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how is l conserved during electronic transitions? | angular momentum is a conserved quantity. so far so good. we can write it out as, > l = sqrt(l(l+1)*h-bar) (magnitude of orbital angular momentum) we can also say that photons are spin-1, so a transition must correspondingly lower say the orbital angular momentum of an atom by l(old) - l(new) = 1. however, when say you transition between l=5 - > 4 or l=1 - > 0, you don't get the same value of l. however, the angular momentum of the light is fixed to s=1. am i missing something here? ~~is it because l does not commute with the the atomic hamiltonian? if so, can anyone elaborate on further?~~ going to look it up, i vague recall that it does. | okay, here we go. for a l=5 - let's just assume the spin of the electron doesn't change. so before the transition we have an atom in the l=5 state. l=sqrt(5*6)hbar = sqrt(30)hbar = 5.477hbar. during the transmission, a photon is emitted and the electron drops to the l=4 state. so after the transition we have: atom: l=4, l=sqrt(20)hbar = 4.472hbar photon: l=0, s=1, so total angular momentum is just s=1. s=sqrt(2)hbar = 1.414hbar. but angular momentum is conserved. however, we have only calculated the magnitudes of the angular momenta. you can add vectors of lengths 1.414 and 4.472 in such a way that the net vector is 5.477. if we imagine that the angular momentum of the atom is initially up (in the y direction), then the x component is 0 and the y component is 5.477 (i'm omitting hbar from these numbers). so we can solve two equations simultaneously to find the angle at which these angular momenta differ from the other (the spin of the photon and the l=4 angular momentum of the atom). i don't actually have time to set up the equations and solve them, but basically the vector angular momentum is conserved, not the sum of the magnitudes. **tl;dr: the photon has spin 1, but the angle between the atom's angular momentum and the photon's angular momentum changes in each transition.** | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_angular_momentum_of_light"
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how do large scale shops/malls supply wifi on such a big scale? | how do shopping malls and big supermarkets supply a (considering it’s size) stable wifi connection across such a large area? sent using a shopping centres wifi with a solid 20mb download. | this could be a very long reply basically involving a course in wifi engineering, however, in simple terms it looks like this. 1. they use multiple commercial grade access points which are all controlled by a central controller device. this keeps track of connected devices and ensures the device connects to the ap with the best signal as it roams. 2. ap placement is carefully calculated to provide consistent coverage as well as load balance number of devices per ap. 3. radio channel space is carefully planned to prevent interference (cci) 4. ap are all connected to central controller by a fast (at least gb) wired netowrk. 5. the entire netowrk is connected via 1 or more fast broadband/ethernet internet circuits there is a lot more to it, but that is the basics. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you determine an axis on a subatomic particle? | if two entangled particles have to be in opposing spin states on the same axis, how is axis determined? how is this measured? | this is a good question and the answer is the orientation isn't determined^1 , it's not information that you can have during entanglement. imagine two gamma rays being emitted from positron-electron annihilation, they are going to be oppositely polarized which arises from their entanglement. the fun part is that the polarization axis isn't nailed down until the system is forced into an orientation (like interacting with a linear polarizer), then entanglement breaks and one photon will be vertically polarized and the other will be horizontally polarized. here's a [picture of this.](_url_0_) essentially, the blob in the middle represents that the photons that are simutanously detected will be detected in opposite polarizations. the equipment used to generate this picture was basically stuff you'd find in a garage, so don't mind the poor quality. now that picture doesn't "rule out" that the photons didn't plan ahead and coordinate that information when the decay occurred—which is the big question, whether determinism exists, does that information exist before measurement? well for that you'd need a bell test, for bell's inequality, so far such tests have ruled out *local hidden variables,* but not globally hidden variables. ^1 this statement is only strictly correct under certain interpretations of quantum mechanics. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/gtcIVPw.png"
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do super-capacitors (electrochemical) work in ac current? | i could not find the answer to this question anywhere, not even wikipedia! if you add the charge in one direction, would this same charge be undone if the current moves in the other direction? yes, this is coming from a science project that has had some depressing results. this is in fact mostly curiosity, and it may only find its way in to the project as a side note, rather than a major part of the conclusion. | ee major here. ac doesn't mean the current goes from one direction from another, it means that the current (or voltage from v=ir) changes over time. also, an ac current could mean a dc pulse from some positive value to a negative value. to answer your question, ac current will work. also, the direction of the current won't "undo" charges. every capacitor has a positive and negative plate in them, should you reverse the polarity, and run say 5 amps plus in them, they'll just explode. to sum it up, direction of current is not important to a circuit or a circuit element, you can draw current going one way down a branch even if it's going another way, you would just analyze it from there on out with a negative sign. what the circuit and circuit elements do care about (except resistors of course) is whether or not the polarity is in the correct order i.e. positive to positive, negative to negative and that the circuit is grounded. i hope this answers your question for you, let me know if it doesn't. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what are these 'bands/arcs' in the visible universe that show up from 30 to 100ghz? | on this webpage _url_0_ you can see the visible universe at different wave lengths. i noticed some bands/arcs appearing in the top right quarter at wavelengths between 30ghz and 100ghz. are these nothing or something? | it seems like they were having technical difficulties at the time they were imaging those parts: [warning: 90mb pdf file](_url_0_) also, click on options, then constellations on your link and you can see that the dark line is a similar shape to the celestial equator. *not a scientist, unless computer science counts | 23 | [] | [
"http://astrog80.astro.cf.ac.uk/Planck/Chromoscope/"
] | [
"http://www.rssd.esa.int/SYS/docs/ll_transfers/project=PUBDB&id=3167991&page=1.pdf#1",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/pzvff/why_on_xray_image_of_night_sky_there_are_scars/",
"http://www.chromoscope.net/"
] | [
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do humans have symbiotic gut amoebas? | we have a vast gut microbiome with beneficial gut bacteria, archaea, fungi and viruses. are there any non parasitic amoebas in the gut and help us? are there any other organisms that also live in our guts and help us like nematodes? | there are commensal amoebas that live in a gut. [here](_url_0_) is a good review on the topic. whether they are beneficial is harder to prove for specific species. however, in termites and cockroaches its a protist species that allows these insects to break down wood, so that's one example outside of humans. nematodes is a trickier one. animals don't universally have gut worms in the same way as we all have gut flora, although a large percentage of humans and animals do have worm infections. its doubtful that they could be considered symbiotic, however there is a hypothesis that helminth infections, since they cause immunosuppression of the host, could aid in reduction of allergies, and that the lack of worm infections in the developed world is part of why allergies are more common [source](_url_1_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3135866/",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0952791505001536"
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why is the cochlea filled with fluid and not air? | i'm working to produce a video explaining why ears pop on airplanes, but i've run into a part of the 'story' that i can't really find an explanation for. basically, i'd like to explain the middle ear's existence in terms of the necessity of mechanically amplifying the motions of air so that it can be transferred into the fluid of the cochlea, despite the acoustic impedance. i can't find a good explanation for why the cochlea is fluid-filled in the first place, though. is it simply because it developed underwater, maybe derived from a common ancestor of the lateral line organ in fish? does the speed that sound travels through it matter, or the force it can exert on the hair cells? i realize this is kind of a technical question for this subreddit, but it seemed like the best place to ask for help. thanks a bunch! | evolution in water is one factor. another one is that water is much less compressible than air (gases are highly compressible, liquids not so much). an air-filled cochlea would not allow you to withstand pressure variations. next time you take a plane, get a plastic water bottle with you. drink it in mid-air then close it. wait to see what it looks like when you land, and then imagine your ear doing the same. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do domesticated canids have a huge size diversity and domesticated felids have a much smaller size diversity when the wild members of those groups show an inverse propensity? | nondomestic canids range in size from the fennec fox at 1.3 pounds to the gray wolf at 174 pounds. domestic canids, however, seem to have an enormous size range, from the world's smallest at 4 ounces to the world's largest at 343 pounds. the inverse seems to be true with wild vs. domestic felids: nondomestic felids range in size from the 3 pound black-footed cat to the 660 pound tiger, while domesticated cats have a comparatively tiny size range, with the world's smallest at around 3 pounds and the world's largest at 47 pounds. why is there such a huge size range in our domesticated dogs when such a smaller size range exists in their wild relatives? and why do we not have a larger size range in our domesticated cats when their relatives show a huge diversity of size? does this have to do with human intervention and breeding, and using dogs for work? does it have to do with the relative docility and ease of management of a domestic dog vs. the semi-wildness that still exists in a "domestic" cat? and how on earth did we breed domestic dogs so much bigger than their wild counterparts, while keeping cats small (and manageable). i'd love to hear some ideas (and see some science, if there is any) on why our pets turned out so differently. thanks! | variation between species isn't necessarily related to variation within species, so i'm not sure how relevant the existence of tigers is to housecats. there's basically two possible reasons dogs show more variation. i've heard it said that dogs have a "slippery genome" that makes big morphological changes easier. but personally i think the main reason is that people have gone through a lot of trouble to selectively breed dogs to be different sizes. cats the world over fill, and have always filled, only two roles. first, they are hunters of rodents and other agricultural pests. second, they are companion type pets. there's not been much selective breeding or the first, and the second has simply resulted in changes to coat color patterns and the like. dogs, on the other hand, have been put to work doing a whole lot of different tasks. hunting all sorts of animals, herding, companion pets, guarding, ratting, fighting, even as food. so people have intentionally bred them to be big, or tiny, or long, or stubby as needed. breeding a dog to be huge isn't that conceptually complicated. you just wait until a particularly large dog happens to be born, then keep all the babies, pick the largest ones, and make sure they have lots of babies. wolves, on the other hand, are all about the same size because in the wild being huge or tiny isn't an advantage to them. the occasional mutant dies out instead of being propagated widely. interestingly, there's recently been a couple of developments in cats that illustrates how this happens. munchkin cats have stubby legs. in fact, they essentially have the same sort of mutation as dashunds and corgis. this mutation comes from the litter of a single stray cat which had stubby legs. munchkin-type cats have apparently been popping up for ages as one-off mutations, but nobody made a point to selectively breed them until now. over the course of a couple decades the breed has been growing in number, and 100 years down the line i wouldn't be surprised if we have a whole range of short-legged cats just like we do with short legged dogs (all scottish folds similarly come from a single cat discovered in scotland in the 60's). this process is very similar to how many dog traits must have originated. on the other side of the spectrum is the serval hybridization that's going on with some cats. servals are large wildcats, and they have been hybridized with domestic cats to form savanna cats, which are quite a bit larger than ordinary housecats. again, this is the result of recent selective breeding. there hasn't been time for the genes to fix into an independent breed of large cats, but it's a possible source for them down the line. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if a living person was stripped naked and covered in silica gel packets, would they become similar to a mummy? | people exude water vapor from their skin at all times. silica gel packets would keep the relative humidity near the skin especially low, but this wouldn't be lethal. people can survive in very, very low relative humidity. mummification wouldn't start until the person died of thirst; drinking fluids, or not, is the important factor in how dehydrated a person becomes. you might be interested in historical cases of living people becoming mummies: _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokushinbutsu",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_water",
"http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_much_moisture_can_silica_gel_absorb"
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|
is there any scientific evidence that leading a disgusting lifestyle improves your immune system overall? | i recall an episode of the simpsons where bart was teaching lisa some things, and he picked up food off of the ground at a krusty burger and said something about how it would make her immune system better. then on malcom in the middle once, reese was asked why he was taking gum from under a table and claimed it made his immune system better. it's not just tv, however. i hear people claim this all the time, and that people that constantly wash their hands and live obsessively cleanly are "more likely to get a disease". does science back this up? | it is called the hygiene hypothesis. it states that the lack of childhood exposures to bacteria, parasites, infectious agents, etc, leads to an increased susceptibility to allergies, autoimmune diseases, and even autism. note that this is still a hypothesis, and any studies thus far have not provided concrete cause and effect. summary: _url_2_ review article: _url_1_ possible link to autoimmune diseases: _url_4_ possible link to autism: _url_0_, _url_5_, _url_3_ note that the autism articles merely suggest that autism may have an immunological link, correlated with the development of a improper/proper immune response. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12455944",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15878454",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene_hypothesis",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16360218",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=20415844",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16139734"
