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if the testes are on the outside of the body because they need to be at a temperature lower than the body temperature, how come men living in deserts or other hot climates aren't sterile? | sweaty balls. in hot climates your balls can still be lower than body temperature because sweaty balls. your surface temperature can drop lower than body temperature with the cooling effects of sweat. hotter balls do result in lower fertility though. | 34 | [] | [] | [] | [
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my body can crave sugar, fat, and salt. what else? | vitamins, minerals, amino acids, etc? also, what are the biochemical mechanisms behind cravings? | [food cravings](_url_0_) are too varied to posit one single mechanism, and can include craving for food, water, alcohol, nicotine, morphine and other drugs of dependency. non-dependency cravings can include chocolate, sugar, caffeine, marijuana as well an non-food stimuli such as sleep, companionship, sex and a new series of game of thrones. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_craving"
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what are the 'towers' on rocket launchpads for? | you can see the towers on [this picture](_url_0_), what is their purpose? | lightning rods. the last thing you want is a tall, thin-shelled lightning rod filled with explosive hydrogen sitting in the elements for a week waiting to be launched. | 4 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/x5nFrgP"
] | [] | [
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] |
why are airships/blimps/zeppelins not used for transporting freight? | what sort of efficiency do they have? do they leak (helium containment is difficult)? | mostly for economic reasons. the leakage is not a major issue, as there are commerically operated airships right now. we used to fill these airships with hydrogen, but that went awfully wrong. helium does not provide the same lift, is a lot more expensive, but easier to contain and does not react. there are some logistics problems too; maybe you want to fly a long distance with those airships, then you need some sort of ballast water recuperation system (otherwise you can´t sink). also, lets face it, its not really that fast (but faster than cargo ships). there was a german project, [cargolifter](_url_0_), that attempted to build a heavy lift airship that could hoist up to 160 metric tonnes. it was, however, an economical failure. the efficiency is not to good either. think of that massive hull, which creates a lot of drag. drag is not good for any aerial vehicle (even going at low speeds). in summary, the only real advantages over cargo airplanes are the size of the load it can take (virtually anything) and that it does not need a landing strip to take up the load. anything else, i think it is not as good a solution as, say, a helicopter. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargolifter_AG",
"http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/aviation/airships/3764027?click=main_sr"
] | [
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hey r/askscience, in the vp debate last night paul ryan told us that iran were speeding up their race for 'the bomb' by spinning their centrifuges faster. is this possible? | no he has no idea what he is talking about. if they want a bomb they have been spinning as fast as the centrifuges are designed to spin. why would they have spun them slower before now? i think he was just making a figure of speech to insight fear-mongering and another republican war. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how specific and rigorous are inner organs placed and formed? is there noteworthy variation between individuals? | hi askscience! i wondered how specificly placed and formed our inner organs are and didn't manage to find good answers by myself. if you're a surgeon and you got to cut up someones belly, how many anatomical details do you know beforehand? the basic placement of the organs seems to be quite determined. deviations from this seem to be unlikely anomalies, like [situs inversus](_url_0_). is this correct or are there more common anomalies of that kind? but what happens to the finer specifics? i wondered e.g. * are the intestines' curls arranged in a specific way or are there significant amounts of it placed random-ish/just grow wherever is place? * is the variation between the sizes of (healthy) organs purely genetic or is there noteworthy variation between identical twins or maybe even closely related individuals? (i know that organs will morph due to external factors, such as fatty liver due to extensive overeating, alcoholism, some diseases, etc. my question is in regard to variation not caused by such externalities.) * which organs or other structures show the most variation? how come? thanks so much for your answers! | animals don't read the book. which is exactly why using real specimens is important for medical education. there are a number of notable landmarks to help you get your bearings, but yes some of the organs (particularly the intestines) are fairly freely movable. let's give an example, say i'm looking at a cat that's systemically ill and i confirm with an ultrasound it has abdominal fluid. to do an abdominocentesis to collect fluid for evaluation, i know i'm going to avoid the left side, because that's where the spleen and stomach normally are. some organs like that are firmly attached. there are also ligaments between various sections of the large and small intestine holding them together, and the small intestine is held loosely to a center point by a sheet of connective tissue called mesentery. in general you can make educated guesses about which areas of the abdomen the varying sections of intestines will be in, but it's also not too difficult to figure out what's what once it's in your hands. something you do often see minor changes in is vasculature; arterial and venous branches at different locations, or sometimes weirder abnormalities like extra or missing vessels. | 4 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situs_inversus"
] | [] | [
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water not boiling @ high temps? what's going on here? | recently someone posted this youtube video: _url_0_ which seems to show a pan on a stovetop, that once heated will not cause water to turn to vapor or boil. what is happening? | from the top comment on youtube: the pan is so hot that the water doesn't even touch it. the lower surface of the drop of water is evaporating so fast that it rests on a permanent high pressure cushion of water vapour between it and the pan, and this cushion of vapour also acts as an insulator which means that the pan can't physically touch the water and so the heat-conducting qualities of the metal pan which would usually boil the water are circumvented. the vapour cushion escapes, of course, but is constantly replenished. | 22 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RHhAgzIVHvo"
] | [] | [
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can anyone explain or provide a reputable source for the pharmacology of vyvanse? (trouble finding sources and curious) | as far as what it can lead to after long term use and what it is going on physiologically? i feel like there's a lot of misinformation out there about adderall and vyvanse. heart attacks, if you don't have adhd and you take it you will get adhd, etc. any help is appreciated! | lisdexamfetamine is a prodrug for dextroamphetamine, meaning that it has a structure that when acted on in the body releases d-amphetamine. d-amp acts on monoamine transporters, so they increase the duration of monamines (dopamine, norepinephrine) in the synaptic cleft. this has the effect of increasing concentration, but the neurological effects are complicated. unfortunately, amphetamines have several peripheral effects throughout the rest of the body, one of which is action on the vascular system to increase heart rate and vascular constriction. further, this drug shows tolerance effects, meaning it may lose efficacy over time. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
zicam is a "homeopathic" medicine that actually seems to work and have noticeable side effects - please explain why/how. | even if you immediately got better after taking it, it still wouldn't mean anything because of the lack of [controls](_url_2_) to identify how much of the effect is due to the intervention and how much is due to chance/natural disease progression/etc. with that said, there are [data that show that](_url_1_) i don't know what is in your 'medicine', but homeopathy has been [proven time and time again](_url_0_) to be no better than placebo. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20402610",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21328251",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_control",
"http://summaries.cochrane.org/CD001364/zinc-for-the-common-cold",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18279051",
"http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/zinc-for-colds/AN02148",
"http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/15/for-cold-virus-zinc-may-edge-out-even-chicken-soup/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathic_dilutions"
] | [
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|
struggling just a little bit with understanding evolution here. a question about chromosomes. | i understand the big “selfish gene” idea, and the fact that living organisms that have positive mutations will tend to survive and replicate more than those without them. but i'm having a little trouble seeing how the leap is made from organisms with *less* chromosomes to organisms with *more* chromosomes. the only instance i can think of where someone can have an extra chromosome is downs syndrome, and how often does that happen? dawkins says in his books that mutations are extremely rare and are almost always negative. so what are the chances of two organisms of the same species, of opposite genders, both having the mutation of an extra chromosome, finding each other, mating, and having offspring that eventually outnumber the rest of the “normal” animals of that species? even over millions of years, it seems unlikely for this to happen enough times to result in the diversity of life we see today. maybe an organism with an extra chromosome can somehow pass on a sort of *susceptibility* to developing an extra chromosome to his/her offspring, regardless of whether he/she finds a mate with the same mutation? that might make more sense. i don't know. i'm sure i'm missing something here, as i'm not very scientifically literate. can you help me out? | chromosomes are basically how dna is organized. to have a functioning normal offspring, what matters isn't so much how the dna is arranged, but just that the offspring gets a full set (and no more) of dna from each parent. so, increasing chromosome number usually works like this: some animal has it's chromosome (we'll say chromosome 1) break into two parts, 1a and 1b. now, say this animal mates with another. as long as the babies get 1a and 1b from one parent, and 1 from the other parent, it will have the right amount of dna and do just fine. now after some breeding happens, we have a bunch of animals running around with 1a and 1b from one parent, and 1 from another parent. then these organisms will mate with each other, and some of the offspring will wind up with 1a and 1b from one parent, and 1a and 1b from the other. and basically, if this becomes widespread you have a species that has gained a whole new chromosome. chromosome loss happens in the opposite manner, when chromosomes basically get "stuck together." | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do entangled particles "store" their future measurement outcome? | when two particles are entangled, when the state (don't know the exact physics) of one is measured to be a, then it it known that measuring the other particle will show it to be in the other state b. does this mean that there is some type of communication between the particles whereby the outcome of measuring a random variable on the other particle is influenced? or does it mean that the state both particles will be in after measurement gets already determined when they are entangled, and the information is somehow "stored" in the particle? | the answer is "no" to both: [experiments](_url_0_) have been performed that would require ftl communication for this to occur. the detectors were far apart, and the settings were determined randomly, too late for normal communication to occur. this hypothesis predicts correlations between the two measurements that are not observed. qm actually gives *stronger* correlations than are possible with this hypothesis. the kind of theory you are thinking of is called "local realism". "local meaning no ftl, and realism meaning that the results are determined at the start. that was einstein's position. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_test_experiments"
] | [
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wing suits and g-force | ok, so from what i understand of flight... the faster you are traveling the more g-force is exerted on your body while doing maneuvers. in fact most pilots who fly jets have actual "g-suits" which air up to prevent blood pooling and eventually cause a black out. my question is... if you do a loop in a wing suit could you pull enough g's to pass out and eventually plummet to your death? [wing suit video](_url_0_) | well, that question is highly dependent on the wing-loading capability of the aircraft. the reason why fighter pilots have to wear g-suits is because the planes they are flying are very high performance machines that can fly into extreme maneuvers at high speeds, and it is pretty easy to enter a climb/bank which makes the plane want to enter travel in a different direction than you are very quickly. if the wingsuit was constructed to the same degree of that a fighter jet, then yes it would be possible. however, you need to have a pretty solid airframe in order to withstand this degree of loading. otherwise, the suit would simply rip apart well before it could apply any significant force to the pilot in order to make them black out. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWfph3iNC-k"
] | [] | [
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] |
what’s the most reactive element? | fluorine is the most electronegative (electron-taking) element, so it is a good answer. otoh, cesium is the most electropositive (electron-losing), so it is also a good answer. it would be difficult to decide to decide which is the most reactive since their reactions are so different. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivation_%28chemistry%29",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactivity_%28chemistry%29"
