most of the current density to the outside of the wire. *however*, in hindsight, that is certainly a decent approximation for a straight wire, but here we have a solenoid. i feel like the effect of the self inductance will introduce additional opposing eddy currents on the interior of the solenoid mostly. won't this turn the current density "donut" into more of a squashed donut? like a donut that got punched in the side? i'm not sure how to go about quantitatively evaluating that. if anyone has any advice/links to papers/textbook chapters that would be much appreciated. thanks. | do you have access to jackson's e & m textbook? i think he discusses similar problems in all their gory detail. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does marine snow work? and how is life sustained in the deepest parts of the ocean? | post in til made me wonder. | it is a trickle-down effect; as plankton, and other small organisms die, their remains sink, descending as small, snow-like particles. the creatures living on the bottom feed on these offerings from above. occasionally, something larger, such as the carcass of a whale also descends; it then becomes an attraction for a variety of deep-sea 'vultures'. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how does the body schedule long-term changes? | how does the body know and keep track of when to start and end things like growth and puberty over such a long period of time? | it's really just part of the growth process. between 6 and 8 years of age, for example, the adrenal glands grow to a point where they get a region called the [zona reticularis](_url_2_). this is called [adrenarche](_url_3_) and is the source of increased secretions of androgens. some time after this, puberty begins with the secretion of [gonadotropin-releasing hormone (gnrh)](_url_0_) from the hypothalamus, as the result of increased levels of some other hormone or hormones [which are not known at this time](_url_1_). triggers for these hormones, as well as for many other changes from fertilization of the ovum, are often dependent on the three-dimensional geometry of the growing organism because of the effect this has on the concentration a gradients of various biochemicals which have an effect on the cells of the organism and the expression of proteins through its dna. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puberty#section_2",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zona_reticularis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenarche"
] | [
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what changes in out body when our reaction time improves? | to put it simply, neuronal adaptation mostly brought on by synaptic modifications. when you say reaction time, i am asuming that you mean a process that involves processing in the higher centers such recognizing a stimulus and reacting to it and not a reflex that does not reach higher centers such as withdrawing from a painful stimulus (even though these reflexes can also undergo adaptation). let's say that you are tasked with pressing a button when you see a green light. this action follows a very specific neuronal pathway. first the optic nerve carries the information of what you see from the eyes to the primary visual area. then another neuron connects the primary visual are to the secondary visual area and you recognize that the color you see is green. following that it goes to the motor areas and so on until finally the connection reaches the spinal cord at the appropriate level. from there, a motor neuron leaves the spinal cord and goes to the muscle, innervating it. now, at each "stop" along this pathway the previous neuron synapses (makes a connection) with the next one. a single neuron can synapse with numerous others, and it can also receive connections from multiple neurons. each of these synapses can be modified by a large number of factors. the firing threshold of the "receiving" neuron can be modified, the amount of neurotransmitter (substances that enable the impulse to be transmitted from one neuron to the next one) can be changed, number of axon terminals (the portions extending from one neuron cell body to the other) can be modified, neurotransmitter receptor number may be altered, the size of the axons can change and the amount of inhibitory or excitatory postsynaptic potential (a potential that makes the "receiving" neuron more or less likely to fire) in addition to many other factors. however, generally repeated excitation of a synapse causes biochemical and physical changes in the synapse that promote an increased activity. so, the more you do something, the better you get at it. things like learning and memory are loosely based on the same concept of synaptic modification. or as siegrid löwel puts it: "cells that fire together, wire together." | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
wondering what the other bands seen when running an undigested plasmid through a gel are from. | for an advanced micb laboratory i ran a gel with wells loaded with a pcr product, dna ladder, digested plasmid and undigested plasmid. the lanes for the pcr, ladder and digested plasmid were as expected but i have not been able to figure out why there are additional bands in the well containing the undigested plasmid dna. | if you run an undigested plasmid through a gel you are going to see super-coiled dna, open circular dna, and full length linear dna. they are the same size fragment but have different shapes hence their varying migration through the gel. summarized [here.](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://bio.classes.ucsc.edu/bio20L/info/animate/anim2/topo.htm"
] | [
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what is the (typical? best?) mechanism through which experimental quantum physicists randomly and ‘instantly’ adjust the polarization axis for the measurement? | * > as i understand it, the instantaneous requirement of the adjustment is to ensure that no state can be transmitted to non-local parts (the other measurement site) of the system in order to plug the loophole of locality in the interpretation of the results. i have also read that any possible hole in the source of randomness was plugged by driving the rng from photon data from stars.. i’m curious on how that experiment specifically converted the photon data into a polarization (or, were they using something else than photos for the quantum measurement?)* * > do (m)any of the experiments rely on individual photos (or other particles), such that there is no stable waveform established in the system for a time longer than (distance between sites)/c? is this not a requirement to plug that loophole? what kind of polarizer or dynamically adjustable measurement device is used in these cases?