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lifting one side of, say, a 6"x6"x20' piece of lumber, what percentage of the total weight are you lifting? | the dimensions of the lumber are totally arbitrary, i'm just trying to figure out how you would determine this. the question assumes that the lumber is on the ground and you are just lifting one end of it. would half the girth and twice the length of the lumber require the same effort to lift or is there a difference in effort due to a difference in leverage? | if you lift the very end and the other end rests on the ground, and the cross section of the wood is uniform, you're supporting half the weight. it gets slightly more complicated if the lumber is heavier towards one end. then you have to measure/calculate its centre of mass. then multiply its weight by the distance from there to the resting end, then divide by the total length (weight times lever arm of the centre of mass, divided by lever arm of where you're lifting it). if the lumber is uniform density/thickness, that just reduces to half the weight. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/KYcp5Ux"
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in visual processing simple/complex cells, what is the difference between 'orientation, position, direction, motion, etc' | > the sensitivity to stimulus length is accompanied by selectivity for the specific orientation, motion, and direction of stimuli. > whereas complex cells were sensitive to moving stimuli of specific orientations that travel in a specific direction, simple cells only responded to properly oriented linear stimuli. > original organization of visual processing cells by hubel and wiesel cell type selectivity location simple orientation, position brodmann area 17 complex orientation, motion, direction brodmann area 17 and 18 hypercomplex orientation, motion, direction, length brodmann areas 18 and 19 _url_0_ what is the actual difference between orientation, position, direction, motion, etc? orientation and direction are from my understanding the same thing. what is the distinction they are making? i assume position refers to how off-center a stimuli is from the center of the field of view of the observer. and that, motion would be oriented relative to the observer as well? | orientation means the orientation of contrast. for example, a cell could be vertically oriented (sensitive to a vertical dark and light stripe) or sensitive to the orthogonal orientation (90 degrees): horizontal light and dark bars. direction refers to motion direction: a vertically oriented bar moving to the left for example. position refers to position in the visual field. a single cell might have a receptive field that corresponds to a particular area of the visual field (it responds to a tiny part of the world). adjacent cells would have receptive fields that correspond to nearby positions in space. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypercomplex_cell"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_perception#The_aperture_problem"
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you have a stopwatch on earth, and one in the center of the milky way, and you start them at the same time. in 10 years, what would be the time difference between the two stopwatches? | we have to adjust the clocks on satellites to account for their speed in relation to us. we must be moving very fast across the ecliptic of the milky way, in relation to the center. i wonder how much the difference in time will be. | part of the reason clocks on satellites don't experience the same rate of time passage is due to gravitational time dilation. the clock closer to the source of gravitation moves more slowly than a clock farther from that source. that said, motion is also a factor. the speed of the solar system relative to the center of the milky way is about 220 km/s, which is only .073% of the speed of light, so the lorentz factor is still pretty close to 1. the actual value is about 1.000000269, meaning we experience time at a rate that is 0.000027% slower than that at the center of the galaxy. this equates to a little more than 2 hours and 21 minutes per 1000 years. edit: just saw "10 years" in the title. over 10 years, our stopwatch would only experience about 85 seconds less time than the stopwatch in the milky way center. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone explain phil plait's tweet? "@badastronomer: a fully inflated football converted completely into energy would detonate with a yield of 9 million tons of tnt. #scibowl2013" | i can't imagine how the math works on this...can anyone explain? | he's substituting the mass of a football (probably a few kg) into e=mc^2 . he's using a equivalent tons of exploded tnt as an energy unit, like we do for atomic bombs. for context, the bomb that destroyed hiroshima was about 20,000 tons and the largest nuclear detonation was 50 million. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/search?q=240+petajoules+%2F+speed+of+light+squared"
] | [
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couple questions about superfluid | [wikipedia](_url_0_) says that superfluid has infinite thermal conductivity. isn't that destroying energy? also, another question, how doesn't superfluid take all the heat from earth? | there's this concept known as "quantum tunneling." bear with me here because it's about to get whimsical; you're going to have to take my word on a couple things lest we delve into some intense mathematics. quantum tunneling is this idea that a particle has an incredibly small probability of ending up anywhere in the universe. however, particles are *more likely* to do this if they slow down. by *alot*. superfluids are interesting because they usually take very small masses and cool them into near absolute zero temperatures. when the small particles end up slowing down to the point of being a fluid, they begin appearing and disappearing out of existence (see casmir effect). what does this mean? well, when they begin phasing like this, they take a significant amount of energy with them. as they conduct thermal energy, they phase it in and out. the problem here is that the energy taken to remove the particle tends to emit a photon. this is why most superfluids are clear. now as far as taking all the heat from the earth: when you cool a superfluid, you actually heat the earth up. it takes energy to cool the fluid. and, as we mentioned before, the energy can't be destroyed. with particles offending science like this, it can't be ignored that the energy will still exist. so, once you account for heat produced to remove heat and the phasing photons, the earth's temperature remains relatively constant. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superfluid"
] | [] | [
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] |
a question about supercooling. | when i put a bottle of water in my freezer and then take it out a few hours later it often hasn't turned to ice yet. when i hit the bottle into something then ice begins to form at the collision point until it fills the whole bottle. from what i've read this is known as supercooling. [example](_url_0_) i've seen videos of people opening and pouring out the supercooled water, which then turns to ice when it falls. [example 2](_url_1_) i though i would try this myself so i put 5 bottles of water in the freezer. i hit three of them to make sure they would turn to ice (which they did) then i poured the other 2 into cups, but they never turned to ice like in the videos i watched. i was just wondering why the two bottles that were poured out didn't freeze. | declaring myself the resident expert on supercooling, i have to say i'm pretty surprised. if the water in those bottles was legitimately supercooled, i'm surprised they didn't crystallize on pouring into a glass. usually pouring is enough of a shock to promote crystal growth. heck, its pretty tough just to open the bottles. dust in the air, dust in the cup... it could've been a fluke. crystallization is a randomized process, maybe you got the funny end of the distribution. i'd try it again. supercooling can be very touchy and without the ability to measure the temperature in your freezer precisely it'll be tough to know if you've actually supercooled the water without wasting all your effort. make sure you put all the bottles in the same place in your freezer and establish a protocol for how long it takes. do everything in your power to make your procedure as systematic and consistent as possible. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xe8vJrIvDQM",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkNs4bvhCt8"
] | [] | [
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about this time last year a mastodon carcass that was butchered 130,000 years ago was discovered. has this discovery and subsequent research come to any conclusions about who did the butchering? | i haven't been able to find any updates of that subject since may of last year. have their been any updates? | many archaeologists are profoundly skeptical that it was really a case of "butchering" rather than a natural death and normal post-death decay and damage. all the followup i've seen has been pretty harsh criticism of the original paper. --[contesting early archaeology in california](_url_0_) | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.nature.com/articles/nature25165"
] | [
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how "hazardous" are the chemicals used in zara clothing that the current green peace campaign is aimed at removing? | the answer is that they aren't. the chemicals they found on the clothing are not hazardous, they're widely used plasticizers found in many synthetic fabrics. probably wouldn't want to chug a bottle, but they aren't harmful in clothing. greenpeace is concerned that these chemicals, after being dumped *from the factory* will decay into carcinogenic and toxic materials in rivers. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a way to tell what factor is capping vo2 when operating at vo2max? ie: lung function vs cardiac output vs blood o2 carrying capacity | vo2max is always dependent on cardiac output. the lungs have infinite diffusing capacity (barring disease states that limit this, like sarcoidosis or idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis), so the only thing limiting them is how fast blood can be pumped through them. the blood’s oxygen carrying capacity is mostly inflexible. it’s determined by the amount of hemoglobin in your blood which in turn is determined by the amount of rbcs in your blood. anemia obviously decreases this amount, but i’m assuming you’re talking about healthy people. long periods of subacute hypoxia such as living at high elevations or consistent aerobic exercise can increase the concentration of rbcs in your blood, but it can’t change by much because you quickly reach a point where the blood becomes too viscous to flow through your arteries. this is documented in cases of people who produce more rbcs than their body can handle, such as in polycythemia vera. that leaves the heart. if your blood is basically a constant, and your lungs are not a factor, only changes in your cardiac output can change the rate at which oxygen runs through your arteries. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do our brains calculate/"do math" or simply decide quickly when we are judging when to respond. . . | i am having difficulty clearly formulating this question, so i will provide an example to help explain what i'm trying to understand... someone is standing still and waiting for a train to come so they can jump onto the train. essentially, that someone is trying to "time" their jump. as we are watching the train approach, getting a feeling for its movement, is our brain integrating speed, acceleration, distance and response time to inform our decision with a calculation, or is it simply reacting quickly at the moment to say "jump now!"? another example is pouring liquid into a container, judging when to adjust the tilt so that we can fill the container without spilling. this feels different than the above example since we have control over the pouring speed. so, **can the brain utilize information it receives over time to guide a judgement/response or is it a series of short snap judgments at discrete intervals?** i.e. begin jump at t=5 or t=1=don't jump, t=4=don't jump, t=5=ok jump. it seems intuitive that we do use information, but is there any science that tries to understand how this happens? is it really "calculating"? outside of nervousness or fear, do we benefit from having extra time to observe speed and movement before making the decision? an fmri of people timing a jump in say a video game lighting up the same areas as doing mental math would be cool to see. | most of the work the brain does is pattern recognition and matching. when we catch a ball, the brain isn't performing parabolic math - it is recognising the shape of the arc the ball is traversing. the brain 'knows' the shape of the arc and can arrange to have the hands in a suitable position to intercept the ball. most learning is based on experience and pattern matching rather than calculation. as babies we learn to move our limbs through trial and error - we learn the shape and motion of movement due to muscle exertion and slowly refine it into the ability to carry a filled to the brim cup of coffee without spilling it on the keyboard (most of the time - some of us need a little revision from time to time). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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am i understanding the implications of neutral theory correctly? | naive philosopher here. as i understand it, neutral theory suggests that the majority of evolutionary changes that occur offer no net selective benefit to a species, but are instead "neutral" with respect to a species' adaptivity. given that this is so, would it be correct to conclude that for the majority of biological phenomena, an explanation stating 1) "phenomenon x evolved because it did not confer a selective disadvantage to the species" is more accurate than a conclusion stating 2) "phenomenon x evolved because it conferred a selective advantage to the species"? obviously 2) is true some of the time, but am i correct to conclude that neutral theory implies that 1) should serve as the explanation the majority of the time? | most mutations are either neutral or deleterious. one reason for this is that many mutations are synonymous, due to [codon redundancy](_url_4_). this means you can get a change in a base pair without a change in the corresponding protein sequence. another reason for this is that the alteration may take place in a region that has minimal or no functional effect (for example, in a bit of sequence for a gene that is functionally redundant or no longer expressed). the reason mutations are often deleterious can be conceptualized by thinking about changing a random letter in a textbook. it is highly unlikely that such an alteration will make the text *more* meaningful, though in exceedingly rare instances, it might. it depends on population size. first, we need to think about [natural selection](_url_1_) (individuals carrying adaptive variants are more likely to survive) and [genetic drift](_url_0_) (the influence of random variation across generations based on which alleles happen to be loaded into the gametes that get passed on and any otherwise random events that influence allele frequencies). drift becomes more important relative to selection the smaller the population size, because drift has relative larger effects on smaller populations. (if i number animals randomly and use a random number generator to select which animal to cull, if i kill one animal out of 4, i've affected 25% of the population... if i kill one in a population of 100, the relative affect is much smaller - 1%) the selective advantage of the trait also has an impact, because the stronger selection is, the more powerful drift needs to be to overcome it. imagine a trait which is on a scale between lethal (we'll call that '1'. a value of 1 kills you.) and neutral (we'll call that '0'. 0 means the trait doesn't impact survival at all). we'll call this variable that goes between 0 and 1 and characterizes fitness 's'. if this value, s, is lower (more neutral) than 1/([effective population size](_url_3_)), then drift is more important than selection. so, if a trait is neutral, s=0, then drift is always more important because selection ain't doing jack. if s is lethal, then no matter how big the population is, selection is more important. if s is 0.2, and your population is 1000, then selection is more important than drift. however, if your population is 4 with the same trait, then drift is more important than selection. [here's some primary literature that addresses the topic, i think.](_url_2_) | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_drift",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/104/13/5698.long",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_population_size",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_code"