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people with high blood pressure and associated heart conditions are advised to be careful on mount everest. does that mean that their high blood pressure might reduce if they visit death valley? | no. the easiest way to think about this is with the concept of "cardiac reserve". this is basically how much more you can stress out your cardiovascular system. think of it like manna in a video game. take a healthy adult (or a level 8 wizard). when going through daily activities, their heart is working at 30%^1 capacity to keep them functional. that person can sprint up the stairs, go play a game of basketball, or whatever and get that number up to 60^1 or 70%^1. this is that person using up some of their reserve, but they are ok. the blue bar is not that far down, and it will fill back up quickly. take a nonhealthy adult (or a cursed level 2 wizard). say you've got a sedentary person that eats too much; has a touch of atheroscleorisis and about 50 extra pounds. this person's heart has to work harder to pump blood through those messed up arteries and all that extra mass. his heart is operating at 70%^1 capacity when walking around. a sprint up the stairs will wind him, and a brief game of basketball will seriously challenge his cardiac reserve, pushing him to the limit. their blue bar is near zero, and if any more orcs show up he is screwed. going up everest is a cardiovascular challenge (for a variety of reasons, only one of which is the altitude), and it will eat into your cardiac reserve. if your baseline cardiovascular workload is challenged due to high blood pressure (or whatever), this puts you dangerously close to (or past) your limit. it's a boss fight. you don't take a cursed level 2 wizard into a boss fight and expect good things to happen. going to a lower elevation (or getting extra oxygen) will reduce the demand placed on your cardiovascular system. it will decrease the workload a bit; this is why they put people on oxygen in the hospital. the analogy here would be getting a buff on your manna; it doesn't make the spells any cheaper, but it does make it so you can cast more of them. ^1 this number is 100% made up because i didn't want to google the real value. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does the experiment work where you put water on a plate, light a candle and put a glass over it? the water gets sucked into the glass, but the most common explanation is wrong. | ("the candle burns away the oxygen" - the burning would surely lead to a similar amount of gas, or slightly more of co and h2o are created.) | as the candle is still burning the surrounding air is hot. if you put the glass on, the candle stops burning after a short time and air inside cools down and its pressure decreases according to the [ideal gas law](_url_0_). because of the lower pressure inside the cup the ambient pressure will push some water inside the cup to the point where the system is in equilibrium again. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_gas_law"
] | [
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in theory, does someone at the top of a skyscraper age slower than a person at sea level? | i understand astronauts age slower because they are farther from earth's gravity and are travelling extremely fast relative to those at sea level, but could the same be said for people at the top of skyscrapers? | (see the sidebar of /r/math for a script to render latex equations.) it's the other way around actually. the observer deeper within the gravitational well ages more slowly. precisely, a faraway observer will measure a larger coordinate time difference between two events than will an observer deeper within the gravitational field. so, yes, someone at the top of a skyscraper will age faster than someone at the base, but the effect is very tiny. (this gravitational time dilation effect means that observers on earth accumulate less time than satellites. but as you note, satellites also have a non-zero velocity with respect to earth's surface, and there is another (stronger) time dilation effect due to that movement. the net effect is that the satellites accumulate less time than observers on earth. but let's ignore that second effect since you are really only asking about the gravitational effect.) --- **math stuff** in general, if we approximate the earth as non-rotating, spacetime in the exterior of earth is well approximated by the schwarzschild metric. consider two observers: observer a at distance r*_a_* from earth's center and observer b at distance r*_b_*. if a clock with observer a measures an elapsed time of t*_a_*, then the elapsed time on the clock of observer b satisfies the equation `[; t_b = t_a\sqrt{ \frac{1-r_s/r_b}{1-r_s/r_a}} ;]` where `[; r_s = \frac{2gm}{c^2} ;]` is the schwarzschild radius of earth. now suppose observer a is on the surface of earth and observer b is at some height *h* above the surface. the schwarzschild radius of earth is very tiny, about 9 mm. so r*_s_* is small compared to both the radius of earth and *h*, while *h* is small compared to the radius of earth. with these approximations, the time dilation formula is `[; t_b \approx t_a\left(1+\frac{r_sh}{2r_{earth}^2}\right) = t_a\left(1+\frac{gh}{c^2}\right) ;]` where *g* is the acceleration due to gravity near earth's surface. --- for a height of 830 meters (the height of the burj khalifa), the factor *gh*/*c^(2)* is about [9 x 10^(-14)](_url_0_). this effect is actually measurable and is used as a classical verification of gr ([the pound-rebka experiment](_url_1_)), but it is absolutely imperceptible to humans without specialized equipment. to put it a greater context, if an observer at the base measures an elapsed time of 1 year, the observer at the top of the burj khalifa would have accumulated just under 3 microseconds more. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28earth+gravity%29*%28height+of+burj+khalifa%29%2F%28light+speed%29%5E2",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound%E2%80%93Rebka_experiment"
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if i want to get up at 7am and a whole sleep cycle is 90 minutes. does that mean if i set.... | if i want to get up at 7am and a whole sleep cycle is 90 minutes. does that mean if i set an alarm for half 5 and wake up and go back to sleep till 7am, will i be a lot less tired since i would technically be at the end of a sleep cycle? | sleep cycles differ for everyone, this is just a general suggestion that applies to many people. not sure why you would be less tired from waking up at 5 and adding a sleep cycle to get to 7 when you could just wake up at 7. overall, the more consecutive cycles you can fit in the better you will feel. you can actually train yourself to ignore that by sleeping in short cycles every six hours or so but it's a painfully long process. also, if you don't know already, you can use _url_0_ to set up your sleep schedule around cycles. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"sleepyti.me",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sleep_Hypnogram.svg&page=1"
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] |
can your brain tire out in the same way your muscles can? | i was just wondering because at the moment i'm trying really hard to learn some chemistry but it feels like my brain is just exhausted and not working. i had a long, hard week of learning (i dislike the term "study") and my mind feels really tired now. | when you use up the majority of fatty acids in your brain, it isn't able to effectively carry our the processes it needs to do. similarly, when you run out of the atp and adequate levels of oxygen at the muscles, it becomes harder to use them. contrary to muscles, the brain doesn't regularly have to be repaired after being overworked. however, during sleep, the brain executes a heightened anabolic state in the body. for other research, read some comparisons here: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)#Chronic_fatigue"
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can anyone explain transcription polarity in prokaryotes? | can anyone explain what is meant by transcription polarity, as it applies to gene expression in prokaryotes? i just can't picture the concept. i am reading this paper and i am trying to understand the passage i have pasted below: (_url_0_) page 398: "the first base pair of the chromosomal sequence of m. genitalium is in an untranscribed region between dnaa and dnan and was chosen so that dnan is numbered as the first orf in the genome. genes to the right of this region are preferentially transcribed from the plus strand, and those to the left are preferentially transcribed from the minus strand. the apparent polarity in gene transcription is maintained across each half of the genome (fig. 1), in marked contrast to h. influenzae, which displays no apparent polarity of transcription around the origin of replication. " thanks! | most transcripts, especially those that are highly transcribed (e.g. the *rrn* operons) are transcribed such that the transcription elongation complex is transcribing in the same direction as dna polymerase. this minimises head-on transcription-replication conflicts. these sorts of head-on collisions are deleterious for both the transcription complex and the replication fork. frequently, dna polymerase dissociates from the replication fork entirely, inducing an incredibly toxic double-stranded break that requires immediate repair by the cell. co-directional collisions are also frequent, as the replication fork elongates more swiftly than the transcription complex, but tend to be less deleterious for the organism due to the effects of positive supercoiling on rna polymerase. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/site/feature/data/genomes/270-5235-397.pdf"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_%28molecular_biology%29#Positive-sense"
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could you build a tunnel like structure where the wind always blows in the same direction? | i live in a flat but windy city, and i like riding my bike to work. would it be possible to build a bike lane, i'm thinking a tunnel like structure, that captured the wind (if any) in a way that it always blew in the same direction? combines with frequent exits and one tunnel in each direction this could be a neat contribution to a more sustainable society, if it was possible. | orville and wilber built one of those. they called it a "wind tunnel." i hear nasa has a nice one. seriously, there would be many easy ways to do this, including one that was purely solar powered. build a dark tower, maybe even with mirrors to reflect a bit of sunlight on it. build a tunnel that connects one end with the tower. when the tower heats up, it will warm the air inside. warm air rises, pulling cooler air from the end of the tunnel. no need to "capture" the wind, the tower will *create* wind inside the tunnel. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.springerlink.com/content/qj438222rg2474w2/",
"http://www.springerlink.com/content/x5125w5gt61p1824/",
"http://www.biketrans.com/",
"http://tar.thailis.or.th/bitstream/123456789/422/1/OR019.pdf"
] | [
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do you sink faster in salt water or fresh water? | the dissolved salt increases the mass of the water without increasing its volume, so salt water is generally denser than fresh water. this means the buoyant force on a submerged or partially submerged object is greater in salt water than in fresh water. in other words, it's easier to *float* in salt water than in fresh water (or, you sink faster in fresh water than in salt water). | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i'm having trouble with expansion, and the cold, dark universe idea. | i keep hearing about how due to expansion, the universe will eventually be so spread out that no other galaxies will be visible to us. but, i can't understand how this works with my understanding of expansion. here's what i've understood so far: right now, we are able to see objects that are 47 billion light years away (the size of the observable universe), even though the universe is only 14.7 billion years old. the light from galaxies that were 14 billion light years away from us 14 billion years ago is just now reaching us, but due to expansion, these galaxies are now 47 billion light years away. so how does expansion affect what we are able to see? it seems like light always travels at c, and no matter how space itself expands. | think of hubble's law: v=hd, where v is a galaxy's recession speed, d its distance from us, and h the rate of expansion. of course for some sufficiently large distance away, v will be equal to c. these are the galaxies we shouldn't be able to see. but h changes over time - in particular it either stays constant or decreases. so as the universe expands, a galaxy's d will increase but h will (usually) decrease. the question is, which happens more quickly? that determines whether a galaxy's velocity v gets larger or smaller over time. if it gets smaller, then more and more galaxies whose velocities were once greater than c, and thus unobservable, will become observable. if it gets larger, then more and more galaxies which were once observable will eventually be receding so quickly that we can no longer see them. so which of these is the case for our universe? it turns out there's a very simple way to determine how v behaves: if the expansion is decelerating, v decreases and more and more of the universe becomes visible, while if it's accelerating, then v increases and the universe becomes progressively darker. for our universe, we were decelerating from very shortly after the big bang until just a few billion years ago. however, the mysterious "dark energy" took over and has since dominated the expansion, leading to an accelerated expansion (in fact, h will decrease more and more slowly until eventually it's practically constant, so that v increases at the same rate d does!). unless some very strange physics is involved, the universe will never enter another deceleration phase, and so we feel pretty comfortable saying that, as the universe gets bigger, it will get darker and, inevitably, a bit lonelier. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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questions about molecular dynamics | 1. i understand the basic difference between nve and nvt simulations in terms of what is constant and what isn't, but lets say i ran a simulation in nve and nvt, what results would be fundamentally be different between the two? 2. what's the main difference between all the different thermostats (nose-hoover, langevin, berendsen, etc) for nvt simulations? thanks, i've been trying to learn all this for a couple hours and it's still a bit fuzzy. | you can generally get much of the same information out of each ensemble, but in some cases it is exponentially harder in some ensembles versus others depending on what you wish to study. for instance if we wanted to study the thermodynamics of phase transitions then we need to be able to study a system over a wide range of temperatures to fully understand the connection between temperature and the transition. this of course would make nvt the ideal ensemble. trying to fix e would make getting the temperature dependence significantly harder because we have to calculate t from the simulation data while directly fixing t makes it very simple because in this case we directly control the temperature so we know exactly what it is. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does atomic radius decrease across the period? | [deleted] | i think the mistake you're making is that you're considering "stronger attraction" to be determined by the number of protons, when you should be thinking about charge *density*. protons are held together by nuclear forces, which are much stronger than electromagnetic forces, so more protons means greater charge density, which means greater force. thus in order for the electrons to cancel that resulting force, they must be more densely packed. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the meaning of degeneracy? | per definition, an energy level is called degenerate if there are two or more states that have this energy. what i never quite understood though is: what is the physical meaning of this? what are the consequences for a physical system if it has degenerate energy values? | it just means that you have multiple states with the same energy. imagine you're standing in a valley, surrounded by hills. your lowest potential energy is clearly at the very bottom of the valley. but there are multiple ways you could be standing and still be at the bottom of the valley. you could be facing north, south, east, or west, and still have the minimum energy (assume you can only face in these four discrete directions for some reason). your "energy level" is four-fold degenerate, because there are four states which all have the same energy. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it that some people get eaten up by bugs while others seem to remain untouched? | specifically in regards to mosquitoes, they have a preference for certain blood types and other blood characteristics which they can actually smell. first off, mosquitoes find their way to humans by following co2 gradients in the air, simply the way you breathe and how much co2 you exhale might make it easier for mosquitoes to make their way to you. additionally, various factors like type-o blood, pregnancy, and even beer drinking have been shown to attract mosquitoes. another is the presence of lactic acid in sweat, which would occur with recent exercise. other added scents from the soap, shampoo, deodorant, and perfumes used as well as clothing, recent food smells, the particular makeup and activity of our microbiome, etc. might attract or deter mosquitoes preferentially. | 39 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is decoherence and how does it relate the observation problem (wave function collapse). | i've wondering about this for a long time and apologize if i'm not using the correct terminologies here. but from reading and watching popular science it appears that without observation, reality as we know it is not concrete. examples include double slit and schrodinger cat. however, i'v also heard that due to decoherance it would not matter if we observe something or not because there are so much noise in the environment that wave fucntion would spontaneous collapse with or without observation, so which is it, does reality need observation or not, or is it only in very control environments. apologies again if i'm throwing jargons around without too much knowledge. | decoherence is when a quantum system interacts and becomes entangled with a large system(an environment). the larger system is so complex that the quantum nature of the original system is effectively impossible to detect. this does *not* mean the wave function has collapsed, it means that it is effectively impossible to distinguish it from a system where the wave function has collapsed. with the cat this implies that while it might be the cat is both dead and alive at the same time, any experiment to actual show this would absurdly complex and effectively impossible despite what some people claim, decoherence has not solved the 'measurement problem'. the nature of the wave function collapse is still disputed and answered differently by several different interpretations of qm. you're pretty spot on with your terminology. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i had a scientific hypothesis, what should i do about it? | i've spent quite a lot of time thinking about time travel paradoxes. and i've came up with an answer that solves the problem. i'd like to show it to someone who is smarter and wiser then me, and put it up for some constructive criticism. it is very likely that either my hypothesis is not worth anything or someone came up with it 100 years ago. but what if it is something of value, i put it on reddit, and someone steals it to publish it and gives me no credit? i know i am very full of myself to think that i've came up with an idea worth stealing but i am actually quite scarred of that vision that it prevents me from posting it in here. could wise people of askscience explain me why my fear is ridiculous and why should i share the idea that i have? | 1) if someone came up with it already, chances are you will find it. do a thorough literature search before, so to save any embarrassment. even if nothing exactly identical comes out, chances are that a lot of interesting stuff related to your potential solution will come out, leading you to revise your thinking. 2) after the above, and after you're quite sure it's not terrible bs, write it down as a pdf with your full name, contact details etc. and put it online. then share with us. this way, you have widely-exposed proof that you are the author. if someone else publishes it without giving you proper credit, then tar and feathers will be on them, not you. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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close your eyes. gently prod the part of your eye closest to your nose. can someone please explain the 'black dot' that appears? | and i know it's definitely not in the same place as where i'm touching my eye because i can see that part as well. | your finger is poking your eyeball on one side, putting pressure on your retinal nerves. your retinal nerves get confused and pass signals to the brain that are interpreted as light. light passing through the lens of the eye is mirrored so that an incoming image appears upside down and backward on the retina. the brain flips the image back to normal. when you press on your eye you “create” light, the image is then flipped by the brain as it always is, and you see the weird colors on the side opposite the eye you pressed. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do hydroponics have to have an aeration system? | i have been working in plant sciences, specifically on hydroponics, for some time now so i feel a little silly asking this question. the thing is, i recently had an undergrad student working with me that failed to clean out the aeration tubes before setting them up causing them to spew out absolutely no oxygen. i hadn't noticed until about a month into the experiment. i would have fixed it but the plants seemed to be growing fine. like, no different than if it was connected- fine. as far as i know, no legitimate researcher or even at home hobbyist grow their plants without an aerator. how is it that mine grew fine, though? | plants need to breathe too. the leaves produce oxygen when there is light, but in the roots or when there is darkness they consume oxygen and stored sugars to live. many plants are not that sensitive and will grow fairly well in an open jar of stagnant water. a quick search confirms that [it does have an effect](_url_1_), and that some plants [demand more oxygen than others](_url_0_). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://scienceinhydroponics.com/2010/05/the-importance-of-oxygen-in-hydroponic-systems.html",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S098194280700188X"
] | [
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how do you explain the photoelectric effect as a result of the wave function? | so in class, i've only been taught the photoelectric effect as a result of the particle nature of light. however, is there a way to describe it using qm tools like the wavefunction? | yes, a proper treatment of the photoelectric effect *requires* quantum mechanics. you can treat the problem semi-classically, where you treat the electron quantum-mechanically, but you treat the incident light classically. although in reality you have a single photon coming in, which is then destroyed in the process. so to treat the destruction of discrete quanta, you need to actually quantize the electromagnetic field. but in either case, the electron is described by a wavefunction. you can calculate an s-matrix element which evolves the electron from its initial bound state into its final scattering state. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why is cyanoform ((nc)3ch) so hard to synthesize/isolate? | it says in this [article](_url_0_) that tricyanomethane is extremely hard to synthesize and isolate, despite having many known salts. why is this? | cyanoform has no salts. the tricyanomethyl anion has salts. the reason cyanoform isn't particularly stable is that the corresponding anion (the conjugate base) is highly stabilized through the strong pi-electron withdrawing effects of the three cyano groups on the central carbon. the net effect is to make the lone pair electrons on the central carbon highly delocalized across the entire molecule. if a lone pair isn't localized on a single atom, it's not very available to share with a proton to make a strong bond. | 6 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanocarbon#Tricyanomethane"
] | [] | [
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how much kinetic energy is available from a 1" rainstorm in a 100 km^2 area? | my wife and i were talking about untapped sources of potential energy - i know, we're boring as fuck - and as we live in the boston area, which is currently experiencing heavy rain, she mentioned rain. assuming a 10km by 10km square area, if you could somehow collect the kinetic energy produced by falling raindrops, how much power would feasibly be generated? what is the math to determine such a question? with kinetic collection systems (e.g., regenerative braking on cars) becoming mainstream, would such a power source be feasible in certain areas of the world? | if we assume raindrops of equal size that fall at the same speed, it would be 1/2 the mass of each raindrop times the square of the speed, multiplied by the number of raindrops. we can simplify that to half the total mass of the rain that fell times the square of the speed. a 10 km x 10 km x 1 inch (2.54 cm) volume of water is 2.54 million cubic meters. a cubic meter of water has a mass of 1000 kg. let's assume all the rain falls at 10 m/s, a typical terminal velocity for large raindrops: e = 0.5 * m * v^2 = 0.5 * 2.54e9 kg * (10 m/s)^2 = 127 gigajoules if that inch of rain fell over a period of 5 hours (0.2 inches per hour is a moderate rainfall) then the power is the energy divided by the time in seconds: p = 1.27e11 j / (3600*5) s = 7 megawatts that's roughly the power of two diesel locomotives, spread over 100 square kilometers. in reality it would probably be somewhat less, as many of the raindrops would be smaller and therefore fall more slowly. that's a pretty low power density so i can't imagine it being harnessed directly, but if you take the water that falls over a very large area and collect it in a lake, you can (and do, if you live near a hydroelectric power station) use the energy of water coming out of the dam. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what are those shiny rainbow looking spots on deli meats? | i remembered i would often see this in ham, but today i noticed my smoked turkey also had these weird sports that had this rainbow looking sheen. (the color is kind of hard to explain, its like the color of a bubbles or a holographic pokemon card). whatever it is it looks like cancer and i would love to know why that happens or what it is. | this actually came up earlier this week in conversation with friends, and they cited [this](_url_0_) page from texas a & m meat science, which states: edit: also, [this](_url_1_) is what cancer looks like. less rainbow-ey. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://meat.tamu.edu/2013/01/22/rainbow-appearance-cured-meats/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colon_cancer_2.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_interference"
] | [
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why do paramedics wrap newborn babies in foil? | new borns will lose heat much faster then an adult 1. larger surface area to weight ratio 2. less insulating capacity 3. poorly developed shivering 4. they come out wet - increases heat loss via evaporation which is why when babies are born they are vigorously dried with a towel (also stimulates respiration) then wrapped up. the foil blanket will reflect infrared radiation (a method of heat loss from individuals). so in answer to the question - babies are wrapped up to prevent heat loss and hypothermia. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law"
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|
does microlending *really* work? what should i be concerned about when microlending through places like kiva? | i've been a big fan of _url_2_ for a while now, but i've been wondering lately if microlending really does work as they say. i understand that traditional charity tends to not help over the long term (but makes the 'giver' feel better). what evidence is there that microlending really does work in the long-term? what should i look for in a lender? are some areas of the world, social classes, types of industry, etc. more likely to be best-case scenarios for microlending? who should i lend to (or not lend to) to be maximally effective? edit: i've heard that women, for example, should be involved in microcredit/microlending, and i've read the [wikipedia article](_url_0_). i know that from research on programs in mexico like [oportunidades](_url_1_) have worked really well because putting cash in womens' hands in these places means that it becomes household wealth, while men were more likely to treat it as discretionary income (although i can't find that source at the moment.) i'm interested in knowing what countries have the best chance of positive effects from microlending - first world countries or third world? somewhere in between? | i was talking to a friend who had worked in india about this...and the bottom line is that microlending doesn't scale well. it started small and grassroots, most of it done face-to-face with much more attention than a bank would give. these were sudo-charities, and kept themselves up to date on the progress and lives of the people who took loans. some of them helped give basic financial and business advice, as many of the women (while they had good ideas) did not have any business experience. however, once microlending caught public attention, it's successes were taken out of context. the indian government, lured by the idea of fighting poverty, decided that they would institutionalize it. however, they operated it much more like a corporate bank than social-minded microlenders. microlending works, and works well, but only with certain conditions. as a charity/social entrepreneurship it works beautifully. as a larger (national) bank it fails horribly. the key is the attention to the people - advice, feedback, and long-term relationships mean a good return rate and feel-good stories. imho, the most effective places microlending works is where a lot of basic services are lacking. poorer people with little skills and experience are capable of providing services or goods with just a little investment. this essentially is all third-world. also because in the third world the money generally has more purchasing power parity ($20 is a dinner in the us, can feed a family for a month in the right country) so small loans are more effective. | 17 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microlending",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oportunidades",
"Kiva.com"
] | [
"http://www.vittana.org",
"http://washingtoncash.org/",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/18/world/asia/18micro.html?ref=microfinance",
"http://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/wdevel/v31y2003i3p647-665.html",
"http://youtu.be/ZRT4Wxz08r8",
"http://www.mixmarket.org/"
] | [
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engineering. i know this can't work, but i have no idea why! | please. please, i have been trying for months to figure out why [this](_url_0_) won't work. i know it can't, but why? | well... very many reasons. for simplicity, neglecting all friction losses, the reason you think the chain of the balls will move is because water will push the balls up due to buoyancy. however, the buoyant force exists on displaced fluid only, so in order for the ball to move through the liquid, you have to push some liquid out of the way first (in the diagram, its getting it through the seal). that motion requires energy that is not being added anywhere in the system (gravity pushes on both sides of the chain equally). to prove this to yourself, note that in order to get a balloon of air to shoot up after being submerged in a tank of water, you have to push the balloon in first, which is not an easy task. hopefully that explains it, if not, please reference the wikipedia article on buoyancy, newtons 3 laws, and an introductory physics book. | 9 | [] | [
"http://i.stack.imgur.com/VbmLW.jpg"