* | here's an open access paper about a recent, good experiment: _url_0_ here's how they adjusted the polarization axis: some crystals will change their index of refraction when you put them in an electric field. this is called the electro-optic effect. this effect acts differently for light of different polarization states. when you apply an electric field to an electro-optic crystal, it will have a "fast" and a "slow" axis. light will travel faster if its polarization is in the direction of the "fast" axis. if a linearly-polarized light beam with a polarization axis that is half-way between the "fast" and "slow" axes enters an electro-optic crystal, you can vary the polarization direction from linear to circular polarization by changing the applied voltage. electro-optic effects are super fast, like less than picoseconds. light travels less than a millimeter in a picosecond. the detectors were hundreds of meters apart in this experiment. _url_2_ _url_1_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://journals.aps.org/prl/pdf/10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.250402",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pockels_effect",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electro-optic_effect"
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what is the farthest point a person can see in the sky under the most ideal conditions. clear day, ocean side, no obstructions. | the most ideal conditions, using your peripheral vision, high altitude island in the middle of the ocean, you can see the andromeda galaxy as a smudge in your vision. that is a distance of about 2.5 million light years. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
please help me understand why the fractal distribution solution of olbers' paradox is not accepted | as i was reading about [benoit mandelbrot](_url_0_) today, i learned that he had [(re-)discovered a solution by charlier for olbers' paradox in terms of a fractal distribution of stars](_url_1_) but wikipedia's explanation for its lack of acceptance is unsatisfactory to me, particularly the second part: > moreover, the majority of cosmologists take the cosmological principle as a given, which assumes that matter at the scale of billions of light years is distributed isotropically. contrasting this, fractal cosmology requires anisotropic matter distribution at the largest scales. as far as i understand it, cosmic microwave background studies have shown significant anisotropy in the distribution of matter. have i misunderstood one of these things? edit: i am satisfied with the answers i have received. | cosmic microwave background studies have shown significant anisotropy. but we already knew that there was some of that, because galaxies exist. the cosmological principle says that matter is distributed isotropically *at a large enough scale*, while a fractal distribution is not isotropic at any scale. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benoit_Mandelbrot",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olbers%27_paradox#Fractal_star_distribution"
] | [] | [
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what is probability that zygote will implant in uterus? | the estimates range from 25-50% of fertilized embryos failing to implant. in vitro fertilization, for example, has a success rate of under 50%, including women under the age of 35. with age, the rate of pregnancy drops quickly. interesting note, morning sickness is actually a positive sign for pregnancy as it is hypothesized that the embryo is releasing both human chorionic gonadotropin and progesterone to aid blood vessel formation and this could lead to nausea in the mother, a sign of successful implantation. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is starvation mode a myth? | i've been told by many people that starvation mode (when you don't eat enough calories and your body responds by not losing as much weight) is a myth. is this true? | some aspects of it are true. when a person drastically cuts their energy intake in an attempt to lose weight the body often responds by reducing it's resting metabolic rate, leading to a situation in which one is eating less than before but not losing weight. calories in vs calories out is important, but people often don't realize how dynamic the calories out side can be. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the minimum distance between the center of two intersecting helices? | you can see the animation of what i'm trying to explain [here, with n=8](_url_0_). so, there are two wheels, each with **n** bars. and while one has phase "-phi", the other one has "phi + pi/n + pi\*(n%2)". the goal would be to get the minimum length of the gray dashed line, not allowing to touch any bar, considering that each bar has a length of **r**. | i couldn't find a simple formula, but for an approximate numerical answer, type the following into [wolfram alpha](_url_0_) (or mathematica if you have it): nmaximize[{sin[pi - t] cot[t + pi/8] - cos[pi - t], 0 < = sin[pi - t] < = sin[t + pi/8]}, t] replace '8' by whatever value of n you like (n if you're interested, i'll write out how that formula came about. it's basically an exercise in trigonometry. | 2 | [] | [
"http://gfycat.com/LongGeneralBee"
] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/"
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what's the difference between an allele and a paralog | i thought that allele was used in the context of describing genes at the same position on a chromosome - i.e. comparing the same gene between mom and dad (in diploid cell). and paralogs were gene duplications that are found on the same haploid genome. however, i keep seeing authors refer to paralogs as alleles. the most recent one i saw was an author said that "these 2 alleles were in linkage equilibrium". well, duh. of course the mixing and matching of alleles is going to be completely random and independent of one another. | the strict definition of a paralog is a segment of dna separated by a duplication event. using 'allele' to refer to a paralog is incorrect. alleles are polymorphisms of a given gene. _url_0_ as someone who works continually with issues of paralogy and orthology it is literally infuriating how often trained biologists get this wrong. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homology_(biology)#Paralogy"