] | [
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is there a list of affordable test/tests that can be done on well water to determine the presence or screen for contaminates in general? | i understand you can test for specific things (vocs, nitrites/nitrates, bacteria etc.), but is there an affordable test/s that acts as a starting point for someone who is interested in knowing what's in their well water? | google resources for your local government. they will often provide testing, or at least information and where to go for testing for potential problems you may have in your area. the tests are usually rather inexpensive. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i want to add 25% more tension onto a musical instrument, does each piece need to be 25% stronger? | i'm currently reading a discussion on a popular double bass forum regarding [differing options for reaching contra low c (32.7 hertz),](_url_0_) and a comment came up saying the following: > "a 5 string bass has about 25% more tension to deal with, so theoretically, every part of the instrument should be built 25% stronger." the man who wrote it is a highly respected luthier (instrument maker), and all around intelligent guy, but i'm not 100% sure i buy his math. is this true, that the added tension and "strength" (the ability to withstand the combined tensions of a stringed instrument) would go up on an approximate 1:1 ratio, or would it differ? keeping in mind, of course, that these instruments are made of wood. thanks for your knowledge and input. | from a mechanical engineer's perspective, this statement isn't totally true. it assumes that the instrument is right at capacity, meaning that it is right about to break due to the tension. most things have what we call a factor of safety incorporated into their design. the factor of safety is basically the ratio of how strong it actually is (the maximum load it could survive) divided by how strong it needs to be (the maximum load it will actually experience in its use). so when it is at capacity, it has a factor of safety of 1. so if it experiences any load higher than intended, it will fail. however, when you have a factor of safety greater than 1, say 2, then increasing the load (tension) by 25% will not cause it to break. also, it says every part of the instrument needs to be stronger, it ignores the possibility that one part of the instrument is "weaker" than the rest. to get an idea of this, consider a tensile testing "dogbone" specimen: _url_0_ basically, the ends are much thicker than the middle so we know where the specimen should break when we pull on the ends. the instrument could have a section that is the weakest link, and even that section would likely have a factor of safety. from a general engineering standpoint, if something is going to experience 25% more load, then if we want to keep the same factor of safety, then we should increase strength by 25%, but usually, we have the factor of safety because we simply can't be sure what the maximum load is going to be. so we don't always have to worry about making things 25% stronger for most applications. high performance products like those in the aerospace industry have low factors of safety, near 1, because higher factors of safety mean higher weight. for musical instruments, worrying about weight isn't our primary concern, so i would expect to see this logic in instrument design. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.talkbass.com/forum/f1/run-hills-re-hash-ext-vs-5-str-1030744/"
] | [
"http://www.faimaterialstesting.com/site/images/physical/comp_tens/dogbone_sample_caliper_2.jpg"
] | [
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imagine two electrons, isolated from everything, they are some distance apart, and repel each other. how is the force communicated between the two electrons? | imagine a separate universe, it has all the same physics as ours. in this universe there are only two electrons, say 1 metre apart. they exert a repulsive force on each other. how is the information that there is in fact a force communicated? i know photons are supposed to mediate electromagnetic force. where does the energy for these photons come from? how often does this information get updated? when they get so far apart that the information takes a considerable amount of time to reach another, does it start to feel a stronger repulsive force than it would normally, as it would receive information about a force from a time when distance was shorter and the repulsive force therefore stronger? do these questions make sense? edits: grammar, removed question that was distracting from the real point. | the question absolutely makes sense - it's an incredibly interesting question for anyone who thinks about physics. this discussion falls under the topic of [action at a distance](_url_0_) | 30 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_at_a_distance_(physics\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb's_law",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty_principle"
] | [
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do rocks, minerals, or any other non-living thing adapt to their surroundings? | after seeing [this](_url_0_) post today on carminite, i wondered why it was so spikey. do non-living things have the ability to adapt to the environment around them? | if any object isn't in a stable equilibrium with its environment, there is a driving energy to bring it into stable equilibrium. now, this doesn't necessarily mean anything will happen to that object, because of kinetic effects and activation energy barriers, but objects like minerals and rocks can be 'unhappy' in certain environments, causing them to react or change form. here's a concrete example: the mineral epsomite (same thing as epsom salt) has 7 h2o molecules per formula unit in its crystal structure. however, if you put epsomite in a desiccator it will lose some of those waters and change its structure to a less hydrated phase, such as kieserite. if you cool down epsomite in a humid environment, it can take more water into its structure and become meridianiite. you could think of this as the mineral 'adapting' to changes in its environment (in this case, temperature and relative humidity), but this is an anthropomorphization because all that's happening is nature minimizing free energy; there's no conscious decision to adapt. in the picture you show, those crystal faces are a natural result of the internal crystal structure of the mineral, but think what would happen if it wasn't allowed to grow into free space. for further reading, check out some of bob hazen's work on ['mineral evolution'](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/pics/comments/2l9761/carminite/"
] | [
"http://hazen.gl.ciw.edu/research/mineral-evolution"
] | [
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what are some of the alternative/contrary theories to human sociobiology? | i recently was reading about the late stephen jay gould's objection to sociobiology (that is to say, that a relationship exists between human social behavior and evolution by natural selection), and how scientists like richard dawkins firmly advocate the theory and the correlation it suggests, but i must say that i don't fully understand the counterargument to it (as suggested by gould and others). i was wondering if someone could clear up the alternate theories as to why/how social behavior developed in a non-biological context, because to me (and this is simply personal thought) the sociobiological theory seems to "cover all the bases" in terms of why us humans act and interact the way we do. i also remember reading a part in dawkins' "the god delusion" mentioning how a sense of human morality rose from the need for acceptance into society among early human communities, and i can definitely see how that ties into this whole debate (if it can really be called such). lastly, i was wondering whether or not the scientific community, in both biology or sociology, has a general consensus on this theory? was gould's disapproval a radical idea, or do many scientists from both major areas feel sociobiology is a poor and/or incomplete way of explaining social behavior? thanks for any and all answers. | to my knowledge, gouldt mostly argues that many of the higher functions we have are by-products/indirect consequences of natural selection rather than something that was directly selected for. this is not the same as to say that natural selection has not have a major impact on human behavior. he did approve the theories of kin selection, for instance. i'm coming from the field of biology and within our field a lot - i would almost dare say majority - of people are skeptical of sociobiology simply because you have to be very careful and thorough with what you do. it is way too easy for us to make unfounded assumptions (often mirroring our society and values) of how things were x number of years ago, to conclude that this lead to natural selection and that's why things are like they are today. we already know from first hand experience, how much our own values and expectations influence science (e.g. only recently did we start to acknowledge that homosexual behavior in animals is common and that females are in general pretty promiscuous). hence, it often feels like sociobiology is repeating the same mistakes as ethology did. there is also a lot of very poor quality sociobiology out there... it is often very simplistic (does not discuss what genes might be responsible, what the mechanism might be and if this is influenced by the environment) and non-critical (disregards a lot of cognitive psychology, neuroscience etc in how our brains interpret and react to stimuli, often forgets or ignores to take in count the cultural influence on our behavior and our assumptions, clumps several different biological functions into one and does not take in count all what we still don't know about biology). unfortunately this really flies well within media because it is easy to understand and related to and it doesn't require any actual understanding of biology. dawkins does, unfortunately, sometimes fall into this category. however, absolutely not all of it is bad. for one, robert m. sapolsky has written high-quality stuff relating to sociobiology. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is prenatal testing done on twins, triplets etc? | as far as i know, doctors extract some fluid from the womb in order to test if there are any disorders. how would this work for fraternal twins as both share the womb? | fraternal twins, also called dizygotic twins, share the same womb, but *not* the same placenta or amniotic sacs. a baby develops inside a membranous sac which is filled with fluid. a doctor would extract fluid from both (or as many as there are present) sacs and perform prenatal testing separately. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how quickly does electricity flow? | suppose i have a power supply, an on/off switch, sufficiently long cable and a light at the end. also assume this circuit has all the necessary components, such as resistors. then how long must this cable between the switch and light be for there to be a noticeable delay from flipping the switch to the electricity activating the light? in answering ignore any delay within the light itself. | note that the rate of signal propagation is different from the rate at which the electrons actually move. the latter is known as [drift velocity](_url_0_) and is usually quite slow. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_velocity"
] | [
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] |
why months, weeks, hours, minutes & seconds? | had this thought whilst travelling today, why do we measure time in these units? i understand why we measure a year as a year - it's one orbital period of the earth moving around the sun. i understand why we measure a day - the earth's rotation of it's axis. what i don't understand is why seconds, minutes, hours, weeks or months? it might be an obvious answer - science never was my thing, but why do we measure a year as 12 months? what does the length of a month have to do with a year, why does a month have 28-31 days in it? what does the length of a week have to do with a year, why does a year have 52 weeks in it? hopefully you understand where i am going with this. years and days as a unit i understand, but seconds, minutes, hours, weeks and months i don't. | circles are measured in units of 360(ish) degrees since the ancient times because * 360 is an extremely convenient number, mathematically speaking — it's evenly divisible by every number from 2 to 10 except 7, and * a year (which is an important agricultural cycle) has close to 360 days (which are an important human cycle) months are as long as they are because that's approximately the lunar cycle, which is closely related to tides (and therefore important in fishing and other maritime industries) as well as visibility of stars at night (and therefore important in navigation). and because these natural cycles come in divisions of approximately 1:12 (year:month), 1:30 (month:day) and 1:360 (year:day), other time units were chosen historically to follow a similar pattern. early clocks (sundials) were based on movement of the sun in the sky, and therefore they were generally circular in shape, so they were also subdivided into 12s, 60s, and 360s. weeks similarly arose from approximate subdivisions of the lunar cycle, but since 7 is a very inconvenient number, that's the only place where it appears in calendars. the fact that all these subdivisions are only approximations of cosmological cycles crops up in weird calendaring arrangements all the time — leap days, non-leap century years, and, perhaps the most hilarious of all, [september 1752](_url_0_). the reason why months alternate between 30 and 31 is that, well, all 30s doesn't work, and neither does all 31s, so we alternate. year used to start on first of march (in roman empire), which is why leap days are added to february — they used to be added as needed to the last month of the year. this is also why *sept*ember has in its name the latin root for *seven*, *oct*ober for *eight*, *nov*ember for *nine*, and *dec*ember for *ten*. so, months used to start in march, and go 31-30-31-30-31-30-31-30-31-30-31-28/29. then, in roman times, july and august were renamed from their previous names to their current names, in honor of julius caesar and augustus, two roman emperors. and it was deemed totally uncool to have one of the emperor months be longer than the other, so august was lengthened to 31, and the pattern changed to 31-30-31-30-31-31-30-31-30-31-31-28/29. (separately, the beginning of the calendar then shifted to january, giving today's pattern of 31-28/29-31-30-31-30-31-31-30-31-30-31.) edit: added tangent about naming of months and pattern of month lengths; typos. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/monthly.html?year=1752&month=9&country=1"
] | [