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why are pulsars rates not slowing down despite hubble's law? | hubble's law tells us faraway objects are receding form us. that means that with each revolution (or set of revolutions) it should take light longer to reach us. would that not have the effect of making the frequency of the pulsars appear to decrease with time? i've ran the math on some known millisecond pulsars and the difference should be significant. they shouldn't even be millisecond pulsars after even one year. | the vast majority of pulsars that we observe are in our own galaxy and therefore not subject to hubble's law. however, while we do measure the spin-down rate (the decrease of spin frequency you mentioned), we aren't always able to infer what the intrinsic spin-down rate is and what component is due to the pulsar moving towards or away from us. the motion term is known as the shklovskii effect (see towards the bottom of [this section](_url_0_)) and in some cases we actually do measure "negative spin-down rates" which has been used to infer the motion along the line of sight. in the same section of the link is what's known as the p-pdot diagram. spin period is on the x axis, spin-down rate is on the y axis. you can see that the spin-down rates are really really tiny. for the "worst" objects, every second they slow down by less than 0.1 ns. for the best objects, they slow down by 10^-21 seconds per second, i.e. we can significantly measure (in the statistical sense of "significance") that every second they are slowing down by [zeptoseconds](_url_1_), or one billionth of a picosecond. so they're quite stable over much longer periods of time than a year, which at 3x10^7 seconds, still means that over the course of a year, they slow down by only 0.01 picoseconds assuming nothing else happens. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Pulsars_and_neutron_stars/Pulsar_properties#Pulse_period",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zepto-"
] | [
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hypothetically, if there were a man-made (solid) bubble of sorts around the earth, would it need support beams? | just curious. i know the idea is completely impractical, but woudld it need to have support beams? more than one? or, would gravity pulling on it from every angle keep it steady and away from the surface? | a [shell of matter](_url_0_) around the earth would not be gravitationally bound to the earth, so any perturbation would cause it to change its position relative to the earth, and ultimately it would collide with the earth. something would be needed to keep it in place. mathematically, any point on the sphere would be comparable to building a curved structure at a height above the earth equal to the sphere's distance above the earth. in other words, if the sphere encircled the earth at 1000 km above the earth's surface, each point would have to be able to withstand the same downward force as a 1000km tall structure erected on the earth's surface. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_theorem"
] | [
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] |
why do you validate gc methods rather than the instrument itself? | what, exactly are column test mixes for? database searches show nothing about column test mixes and "validation" only brings results showing method validation papers. why? | a column test mix is generally used to ensure that the column performs as well as it is designed to. for example, does it achieve baseline separation of the 16 priority pah? could you be a little more specific about what you think "validating the instrument itself" would entail? any analysis method you read about is going to assume that your equipment is in good working condition. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
does flying frequently increase your chances of getting cancer? if so, is it something to worry about? | as you fly, i've been told that being at higher altitudes, less of the natural radiation gets filtered, and thus you are exposed to more radiation. is this a major health risk to be worried about? | flying increases your exposure to [cosmic radiation](_url_0_). typical doses are about 0.3 [mrem](_url_1_)/hr of flight time on international flights (the exact exposure level is a function of altitude and distance from the equator). to put that into context remember that a chest x-ray is about 10 mrem, a ct scan is 1100 mrem, and [background radiation levels](_url_2_) can be about 600 mrem/year. this level of radiation isn't a big concern for people who go on the occasional international flight. there may be more of a concern for flight personnel who have continuous exposure especially if they are pregnant. [epa on cosmic rays](_url_3_) [q & a on radiation exposure during flights](_url_4_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_radiation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Background_radiation",
"http://www.epa.gov/radtown/cosmic.html",
"http://hps.org/publicinformation/ate/faqs/commercialflights.html"
] | [
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] |
been interested about this lately. so, how does the doctors and such test for vitamin d (hydroxyvitamin d test) levels? what are the processes from start to finish? this thing has been intriguing me lately, i mean do they look at blood cells/urine and test it on some type of machine or what? | or any type of vitamin/blood related thing anyways? i am not really a doctor but it sparked my interest. it must be really interesting! by processes i mean do you go to the physician and ask for a test, and then bring the sample? | a doctor can order a vitamin d test; blood is drawn, and it is analyzed in the lab. [more information here,](_url_1_) including a home test kit- drop of blood, mail it in. best as i know, liquid chromatography/mass spec (lcms) is the most common technique employed. [there seem to be quantification problems with this technique.](_url_0_) in short, the sample is "sorted" using liquid chromatography: the sample is injected into a solvent stream, and then run through a column that retards the progress of various analytes based on their chemical and physical interactions. once compounds elute from the column, they are analyzed via mass spectroscopy. in this fashion, one gets orthogonal separation: once it comes off the column and has a specific mass, it is almost certain the compound in question is the one you're looking for. quantification using mass spec as the detector has its own set of issues- much better for qualification than quantification. in other words, saying "it's there" is much easier than saying "...and we know precisely how much is present." | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.medpagetoday.com/MeetingCoverage/ENDO/33516",
"http://www.vitamindcouncil.org/about-vitamin-d/vitamin-d-deficiency/am-i-vitamin-d-deficient/"
] | [
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how many g's of deceleration would it take to cause serious injury from a fall? | i don't have the expertise to answer your question, but i can say you'll likely need to provide more information to limit the scope of the question. 1) how do you want to define "serious injury"? a concussion? broken bones? some certain chance of fatality? these are all very different metrics. 2) what is the mass of the person falling? while there are some relationships with bone strength and mass, a more massive person is inherently subject to greater forces due their mass than a less massive person under the same accelerations. 3) the orientation of falling victim is important. if the mechanics and bones come into play, the direction in which they are loaded will matter greatly as they are great in compression, but poor in tension and shear. 4) what part of the body impacts the floor will be important as well. joints closer to the extremeties are more subject to injury from falling, but are typically less serious in nature. this will be relevant to the scope of your question. 5) the general health of the person? an osteoporosis sufferer is going to be at much greater risk from lower acceleration impacts to broken bones, for example. here are some studies and articles for reference information: 1) [here's a good study on the biomechanics of concussions from sports activities.](_url_0_) 2) [wiki page for the mechanical properties of bone.](_url_1_) just to note, something that isn't covered on the wiki page is that the strength of bones will vary with the rate of loading. a very quick impulse will be met with an effectively stronger bone, while a slow and steady load will be met with a weaker bone. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/735057_1",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone#Mechanical_properties"
] | [
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|
is it really possible to "steal" electricity from high voltage lines via induction? | i've heard anecdotes about people doing this. i know it's possible. but i wonder if it could be done in any practicable way. | depends on what you mean by practicable, if you want a reliable and safe source of power you'll need a lot of expensive equipment, if you just wrap a coil around the line you'll receive low power high voltage wich is very hard to work with and electrocuting yourself in the process of assembling your construction is likely at 380kv (european high voltage line) | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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neodymium magnet strength vs temperature? (benefits of fan cooling my ev) | i can only found graphs that covered the lower ( < 0c) temps for magnets. i have a neodymium magnet traction motor, and i am looking at the improvement in motor output by reducing running temperatures. my motor might be reaching max (150c) temps, so i will be cooling. a graph showing the relationship between magnet strength vs temperature in the upper temp range would be fantastic. **tldr:** it would be cool to know that i actually have *measurably more* power to the wheels by putting on a 100w cooling fan on my 12kw motor. | there are properties for neo magnets called the reversible temperature coefficients which tell how a magnetic material's characteristics change with temperature. there is usually a temperature coefficient for remanance (sometimes called coefficient of induction) and one for coercivity. you are interested in remanance because that has more to do with magnet strength. the other was more to do with demagnetization. typical values for temperature coefficients for remanance in sintered neodymium magnets is -0.10 to -0.12 %/c. this means for every degree celcius that the magnet temperature changes, br changes by ~0.10%. usually br (@ 20 degrees c) is given on datasheets for magnets. so if you decrease the magnet temperature from 150 c to, say, 125 c then your br might increase by 2-3%. now this doesn't really tell you what you need to know because you are looking for how this changes the motor performance. this is really difficult to say with the information you've given. how magnets act depends on the magnetic circuit they are in. additionally, by cooling the magnets you are also cooling the rest of the motor. cooler windings means lower resistance which will give you some increase in performance, too. you really need to model the entire machine, though, to get a good idea of what's going to happen. giving it an educated guess i'd say if you could drop the temperature by 25 c, you might see a 5% increase in peak power. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are men's arms vascular and full of protruding veins but women's arms are generally not so? | i'm not really talking about bodybuilders here at all. | the main difference is body fat. large veins mostly get obscured by the layer of fat beneath the skin. in general, the average woman has more fat than the average man does, which means her vasculature will be less visible. if you take body fat out of the equation, there's actually little difference. compare a male bodybuilder against a female bodybuilder, and you'll see their veins look quite similar. or if you compare a very obese man against a very obese woman, you will not see prominent veins on either of them. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to inject chloroplast into an animal egg, fertilise the the egg and grow a photosynthetic animal? | do plants' nuclei produce complementing proteins to allow chloroplast to be accepted? | technically, scientists have injected chloroplasts into cells and the cells don't die. but because most genes encoding for chloroplast synthesis and maintenance are in the plant's genome (this also occurs for mitochondria), these cells are unable to make new chlorolasts. you'd just be stuck with the same number as you injected, and these would not be able to replicate. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are ice guards (like the ones near the charles bridge in prague) and how do they work? | if you mean [these](_url_0_), the intention is to push the ice away from the bridge structure to prevent erosion, and that larger ice sheets are pushed up on them and then (hopefully) break up in smaller pieces due to gravity. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://static.thousandwonders.net/Charles.Bridge.original.32792.jpg"
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] |
|
in nuclear reactors... | in nuclear reactors do they use a similar mechanism to a fishes gills where their is countercurrent(the water and blood flow in opposite directions),is this kind of mechanism present in neclear reactors to warm the water? | no. there are three main heat exchanges in a nuclear plant. the fuel is hot and motionless and is cooled by a flow of water. second, this water circulates in tubes through the steam-generators where it boils away the secondary water which is just constantly being refilled as it boils. third, steam drained of most usable energy exiting the turbines is condensed in the condensers where it it cooled by cooling water in tubes. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.engineersedge.com/heat_transfer/parallel_counter_flow_designs.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_generator_%28nuclear_power%29"
] | [
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what is "die off" - (in relation to gut health)? | i've been interested in gut health recently - the whole idea of a very important armada of bacteria living inside me that have an effect on my health and wellbeing intrigues me... and i keep coming across this concept of a "die off" of intestinal flora/fauna... which seems to happen in relation to taking antibiotics, or changing your diet (e.g. paleo), or even taking certain "probiotics." i'm wondering what science has to say about all of this business. thanks for any illumination. *edit: i accidentally an "a" in the title, i apologize. | i'm not an expert on this topic, but i do know microbiology in the marine sense, and it's the same concept. the majority of bacteria in the guts of animals is benign to the organism, and usually aids in not only digestion, but internal chemical balance in some cases and can be considered either mutalism or commensalism. when taking antibiotics, they're often specific to a certain range of bacteria. if you give an antiobiotic to kill vibrio, you'll also kill off bacteria which you don't specifically want to. vibrio may be more susceptible, and 95% die, but 50% of a bacteria beneficial to digestion will also die (i'm using those percentages to demonstrate the point since some species are more susceptible, but the exact numbers are made up). as for the changing diet, a consortia of bacteria have co-evolved with certain animals to aid in digestion and with a drastic change in diet those bacteria will essentially starve. [this paper](_url_0_) has a good description of how disturbances in commensal bacteria can be detrimental to gastro-intestinal health. > finally, commensals that become renegade or a decreased exposure to essential coevolved microorganisms may cause particular health problems such as inflammatory bowel diseases, obesity or allergies. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00270.x/abstract"