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how do power companies know how much electricity is being used for public street lighting and traffic lights? | inventories are kept of all the lights, and their wattages. the cities/counties/states/responsible parties submit these inventories to the power company, and are then charged a fixed amount based on these inventories. one of our local municipalities put in a small hydro-electric power plant on their drinking water system (replaced a pressure reduction valve) and cut a deal with the power company, cutting how much they had to pay for the city lighting. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does the lorentz force act in the direction of the cross product? | in school we have learned that the lorentz force acts on a moving charge that propagates through a magnetic field. we have also done the calculations with the cross product and gone through its various applications. i do understand the mathematical part of it but when i asked my teacher why exactly this is true, she never really gave me a satisfactory answer. so my question remains: where does this force come from or rather why does it "point" in the direction of the cross product? (on a particle to particle level) | just to start of, the lorentz force generally refers to the electric *and* magnetic force. the magnetic force is given by q(v x b), but the electric force is not given in terms of a cross product. so considering the magnetic force, you could just say that it is an empirical observation, that the force is always in the direction of q(v x b), or you could derive it from some other assumption. but you will always have to make some assumption based on empirical evidence. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does applying water or ice to your blood pulses actually cool you off? | so i live in a tropical country and it's suffice to say i can no longer afford my air-conditioning bill. i was wondering whether or not applying water or ice to your wrists or in the carotid artery really cool off the blood. | the most effective places to place ice are neck (carotid/jugular), armpits (axillary) and groin (femoral). it's simple physics that these areas have the largest volume of blood circulating closest to the surface of the skin and thus dissipate heat more effectively. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any comprehensive theories as to why individuals, when faced with the same evidence, will develop different conclusions? | (think about religious choices and beliefs as found in apologetic debates - that's what i'm interested in). i'm sure it has to do with previous experiences unique to the two individuals, epistemology, brain structures, a whole bunch of things that's too complex to go into in one post- but i thought someone in this subreddit might know where i might start looking for answers to this question? | the short answer is that we don't intepret things in a vacuum. we have what are called "schemas", which are essentially ways that we process incoming information. an example is if your friend calls you and cancels plans. someone who is psychologically "normal" (in this sense, at least) will likely think something like "oh no, that's too bad! i was looking forward to that. oh well, next time." someone who is severely depressed, however, will have the exact same conversation but walk away thinking "oh my god, i'm such a horrible person even my friends don't want to be around me; i'm a waste of space..." there's a ton of research and writings around this concept and how it applies to various domains in psychology. there's also tons of research in social and cognitive psychology on mechanisms (and resistance to) belief change, so you can look into that. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the true length of an inch, weight of a pound, (and other measurements)? | i watched a short video explaining how the gram was derived. it explained that there is a silver (or metal) cylinder locked in the vault of a european agency, and is the only object in the world that truly weighs 1 gram (most things weigh 1.000001 grams, for example). it's apparently a critical object for continuity purposes. this made me wonder, how did we arrive at the length of an inch. more-so, is there anything that is truly exactly 1 inch long. or, more generally, is there anything else that is exactly 1 unit of something (i.e. an object that weighs truly 1 pound)? if so, how were these measurements determined? | many constants are actually taken from nature. for example 1 meter is defined as the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second. a second on the other hand is defined by the duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom. (wikipedia) it is similar with other constants, like force. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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probably a simple physics question | say you drop something from x height and it takes y time to hit the ground. what do you have to do to x to double y? ignore air resistance and friction and assume starting velocity is 0 and all that jazz. | starting from rest, the acceleration is g so the equation of motion for the height h from the ground is h(t) = x - 1/2 gt^2 . it hits the ground when h=0 so you have x=1/2 gt^2 which in your notation is x=1/2 gy^2 , so to double y, you need to multiply x by 4. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
a few questions on alternating current? | 1. how do variable frequency power supplies work? what mechanism allows for a change in frequency? 2. is it possible to create an alternating current that isn't a perfect sine wave but more like a mixture or different frequencies? if so, how? 3. say you have a bar magnet with a certain angular momentum about three arbitrary axes. what would be the best way to turn the constantly changing magnetic field into a measurable frequency? | 1. they are called power inverters. an example circuit is in [wikipedia](_url_1_). 2. once you can build a sine wave, you can build [any other periodic signal by combining different sine waves](_url_0_). 3. one way is to put it inside a conductor loop (or coil). the best way depends on what you mean by "the best". | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_inverter"
] | [
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what is the origin of the "fine" and "hyperfine" structures? | [deleted] | they are relativistic effects. fine structure results from relativistic effects involving the electrons, while hyperfine structure results from coupling between the electron cloud and the higher-order electromagnetic moments of the nucleus itself. there are three contributors to fine structure which one can add "by hand" in non-relativistic qm: * a correction due to the relativistic version of the kinetic energy. * a correction due to spin-orbit coupling, where the spin and the orbital angular momentum of an electron interact magnetically. * the darwin term. i really don't know how to explain this in non-relativistic quantum mechanics. but really all of these effects should be treated using a fully relativistic quantum formalism rather than simply added as an ad-hoc afterthought in nonrelativistic qm. now for hyperfine structure. as i said above, this is the result of coupling between the electron cloud and the nucleus. specifically coupling with its electromagnetic multipole moments (magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole primarily). the first is just a similar angular momentum coupling just like the spin-orbit interaction. but the so interaction is between the spin and orbital angular momentum of an electron, which the hyperfine case is between the **total** angular momentum of the electron and the **total** angular momentum of the nucleus. these are just magnetic dipole-dipole interactions, like you're playing with your old toy bar magnets. they like to align a certain way better than the other, and since the magnetic moments of these particles are produced by their angular momenta, what you get is an interaction energy which differs based on the alignments of their angular momenta. different degrees of alignment will have different energies, which explains the level splitting. there's also the quadrupole part of the hyperfine interaction but that's a little more complicated. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is getting sick good for you or not? | i know to that once you get sick, your body creates antibodies and these can then fend off any infections in your future. the question is then, what about washing your hands very many times a day and other "excessive" hygiene policies one may have? | it is true that once you catch an illness that you've never encountered before, your body will be more prepared the next time by producing [memory t-cells](_url_0_) that help "remember" the virus and mount an offensive more quickly if you catch that illness again. to answer your question, there is a cutoff point for how often you should wash your hands. your body is covered in a multitude of bacteria like *staphylococcus epidermidis* that do nothing more than feed on dead skin cells and take up space on your body. this prevents more harmful bacteria from taking up space. when you wash your hands, you're removing the helpful bacteria and could *potentially** make room for more problematic bacteria to take hold. it's best to wash your hands once or twice a day or after handling something dirty. *the chance of this happening is slim, but it's still a chance. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_T_cell"
] | [
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askscience, is this legitimately a cure for cancer? | dichloroacetate as a potential treatment for certain types of cancer has been around for a while. it is actively researched, but to say it "cures cancer" is misinformation, and gross misunderstanding of both the mechanism of action and the pathology of cancer. cancer is not one singular disease. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is the luciferase bioluminescent reaction in any way biotechnologically usable? could we make luciferin night lights? | the firefly-ish biochemical luminescent reaction is about 80 - 90% efficient at converting energy to light. we use incandescent lightbulbs with a mere 10% efficency. the luciferase reaction surely seems to be a better way to make light from (albeit a different form of) energy. why has this reaction never been optimised and harnessed at a large scale for our light producing purpouses? | there is at least one attempt at [it](_url_1_). i'm not an engineer or anything but my feeling for why it hasn't caught on (that design concept from phillips was announced in 2011 and was all i could find from a cursory googling) is two-fold: - it'd be gross. that lamp works by having living bacteria produce light, which would be hard/impossible to clean/keep sterile/maintain for anyone without access to a lab. - it'd be expensive. the raw parts for the luciferase reaction [are](_url_4_) the enzyme itself plus atp (energy) + luciferin (the substrate for the reaction). some casual pricing on [luciferin](_url_2_) and [atp](_url_0_) alone suggests you're spending about $30-50 per milligram of each. it's about $100/mg for luciferase [itself](_url_3_). if you've never seen how much a milligram of powder is, i'd say it's about 50 grains of sand. how much is a lightbulb again? | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/flaas?lang=en&region=US",
"http://www.design.philips.com/philips/sites/philipsdesign/about/design/designportfolio/design_futures/bio_light.page",
"http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/l6882?lang=en&region=US",
"http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/l9420?lang=en&region=US",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luciferase#Mechanism_of_reaction",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrosequencing"
] | [
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there were once less than 30 california condors left. how does this affect the species, genetically? | all future california condors will necessarily originate from those few. is there enough generic diversity with those 30 subjects for the species to recover and thrive? | yes actually! there were three distinct families that were left over and when breeding programs were started they made sure to breed condors to those who were least like them. condors were transfered between breeding facilities on a regular basis and the condors that are alive now have the broadest "range" of genetic diversity. the condors that survived would also, theoretically, be the strongest and most able to survive meaning that any of their offspring have the greatest chance of survival. the bad part is diseases which arise when both parents are carriers. by testing the population for these diseases and only breeding pairs that would select against this, the condors alive now are very healthy and stand a great chance of recovery. | 70 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_bottleneck"
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what would an emulsion look/behave like in a zero gravity environment? | i thought about density and gravity randomly and wasn't quite sure on this one. would the mixture just spread in all kind of directions or would it stick together? separated or completely mixed up? let's take water/oil as textbook example my curiosity is counting on you, asksci | the result would probably be similar to what happens with air bubbles in water globules in a zero g environment. the oil would collect into a bubble in the center of the water globule. for other liquids, the liquid with the higher density would be the outer layer. _url_0_ | 32 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cXsvy2tBJlU"