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what is the simplest/least intelligent organism that is susceptible to operant conditioning? | would operant conditioning work on an amoeba? or a jellyfish? or a sea urchin? what's the requisite amount of computational power required for it to work? is it quantifiable? | i don't have a paper source but a seminar speaker from cu boulder who studies aging in c. elegans said it's possible in nematodes | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where does vaginal flora in female come from? | i understand that our gut flora comes from what we ate and skin flora comes from the environment and all that. but where does the vaginal flora come from? if the lactobacillus need an acidic environment to live in, how do people ‘caught’ it? why do most female have mainly lactobacillus in the vaginal while the other parts of our body is so diverse in regards with microbiota? and will anyone not have ‘caught’ lactobacillus but have other healthy bacteria residing in their vagina? | when i studied physiology they liked to refer to our digestive system as a massive tube which is technically in contact with the outer environment, so from your mouth to your anus is just a processing tube for your food. foods will naturally have microbes such as lactobacilli which you either excrete or pick up from other places, however unlikely. it's amazing how far bugs can travel, you probably have e. coli down your thighs just from them being in your digestive system, so it's not unrealistic to assume they could make their way to a vagina. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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from an evolutionary standpoint, what evidence is necesary to determine if a specie acquired an ability, such as seeing in the dark, due to predatory needs or if it became a predator after developing this ability? | one way would be to look at the fossil record. low-light vision is frequently associated with large eyes, while predators generally have sharp, cutting teeth and/or some way to catch their prey. both of these would be detectable in the fossilized skeletons of the animal's ancestors, assuming it's a vertebrate. if you have a good fossil record (not too many "gaps" in time), and can assign fossils with certainty in a chain from the past to the present species, you may be able to directly infer which changes came first. however, this is often not possible. the fossil record is patchy and the relationship between an extinct animal and those that exist today is not always obvious (was it a direct ancestor or something more like an "uncle," a side path that went extinct?). we can also make inferences about a species's evolutionary history by comparing it to its living relatives (sometimes alongside fossil species). a computer can use genetic data and information on the traits that are similar and different among a group of species to determine the evolutionary tree (or [phylogeny](_url_0_)) that represents their relationship to one another. based on the tree, we can say something about how their traits probably evolved. often this is done based on the [principle of parsimony](_url_2_), which is a fancy way of saying we assume that the simplest explanation that fits the data is likely to be the correct one. one nice thing about phylogenetic comparison is that it can help us make inferences for traits that *don't* leave any fossil record, such as behavior. i have made a simple [hypothetical example tree](_url_1_) to illustrate how this works. if you are not familiar with reading evolutionary trees, let me quickly orient you. at the bottom is the "root" of the tree, representing one species that existed in the past. as you travel upward, you are moving closer to the present. each time the tree branches, it represents the split of one species into two. once two species have split from each other, they then evolve independently and may split again. at the tips of the branches at the top of the tree are the species alive today. you can determine how closely related two species are by tracing the line between both tips and counting how many split-events separate them. a and b are separated by only one, so they are closely related. d and a are separated by 3, so they are closely related. note that the physical arrangement left-to-right doesn't matter on its own. species d is also three splits away from b, so it is equally closely related to b as to a, even though species b is physically "closer" left-to-right. on our tree, there are four species: a, b, c, and d. species a, b, and c all are predators, while d is a herbivore. species a is nocturnal, while the other species are all day-active (diurnal). for our purposes we are assuming that all four species evolved from a herbivorous, diurnal ancestor. in order to get from the ancestral state to a different one (e.g. herbivore to carnivore) there has to be an "evolutionary transition" somewhere on the tree. that represents one now-dead organism that acquired an alternative trait. (in reality this was probably a gradual process involving a whole population of animals, but the one-animal transition is clearer for our purpose.) all descendants of the transitional organism inherit its new trait, unless they "reverse" it with another new transition. you want to know which evolved first: predation or night vision, so we can map each scenario onto the tree and see which one is simpler (more parsimonious). i have done this, to the right. in scenario 1, night vision evolved before predation. however, two of the predators do not have night vision today (species b and c), so in this scenario they must have lost it again and returned to a diurnal lifestyle. since b is more closely related to species a than to c, there is nowhere we can place a single "reversal" transition on the tree that turns b and c into day-active animals but allows a to remain nocturnal. therefore, under this scenario they must each have lost night vision independently. this scenario requires 4 evolutionary transitions (my colored rectangles) in total.* on the other hand, in scenario 2, predation evolved before night vision. as you can see, this can be accommodated with only two transitions. one transition from herbivore to predator in the common ancestor of species a, b, and c, and another transition from day vision to night vision inherited by a alone. this is clearly the simpler, more parsimonious scenario for this tree. from this, we can infer that predation probably evolved first in the ancestor of species a. this is not 100% certain: a complicated evolutionary history is not impossible, but is less likely than a parsimonious one. we just don't think that major evolutionary transitions are that common. i made this tree example to be very clear-cut, but it's not always so easy. if b and c were nocturnal while the others were diurnal, we could explain this with one transition to night-vision and one reversal in a, or as two independent transitions to night vision in b and c. both explanations are equally parsimonious (two transitions). also if people don't agree, or change their mind, about how species are related to one another, this can impact what evolutionary explanations are likely or not. ******* \* there is actually an alternative set of transitions that also conforms to the scenario of "night vision before predation," but it is not any more parsimonious than the set i described. see if you can figure out what it is... ;) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree",
"https://imgur.com/a/xYhrp5s",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_parsimony_(phylogenetics\\)"
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|
do corvids hunt based on sight or scent? | we don't know very much yet, but [olfactory ability in birds](_url_0_) seems to vary both with preferred food and whether the animal is nocturnal or not. that makes it hard to generalize about all corvids, but the ones that scavenge decaying meat certainly use scent: [olfactory acuity in the common raven](_url_1_) *the efficacy with which ravens can locate concealed carrion and similar foods has been noted from antiquity. this ability has been claimed in folklore to indicate an acute sense of smell. contemporary opinion among ornithologists is that the sense of smell is weak at best in passerines, and particularly so in corvids which lack developed olfactory apparatus. four studies were performed to test whether ravens could find hidden food (fresh ground fish) under conditions where scent was presumed to be the sole cue. the subjects, captive juvenile ravens (five males and three females) capably chose which one in a pair of containers held food buried under 2.0 cm of no. 4 gravel, discovered food concealed under as much as 2.5 cm of gravel, and located as little as 1.0 g of food covered by 1.5 cm of gravel. the several findings are consistent with the possibility that ravens can use olfactory cues to find food.* | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.audubon.org/magazine/january-february-2014/birds-can-smell-and-one-scientist",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3960998"
] | [
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|
after you give blood, and before your body replenishes said blood, what happens in your circulatory system? | when you donate blood, you donate approximately one pint at a time and the human body contains (on average) 6 liters of blood. since 1 pint is the approximate equivalent of half a liter (or 1/12 of your total blood volume), what does your circulatory system do to compensate for that loss of blood? i'm assuming that your blood pressure would fall off at least somewhat, so does your body just sit around a deal with that while waiting for new blood cells to form or does it compensate for the loss of blood in some way? | several things happen: first the capacitance vessels (mostly veins in your legs) contract, forcing more blood into the rest of the circulation. next: extracellular fluid flows from the extracellular space into capillaries and "refill" the circulation. this is not blood, but has a similar basic composition without the cellular components. if effectively dilutes your blood, restoring volume but with fewer active components (red and white blood cells, platelets, coagulation factors etc). at the same time hormonal signals make the kidneys retain water and salt as well as excrete epo (erythropoietin) into the circulation. the first bit helps restore total body fluid levels to normal, and the second bit speeds up red blood cell production. (this is kind of rough from my memory from pre-clinical physiology. if you are really interested in things like this, have a basic understanding of chemistry and physics and have a masochistic streak you could pick up a used copy of a previous version of this _url_0_) | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Guyton-Hall-Textbook-Medical-Physiology/dp/1416045740"
] | [
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ir spectroscopy question (should be an easy one, i assume) | on an ir spectrum, occasionally i will get a band that looks like an inverse peak. i think this is happening around 1700 wavenumbers. i can try and post a pdf if a visual aid will help here, but basically it goes above 100%t in the same manner that you would expect to see say a carbonyl peak, for example, but just in the opposite direction. it is doing this repeatedly for all spectra my colleague is reporting and my boss and i want to know why this would happen? (ps, yes we are measuring in %t, and all other characteristic peaks for the functional groups appear as normal) | if you're mistake about the position, and it's really at 2200 wavenumbers, it's probably a co2 negative peak. it means you were breathing (more) over the ir when you took the blank. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does one navigate by use of stars? | as the earth rotates and celestial objects rise and fall on our horizons, how can one accurately navigate with the stars? | you can tell direction based on pole stars. you can tell latitude also by pole stars (and how low/high on the horizon they are). try it, look for polaris (roughly above the bowl of the big dipper) and that's north, notice how close/far from the ground it is, that's your latitude. longitude deals with stars roughly 90 degrees from the pole stars if i remember, but an easier way is to use the sun: create something similar to a sun dial, then calculate the difference between local noon and utc noon (noon in greenwich, england without daylight savings). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there a viable way to shape sound waves? | i only mean in the sense of sound not going past a certain point. the basis for this question started for me when i read *ender's game*. i remember reading the part where ender was first introduced to the giant's game by another character. i can't remember the exact quote, but it was something along the lines of: > ender saw (xyz character) playing a different game on his computer. it was interesting because he had never seen it before. he could see the player talking to a giant, but he could not hear what the giant was saying because the sound was shaped towards (xyz character). my question in short, is this. is there a viable way to shape sound waves so that only a small contained area can "hear" the sound? | yes. sound is a wave, so with a correctly shaped reflector the sound can be focused on a narrow area. this type of setup often used in museum exhibits to limit the audible narration to a small area. narrowly focused sound can also make a non-lethal weapon. see [parabolic loudspeaker ](_url_1_) and [lrad](_url_0_). | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Range_Acoustic_Device",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_loudspeaker",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_from_ultrasound",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y-P1zZAcPuw"
] | [
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silicone fluid temperature and viscosity | i was reading about subaru's awd system i found a chemistry concept that i do not understand. here is the text: "a viscous coupling contains a series of opposing discs attached to the front and rear drive shafts, surrounded by a type of silicone fluid. in normal operation, the differential distributes power equally between the front and rear wheels (50/50 power split). slippage at the front or rear wheels causes a rotational difference between the front and rear discs in the viscous unit, which in turn shears the fluid. the shearing action heats the fluid, causing it to thicken. as the fluid thickens, power transfers from the plates rotating faster (the slipping wheels) to those rotating more slowly (the wheels with the best traction). when the slippage stops, all the discs turn at the same speed, restoring the 50/50 power split." (source: _url_0_) i always thought that viscosity decreases (thins) with increasing temperature for all substances. after some research, it seems that the true cause of the viscosity change is the increase in shear force. could someone please explain what is happening with respect to these three properties (viscosity, temperature, and shear force)? | i can't really help with this specific example, but i can talk a bit about non-newtonian fluids, which change their viscosity based on forces applied to them. a newtonian fluid, such as water, has a constant viscosity at a given temperature. the water could be flowing down a pipe or being sheared between two plates and the viscosity would be the same. shear-thinning fluids decrease their viscosity under shear. an example would be toothpaste: it sits on your brush with a high viscosity, but when you shear it against your teeth it becomes much runnier. you can also think of paint, which flows easily when sheared between brush and wall, but then thickens and stays put once you've painted it onto that wall. shear-thickening fluids increase their viscosity under shear. think of that cornflour mixture which is hard and solid when you squeeze it, but will run through your fingers on an open palm. non-newtonian fluids are often made of polymers, as these long chains can interact in different ways depending on the forces applied to them. we can configure these polymers to have all sorts of properties. | 3 | [] | [
"http://subarucar.net/en/symmetrical-all-wheel-drive-the-cornerstone-of-subarus-total-product-lineup"
] | [] | [
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since pluto and charon are tidally locked, can you see pluto's heart from charon? | i posted this on /r/spacequestions a couple weeks back, but no replies. | the planets are both tidally locked to each other, and the 0° or prime meridian is directly under charon.^[1](_url_1_) the wiki article shows a [map of pluto](_url_0_) with 180° longitude in the center. the "heart," which is provisionally called *tombaugh regio*, is centered just east of 180° and extends as far as 120° w longitude. this implies the "heart" is not visible from any point on charon's surface. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Map_of_Pluto_PS723_HR-g.jpg/1920px-Map_of_Pluto_PS723_HR-g.jpg?1439735860777",