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jobs in the future: will there be any due to automation? | when atms starting becoming the norm everyone was up in arms that we would lose all our bank teller jobs. those bank teller jobs got replaced with technicians, security (to move money from mobile atms) and more telephone assistance personnel for telephone banking. i'm not saying this is true for every case, i can see car manufacturing being one, but it was the case with atms. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is a neuterino and how might it be used to kill someone? | _url_0_ refer to my r/askreddit post | a neutrino is a really tiny fast moving particle that interacts with protons and neutrons. they are produced during nuclear decay, fusion in the sun, and in supernovae. i'm not sure why you want to use one to kill someone despite not knowing what they are, but you couldn't use a neutrino to kill someone because they just go through basically anything without interacting. you could maybe argue that a neutrino inducing beta decay in an atom in someone's dna could cause a mutation leading to cancer, but any single neutrino has an essentially zero chance of doing this and that also ignores how radiation exposure works. xkcd wrote about this: _url_0_ | 14 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/419qst/what_is_something_that_is_impossible_to_kill/"
] | [
"https://what-if.xkcd.com/73/"
] | [
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why did wages in the us stop rising with productivity after about 1980? | a few weeks ago, adamvr4 posted a [great post](_url_1_) in r/politics with links to economic data supporting ows. the first chart on [this page](_url_0_) really stuck with me because it seems like the basis of all the other data. so my question is...*why* did this happen? was it due to some kind of govt. policy change? or was there just a paradigm shift in business thinking? perhaps a new, more ruthless generation of executives that didn't feel the same obligation to their employees as their parents' and grandparents' generation? or maybe just a realization that they could keep their employees' wages stagnant without any real consequences? anyway, i haven't seen many economics questions on askscience, so economists...today is your day! | just a reminder in case this gets out of hand - this forum is for scientific answers, so please base your answers on the science of economics (if you can cite studies then that's excellent!), and not on your political leanings or personal experience. edit: uh huh... it appears this thread has done the *opposite* of "getting out of hand"... | 6 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/PIlt4.jpg",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/politics/comments/lexz2/here_is_what_occupy_wall_street_is_about_and_the/"
] | [] | [
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is the environment getting any better? | i've been wondering about this. is the state of the environment improving? i mean, we are told to do gestures that help the environment, like closing the lights when we go out of a room, turn off the faucet when we're brushing our teeth, eat more local foods, etc. i try to do my part, and almost everyone i know does their part too. i feel like the environment should be improving, even slightly. | nope. our growth, increasing consumption, increasing waste and inefficiencies are doing more harm than good. some parts are better, some parts are preserved, but by and large, things are still degrading (coral reefs, forests, habitat loss, species loss, air quality, water quality, fishery collapse (google any of these to see and grasp how worse things are now than they use to be, and how the trends are continuing)). everyone is not doing their part, and the small parts that are being done by the people that are trying are not adding up to nearly enough. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do we get 'response lag'? | the question is inspired by /u/alldinosaursdie's [comic](_url_0_) so yeah, why do we get 'response lag' and what happens in our head during that time? what is this phenomenon really called? | it looks like the author is referring to a simple shift of focus. in general, humans are very poor multitaskers -- in fact, some scientists think we don't multitask at all, and just switch rapidly between tasks (not the same things!). short term memory is one aspect of this: you may need to "buffer" information in short term memory while working on a different problem, leading a person to seem like they have a gap in their response. i've checked some of my textbooks for information on this, but most of them concentrate on visual or auditory attention. one suggestion is that attention can be split into two parts: "receiving" attention, where we take in stimulation, and "producing" attention, where we create an output, and that having one of those be particularly active can bottleneck the other (and having two of the same kind active leads to conflicts). i'm thinking that the process you'd see for the topic in the comic would go something like this: * thinking hard about something -- errands to run, a math problem, etc. * someone says something to you -- this gets shoved into short term memory * you finish your problem, and try to get on to the next thing in the queue, the comment you heard * you respond to the comment, but the commenter perceives a delay because you were finishing your problem | 5 | [] | [
"http://redd.it/1kam3d"
] | [] | [
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what happens in deep water at high altitudes? | like a deep lake up in the mountains. is the pressure lower in general because of the altitude, so the pressure of the water is affected. or is the water not affected because it's hard to compress. in other words, what happens to the pressure of deep water at high altitudes | the deeper the water, the lesser the air pressure matters. this is because water is way heavier than air. at sea level: in 10m depth it 2 bar and pressure increases 1 bar for every 10m. on top of a very high mountain: at 10m depths its maybe just 1 bar, but still increaing every 10 meter. at any depth the difference is at most 1 bar. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you measure the most accurate measurement devices? | or more simply, if i have access to a device that measures something with a certain, known accuracy, and i have a device with an unknown accuracy that i expect to approach that of my known device, what sort of math should i be doing statistically? how is this generally handled in science/engineering? edit: there's been one cool answer which is measuring something different that you correlate using scientific theories. however, that doesn't really explain my original (intended) question of what you do when you're measuring the same property directly. | here's an episode of radiolab about the why and how of measurement standards. it includes creating, agreeing on, and accurately measuring a new definition of a kilogram. it's an entertaining listen. [!episode!](_url_0_) | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.radiolab.org/story/kg/"
] | [
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when a new measurement device is created which is more accurate than all current methods, how can you check that it is actually more accurate? | you measure all of your points of uncertainty. it is called an uncertainty analysis. the uncertainty has two components, namely, bias (related to accuracy) and the unavoidable random variation that occurs when making repeated measurements (related to precision). the measured quantities may have biases, and they certainly have random variation, so what needs to be addressed is how these are "propagated" into the uncertainty of the derived quantity. uncertainty analysis is often called the "propagation of error." | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
as we move smaller in scale of the size of our circuits, how much interference do the circuits encounter? | also, at what point does the amount of interference impact the efficiency of the circuit to the point that it's not worthwhile to construct circuits of that size? | interference is a small issue when it comes to circuits size. the amount of interference is dependent on the circuit. it plays a large part in the clock speed, but isn't a real impediment to size. the big issue is that basic transistor theory starts to break down at small sizes due to electron tunneling. ^1 at these sizes, the transistor gate dielectric thickness gets extremely small. it becomes rather easy for electrons to leak through the gate which invalidates the circuit. it's is similar to the a short circuit through the transistor because there isn't enough material to stop the electrons from "shorting." of course manufacturing plays a huge part, it requires extremely accurate machines and materials to fabricate at low levels. often, the cost to shrink the chip isn't warranted. though that is a business restriction, not a scientific one. 1. _url_0_ 2. _url_1_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_tunnelling",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_nanometer"
] | [
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] |
asymmetric lens | is it possible to make a medium (glass, fluid) such that a) when light (or laser) is shined at a point a on one side of the medium, it exits at point b (imagine a glass beam that refracts). b) however, when light is shined at b (in the same angle as above, only opposite direction), it does not exit at a but some other point. thanks. | an optical circulator is typically a 3-port device where light incident on port 1 goes to port 2 and light incident on port 2 goes to port 3. this "nonreciprocal" operation is possible because the circulator uses a magnetic field to break the symmetry of the propagation direction. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much force in psi does a tornado exert? | sorry if this is awkwardly worded, but how much force in psi does, say, an ef5 tornado exert? or an ef4 or ef3? i spent last night looking at tornado damage and watching storm chasers and it got me wonderin', but i tried looking this up with not much success. is there a formula for calculating this and what is it? does rain need to be taken into account? (does rain increase the amount of force exerted for a given wind speed?) | you're looking for pressure, not force. force is not measured in psi. anyway, as far as pressure goes, you can use [this link](_url_0_) to get a vague relationship between wind speed and wind pressure. sorry, all the units are in metric. i wouldn't expect the rain to be a *big* factor. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.knmi.nl/samenw/hydra/faq/press.html",
"http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/ef-scale.html"
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how do moister sensors work? how does a little chip tell the water/air percentage? | there are dozens of ways but the simplest way is just through capacitance. the humidity of air affects its dielectric constant, i.e. how it responds to an electric field. there are any number of transistor designs where basically there is a top/air-facing portion and based on the dielectric constant there, the resistance of the device changes (i.e. the electrical current passing through it changes given the same applied voltage) which is all you need to build a sensor. it's really not that different from how your smartphone screen works. edit: another way is by having something like an infrared led that shines on a photodetector on the other side of an air gap. water absorbs ir so the light detected by the detector will decrease with humidity and, again, you get a sensor system. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do we randomly assign subjects to control/experimental groups in medical trials? | why do we randomly assign subjects to control/experimental groups in medical trials? don't you run the risk of randomly selecting very poor groups this way? the example i came up with is identifying specific traits (race, age group, sex, etc.) and then splitting each subgroup randomly. my line of thought is that you'll be better off if the traits you segregate on are relevant, since they're present in both groups evenly, and you protect yourself against something like -- for example -- having no men in your control group. if those traits are irrelevant, then you're no worse off, since each individual still has equal odds to end up in either group. i got into a debate with my logic professor on the topic, and the only argument he could provide was "don't you think there's a reason they do it that way?" | with a sufficiently large sample, random assignment is statistically likely to produce groups with an equal distribution of traits. however, with smaller sample sizes, the chances of uneven distribution when done purely randomly are much higher. ways of dealing with this include cohort studies (where only people with relevant traits within a certain range are accepted into the study) and stratification (where the data is split up into groups which share particular traits and analysed per group). both of these reduce the effective data set size, however, which reduces the statistical reliability of the result. (see [xkcd](_url_0_) for some commentary on this.) in conclusion, the best way of dealing with this is to make sure your sample sizes are big enough, especially as this will cause traits you hadn't realised were an issue to be evenly distributed, whereas attempting to control the sample is only useful for the traits you thought to control for. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://xkcd.com/882/"
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how does glass block thermal signatures? | i saw this on mythbusters where they attempted to fool a thermal camera. they used a pane of glass in between themselves and the camera, and their thermal signatures were hidden nearly perfectly | most glasses are coated with substances that make them reflect infrared light - this makes them better for keeping buildings cool in the summer and warm in the winter. _url_0_ > window glass is by nature highly thermal emissive as indicated in the table above. to improve thermal efficiency (insulation properties) thin film coatings are applied to the raw soda-lime glass. there are two primary methods in use: pyrolytic cvd and magnetron sputtering.[2][3] the first involves deposition of fluorinated tin oxide (sno2:f see tin dioxide uses) at high temperatures. pyrolytic coatings are usually applied at the float glass plant when the glass is manufactured. the second involves depositing thin silver layer(s) with antireflection layers. magnetron sputtering uses large vacuum chambers with multiple deposition chambers depositing 5 to 10 or more layers in succession. silver based films are environmentally unstable and must be enclosed in an insulated glazing or insulated glass unit (igu) to maintain their properties over time. specially designed coatings, are applied to one or more surfaces of insulated glass. these coatings reflect radiant infrared energy, thus tending to keep radiant heat on the same side of the glass from which it originated, while letting visible light pass. this results in more efficient windows because radiant heat originating from indoors in winter is reflected back inside, while infrared heat radiation from the sun during summer is reflected away, keeping it cooler inside. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-E#Low-emissivity_windows"
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if you get all your daily nutritional value in one meal and don't consume anything for the rest of the day, is it bad for you? if so, why? | can your body not sufficiently use all of that in one sitting? will it store most of it instead? what exactly happens? | some of the good stuff can't be stored by your body, and it's more about having a constant adequate supply over time than it is about getting your daily/weekly/annual amounts. imagine taking all your vitamins for the year on the 1st january then not consuming any more for the rest of the year. you're not going to do so well. the same is true on a day and even hourly scale, but there's a point at which it gets absurd, and 'daily' is about it. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do meerkat colonies suffer from inbreeding issues? | i would think this is more of zoology but it isn’t an option for the flair. as territorial creatures, i’d expect meerkats to rarely accept strangers into their community, which would ultimately mean that they would just be mating with each other, yes? if this is the case, i would think that there would be massive inbreeding after a few generations and a severe lack of genetic diversity. is this the case? or do they in fact actually open up their community to outsiders more often than i assumed? | meerkats tend move between colonies (i.e. into less-related groups) when they reach mating age. --[dispersal and extra-territorial prospecting by slender-tailed meerkats (suricata suricatta) in the south-western kalahari](_url_1_) --[kalahari meerkat project](_url_0_) | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.kalahari-meerkats.com/index.php?id=about-meerkats",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1996.tb05486.x/abstract"