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how far would you have to fall on mars to hurt yourself? | how is the gravity different, if i fell from 20' would i break a femur or sprain an ankle? what about any other planet? | if we believe (as i think is reasonable, at least for an estimate) that the damage caused by a fall is directly related to velocity, then the equivalent height on mars to a drop of n meters on earth is approximately (9.81/3.71) = 2.64 times the height on earth. this is because falling in a vacuum over a distance h under gravitation g will give you a velocity of sqrt(2gh) at the end of your fall. setting sqrt(2 g*_e_* h*_e_*) = sqrt(2 g*_m_* h*_m_*) gives us h*_m_* / h*_e_* = g*_e_* / g*_m_* . the vacuum approximation is much better for mars than earth, though, so one would expect the 2.64 ratio to hold only for small distances. over a sufficient height, you ought to end up falling faster on mars than on earth because your terminal velocity will be much larger. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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on maxwell's equations, electric field based transformers and why they don't exist? | hi all, my understanding of electric and magnetic fields it pretty weak. i understand the basics of maxwell's equations and i am comfortable with the maths - the divergence and the curl of a vector etc. however i feel like i am missing some pieces in my understanding, that links the maths to the physical world, and i was hoping that you could help me out. basically i want to know why a transformer made using inductors and magnetic fields exists, but despite all of the parallels between inductors and capacitors, a similar device cannot be made using capacitors and electric fields. not only am i hoping to learn about that, but i am also hoping to learn more about electric and magnetic fields and maxwell's equations that govern them. i am hoping that this will be a somewhat interesting discussion :) and that someone (or a group of people) will be able to fill me in on maxwell's equations and ultimately answer my question about why we don't have capacitor based transformers. | it sounds like you want to know what the dual is to a transformer under an exchange of electric and magnetic fields. vacuum maxwell theory enjoys a symmetry known as hodge duality[1], in which e- however, maxwell theory with matter sources does not enjoy this symmetry (because note that two of maxwell's equations have sources, and two do not[2]). you would have wanted a theory with magnetic monopoles and currents of magnetic monopoles in order to have this dual. that is, the dual to an electric charge would be a magnetic monopole, and the dual to an electric current would have been a current of magnetic monopoles. as far as we know magnetic monopoles do not exist in nature[3]. so this is why there isn't a dual to transformers: you would have needed a current of magnetic monopoles instead of a current of electric charges flowing through the wires. but nature doesn't have that. [1] it's called this because this is what happens when you apply the hodge dual operator to the electromagnetic field strength 2-form f. to understand this you must understand the 4-dimensional form of the theory instead of the 3+1 split into electric and magnetic fields; and it would be nice if you also understand differential forms, though it's enough to just understand tensors. [2] this is most simply understood in terms of differential forms, where you see that the two "source free maxwell's equations" are really just the bianchi identity. that's why there can't be any sources on the right hand side of those equations. [3] except potentially for symmetry-breaking monopoles. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does carpal tunnel require an operation to fix? how come the body can't fix it without intervention? | from my understanding carpal tunnel is like really bad tendinitis, so why can't it be cured in a similar manner, reduced strain and reducing inflammation? | your understanding is off target. it isn't a tendinitis, it is compression and/r entrapment of the median nerve as it passes through the carpal tunnel. because the carpal tunnel is enclosed on all sides by bones and fascia the contents of the tunnel are predisposed to compression (as it is a small space). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the difference between reverse osmosis and microfiltration? | i was reading about singapore's newater programme (_url_0_), and noted that one stage is called "microfiltration" while the next is called "reverse osmosis". why do these processes have different names when they both involve the same process of forcing a liquid through a filter with lots of tiny holes? | as the engineer responsible for the operation and maintenane of two 60m^3 reverse osmosis (ro) plants on a ship, i hope i can solve your question for you. i can’t mention proprietary names but most big companies make best use of scarily similar technologies and processes. the process of producing potable water from brackish/contaminated/second hand water is standard. firstly almost all sources will contain debris or sediment of sorts. even reclaimed water will be loaded with particles which will quickly clog and render and ro plant useless. primarily this is resolved by progressively reducing mesh strainers which will mainly stop lumps, twigs, leaves or things like rags, paper towels, sanitary products, ping pong balls, teddy bears or any other random things people are able to jettison, from damaging the feed pumps which supply the raw water to the plant. sand filters (beds/vessels filled with of coarse sand) are used as a finer filter to catch any sediments or particles missed by the mesh. sand filters are a great feature as they can be back-flushed, a nominal quantity of the purified product water is retained and pumped back the the opposite way from normal operation during a ‘self cleaning cycle’. this agitates the sand and works the trapped material out of the sand restoring it to a good clean standard to ensure no sediment progresses further into the plant. compressed air is also sometimes used together with water to aid the release of crap within the sand bed. the discharge from the back flush is alomst always discarded owing to its infinitely higher concentration of muck. after the sand filter you will typically find a unit filled with disposible cartridge filters, normally in the 5 micron level. this protects the next stage. as for the micro filter setup, they are simply a higher level of filtration. the type i work with are explained as tubes (think bic biro sized round tubes!) budled together, blocked at one end. the feed-in end of the tube is open but the spaces between the tubes in the budle are sealed at the end. this is all surrounded in a larger tube or sleeve to collect the filtrate. the feed-in end is connected to the raw water supply after the sandfilter. the feed pressure forces the water to flow into the tubes and through the walls of the tubes into the tube shell and out to the next stage. the manufacturer claim this is finer-than-microbe level. this means we can also use the micro-filtration stage independently from the rest of the fresh water production plant when we load fresh water in countries which do not meet the acceptable standard for waterborne diseases (we also dose the storage tanks with chlorine solutions to inhibit any further nasties). the microfilters need to be flushed thoroughly as they operate with salt water normally, however the ‘brain’ on the plant continually monitors and will discharge any water which fails the limits of conductivity (how we measure saline content) if i am producing potable water whilst at sea, the water out of the micro filters is just very clean salt water. it is not safe for human consumption. the salts will need to be extracted! the following process is the reverse osmosis stage where water is pumped to very high pressures 60-70bar and comes in contact with partially permable membranes which have pores. the pores are large enough for water molecules to pass through but reject other larger molecules such as salts. as the sea water passes over the vast surface areas inside the membrane modules the h2o is permeated through the special osmotic material. this leaves a higher concentration of salts and is discharged as brine. the design is critical as you want to allow for efficient extraction of water from the feed but extract too much and the salts will precipitate out as solid crystals/scale and will block the pores reducing the plant output! every manufacturer has cunning ways to prevent this, ranging from chemical injection with a carefully designed cocktail which stops the salts from hardening and resting inside the modules, to special turbulant flows that keep the salts moving so they never settle and build up. the results are crystal clear delicious potable water, normally around the 500 microsiemen level of conductivity (our gauge of salinity or lack of). it is probably slightly better than most spring or reservoir levels. i certainly rate it (though i make it so i would ;-) i hope this gives you a better idea of the difference. thanks for reading! tl/dr: microfiltration is for floaty bits - even as small as germs, reverse osmosis is a molecular level separation. thank you for the gold, first ever post on reddit, off to a positive start! | 11 | [] | [
"http://www.pub.gov.sg/water/newater/newatertech/Pages/default.aspx"
] | [] | [
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hi reddit, my girlfriend is dyslexic, and is likely to end up failing year 12 english, despite the fact that she is extremely intelligent and does hours of homework every night, which i find incredibly unfair. is there anything i can do to help her? | as a year 12 student i would think she has already sought help for her dyslexia. if for some reason she hasn't encourage her to get that specialized help. not sure what else you could do except be supportive. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how did the nervous system(s) come about? | everything from the original cell to tissue to systems or even ganglia? i looked it up and the most i understand is that cnindarions had the system nervous tissue system and eventually more complex systems arrose in jellyfish, but it doesn't really make sense. (tl;dr) so is there any certain evolutionary history of nevous cells/systems? | the rise of the nervous system begins with the creation of neurons (nerve cells). neurons arose from other cells by adapting a cell's natural ability to change ion charges, and thus 'pass' a signal from one cell to another. the development of the central nervous system (your brain and nerve cords) went hand in hand with a process known as cephalization, an evolutionary trend of concentrating nervous tissue and sensory organs in the anterior (head) region. as the nervous tissue grew more complex, what you know as the nervous system was developed. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when does a fetus' heartbeat begin? i've seen things saying that it starts 18 days from conception all the way to 6 or 7 weeks from conception. what's the truth? | the timing is not necessarily easy to pin down because there are different definitions at play. first is the definition of a human heart - a fetus does not even have four chambers to the heart until 8 weeks of pregnancy (roughly 6 weeks after conception), but some research suggests the heart may not have fully organized muscle tissue until the 20th week of pregnancy (18 weeks after conception). next is the definition of a "heartbeat" - at 18 days after conception, the immature heart does start to show some irregular electrical activity. like anything else in the body, it has to practice first. so it isn't a beat as we would recognize it in an adult or even as we would recognize it in a newborn - more of a random, irregular bunch of twitches in the proto-heart. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
tokamak reactors, and lasering plasma islands? | how silly of an idea is it to zap the plasma islands in a tokamak reactor with a laser? the idea being to add heat to the specific island and prevent it from sapping heat from the rest of the plasma. now obviously we can't target specific particles in the plasma (!yet!), so the laser would have to travel through other areas of the plasma as well. would this do anything at all to better equalize/stabilize the temperature when approaching the greenwald limit? additionally, would rotating the magnetic field that contains the plasma have any effect of these islands? think of the pattern from a barber's pole, but in a circle. i feel like that would serve to increase the homogeneity of the plasma and limit it's exposure to the edge of the reactor, but i also have no idea what i'm talking about. | i got my phd working on tokamaks, and i'm still working in the field. heating plasmas is tricky and difficult. there are really two main ways to do it. one is by putting in heated particles (neutral beam heating) the other is by electromagnetic waves interacting with the plasma. wave propagation in plasmas is a complicated process, but a reasonably well understood one. but you need very specific frequencies to interact. if you have other frequencies, you might reflect all your power right back out, or you might pass right through without hitting anything. most tokamak plasmas are transparent to visible, near infrared, and uv light. specifically, all the parts of the em spectrum that we've gotten to lase, won't do much to heat the plasma at all. they'll pass right through and deposit all the power on the wall. in some way this is actually helpful, because lasers make up a lot of diagnostics on tokamaks (think interferometry and scattering). now heating the edge of the plasma through other areas of the em spectrum (usually rf) is possible and is done in many experiments. typically you try to heat the core of the plasma, but localized, surgical heating at the edge can be useful too to shape these parameters. so people are indeed looking at your idea! rotation is another big topic. although not quite as you've described it. the magnetic field is already helical, it needs to be in order to confine the plasma. the field helicity doesn't really help, all it does is cause the islands to align on a helical structure. however, what you do have is rotation of the plasma itself, specifically different sections rotate at different values creating rotation shear. this shear is theorized to break up turbulent regions of the plasma like these islands, and is one theorized reason of how we get h-modes (a doubling of plasma performance, and something discovered almost accidentally.) so you were on the right track again! i'd like to mention one last point about the greenwald density limit. it's possible that surpassing the density limit will not help as much as it might seem. my opinion, and it's shared by many people, is that the ultimate conditions on the density and temperature of the plasma are going to be determined by the heat flux to the wall. that flux is going to set a hard limit on what the plasma parameters are, and the greenwald density limit is already pretty high. it's unlikely that any wall can withstand a fusing plasma at that density. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do fluids with extremely high reynold's number behave? | i understand that there has been a lot of work done on characterizing fluid mechanics in low reynold's number regimes, such as on the length scale of cells and bacteria. on our normal human scale of water pipes, lakes, and oceans, fluids behave differently, viscous forces are negligible. however, i was wonder about extremely high renoyld's number such as in the giant space clouds of water. (_url_0_) do the fluid behave similarly to our experiences, with viscous forces that are negligible? or are the mechanics starkly different like the difference between "normal" reynold's number and the low reynold's number of bacteria? | they have turbulent behaviour, usually dynamically chaotic, and the fluid is is no longer incompressible/irrotational since the pressure forces take over the viscosity and stress forces, and the fluid picks up angular momentum. this means that the velocity of a fluid **v** cannot be described solely by the scalar velocity potential, such that gradψ=**v**, but there'd be an additional curl term and pressure term. the navier-stokes equation describes the most general behaviour of fluids, under any conditions and bodily forces, including laminar and turbulent flows. if the solution (if one even exists) is found, it would mark the end of fluid dynamics. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/23g1tf/til_there_is_a_mass_reservoir_of_water_floating/"
] | [] | [
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] |
flying above clouds, i noticed a shadow of our helicopter on the top of a cloud, with a rainbow encircling it. what is this phenomena called, and what causes it? | it is called a glory. _url_0_ > a glory is an optical phenomenon that resembles an iconic saint's halo about the shadow of the observer's head, caused by light of the sun or (more rarely) the moon interacting with the tiny water droplets that make up mist or clouds. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glory_(optical_phenomenon)"
] | [
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|
how do molluscs like clams and oysters sense when the tide is up to open their shell? | the closed shell is presumably watertight to stop the clam leaking out when the tide is out, so how can it tell when it is submerged? can it sense pressure? does it have internal rhythms that match the tide? is it affected by the moon's gravity? | different bivalves have different sensory mechanisms, some can sense pressure, some can sense ion concentrations using their siphons, some may be able to sense both. not all bivalves are air-tight and will gape where their siphons are, and will respirate in the air, so in those cases their siphons are constantly exposed. * advances in marine biology, vol. 22, effects of stress on marine bivalve molluscs * [physiological and biochemical responses of bivalve molluscs to exposure to air](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0300962979900604"
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how do animals like jellyfish reproduce? | [deleted] | jellyfish can reproduce sexually and asexually. sexually they release sperm and eggs into the water, external fertilization happens and the new organism develops into a panula or larva. the larva anchors onto something at the bottom and matures into polyps, this polyps can bud off and shed clones (called ephyras) asexually, then ephyras mature into the fullfledge jellyfish form (called medusa). then the cycle repeats again and again. note that some jellyfish switch between forms back and forth making them "ageless" technically, as long as they do not get killed, they can live forever. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are so many types of "special" functions orthogonal to each other? | a lot of types of functions in physics work out to be orthogonal, like the spherical harmonics, the legendre polynomials, etc. i realize they have to be orthogonal due to the postulates of quantum mechanics (states are represented by orthonormal wavefunctions), but this can't be a coincidence. for example, when you solve the laplace equation in spherical coordinates, is orthogonality somehow "built in" to the spherical harmonics? | well... orthogonal functions are useful right? and functions that are dense, i.e. functions that can be used to approximate other functions are also useful, right? the most useful thing is therefore functions that are dense _and_ pairwise orthogonal. the good thing is: give me a dense set of functions and a definition of orthogonality - a scalar product, in other words - and i give you a set of ortogonal dense functions! and i can do that by the gram-schmidt algorithm. for example, give me an especially simple set of dense functions - polynomials, and an especially simple sense of orthogonolity, namely the l²-sense on [-1,1]. i know that 1, x, x², x³ etc. are a basis of the polynomials, let me apply gram-schmidt, and out come the legendre-polynomials! give me the same dense set, but a different sense of orthogonality - l² with weight function (1-x²)^(-0.5) - let me apply gram-schmidt, and out come the chebyshev-polynomials! in other words, they are "special" because they are orthogonal, and "discovering" them is sort of a natural process, simply because orthogonal functions are so useful. please realize that you could also use a different basis to represent your wave-functions in! you could write your wave functions as the linear combination of your favourite set of functions. only, doing calculations becomes much harder if you do so. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theory"