"https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Geography_of_Pluto"
] | [
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why exactly does the parasite t gondii need a cats digestive system to reproduce? | i have been researching the parasite t gondii lately and it's very interesting stuff. but i don't understand why exactly it needs a cats digestive tract to reproduce? why can't it just use a mouse or dog or even human digestive tract? thanks! | parasites with alternate hosts are known as [heteroecious](_url_1_) (at least in the plant world). i do not know anything about t. gondii or mammals. but heterocious plant pathogens are usually highly complex organisms like rusts which exhibit 5 different type of spores (with different numbers of sporulation events), multiple potential hosts, and resting periods. this indicates that these organisms have [co-evolved](_url_0_) for an extended period of time,with give/take on each side. that's about as much as i can give on the subject. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heteroecious"
] | [
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when an ohm-meter shows a negative value, how was it determined? | i took some unexpected electrical measurements on the human body. i attached two metallic wrist straps to my arm, and clipped one lead of an ohm-meter to each strap. with dry wrist straps, i was expecting to get readings of around 1 mω. if i connected the meter one way, that's what i got. to my surprise, if i swapped the leads, the meter read around negative 1 mω. obviously, a negative resistance is impossible. i switched the multimeter to a volt-meter setting, and i was able to see around 50 mv across the two straps. the human body has bioelectric potentials, and i had managed to connect to two points that had different potentials. obviously a simple attempt to measure resistance will be meaningless in this situation. i understand all that, but what i would like to understand is how the ohm-meter determined the negative value that it displayed. the classic wheatstone bridge ohm-meter tries to zero the current flow across the bridge galvanometer, by adjusting a resistor. the lowest value that resistor can have is zero ohms, and if that still doesn't neutralize the current flow across the bridge... then what? i suspect that the multimeter isn't using a wheatstone bridge after all, but what might be used in its place, i don't know. i also don't know whether that "negative resistance" value is expected to be meaningful. i did notice that it was roughly -1.0 times what i got when i swapped the leads. | the issue seems to be relatively common and is related to the test current used at a given range selection and other factors (like the natural human potential and capacitance) that inflate the normal sources of error/noise to the point where a negative value gets displayed. [ref](_url_0_) | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://digital.ni.com/public.nsf/allkb/4996ED8931FD2BCE8625731D0000D875"
] | [
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why do some drugs and medications (even in generic form) come in specific shapes, like diamonds, squares and circles? | all medications are required by the fda to have an imprinted code which when used in conjunction with the shape, scoring, and color can be used to identify the medication, strength and it’s manufacturer. you can visit _url_0_ to identify a pill, but there’s tons of other places to do that including apps that are designed for heath care providers that have lots of other helpful features. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"https://pillbox.nlm.nih.gov/pillimage/search.php"
] | [
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|
can there be current without voltage or voltage without current? | the following is an incorrect proof, but i cannot determine why. help me with my physics, please! (i think the explanation lies with alternating current.) let us consider a circuit of a household located in the united states. this circuit begins at the electrical panel, connects to a receptacle, and then leads back to the panel. the receptacle has nothing plugged in, and so there is no load on the circuit. therefore, no energy is being used, either; i.e., p=0. we also know that v=120, because this is an american household. now, by definition of power, p=i*v, which implies p=120*i by our assumption about voltage. furthermore, p=0 implies 0=120*i, or that i=0. however, using ohm’s law, v=i*r, we see that 120=0*r implying that 120=0, which is a contradiction. /// | the problem is that you're trying to apply v = ir to an open circuit. in an open circuit, r is essentially infinite. so everything here is consistent with i = 0. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are data coverage maps for verizon, at & t, etc. generated? | i was looking at t-mobile's coverage in my area, and i saw a straight border across a body of water, which got me thinking, how did they figure out the shape of the coverage blobs? | my time to shine! i worked for a company called [mobilecomm](_url_0_). they rig up rental cars with power inverters to power laptops connected to an array of cellphones that make various call types, call lengths, and data transfers. they then drive around in areas of a given city and test specific carriers' signal strengths in various locations. we would check areas with poor coverage during test phases for improvement; or before area rollouts of new markets, signal bands, or system upgrades etc. the signal maps in the carriers' office usually had two versions: the first being an ideal signal coverage map based on planning, engineering, and 'projections'. the second being one that showed actual test results from recorded signal strengths on the drive.of course there were also angry red marks on the second map =d | 26 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mcpsinc.com/mcpsinc/Home.aspx",
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how are doctors able to control the blood in this gif? | _url_0_ i saw this post on the frontpage and i thought it was fascinating, but i was curious how doctors are able to keep the chest cavity from just spewing blood everywhere. what steps/precautions need to take place? is it possible to do it in all areas of the body? slightly off topic, but i noticed that the heart is rubbing up against other parts in the body in the gif, and i was wondering how the body lubricates itself internally for that? wouldn't that constant rubbing cause discomfort/injury without some sort of lubricant? thank you. | blood isn't going everywhere because they avoid cutting large blood vessels. you only bleed where you cut into a blood vessel. on top of that, they can use local vasoconstrictors to keep small blood vessel from bleeding, and they can clamp medium and large blood vessels that they have to cut. finally, yes, pericardium is lubricated. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/interestingasfuck/comments/54zbw9/i_asked_my_doctors_for_a_picture_of_my_heart/"
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what is the best way to reduce the weight of a metal beam while maintaining its structural integrity? | me and my friend are trying to reduce the weight of a metal arm in order to decrease the moment of inertia. our plan is to drill holes in it, and we were wondering what the most efficient way to do that is. a few large holes, lots of small hole, a combination of the two? | the most strength-to-weight efficient way would be building it as a [truss](_url_0_). if you want something simple stick with circular holes, but be careful with [stress concentration](_url_1_). either way it is difficult to say exactly how you should remove material. ideally you should use [fem](_url_2_) to better adjust your design to the forces that will be acting on the arm. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truss",
"http://www.amesweb.info/StressConcentrationFactor/CentralCircularHoleInFiniteWidthPlate.aspx",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_element_method"
] | [
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] |
are there infinitely many "twin semiprimes"? | at work today i wrote a small program to output the prime factors of a range of numbers. as i watched them scroll by, i let my mind wander and watch the length of the strings of prime factors, and i'd see every once in a while there were two semiprimes right next to each other (the example that's right in front of me now: 5097=3×1699 and 5098=2×2549). i assume these would be called "twin semiprimes", and i've seen a few references to this type of number when i tried to google it, but infuriatingly few details about it. my question is: are there infinitely many of these pairs? would this be trivial to prove? has it been proven? again, pure mathematics is not my strong suit, so i'm not even sure if this is a worthy question to ask. | things like this are hard to prove, and there is a large class of problems dealing with these kinds of questions within [analytic number theory](_url_1_). special cases of this theory would include not only what you suggest, but also the twin prime conjecture. here are some relevant results to what you ask, though i cannot guarantee that these are the latest results. * probably most relative to your question: if q(n) is the nth semiprime (product of two primes) then [it has been proved](_url_0_) that there are infinitely many n so that q(n) and q(n+1) are at least 26 apart. so the answer to your question is "yes", if you let the two numbers be at most 26 apart. * there is another result that says that there are infinitely many numbers, n, so that one of n and n+2 is prime and the other is either prime or a semiprime. about as close as you're gonna get without actually proving the twin prime conjecture. * and of course there's zhang's theorem, which shows that if p(n) is the nth prime there are infinitely many primes so that the distance between p(n) and p(n+1) is less than 600. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/math/0506067v1.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_number_theory"
] | [
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another 877 dolphins wash up dead in peru. anybody know if rates are actually climbing this year? | so we all have read different news stories from different networks about dolphins washing up alive or dead all over the world. [this story](_url_0_) is probably the most recent and actually surprises me that cnn is showing it some attention even though they seem a little quick to tie it to disease. i am just wondering if dolphin strandings and deaths are really up that high from previous years, or is the media just trying to stir up something? also have clear causes been identified yet? i've heard everything from oil, chemicals, disease, starvation, sonar, explosions, etc; yet it seems like if this has been going on for so long we should at least have at least 1 or 2 culprits identified. any answers are appreciated! | dr. yaipen, a marine vet, contends the deaths are directly the result of seismic surveys done in the waters near and offshore. the traditional media, the government, the scientists, are not willing to stand by the factual analysis he did. big oil is the reason why - lease monies from oil and gas, dirty oil grants to scientists, etc. there are over 185 seismic vessels in existence with currently 156 operating. see marine vessel ramform soverign - the largest moving object on earth to understand how seismic surveying is a mass killer. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.cnn.com/2012/04/22/world/americas/peru-dead-dolphins/index.html?hpt=hp_bn2"
] | [] | [
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if a cat inhales helium, does it meow with a higher pitch? | alternatively: how does does helium affect the sounds made by a variety of non-human animals? | i replied to another comment, but i wanted to leave my own comment on this post. yes, a cat will experience the same sort of frequency shift as a human if they breathe in helium. however, not *all* of the sounds are shifted when helium is breathed in. to better understand why, you must first understand a little bit about how your voice is produced. most of the sound you hear is generated by the vocal chords, and is then filtered by the vocal tract and mouth cavity. the vocal chord frequency is determined by the tension on the vocal chords, as well as their length. when a person sings, they change the tension on their vocal chords to alter their fundamental frequency. the "filter" is determined by the resonance of the vocal tract, and is altered by adjusting the mouth and throat. the placement of the resonances, and how they change in time, is largely how we hear vowels. when you change the gas in the vocal tract, you alter the frequency response of the "filter" part of the speech. the vocal chords, however, are unchanged, so the fundamental frequency and spacing between harmonics of the speaker is the same. that said, since the frequency of the filter is shifted up, *which* harmonics are actually audible changes. as a result, a speaker who inhales helium sounds "higher." moreover, not all sounds come from the vocal chords. consonants are created in the mouth, but are also filtered by the vocal tract to varying degrees. as for other animal sounds, any sound whose frequency isn't determined by the resonance of an air cavity will be unaffected by a change in gas. the humming of a humming bird, for example, is determined by the frequency that they flap their wings. for a non-animal example, the frequencies put out by a boombox are independent of gas, so a speaker in helium will sound the same as a speaker in air. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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selective medium for streptococcus mutans | today i learned about different strains of bacteria and how the selective medium can help us isolate the particular strain of interest. i wanted to know how the selective medium works for bacteria from closely related families (with similar characteristics)? | differential media are pretty handy in identifying a certain species of bacteria, usually done in conjunction with differential staining. since the question was specifically on media, i will only focus on those. assuming that the bacteria species can be cultured (some are very fastidious and can't be cultured on artificial media away from their habitat!), the media can either be selective, or differential to help us with speciation (or sometimes both, in cases like macconkey) selective media will only favor the growth of one type of bacterium, while inhibiting the growth of the other. as a major example, emb media contain methylene blue, a toxic substance to gram-positive bacteria, thereby only favoring the growth of gram-negative ones. differential media will show different results depending on the species. for example, as goodguy_asshole mentioned, depending on the hemolysis activity of the bacteria, the blood agar plate will look different where the bacteria are growing. [this](_url_0_) is a good example showing the different results. macconkey serves as both selective and differential, as it contains bile salts that inhibit the growth of gram positive bacteria, while also testing the strain's ability to ferment lactose, helping you identify the species. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cdc.gov/groupbstrep/images/lab-hemolytic-lg.jpg",
"http://www.southparkstudios.com/clips/385755/the-true-cost-of-tooth-decay",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Strep_Classification.svg"
] | [
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] |
optics - does anyone know the name of the symbol (triangle) in the picture in the link? | link to the picture for visual explanation _url_0_ | it looks like a capital greek letter *delta*. it is frequently used to represent the change in a variable, which seems to be the case here. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.dropbox.com/s/shdfdt9g1xdabz4/triangle.jpg?dl=0"