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when preserving organisms for dissection, how do companies make sure red latex is only present in arteries and blue latex only in veins? | a & p student here, i've dissected quite a few cats in my time and most have had red/blue latex injected to show off the arteries and veins. how do the companies (i.e. fischer scientific) make sure that the red latex is only expressed in the arteries and blue latex only in the veins? | they inject red latex in the aorta in the neck simultaneously with blue latex in the superior vena cava. the latex flows through the artery/vein until it reaches a capillary bed and meets blue/red latex, there is sometimes a little mixing. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
there was this male bug i read about once that died within the second it was born. it's sole purpose was to ejaculate and die. does anyone know the name of this lucky guy? | do you mean the [thrips egg mite](_url_0_)? the males have sex with the females while developing inside the mother, and when fully developed they burst their way out of the mother. males die shortly after, but not in the span of seconds. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adactylidium"
] | [
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|
what happened to planet x? | all the noise i heard about planet x was just how we found the orbit of it. | i assume you mean [planet nine](_url_1_)? there's a fair amount of debate with regards to what exactly planet nine's orbit is, how planet nine could have gotten to its current orbit, or even whether or not the currently-known kuiper belt objects really strongly support planet nine's existence at all. batygin and brown are doing an observational search for it. you can follow their thoughts on planet nine [here](_url_0_). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.findplanetnine.com/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Nine"
] | [
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does our helping the, disabled, enfeebled, mentally retarded and elderly survive inhibit natural selection, effectively damaging our species? | i guess what i am asking is sort of like the movie idiocracy? does our tendency to help those who would have been wiped out through natural selection pollute our gene pool? if this is the case, does it lend evidence to the idea that the “breeders” in our species tend to be the stupider people who do not foresee the consequences, whilst those who are intelligent and successful tend not to have children? | this question has been asked many times over in this subreddit. i've scanned through the replies of most others so i think i'll just mention the main two points that i think were missed. first, your perception of "fitness" from a biological context is wrong. the definition is a little bit circular but any behavior or adaptation that leads to an expansion of a given population of a species is something that makes us more "fit". so the fact that we can keep "disabled" people alive at all is evidence of greater overall fitness of our species, not less. they may be less _individually_ fit, but that is a point i'll address a little more in the second point. to elaborate on the first point slightly more though, many people seem to think that biological fitness has something to do with being strong, or smart or something, but it isn't in so far as those traits allow a population to grow. diabetes in a gang of apes is probably not a strategy that leads to greater fitness, largely because the environment of an ape will select against it, and apes have no adaptive mechanism to deal with it. the environment of a human is radically different however, and the selective pressure against diabetes is very small (compared to that of an ape). since humans have mechanisms to deal with diabetes at marginal to no cost to the species overall, the individual fitness of humans with diabetes still remains quite high. now the second point; while the exact traits that define "fitness" vary dramatically from species to species, one trait that almost universally translates to fitness is diversity. the greater the genetic diversity of a population, the less likely that new challenges to that species will wipe it out. many traits that you may intuitively think of as being "unfit" are only so in the context of the challenges humanity currently faces. however, those challenges are ever-changing on evolutionary timescales, and for all you know, all of humanities' survival may come down to a few random mutations in a small subpopulation of humans that better enable them to survive say, high level nuclear radiation, or a super-virus, high atmospheric carbon dioxide, starvation, etc. that morbidly obese guy with heart disease and diabetes? ya his kids might be the only ones left after all food has to be grown indoors in radiation-shielded, hydroponic chambers. oh you thought that those 85 year olds were just a drain on society? ya, it turns out they are the only people on earth with a natural immunity to the ebola immunodeficiency virus pandemic of 2034 because of a surface antigen similarity to a norovirus strain that was circulating in 1961. that down's syndrome couple who had kids despite all the odds against their fertility? it turns out they are the only ones who can tolerate the air laden with heavy-metal dust after the shiva-ottsmeier meteor strike due to having two copies of the zip8 vascular endothelial cadmium transporter. you can think of all these people that look apparently unfit to live in this tiny little temporal snapshot of today's humanity as being something of an insurance policy for mankind's future survival. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability_of_IQ",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_toward_the_mean",
"http://med.stanford.edu/ism/2010/august/selection.html",
"http://www.faa.gov/licenses_certificates/medical_certification/specialissuance/diabetes/index.cfm",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100817171603.htm"
] | [
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] |
how can we know things like how many people "died of second hand smoke last year" ? | it's not like thats the actual cause of theyr death i assume.... | we can only know insofar as our ability to collect posthumous data. if a non-smoker shows signs of lung damage and has no other definitive cause of death (i.e. died at 37 to shs-related symptoms, rather than at 99 yrs or something) then the data can be assumed towards that direction. this is a large over-generalization as there are likely ways to track the damage done specifically by shs in the lungs and find the answers more definitively once the person in question is dead. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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environmemt suits on titan. | the atmospheric pressure on saturns moon titan is very similar to earths. would you need a pressure suit on titans surface or would you just need thermal insulation and an oxygen supply? it seems like titans atmospheric pressure would be well within the tolerable range for human life. but i'm probably wrong. intelligent people: please tell me why i'm wrong. :) | i think the biggest problem would be that it is so cold. there are lakes of liquid hydrocarbons on titan that would be gasses at earth temperatures and pressures. according to [wikipedia](_url_0_), the surface temperature is something like −180 °c which is around -290 °f. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_%28moon%29"
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what keeps a person alive? | i understand that no one really dies of "old age," and that there's always some disease involved. there's always something that stops the workings of brain, heart, lungs, etc. that make living impossible. but what actually keeps someone alive? physically, a dead person has the same equipment as a live person, so could i take a recently deceased corpse and bring it to life again? one of dan brown's books floated the idea that each human has a "soul" that disappears when a person dies, but i took that with a grain of salt. | so it really depends what you are talking about. one can define death in a couple of different ways: brain death or cardiovascular death. both of which are legal death. so to answer what keeps you alive, you have to address the heart and brain separately. i know more about the heart. heart cells individually have intrinsic contraction, they have an intrinsic electrical beat, and are connected electrically to their neighbors. this allows for electrical signals to propagate fully through the heart. in a healthy heart, this is all coordinated from a center of pacemaker cells at the top of the heart, the sinoatrial node. the contraction propagates in a very reproducible pattern and produces an organized heart beat which will continue without any intervention provided you keep the heart supplied with oxygen and nutrients. that's what keeps the heart alive. one can kill the heart by cutting off the supply of oxygen or nutrients. this is typically what happens with a heart attack, where a clot blocks an artery supplying blood. the cells die, and the electrical waves get interrupted. there is a lot of redundancy, though, and you can kill a big chunk of heart and things can still work ok. if the sinoatrial node goes, there are a lot of other places where the rhythm can originate. and you could probably lose 70% of the contractile function of the heart and still have enough reserve to walk around. however, kill cells in the right place and the rhythm becomes chaotic (fibrillation), the contractions become unorganized and since you need the heart to pump blood to itself, things snowball downhill in a hurry. the brain is less understood (especially by me, as a non-brain doc). what is true is that when an eeg shows no electrical activity (isoelectric eeg), you are dead even if your heart is still beating. that's brain death. what i also know is that you can use powerful anesthesia medicines to suppress brain function nearly, but not quite, to an isoelectric state. this state, called burst suppression, is long periods of isoelectric eeg separated by unorganized bursts of activity. in brain injury, or heavy heavy sedation, when patients start to wake up, the bursts get more and more frequent and eventually cortical activity will resume. these bursts come from deep centers in the brain. it wouldn't be far fetched to imagine that these are kind of like the intrinsic pacemaker of the brain. they send off bursts of activity, and neurons respond to them. once enough neurons respond, there is probably a bunch of emergent phenomena occurring to keep things rolling and poof, consciousness. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is a body's roche limit affected by its size? | i know the size of an orbiting object determines how close it can get to a planet/star before being torn apart by tidal forces, but does the size of the primary matter at all? | it does, the critical distance is 1.26 times the primary radius time the cube root of the density ratio. up the primary radius and the distance increases. keep in mind the distance is from the center of the primary not it's surface. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what do scientists mean when they've "teleported" something? how are they doing it, and what are the limitations? | i would venture to say what you've heard about is quantum teleportation. this is not teleportation as you probably imagine it. what happens here is that a quantum state at one location is destroyed but reproduced at another location. this does not happen instantaneously, as there is a step that requires sending information from the first location to the second. the ideas is that you have an entangled pair of particles, one with alice and one with bob. alice also has another state; we'll call this the special state. alice does not know what the form of the special state is, just that she has it. alice makes a joint measurement on her two states that can produce one of four possible results. she then sends the result of this measurement to bob, who, based on this, is able to convert his particle from the entangled pair into a state identical to the original special state. note that nowhere in this do alice or bob know the actual configuration associated with the special state; this process just causes bob's particle to end up in the same state that alice's special state started in, even though her special state has since been destroyed by the measurement. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_avoid_questions_answerable_by_a_single_google_or_wikipedia_search",
"reddit.com/r/askscience"
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|
why didn't anyone take video of mount saint helens erupting? | i recently wanted to watch the footage, but found that it doesn't exist except as cg composites based on still photographs. if i'm wrong and bad at looking i'd love to see the footage! scientists knew the eruption was coming but why didn't they capture the video for study and historical value? i realize in 1980 video cameras were harder to get but it seems like this would have been important enough to scrounge one up. | volcanologists believed an eruption may happen. but the timescales were unknown. mt st helens had been active for a couple of months beforehand with a number of small eruptions, and things were belieed to be quieting down. it was a surprise when it did erupt, as it was suddenly depressurised by movement along a structural weakness in the cone, lubricated by meltwater. it was an earthquake wich triggered the eruption, not the magma over-pressure. we had a significantly poorer understanding of volcanic behaviour back in the early 1980's - indeed, the mt st helens eruption triggered a lot of funding that allowed volcanology something of a boost as a research discipline. there was also certainly not the kind of technology we rely on now to be able to locate cameras in remote places and leave them constantly record things - cassettes would need regular replacement, and the battery technology was good for a couple of hours if you were willing to take a 10+kg battery pack with you. hence, the best we have are the rosenquist photos which were able to be taken only because he happened to be int he right place at the right time. _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/msh/catastrophic.html"
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what would be required for orbital colonies? | supposedly, the earth's human population will reach 9 billion by 2050. so, i was wondering, what is there stopping us from putting people up there on a permanent basis, political will aside. | the economics of placing the largest aerospace manufacurer, refinery, electronics fabricator, chemical plant, agricultural concern, clothing maker etc., etc.,etc. into orbit and the thermodynamics of lifting a meaningful fraction of the human population into orbit. if you can build a self contained, self sufficient environment in orbit, there is no reason not to build it in the middle of the gobi desert where it will will cost an infinitesimal fraction of what it would cost to do it in space, with the advantages of free radiation shielding and a breathable atmosphere outside. think of how capable our space station is today. it cost more than 100 billion dollars. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere_2"
] | [