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how efficient is respiration? | edit i should clarify: how efficient is *cellular* respiration? if i remember correctly, 1 glucose yields ~38 or so atp when everything runs smoothly. so what brings about my question is that my botany teacher told us that this was a very efficient process but also told us that according to the 2nd law of thermodynamics, 90% of the energy is lost every time the glucose is changed from one form to another (ie glucose - pyruvate - acetylcoa) each form only retaining 10% of the energy from the previous form. is there any way someone could clarify this? | _url_0_ _url_1_ the 2nd law of thermodynamics does guarantee energy loss, but the number is wrong. it's about a 60% loss (meaning 4 times as much energy is recovered as your teacher claimed). of course more energy will be lost when the atp gets used, but that isn't respiratory efficiency. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.jrank.org/pages/5826/Respiration-Efficiency-cellular-respiration.html",
"http://www.cbu.edu/~seisen/AerobicRespiration.htm"
] | [
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do we have the technology & resources to build a "dome"-isolated philadelphia-sized city in antarctica? | i think it could be done in the mountainous areas that aren't covered in a ton of ice. the issue would be the economics of the whole thing. if there was some sort of insane mineral deposit that could make the venture profitable, i could see it happening (actually it would probably be more like hollowing out a mountain, as opposed to a dome). regardless international treaties basically will keep this from happening for the foreseeable future. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the current state of light based computing? what are the problems holding us back? | i know the idea of light based logic has been around for decades and researched for just as long, but i hear little about it. with moore's law starting to get caught up in physics problems, it seems like the logical way forward. has light based computing even been prototyped? is there no currently visible way forward? whats holding us back? | i don't know what the current state of doing actual computing with light is. i suspect "far off. very." however, the field of silicon photonics is heating up like crazy right now. the distinction here is that we're only talking about the communications tech between the standard silicon chips, not changing how those chips do compute. presently, 100 gbps optical network links are rolling out, and 400 gbps is in development, with 1-2 tbps in research. the neat thing about silicon photonics is that it seems like it's in a similar position as early ssds: every reason to believe that once this stuff gets going, it's going to comes down in cost hugely over the next few years, while getting faster and smaller incredibly quickly. so this is starting as network links in expensive data centers and super computers, but it likely will eventually end up as a new connectivity approach replacing interconnect technologies like ddr and pcie for connecting together your cpu, gpu & ram inside your computer. these are already running into limits of how much bandwidth they're capable of shoving over ordinary wires. (pcie 4.0 hits 16 gbps per lane, and has enough trouble carrying that much bandwidth even 20 inches that they had to pay special attention to "retimers" in the spec, which are little chips that essentially act as repeaters.) so light is going to show up first as interconnect, before it becomes compute (if it ever does?) | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any omnivores that are at the top of a food chain besides us? | yes! i'm on my phone now so can't really dig you out a link, but there's a great page on wikipedia about 'apex predators', i remember seeing that there are more examples on there. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_apex_predators"
] | [
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|
how is wind speed measured? how fast is the wind we blow out of our mouths? | how can we know that wind travels at 35 or so mph? is it measured by the pressure the wind puts on a surface? and more specifically, how fast is the wind we blow out of our mouths? how can we measure this? | they use [anemometers](_url_0_). if you want to measure your breathe speed, you can get a [small one that looks like a little fan with a speed display](_url_1_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemometer",
"http://www.aceselectronics.co.uk/shopimages/products/Big/NK/NK1000.jpg"
] | [
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] |
what ends up harming you from coming into contact with an electrical current? | is it the voltage (v) or the current (i)? does it depend on the location of your body that gets shocked? | it's not really one or the other, it's both. it's a common misconception that "the amps kill you, not the volts," but it doesn't really make any sense. the current is caused by the voltage, and for a given voltage the current will flow through your body at whatever rate your electrical resistance will allow it to. the main reason that electricity harms you is because of the fact that your nervous system transmits messages electrochemically. electric current running through your body can disrupt your nervous system and the muscles that are told to move electrochemically by the nervous system. this is why people lose control of their limbs when they get tazed. the disruption is usually temporary and not life-threatening. the real danger is having a current pass through your heart. your heart beats nonstop because of electrical signals it receives from your nervous system. if those signals are disrupted, your heart can stop. that's pretty much the only real danger. unless there is an extremely high voltage/current, in which case you can be severely burned. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there even any compound that's named acetylseryl... ? | this compounds likely does exist. this is the long way of writing out a polypeptide structure, i.e. a protein. it has an slightly unusual acetyl at the beginning, (whereas most protein start "methionyl...") but each of the "seryl", "tyrosyl" etc signifies a single amino acid in the chain. i'm not going to actually check the sequence to see if it's a real protein, but eyeballing it, it looks like there's about 200 amino acids in this sequence, which actually makes it a fairly small protein. priotein names are also not usually written like this b/c it's confusing, they're either called a simple common name, like "albumin" or each amino acid gets a single letter like "mlasapc..." and so on. the redditor claiming this is the "longest english word" is certainly wrong. if we count this style of writing a protein sequence as a word, then then [longest protein name](_url_0_) would be for the protein ["titin" which is the largest known protein](_url_1_). titin has ~30,000 amino acids, so the full name has ~190,000 letters, making that word 150x longer than the one you posted. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longest_word_in_English",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titin"
] | [
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