] | [] | [
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how does a ribosome know to traffic a protein with a hydrophobic signal sequence and signal recognition particle to the er vs. the plasma membrane? | i have always assumed that some srp receptors make it to the golgi/plasma membrane during forward transport. if they are degraded, how are they selectively chosen? is this assumption wrong? or is this just a matter of proximity? thanks! | after translation of the signal peptide, translation is inhibited when a protein called signal binding protein (sbp) binds to the translated signal peptide. sbp then translocates that ribosome to the er, where translation continues and the protein is directly translated into the er. once in the er, glycolsylation patterns on the protein will determine where it is transported to (golgi, cell membrane, ect.) via vesicles called v-snares and t-snares. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would be the impact of a substance that could radiate cold the same way most things radiate heat. | the way i understand it when something cools down it's because the heat has spread out to more atoms and gotten them moving, using up the energy of the source of the heat. now i'm wondering what kind of impact a substance that could, instead of taking in the heat and speeding up it's molecule, slow down the molecules of of what comes into it's area of effect. | you have a mistaken idea of thermodynamics. very quickly, heat is thermal energy. temperature dictates which direction heat naturally wants to flow -- that is without applying external energy in the form of work (e.g., a refrigerator/heat pump), the net heat flow will always be from an object with a higher temperature to an object with a lower temperature. when you talk about something radiating photons in proportion to their temperature to the fourth power ( t^4 ) due to blackbody radiation. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a specific reason why the genus echinops is so popular with various pollinating insects? | the [echinops](_url_0_) genus [picture](_url_1_) with, bees, bumblebees, wasp and a fly. | color and flower form play an important role in attracting certain pollinators. for example, scarlet/orange tubular flowers are geared toward hummingbirds. blue/violet hues appeal to most insect pollinators. other than that, the plant may just happen to produce an abundance of nectar (not all flowers are equal in this regard). but on that, i'm speculating. edit: also, the really "fine" compound flower structures are best suited for insects, whereas bats and larger pollinators generally go to larger flowers. | 3 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinops",
"http://i.imgur.com/ITQix1I.png"
] | [] | [
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] |
would conventional human narcotics have any effect on a lobster? | no, i am not planning to drug a lobster. but a recent conversation turned to lobsters and heroin, and this spurned my curiosity. are humans and lobsters similar enough that something like lsd, marijuana, etc, would have a mind-altering effect on a lobster? if i can't get a direct answer, could some of you fine folks point me to some literature regarding the effects of drugs on other animals, (i.e. dogs, birds, and of course elephants.) thanks! | i don't know if anyone's ever done the experiments on a lobster, but in the mid 20th century [peter witt did it with spiders](_url_0_), to some pretty interesting effects. spiders and lobsters are pretty distant (like 500 million years diverged), but humans and spiders are far more distant, so i'd imagine the results roughly hold across all arthropods. i'm pretty sure that videos do exist of these spiders building their webs on drugs, but the internet appears to have been flooded with copies of [this](_url_1_) stupid video, so that's all i can find. in seriousness, if anyone has a link to actual video of spiders spinning webs on drugs, please post it! i'd love to see it! | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_psychoactive_drugs_on_animals",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sHzdsFiBbFc"
] | [
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as of today, the dow jones is at the highest level it's ever been and gdp per capita is the highest it's ever been. why is inflation adjusted household income basically unchanged since the 1960's? | from eyeballing those charts, gdp per capita has gone up by ~$18k since 1999 while household income has gone up by about $10k for the middle quintile. household income has gone up by about $35k for the top quintile during the same period. there are probably some other factors involved, specifically dealing with how these numbers are calculated, but the trend is pretty clear: the pie is getting bigger, but the rich are taking a larger and larger cut of it every year. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do eyestalks (such as on slugs) work? how do they retract and extend? | they inflate them with their haemolymph (or bodily fluid), and they have a retractor muscle, that when contracted, withdraws the tentacle. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what do we know about the flora and fauna in north korea? | is there any ongoing research in nk? what are the odds of finding new taxa (i.e. how different is the landscape compared to surrounding countries?). i understand that human-rights issues are understandably considered more important but i always wondered how much we know about the natural environment in nk. thanks and happy new year! | from wikipedia, it seems that the countryside has been more or less "devastated" and wildlife absent: _url_0_ _url_2_ i think [this pbs article](_url_1_) is relevant as it's cited on both those wiki pages. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea#Environment",
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/nature/inside-north-koreas-environmental-collapse/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_of_North_Korea"
] | [
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is there any wildlife unique only to north korea? | given that north korea is the most isolated country in the world, and has a large area it stretches on, are there any forms of life unique to north korea? if so, is there any collaboration between north korean biologists and biologists from other countries? | there is a difference between politically isolated and biologically isolated - north korea can not be considered biologically isolated in the strict sense, as it is physically attached to the asiatic mainland. that being said, there are species endemic to north korea, just like there are for many other countries. you may find a partial listing [here](_url_0_). | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://lntreasures.com/koreanorth.html"
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] |
why do nonpolar substances dissove better in nonpolar substances? | i know the rule that nonpolar dissoves better in nonpolar, and polar better in polar. i get the polar thing, so water and ethanol, because there are dipole-dipole interactions. but i don't get why hydrocarbons dissove better in each other (and other nonpolar liquids) than in water or another polar substance. is it only because the polar molecules cling together so the nonpolar molecules get locked out? | water and ethanol mix well because they can form hydrogen bonds between them. hydrocarbons cannot, so their solvation would only involve breaking these bonds between water molecules, without the formation of any new strong intermolecular interaction. on the whole, this results on the mixed system having a higher energy than the two phases apart, and that's why water and hydrocarbons don't mix. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is a time-reversal invariant topological insulator and what properties doe the time-reversal invariant part add to it with respect to "ordinary" topological insulators? | i'm reading about the fine structure constant and came across this, i would love to know more about this but where do i start? | first of all, many people only use the term "topological insulator" to refer to the time-reversal invariant type (at least the [wikipedia article](_url_1_) does). but this field is steeped in confusing jargon so there's no guarantee that everyone means the same thing by the same terms. the more general property which topological insulators (tis) have is called [symmetry protected topological (spt) order](_url_0_). these are characterized by the following: 1. spts (without a boundary) have an energy gap. this means that if you try to excite an excitation, you have to put in a minimum amount of energy. this is the sense in which they are insulators: in a conductor you only need to put a tiny amount of energy in to get a current flowing, while these systems you cannot get a current going. (this goes for either electric or heat currents). 2. if you try to alter an spt state - say by adding dirt, applying experimental probes, or theoretically by tuning various interactions - you cannot interpolate between different spt states without going through a phase transition **unless** you break some symmetry. this is why they are called symmetry protected. every spt state has some symmetry associated with it, and provided you keep the symmetry and you do not go through a phase transition, one stays in the same spt state. why is this interesting? well, in some sense you can define every boring insulator, whether it's air or the vacuum or a normal insulator, to be an spt which we will call the trivial spt. then if you have a boundary between a non-trivial spt and air (a trivial spt), there must be something interesting going on at the boundary of the two. usually, the boundary is automatically conducting with some quantized conductance, but the precise nature depends on the two spts in question. th symmetries are very important here. if you break the symmetries which characterize an spt phase, you can smoothly tune your system to a trivial state without a phase transition, and nothing is special about the boundary of your material. in time-reversal invariant topological insulators, the symmetries are charge conservation and time-reversal. on the boundary of these tis there is quantized conductance, even though they are insulating in their bulk. if you read about some other kind of topological insulators besides the time-reversal invariant ones, let me know what your reference is and i can clarify. i think you probably read about "chern insulators," which are spts where the only symmetry is charge conservation. the difference between these is that they are different kinds of spts, but as i detailed above, there is a rich structure of different phases depending on your symmetries. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_protected_topological_order",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_insulator"
] | [
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] |
how do ring laser gyroscopes work? | i heard (i think) they were used in an experiment to measure the rotational speed of the earth. i dunno how though | my understanding is that the laser emits pulses that are split in two and directed by mirrors to a receiver. the path lengths for both beams are the same so if the gyro is not rotating then the pulses are detected arriving at the detector simultaneously. however, if the gyro is rotating then the detector will rotate towards one of the pulses and away from the other, detecting one earlier than the other. the time difference can be used to calculate the speed of rotation and the direction by whichever pulse arrives first. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalman_filter",
"https://navytribe.files.wordpress.com/2015/11/s9427-an-omp-010.pdf"
] | [
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] |
a question about watching videos, the speeds of light and sound, and our brains. | okay, so the speed of light is faster than the speed of sound. so when a person is watching a video and the images they are seeing and the sounds that they are hearing seem to synch up, is the sound in fact playing a few milliseconds (or whatever) prior to the video in order to synch up? or does our brain simply recognize that even thought it is receiving the information separately, it should synch up a certain way so the brain simply presents it to us as synched up? or does it all happen so fast that we simply can't recognize that it is slightly off? or is it something else? | there was recently linked on reddit, i think -- likely on /r/science -- an article about some study where the test subjects were shown a flash of light slightly after they pressed a button (iirc, the button was on a touch screen, possibly at a different location each time, not that that much matters here; for the life of me i can't remember if there was any sound involved, which is also possible). apparently after a while their brains synced the pressing of the button with the flash of light so that they experienced them as simultaneous, despite the tiny interval between the two. after a while, though, they changed the flashes so that they were *actually* simultaneous with the pressing of the button, and now the 'pre-synced' brains experienced the flashes as if they happened slightly *before* they pressed the button, which clearly wasn't the case. so even if the difference between the arrival of light and sound is usually too miniscule for our brains to notice (distant lightning strikes being the one obvious exception to the rule), apparently the brain *does* do some syncing of slightly out-of-sync things that it interprets as causally connected and effectively simultaneous, which can also lead to "temporal illusions" like that one above. as for whether or not this ever happens with sight and hearing in reality, i can't really say. sadly i also have no idea how to find that study/article anymore. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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reddit! do you have ideas for science labs/projects for blind youth? | hey there, looks like you got a few ideas already, but if you are still looking for other ideas, send a [message to the mods](_url_0_) explaining the situation. as mods we can set it up to make sure you get more exposure and can ensure more involvement from scientists of all different fields. if you're interested, a moderator sponsored post might be a great way to demonstrate how anyone and everyone can be involved in science! all the best. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience",
"http://www.noao.edu/education/peppercorn/pcmain.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UZlW1a63KZs"
] | [
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] |
|
can someone explain what might cause this pattern on radar? | seen [here](_url_1_) (may expire though) and screen-capped [here](_url_0_). | _url_0_ if the radar detects a signal that is in the same band as it transmitted, you end up with a spike at the bearing of that signal: "however, the radar doesn't know that this radiation wasn't radiation that it emitted. so it interprets it as just normal signal bouncing back. since the emission from the sun is continuous, the return is interpreted as a continuous beam stretching out from the radar in the direction of the sun. and that is where those spikes come from." we see the same thing in sonar if there's an object in the water that has continuous narrowband components at the same frequency as the transmit frequency. | 4 | [] | [
"http://postimage.org/image/4lbcpmt2f/",
"http://radar.weather.gov/ridge/radar_lite.php?rid=RAX&product=N0R&loop=yes"
] | [
"http://lukemweather.blogspot.com/2011/05/radar-spikes-are-not-government.html"
] | [
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] |