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how do clinical risk estimators mathematically calculate the likelihood of an event? | there are a few tools that can be used in a clinical setting to asses if patients are at risk for certain events. one example of this is the [ascvd risk estimator](_url_0_), which will spit out an percentage prediction for how likely you will experience an adverse cardiac event. i understand super basic epidemiology concepts that assess *relative* risk (x times more likely in this group), but this calculator seems to take in a lot of variables and spit out an *exact* percentage estimate rather than a relative one. i've read through the [resources](_url_1_) this tool provides , from which i garnered which databases and studies the tool was derived from, but my question still remains, **statistically, how do we create algorithms that can output risk estimation?** edit hyperlinks | there are a very wide variety of statistical methods that can be used to calculate conditional risk estimates. in the most general sense, these methods "fit" a model using sampled data. the model could be a linear regression type model, a tree based algorithm, or a support vector machine, etc. the fit of a model is the set of model parameter values which minimize some loss function over the data. loss can be thought in a crude sense as "error," some property that you wish to minimize. once your model is fit, you can feed it input values to estimate the conditional probability of the event you wish to predict. note that this conditional probability estimate is just that, an estimate. what the tool you link doesn't provide, and what it is important to aknowledge, is that these estimates have statistical uncertainty, which could be very large if the sample data is small or if the model does a poor job accounting for the variance in that data set. for an introduction to the topic, you can look at the wikipedia article for logistic regression, one of the more basic methods for estimating risk (indirectly). | 3 | [] | [
"http://tools.acc.org/ASCVD-Risk-Estimator-Plus/#!/calculate/estimate/",
"http://tools.acc.org/ASCVD-Risk-Estimator-Plus/#!/content/clinician-split-layout/terms_conditions"
] | [] | [
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bradycardia cause by apnoic pause | hi, can you explain me what exactly happens in a human body during an apnoic pause which leads to bradycardia? is it because of the higher blood pressure (that had been increased by the lack of oxygen) or is it something else? | short answer: stimulation of the vagus nerve (cn-x) which induces bradycardia. long answer: i had not heard the term apneic pause before but from googling it you are referring to a cessation of breathing for at least 10 seconds, commonly referenced in relation to sleep apnea. i didn't know the term but i do understand cardiac physiology. in 10 seconds your oxygen saturation levels do not drop by a measurable level. try holding your breath while using an oxygen saturation meter and see if you can even get it to go down by 1% - it's really difficult even if you can hold your breath for several minutes. so i don't believe it is related to lack of oxygen unless we are talking about a much longer duration apneic pause. during normal inspiration and expiration the heart rate increases and decreases, respectively. this is thought to be induced by changes in vagal nerve tone (activity) but the mechanism by which breathing influences vagal tone is not understood. the vagus nerve acts to reduce heart rate by hyperpolarizing the intrinsic pacemaking cells of the heart. stimulating the vagus nerve would decrease heart rate and this can be accomplished by various means including hypoventilation, hypoxemia, respiratory acidosis, or vigorous inspiratory effort against a closed airway known as the mueller's maneuver. in the case of obstructive sleep apnea a person may be attempting to inspire but cannot due to a blockage of their airway (usually seen in obesity) which could stimulate the vagus nerve by the mueller's maneuver mechanism. but again, the exact mechanism by which the vagus nerve is stimulated by these pressure changes is not known, it has simply been observed indirectly. i hope this at least partially answers your question! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do 'ultrasonic' insect repellents really work? | i'm talking about the ultrasonic speakers you can buy that advertize keeping bugs away. while i understand the principle theory behind their operation, are there any studies proving/disproving their effectiveness? | the short answer appears to be no. i researched this a while ago when i heard about them and my bs meter went off. i found [this](_url_0_), which unfortunately doesn't actually directly link to the studies. it seems that they will work on crickets, at least until they get habituated to the noise and ignore it. apparently the ftc even warned companies that produced these devices that they need to back up their claims, with one company even being sued for violating the warning. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nachi.org/ultrasonic-pest-repellers.htm"
] | [
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what research best shows the impact of positive reinforcement vs. negative reinforcement as a contributor to overall happiness? | a couple examples: 1. are you in a relationship because you're afraid of being alone? or are you in one because you want to be *with this person?* 2. do you work because you are afraid of being homeless? or do you work because enjoy doing something, i.e. the job itself, being a self-sufficient member of society? 3. do you work out because you are afraid of the social consequences of being fat? or because you want a healthy body? i hope i'm not being too abstract here. i've been thinking a lot about this dynamic as it affects myself, and was hoping to see if it's just me, or whether a body of research illustrates that it's a viable approach towards happiness. thanks! | not an answer to your question but rather a pedantic correction. positive reinforcement is the giving of something or adding of something to change a behavior and has nothing to do with whether the thing being given is seen as good/pleasant or not. negative reinforcement is the removal of something. a good example would be shocking a rat when he does a particular action. this is positive reinforcement. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the benefits of breathing into a paperbag when overly emotional? | _url_0_ does it even do anything productive breathing into the bag? and if not how did this norm come to be? | this was an old treatment for hyperventilation (breathing too fast). it's not recommended anymore. the principle has to do with carbon dioxide levels. co2 in your bloodstream is a vasodilator, which means it causes blood vessels to expand. your body wants to hang onto a certain amount of co2 for this purpose. if you have too little in your bloodstream, your capillaries constrict, hampering blood flow. lowered blood flow to the brain can make you feel dizzy and pass out. this is relevant to hyperventilation, because breathing too fast makes you blow off too much co2. the idea of the paper bag would be to make you rebreathe some of your exhaled air and take in more co2, to avoid symptoms like fainting. but the problem is that most hyperventilation isn't just caused by emotions. you may also breathe fast due to being short on oxygen, because you've got asthma or pneumonia or are having a heart attack or any number of other reasons. in those cases the bag may be harmful because it further reduces your oxygen level. long story short: it's not safe and you shouldn't do it. when unable to catch your breath without assistance, you should seek medical attention. | 7 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/ZKIUB.gif"
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how did ernest rutherford know that the the positively charged particles in a nucleus were equal in magnitude of charge to electrons? | for example, how did he know that a hydrogen atom had one proton to balance out its electron and not multiple positively charged particles? how did he know that a proton wasn't just the same size as an electron but that there were more of them? | rutherford was influenced by prout's hypothesis that all atoms were made up of groups of hydrogen atoms, with the hydrogen atom being the fundamental particle. the logic was that the atomic weights known at the time were almost exactly integer multiples of the mass of hydrogen. if there were smaller particles, there would be smaller elements or elements with masses that fell in between multiples of hydrogen. obviously rutherford discovered that an atom wasn't just one particle but a positive nucleus surrounded by negative electrons, and then when he observed the process of nitrogen atoms releasing hydrogen atoms when bombarded by alpha particles he took this as evidence that the hydrogen nucleus is indeed the fundamental building block for all other nuclei. this was before the neutron was discovered, it was believed that the nucleus was only made of positive charges. of course, protons are actually made up of quarks with fractional charges but there was no way to know that at the time. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/bw9jpc/how_can_we_count_the_number_of_protons_and/"
] | [
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how exactly does motion tracking work | how do things like the kinect work? i asked this question in eli5, but i didn't quite get the answer i was looking for. i understand that it works by looking at my body and using software to put me in a game, but i would like for a more in depth answer than that like how the software works and how it's able to track me. | great question. there's two parts to any motion capture/tracking system - hardware and software. while it's easy to think that the camera is just a camera, this generally is not the case. the kinect uses a standard 30 hz camera (this is something you would find in standard consumer-grade camcorders) and combines the output with a depth sensor with infrared projector (so it is not dependent on light sources). the camera is just a regular camera, so there's no explanation needed there. however, the infrared projector (think night vision goggles) plus the depth sensor is the main part of the hardware. the ir projector throws ir light out from the front part of the kinect. the camera in question is a primesense unit, which looks at a series of moving images as parts of a grid; when things inside the grid move, it figures out where something is located based on the speed of the material moving. other ir cameras use time-of-flight (tof) technology, which works like sonar does - with short pulses of light that are reflected back, you can precisely determine a material's whereabouts from frame to frame. the **software**, however, is where the real magic comes in. there are multiple parts to this: 1. figuring out what body parts are which. this actually isn't too hard, since the kinect does not need to be very precise with fine motor control - unlike, say, physics/biomechanics research where you want to calculate kinetics around the elbow or shoulder (proximal/compression/distraction forces). so, using the grid system as described above, you can simply guess where the joints in the body are (the kinect uses a 48 point model) based on normal human anthropometry; the computer does the rest. 2. gestures to control the action. "when in doubt, use brute force," as kenneth thompson said! instead of trying to manually program what a "wave" constituted and how it was different than a "thrust," they recorded people doing a list of gestures from various angles, then fed this movement data into a machine learning algorithm, where a computer was able to use a classification algorithm to say "hey, everyone doing a [movement pattern] demonstrate a predictable range of motion in the x,y,z planes with [low/medium/high] confidence." my company looked into using the kinect for motion capture analysis, but we needed cameras that sampled at a much higher rate. 30 hz means 30 frames per second, but the speed at which the humerus internally rotates while throwing a 90 mph fastball means you might capture the whole motion in less than one frame at that rate! we needed to use 210 and 420 hz cameras and write software to glue it together like primesense/microsoft/rare did, so i have an appreciation for how tough it can be! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what in the world is hyper geometry? it sounds scary. | geometry involving more than 3 dimensions. it's "scary" in that it's difficult because it's impossible to visualize anything. you end up doing everything algebraically. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
do black holes and hurricanes/vortexes look similar mathematically? | i was looking a picture of a vortex and realized visually, black holes and vortexes look identical. does the math share this similarity? do the equations found in transport phenomena and fluid mechanics have similarities with the ones we used to predict black holes? | they don't even visually look identical. a common depiction is as a funnel sucking everything in, implying some sort of 'backside' to the black hole, but that's just very heavy artistic license. an isolated black hole looks like a featureless black sphere from the far outside, and pulls things in directly toward the center. like [this](_url_0_), not [this](_url_1_). | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Black_Hole_Milkyway.jpg",
"http://discovermagazine.com/~/media/Images/Issues/2014/Sept/black-hole.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curl_(mathematics)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric"
] | [
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is a "theory of everything" even possible? | i was listening to s. hawkings' brief history of time and he mentioned how theories are broken down into general areas.. gravitation can't explain evolution, for instance. so, assuming gravitation can be reconciled with quantum mechanics, yielded such a "theory of fundamental forces", commonly called a "theory of everything", could this then be used to explain every other occurrence? evolution, math, etc. it seems to make no sense.. how can a unified theory of forces explain sexual selection, etc? **edit**: gödel's incompleteness theorems say that this is itself impossible.. a self-contained theory cannot explain itself. so if a set of axioms defining a theory of everything cannot be self-consistent.. why is it such a goal? i can understand trying to unify gravity with quantum mechanics.. but thinking that the result can explain why the earth's tilt is ~23 degrees and why pigs are colored as they are.. is just silly. | this really gets down to philosophy, but the prevailing attitude among scientists - and one against which there isn't much evidence - is that all phenomena in nature come down to a theory or set of theories. so yes, something like sexual selection should certainly be described by things like electrodynamics and quantum mechanics, but there are so many steps along the way - from basic physics to atoms to molecules to cells and onward - that it becomes completely impractical to even consider solving problems in the higher up theory by recourse to the more fundamental one. it's the same throughout science; one isn't going to use quantum mechanics to solve problems in an organic chemistry class, and it would be quite advisable not to try, but it's perfectly clear that the laws of quantum mechanics which give rise to atoms and molecules are underlying all of organic chemistry. similarly, we don't need to understand quantum electrodynamics in order to talk about maxwellian electromagnetism, we don't need general relativity in order to talk about newtonian gravity, we don't need quantum gravity to do standard particle physics calculations, even though in each case the former underlies the latter. these higher-up "derived" sciences tend to be largely independent of what they're made from - which we should be quite thankful for, because otherwise science would never get done! that's one part of it, and the part that i think you were getting at. the other part is that some (but not most) physicists *do* suspect that physics can't be explained by one theory, but rather by a set of complementary theories which each describe their own separate domains of relevance. there are some reasons one might suspect this (most involve hand-wavy but decently credible appeals to the [incompleteness theorems](_url_0_)), but i think one should hardly give up looking for a unified theory when the search has just barely begun! on cosmic timescales, at least. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems"