is there any validity to the norton dome thought experiment which claims the universe is non deterministic? | the thought experiment gives a symmetrical dome with gravity down it's axis. a ball is then given precisely enough momentum that it moves to the top of the dome and is perfectly balanced at its point. because the laws of physics must necessarily be reversible, this demonstrates that the ball, even perfectly balanced at the point and under no external force, can spontaneously roll off the dome in an arbitrary direction. therefore, the universe is not deterministic. is there any validity to this whatsoever? | you can read my more detailed response [here](_url_0_). in summary: no, the norton dome does not prove or even support the fact that universe is non-deterministic. at best, it's an example that shows newton's laws may not be as precisely stated as we may initially think (which includes what is precisely considered a "classical system"). most mathematicians and physicists will simply interpret newton's laws with some sort of caveat like "the form of newton's second law as f = ma is true given that f is lipschitz in the position variables (or some other appropriate smoothness condition)". the norton dome seems to be important only to those who discuss philosophy of science. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/6kxto3/is_this_paper_correct_in_stating_that_newtonian/djpojxq/"
] | [
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how powerful of an updraft would be needed to save a skydiver without a parachute? | this is [video](_url_0_) made me think about this. basically i want to know if this would be possible at terminal velocity. im pretty sure you would need a turbine jet engine and a miracle to simple get deflected or shot back up into the air. | assuming that the person falling can maintain a belly-down position to produce maximum wind resistance, they'll fall at roughly 120mph. in order to reduce speed to a safer 20mph or so, an updraft of about 100mph would be required. producing such an updraft in nature would be a tall order, although a mesocyclone (cyclonic updraft) that occurs before most tornadoes may be capable of it. i cannot find a specific number on the vertical speed of one though. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjhoaMS_OyM"
] | [] | [
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how did scientists/chemists find out the energy required to break bonds of an atomic compound? | [deleted] | first of all, the 436 kj/mol energy you refer to is what it takes to separate h2 into two neutral hydrogen atoms, not h+ ions. this is called the "[bond dissociation energy](_url_1_)." for a simple molecule like h2, it can be directly calculated from quantum theory. there are a variety of methods to measure this energy for more complex molecules, including spectroscopy (measuring light absorption) and calorimetry (directly measuring the changes in heat when bonds form or break). each method has various advantages and disadvantages. i'll explain a little more about spectroscopic methods, since i'm most familiar with those. with infrared spectroscopy, you can measure the vibrational frequencies produced when bonds stretch and bend. after doing some math, this will let you know how "stiff" the bonds are, which allows you to estimate the energy required to break them. (see for example this paper: _url_0_) i specifically say "estimate" because this method isn't completely precise. however, it's pretty easy to measure the ir spectrum of molecules. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/j100306a016",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond-dissociation_energy"
] | [
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] |
how exactly do physicists predict masses of yet unobserved particles? | what does it mean, when a mass of a newly observed particle fits/doesn't fit the standard model? is it more about algebra? calculus? statistics? | the "standard model" is a description of all theoretical fundamental particles. it organizes them so that they follow certain patterns like [this.](_url_0_) it predicts how different particles react based on their properties and what properties a particle will have based on its other properties. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg"
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how does loaf balancing of electric grid work? | as i understand, the electric grid needs to have exactly the amount of electricity necessary to accommodate a given number of users. how can an electric grid adjust its power every time a user is connected/disconnected? this adjustment seems to be needed instantaneously, but i suppose it takes some time to increase or reduce the power. | the short answer is that the grid doesn't respond instantly, just very quickly. the power supplied from your outlets is constantly fluctuating, but suppliers are always changing output to get as close to the target as possible. modern suppliers are very effective at this, controlling to withing tiny margins the amplitude and frequency of grid voltage. & #x200b; grid-scale load balancing relies on a number of power sources that each have advantages and disadvantages. for example, nuclear power can be very cheap, but can take longer to respond to changes. hydroelectric power has the simplest mechanisms, so let's use it as a model. & #x200b; **power generation** water falls through a turbine, which turns a generator at 60 hz, or a different speed based on gearing. the generator acts as a variable brake, pushing harder against the turbine the more power is drawn from it. this braking results in a slowing of the turbine. electrically, power delivered is still the same, but the current is higher and the voltage lower. & #x200b; **load** when you turn on an electric appliance, you actually lower the line voltage for everyone else on the grid, and likewise you increase the grid voltage when you turn an appliance off. this is okay because the changes are roughly proportional to your usage as a part of the overall grid usage, which is a tiny fraction. furthermore, through most of the day people are turning things both on and off, so the net change is limited. & #x200b; **adjustments to generation** staying with the dam, the correction to this voltage drop is to add more power to the system, which in this case means opening the gates wider, or turning on another turbine to share the load. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why did the us adopt 120v60hz as standard vs the much more widely used 220v50hz that most of the world uses? | title just about sums it up. is it down to efficiency, ease of delivery, more affordable substations and relays? enlighten me guys. | the differences are mainly historical; however, the eu has mandated a standardization of mains at 230v, not 220v. the frequency difference was another historical engineering difference implemented at 60hz based on westinghouse generation standard and aeg germany at 50hz. us and euro-based generating companies maintained a unique frequency difference to balance their international monopoly rather than any technical limit as early incandescent bulbs displayed flicker at or below 40hz which was eliminated at 50hz. _url_0_ | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mains_electricity"
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can the van der waals forces be applied to every molecule? | for example, can every hydrogen bond be explained with van der waals, or are they different? | [van der waals](_url_0_) isn't much of an explanation as much as a catch-all term that refers to any non-specific, non-bonding, non-ionic interaction between molecules. hydrogen bonding is considered a specific quasi-bonding interaction, so it doesn't quite fit this definition. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://goldbook.iupac.org/V06597.html"
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can someone explain the details of the flow of electrical current (e.g., why does a generator not "run out" of electrons.. how can a computer cable transfer data quickly if the speed of electrons in the cable is a few centimeters per minute) | a few questions here: 1) for simplicity's sake, picture a simple permanent magnet generator hooked up to a lightbulb. it has always baffled me how a generator can continuously generate electrical current without "running out of" electrons. if the changing magnetic field induces a current in the coil of copper wire, doesn't that mean the electrons in the copper coil have to flow through the circuit to the lightbulb. why doesn't the copper eventually run out of electrons? 2) i have read that electrons actually move incredibly slowly down a wire, on the order of a few centimeters a minute. if that is true, how the hell can a computer cable transfer data so quickly. similarly, what actually dictates the speed of data transfer in a copper cable.. clearly it is not the physical velocity of the electrons in the cable | ok an easy way to picture this is to picture the wire as a hose and electrons as marbles. in this case we have two hoses a positive and negative. now the hose is filled with marbles large enough that you can only fit one at a time. we hook one end of the positive hose to the generator and the other end to the light. then the negative hose to the other side of the light and the other side of the generator. the generator is going to push a marble into the positve hose, but the hose is full so it instantly pushes a marble through the other end and into the lightbulb creating light.the marble that was previously in the light gets pushed into the negative hose instantly pushing the marble at the other end of the negative hose into the generator. this highly simplified but it helps to see that while electricity is not fast it is instantaneous. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i were on a perfectly smooth sphere one billion times the size of the sun and i placed a perfectly streight yard stick on its surface, would the yard stick touch at all points allong its length? | no. on any "perfectly smooth sphere" of finite radius, a perfectly straight stick will touch the sphere at exactly one point only. the stick essentially forms a tangent to the sphere at the point where it touches it, and since the sphere is curved (ever so slightly), it can only touch at one point. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does natural selection remove a trait that no longer has a fitness benefit but is otherwise benign? | i have a feeling it has something to do with the costs associated with the development of the trait (in that case the idea of a benign trait is probably false). if this is the case, i want to know specifically how that works. it would be helpful if someone could provide an example. thanks! | if the costs associated with the development of the trait are detrimental in some way, then it will be selected against. if it's truly benign and has no effect on fitness, there will be no selection for or against it. this is how you get [vestigial](_url_0_) traits. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestigiality"
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] |
is it possible to have a very low density fluid (like air) but at the same time be very viscous (like honey)? | it's my understanding that density and viscosity are independent properties of a fluid (liquid and gas). density has dimensions of mass per unit volume (e.g kg /m^3 ). viscosity has dimensions of mass per unit length and time (e.g kg /m /s). since mass is the only variable that appears both in density and viscosity i see no reason why we can't have a very low density fluid (like air) but at the same time be very viscous (like honey). but i can't seem to find any examples of this. | if a pure substance has a high viscosity it will have strong intermolecular interactions. if a substance has strong intermolecular interactions it will be a liquid and not a gas. liquids are much more dense than gases. in other words. you can't have a gas with a significant viscosity because gases have weak intermolecular interactions and you need strong intermolecular interactions to have a high viscosity. there may be a way of 'cheating' using some kind of foam. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could we make oral care food for humans like there is for cats/dogs? | i've never brushed my cats' teeth in their long lives but, in spite of that, they have (what the vet calls) perfect teeth and gums, which she attributes to the fact that they eat a fair amount of oral care cat food. would it be possible to take the same principles (i'm not sure what those are) behind oral care cat food and modify human food so that we don't need to brush our teeth? | good question! i doubt it's possible because (1) humans eat a lot more sugar than cats/dogs, (2) human teeth have to last much longer, and (3) humans don't have rasping filiform papillae on their tongues, which probably also serve to keep the inside surfaces of the teeth clean. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about the behavior of light | quantum mechanics describe a photon as acting like a particle, wave or possibly both at the same time. is this statement correct? if so, why is it supposed something has to behave like a particle or a wave? what if there is a third+ property(s) that we can not observe, called **q**. could the property i called **q** be influencing not only the photon, but the measuring device as well? | quantum mechanics gives a description of how things behave. in certain situations, this behavior is matches very closely to the classical notion of a particle, and in other situation, this behavior matches very closely to the classical notion of a wave, but neither of those descriptions are fundamental, and it is not necessary for things to behave specifically as a particle or a wave. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can somebody build up a tolerance to electricity? | there is a difference between "not being in pain from x" and "being immune to x." pain tolerance is one thing, but a taser works by using electricity to create physical convulsions. this is direct stimulation of the muscles we're talking about. adapting to that would require evolution to provide us with electrical insulation to sheath our skins/muscles/organs. just get a heavy jacket with metallic filaments in it attached to a capacitor. put that electricity to use. :-) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
doesn't having a gastric sleeve conflict with what's classed as a healthy daily calorie intake? | so i've been led to believe that even when dieting it's important to at least eat a certain level of calories per day to allow your body to function properly. doesn't getting a gastric sleeve that will / can then mean you are intaking less than the required amount mean your harming your body? | your body doesnt need new calories, it just needs calories. some one that gets gastric sleeve has large stores of calories (fat) that needs to be used up to decrease weight and help alleviate the effects of diabetes. as long as there are enough essential proteins and vitamins in the diet, its ok to eat much less than the recommended daily allowance of calories. also, most people who get gastric sleeve need to take vitamin supplements. is this the best way to lose weight? absolutely not. but if other ways of losing weight just dont work, its over all better to lose weight due to the effects of gastric sleeve than it is to stay at a heavier weight. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
by what mechanism is a human being able to estimate the passing of time? what happens when this function is disrupted? can you lose your sense of time passing? | i think op between the lines asks an interesting question not asked a lot: what areas in our brain handles time? how do the areas change when faced with a clock in a doctor's room, or a clock when late for a buss. what areas activate when the brain handles "time" and what does it mean cognitively? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
question about an alien spaceship travelling to earth | i had a discussion about it and now am rather confused. following situation: an alien planet is 10'000 lightyears (ly) from earth. so at our year 0, they receive the radiowaves from year -10'000. an alien ship launches and travels to earth with lightspeed (if this is a problem, let's say 99.9%) just as the radiowave from year -10'000 hits the planet. the ship itself can receive the waves as well. now as the ship travels the 10'000 years to earth, does it receive 20'000 years worth of radiowaves? how? because as soon as the ship reached the planet, the year there is 10'000, and thus the ship crossed every wave of the last 20'000 years. | yes. it will be doppler shifted, though. so not only are the frequencies higher, everything is played in fast forward, so to say. time dilation also comes into play. the closer the aliens get to the speed of light, the closer the travel time will approach zero. so it could take them only 1 second from their perspective for the whole trip (still 10'000 years from the outside), and then they will receive the entire radio history of the last 20'000 years within one second (in super fast forward). | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tTAp4a2n_og"