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how do self-healing cork boards work? | i'm speculating a little, but i believe the "healing" in cork boards isn't some sort of actual resurfacing/relabeling on the surface, but rather just a function of the cork being elastic and having low density (air pores). if you stick something into cork, you basically are compressing some of the cells and when you remove said item, the cork decompresses resulting in "healing". | 40 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
realistically (but pushing "framerate" and resolution to their expected limits), what is the smallest and fastest thing we can hope to ever "see" using any kind of microscope or similar instruments ? what are the different "limitation walls" we are poised to encounter ? | for context, i ask this question after seeing [this gif](_url_0_) in r/chemicalreactiongifs, that piqued my curiosity. it is a video of two gold nanoparticles merging together while imaged by an electron microscope. & nbsp; so, provided we improve existing technology and push it to its theoretical limits: - what is the best resolution we can ever hope to achieve ? - what is the highest "framerate" we can ever hope to achieve at these tiny scales ? - as a bonus question: are new microscopy techniques investigated to go beyond expected limits of current instruments ? & nbsp; thanks ! | to your first question: theoretically, the resolution of an image is given by the so called "abbe diffraction limit" which is roughly the wavelength of the light (or electron wave) divided by two. in electron microscopes, the wavelength scales with one over momentum of the electrons (h/p), meaning as long as you can increase their speed you can increase you resolution. at the moment, resolution in the order of picometers can be reached. an hydrogen atom has a diameter of 100 picometers! the resolution of the gif you refer to can therefore actually easily be reached nowadays. here you can see individual graphene atoms, imaged by an electron microscope: _url_1_ however, you have to be careful about what you are actually seeing here because the electrons are interacting with the electrons of the atoms you are looking at, which will have an influence on your image and limit your resolution in a different way. also in x-ray diffraction it is more or less possible nowadays to image individual atoms. i am not sure how much smaller you can go, resolution wise. i don't think it will be possible to image an electron directly, you gonna need huge energies for it. but yea, as long as you can scale up the energy of the light you improve your resolution :) well framerate depends on the signal-to-noise ratio and on the speed of the detector. with conventional electronics you can process data on the order of ghz, meaning a billion pictures per second. the modern way of going to these time scales is "photographing" processes repeatedly at varying times. meaning: you have a steady flow of atoms (or whatever you wanna image), initiate a reaction for each of the atoms consecutively and image the atom at different times after initiation. in theory there is no lower limit to the framerate here as far as i know. check this out: _url_0_ a limit at the moment with this technique is that you have to delay the incoming light on the order attoseconds which in practical terms means that you have to move a mirror by the diameter of one atom. this is pretty hard. yea, microscopy is a big topic nowadays and is steadily being developed. i mentioned the abbe diffraction limit before. a couple of years ago, the nobel prize of chemistry was given to stefan hell, who found a way to overcome the abbe diffraction limit in a microscope he designed. also free electron lasers are a hot topic, giving extremely high spatial (and temporal) resolution. i think there's cool stuff to come in the next decades! :) | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/chemicalreactiongifs/comments/5g7s3q/two_gold_nanoparticles_move_towards_each_other/"
] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-fSqFWcb4rE",
"http://www.thenanoage.com/images/Real_graphene.jpg"
] | [
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is curiosity a/the primary trait in the evolution of humans? | no, it isn't. scientifically speaking, the defining traits of humans would be those that make us distinct from other primates, correct? well, they all share our curiosity, as do many other species of animal, some entirely unrelated to us. the real defining traits of humans, that can be tested and proven, are our intelligence, and higher level communication abilities. yes, other animals can be quite intelligent, and sure, some animals have quite elaborate means of communication. but humans develop cognitive skills that surpass any animal. by adolescence, humans surpass adults of all other species. additionally, language, which may have developed as early as 2.5 million years ago alongside bipedalism in australopithecines, is something no species has ever developed besides humans. it is commonly accepted that the ability of humans to communicate desires, plans, warnings and lessons so precisely is the key facilitator of our dominance of earth. **tl; dr:** no, it's language and intelligence. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can other species suffer from gigantism? | if gigantism is a condition where your body produces too much growth hormones and most species have growth hormones why haven’t i ever heard of or seen a picture of an animal with the condition? | well for one thing there aren't any like pigeon investigative journalists or salamander medical researchers tracking down cases to bring the news to the public. for another, if it's a debilitating condition most animals suffering from it will probably just die before they're noticed. but anyway it is known to occur, some cases have been seen, and it is sometimes induced in mice for medical research. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is a "drop" a precise measurement? | for a given liquid (with its associated surface tension) and given gravity, how precise is a drop? | a drop is not very precise. for distilled (or deionized water) it comes out to about .05ml of liquid. the volume can vary a lot depending on the device you use to deliver the drop and the speed at which you deliver it (how much time the drop forms at the tip of the device). if you use a mohr pipette or a biuret, you drop the water slowly, and don't shake the glassware in the process you should be pretty close to .05ml every drop. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are terrastrial and marine food chains disconnected? if they are connected, how and to what degree? | does plankton end up in a cow living on a farm on a macroscopic scale? how about a terrastrial apex predator living hundreds, if not thousands of miles away from the closesr ocean? is bottom of their food chain in the ocean? is there research about this topic? i can not imagine them being disconnected, and i would really like to know how e.g. nutrients and vitamins end up from the ocean to our food plate (in form of terrastrial plants or meat). | they are definitely connected in many areas, though not in the way you think. the annual migration of salmon up rivers to spawn plays a significant role in the forest ecosystems, moving nutrients and minerals into areas that would not otherwise have it. given that some salmon swim well over a thousand km up the rivers, this effect goes deep inland. this effect is mostly occurs through the actions of bears and wolves, the apex predators. they catch the salmon, haul them to shore, eat part of them, and the rest of the carcass rots away. similarly, after they spawn and die, the carcasses of the dead fish wash ashore and have an effect. going the other way also has a dramatic interconnection as well. nutrients and other materials wash into the sea, which feeds plankton and algae, which is the bottom of the food chain. the salmon (and other fish) eat this, thus keeping the cycle going. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do insects, particularly cockroaches, use acid in their digestive system? | from what i can gather, they seem to use gizzard to grind food, and break them down with enzymes in their midgut. is there no acid involved like larger animals do? | it really depends on the insect. mosquitoes, black flies and some lepidopterans actually have a basic stomach ph. however i did find a study on cockroaches that suggested that they seem to have an acidic stomach ph from around 6-2. if you're interested here is the link _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1251983/pdf/biochemj01143-0037.pdf"
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what causes myopia? what makes our near near sightedness to get 'worse'? is it all genetic? | i think i read somewhere reading in the dark does not make your vision to get worse. what causes myopia to get as we get older? is it just all genetic or do environment factors make our myopia to get worse? does reading 'close' to the screen/book actually worsens near sightedness? | more and more papers are being written about myopia that link myopia mainly with being indoors and not so much as a function of diet or exercise. it seems the sun also plays a big role in strengthening our eyes and lack of exposure to it correlates with increased chance of myopia as well as the severity of the myopia. [outdoor activity during class recess reduces myopia onset and progression in school children, *american academy of opthalmology journal*](_url_0_) [effect of day length on eye growth, myopia progression, and change of corneal power in myopic children, *american academy of opthalmology journal*](_url_1_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.aaojournal.org/article/S0161-6420\\(12\\)01075-5/abstract",
"http://www.aaojournal.org/article/S0161-6420\\(12\\)01040-8/abstract"
] | [
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two probably nonsensical questions on spacetime from a layman. | total relativity novice here. i understand that mass somehow "warps" the fabric of spacetime, thus massive objects "experience" time differently. what i am curious about is the underlying reasoning for this. what i am thinking of is that: it is harder to move a mass through physical dimensions of space (i.e. more energy required), and is that somehow analogous to moving a larger mass through time? that is, is the relationship of mass to spatial dimensions similar to (in underlying principle) the relationship of mass to the temporal dimension? and an unrelated follow-up! does time "stop" for photons because they move at the speed of light? i.e. if i was a photon, would time be meaningful to me? and if it does "stop," that really wigs me out because photons clearly travel through space over time... so would they experience their origin and end (assuming they were sentient!) all at once? | spacetime doesn't really care about the difference between space and time. remember the length contraction and time dilation in special relativity? these arise because different reference frames have different conceptions of which directions are spatial and which is time. time in my rest frame is going to be some combination of space and time dimensions in the rest frame of someone moving relative to me, much like if i take an x-y axis and rotate it, my new x axis is a combination of the old x and y axes. all of which is to say that nature can't differentiate between the two without picking a preferred frame. so once we know that mass and energy bend space, they *have* to bend time as well, at least in most frames. and since our velocity through spacetime is constant, moving differently through time means you experience time differently - at least as an outside observer would see it. as for the unrelated follow-up (a contradiction in terms, no?): time "stops" for photons because every object has a constant velocity through spacetime, and photons use up all of that velocity in spatial directions. there's just no velocity left to move through time. if you'd like, you can think about this as time dilation: relative to an outside observer at rest, as your speed increases your clocks slow down. if you look at the mathematics, you see that this asymptotes as your speed reaches the speed of light. so if you were a photon, you simply wouldn't experience any time. this is why the concept of a "sentient photon" simply doesn't make sense. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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it's been about 5 years since the mochizuki's abc conjecture proof was originally published. what's its current status? | relatively recently, one of the few who claim to understand how the proof works put out a brief summary to help guide those who are trying to decode it. [this summary is 300 pages long.](_url_1_) more people are beginning to get an understanding of it, and it has been determined that, correct or incorrect, the ideas in the paper are groundbreaking and worth study, but it is still pretty far from being verified or put into a journal. [here](_url_0_) is the article, if you want to see what a summary looks like. i have some technical exposure to anabelian geometry, how it works and what it's about, and it all looks like gibberish to me (though, i'm not working on verifying the proof). | 42 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.kurims.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~gokun/DOCUMENTS/abc_ver6.pdf",
"https://www.newscientist.com/article/2146647-baffling-abc-maths-proof-now-has-impenetrable-300-page-summary/"
] | [
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|
is anyone following the el hierro volcano activity? care to calm my fears? | i just recently found out about [what's happening in the canary islands](_url_1_) and i'm starting to get a bit freaked out about the "[mega tsunami](_url_0_)" people are warning about. anyone with the scientific expertise want to explain to me that i've been watching too much fearmongering and the east coast of north america is going to be fine? | the tsunami people are worried about would result from collapse of the cumbre vieja volcano on the island of la palma. the recent volcanic activity at el hierro is not near la palma. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZHC_M6gxu2Q",
"http://earthquake-report.com/2011/09/25/el-hierro-canary-islands-spain-volcanic-risk-alert-increased-to-yellow/"
] | [] | [
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] |
what are the implications of having neurons in our hearts? | is it simply to regulate heartbeat or is there some profoundness to this? | i would describe the complexity of the human cardiac regulatory system as profound, but i'm afraid that is the only role those cells play. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much momentum do coronal mass ejections impart on earth? | is it possible for a coronal mass ejection to slightly nudge the earth away from the sun? i'm curious how much the solar wind can "push" the earth. | there will be a slight momentum change that will act to push the earth away from the sun. however, at a rough guess, it'd move the earth less than a nanometre away from the sun, as an order of magnitude estimate. the orbit of the earth is pretty stable, and has been for the last four billion years or so. if the solar wind could have moved it out of orbit, it would have happened by now. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
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