] | [
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i've got some questions about freezing human blood. can you guys help me out? | i'm doing a project on the human body, and i was wondering; what temperature is required for freezing human blood? should you add something to prepare the blood for the process? also, does blood change color in the process? if so, how is this to be prevented? thank you in advance! | there is a range of temperatures for freezing blood and blood products depending one what you plan on doing with it. are you interested in temperatures for whole blood (rarely done in this manner anymore), packed red cells, plasma, or some other component such as platelets? why exactly are you freezing the blood? | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is "heat" a word used in physics? | i've been taking physics thermo lately and i still don't understand this. my book says that heat is just the flow of energy, and not itself a form of energy, but if that's the case, why don't we just talk about kinetic energy? isn't that ultimately what we're talking about? why use this word that just muddles the conversation? i'm probably wrong, if someone could explain what heat technically is to physicists that would help me. | the definition of heat for a given process is given by the first law as the difference between the variation of internal energy and the energy supplied by mechanical work. it's based on the observation that, only referring to macroscopic quantities like u and v (and similar generalisations such as area), energy simply isn't conserved and it's necessary to introduce the possibility of "hidden" energy transfer, invisible to macro variables, between system, and that is heat. so heat is just that, a non-mechanical energy transfer. now, if you are set out on giving an explicit microscopic interpretation (i.e. you're doing statistical mechanics, not thermodynamics) then internal energy is basically the kinetic energy of molecules, and, say, heat from conduction is just the normal transfer of kinetic energy directly between molecules. then you might say: 'but that's a mechanical energy transfer'. yes, but just of the microscopical system, the one where all of the single molecules contribute degrees of freedom. what you want to do is "integrate out" all of this information about what all the molecules are doing into very few big macroscopic variables. in the context of these variables (which is just thermodynamics) heat is non-mechanical. in thermodynamics, you're not supposed to know or care about the microscopical structure or basically anything else from the macro variables. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much do mhc ii proteins differ from person to person? | i learned in ap biology today that each person has a different mhc ii protein, but my teacher doesn't know how much they differ | because i applaud your curiosity i'll answer this instead of studying for my human genetics final :) so, in humans, the mhc region of dna is called the hla locus. within the hla locus there are three different genes that encode mhc ii molecules. hla-dp, hla-dq and hla-dr, each of which has an alpha chain and a beta chain. like any other autosomal gene, there are two alleles for each of the hla-dp, hla-dq, and hla-dr and an individual can be homozygous the hla genes, or heterozygous (one from mom one from dad - you've probably covered this if you're in ap bio). each person has their own alleles for the mhc ii genes. for mhc-dp alpha chain there are 27 different polymorphic alleles in the population, and 133 different beta chain alleles. that means that within the population there are 3591 different combinations of hla-dp alone. there are 3264 different combinations of hla-dq, and 2121 different combinations of hla-dr. theoretically, it is then possible to have around 24 000 000 000 different combinations of mhc ii chains within the population, each person having 18 out of 24 000 000 000 of these combinations (or 12 out of ~2000 mhc ii alleles). however, this doesn't occur due to something called linkage disequilibrium, which is that genes that are very close to each other and therefore do not as readily undergo homologous recombination. because homologous recombination is fairly rare between the genes of hla, it is most common to see a small subset of combinatorial variations of mhc. so, all this being said, a similar type of variation occurs for mhc i as well and as you can imagine this is why it is such a huge ordeal when someone has to get a bone marrow transplant where it is important to match mhc alleles. people that are related by descent are more likely to have mhc of the same type and that is why transplants are usually from relatives. if that left you confused, which i would expect it might as i am not the greatest at explaining things, you can look it up in janeway's immunobiology or kuby immunology. these are two pretty great textbooks. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain the difference between the glycocalyx and the mhc classes on our cells? | i'm in a microbiology course and my professor said the mhc classes are used for cellular identification with t-helper and t-cytotoxic. i understand this, but i also remember from my anatomy and physiology course that we briefly touched on the glycocalyx and that it was the "sugar coat" that allowed for adherence but also identification within the body. so my question is, what is the difference between the two or are they closely related? | mhc stands for major histocompatibility complex, which you already know... when antigens are taken into a cell, the antigen is degraded into a specific peptide and then is loaded onto an mhc class i or ii protein and the peptide:mhc complex is presented at the cell surface where it might bind to an antigen specific cd4 (helper) or cd8 (cytotoxic) t cell on its receptor. [glycocalyx](_url_0_) is a general term for the gelatinous layer on top of epithelial/endothelial cells and bacteria cells (bacteria do not express mhc in nature) containing proteins, polysacchs, and glycoproteins.. the glycocalyx environment might contain mhc | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://healyourselfathome.com/SUPPORTING_INFORMATION/BODY_ELECTRIC/BODY_ELECTRIC_IMAGES/glycocalyx.jpg"
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do all things change over time? can the laws of physics change over time. | there's an important point here: the universe does what the universe does. what we think about it is, essentially, irrelevant. when we say "laws of physics," what we really mean is a collection of unambiguously true mathematical statements about what the universe does. apples fall from trees, the sun shines, squeezing something makes it hot … and so on. the goal of theoretical physics is to come up with the *smallest possible* set of such statements that describes everything that ever has or ever could be. one of the guiding principles we use when pursuing that goal is called the *principle of covariance.* what it means, stripped of fancy language, is that when we write down mathematical descriptions of the laws of physics, we do so in such a way that those descriptions are true wherever — *and whenever* — you are. if you have a mathematical description of nature that is only true at one place, or at one time, then you aren't yet done. you need to generalize that description so it holds true at all times and places. essentially, we want to write down statements about reality without ever having to use the word "except." so in order to give you a direct answer to your question, we have to examine two different things: what *are* the "laws of physics," in the sense of what we mean by that phrase; and what *are they meant to be,* in the ideal sense. the laws of physics we have right now certainly could be different at different times. but that's because they're a work in progress. whenever we find evidence that some law changes with time, we *rewrite the law* to incorporate the *way* it changes with time, so that it becomes a true statement at all times. a good example of this is recent (well, over the last century) work in theoretical cosmology. the universe is not, as was once believed, static. it evolves really incredibly dramatically over time. does that mean the laws of physics change over time? no. it means we had a job to do, to rewrite some of those laws to incorporate their time-dependence … and in fact to look deeper than simple time dependence and figure out what they *really* depend on, so that those laws are no longer pure functions of time but rather statements about the relationships between physically measurable quantities. so the answer is kind of yes and kind of no. if we make an unambiguously true statement about the universe and call it a law, and it's later found that that statement isn't always true, we can say rather carelessly that that law changes over time … but the better option is to rewrite the law so it's always true. which is what we do. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how did the ip address 192.168.0.1 come about as the standard gateway address? | thanks so much everyone for these awesome answers! i may not know why the numbers 192.168.0.1 were chosen, but i've learned a ton about how they came to be and why this "range" ended up being used! | 192.168.x.y was made a special ip adress range for private/internal network use in the standard [rfc 1918](_url_0_). so using 192.168.0.1 for your gateway would seem a reasonable choice given that it would be in that range. no clue why they chose that particular prefix though. maybe there's a story there. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1918",
"http://stackoverflow.com/questions/7744020/why-192-168-x-y-for-local-ips"
] | [
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] |
a question to anyone who knows molecular symmetry and character tables. | thanks in advance, i understand the character table itself and what the symmetric/ antisymmetric blah blah all means. but what is this x^2 + y^2 term that keeps popping up in the quadratic column, i recognize x^2 - y^2 as a d-orbital, but i have never came across this x^2 + y^2 until i started working through character tables. _url_0_ thanks edit: wasn't expecting reddit to use exponents | the final column of the table lists a number of functions that transform as the various irreps of the group. these are the cartesian axes (x,y,z) the cartesian products (z2, x2+y2, xy, xz, yz) and the rotations (rx,ry,rz). so, these are possible basis functions for this point group. source: _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.webqc.org/symmetrypointgroup-c3v.html"
] | [
"http://vallance.chem.ox.ac.uk/pdfs/SymmetryLectureNotes2009.pdf"
] | [
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just how bad is the ecological crisis? | normal mass media seems very ambivalent or confused about the topic. and yet, we always hear scattered stories like "90% of big ocean fish are gone" or "the current extinction rate is 10,000 times normal background levels" or "we have five years to stop global warming from locking in place." so how bad is the ecological crisis, really, and what can we expect to happen if we continue business as usual? | its bad, its what keeps me up at night. as a trained biologist, shit is about to hit the fan. many other people here have provided ample resources, so i am just going to add my scientific opinion. if we don't fix it soon and fast a lot of very bad things are going to happen, nature wont care she will do her thing. we should care because it means the survival of our species - or the very least the difference between life and death for the majority of us. simply put the earth has a finite amount of resources and we are using all its resources beyond the capacity of the earth to regenerate them. on top of it we are destroying the mechanisms put in place to regenerate those very resources. its pretty messed up, and while plenty of good is being done (i cannot stress it enough how awesome the people fighting for our planet are) what we really need is a shift in our entire way of thinking about how we conduct ourselves on this planet. life on earth will survive, we cannot kill everything. the bigger question here is how many species are we going to take with us? and will we be able to survive through it? if we do, how many of us - and where? and will we make the same mistakes we are making now? we are beyond the point of waiting of 'techno fixes' we have the technology now, we don't have the motivation. ok, the scientist in me says provide resources! ipcc website is awesome on everything climate change, takes a little while to navigate but its because there is so much information. do not be overwhelmed. _url_4_ [wwf](_url_0_) and [iucn](_url_5_) provide great resources on the state of many endangered animals and ecosystems. of course watching [the inconvenient truth](_url_3_) [how many people can live on planet earth?](_url_6_) doc by david attenborough other books - the best one for the oceans: the end of the line by charles clover. there is also a movie: [the end of the line](_url_1_) no this is not sensationalized, it is happening now and the oceans are in big trouble. if you watch any movie its this one. another ocean one: the unnatural history of the sea by callum roberts the future of life - e.o. wilson on oil - [the crude awakening](_url_2_) book: the long emergency - james kunstler in terms of the specific examples you mentioned they are probably over sensationalized by the media. but it is true that there is a point of no return for most of these things (like climate change, peak oil, population carrying capacity) the problem is we probably wont know when that is until we are past the point of no return. we will only be able to look back and say - ah yes, 2025 that was when peak oil was. or yes, 2011 - we are past the point of no return for climate change. i would say that climate change is pretty much "locked in place". not because we have already past the point of too much ghg's in the atmosphere, but because dick all (and yes this is appropriate language) is being done by world leaders to combat and put in and **enforce** effective policies to mitigate climate change. i am sorry i come from canada where the government has been actively trying to get countries to stop putting effective policies. it is a very sad state. i would recommend that rather then listening to reports about this from the media (they love to ramp stuff up for ratings!) that you look at articles from various sources (news, ngo's, government, policy makers, corporations), get involved with local ngo's and ask them questions about the state of the environment. understand who is funding who - who are your politicians/scientists being backed up by? it requires research and patience. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.worldwildlife.org/home-full.html",
"http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/end-of-line-world-without-fish/",
"http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/a-crude-awakening-the-oil-crash/",
"http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/an-inconvenient-truth/",
"http://www.ipcc.ch/",
"http://www.iucn.org/",
"http://youtu.be/dN06tLRE4WE",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hansen",
"http://www.350.org",
"http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/08/26/world/asia/20070826_CHINA_GRAPHIC.html",
"http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=519&ArticleID=5688&l=en"
] | [
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how to determine the rate determining step of a reaction? | i know what a rate determining step is, just how can i figure which step is it when given a balanced chemical reaction? for instance how does rate order factor into this thing? | there is no way to determine the rate of a reaction from the balanced chemical reaction alone. you need the mechanism. if you empirically measure the order with respect to various reactants, it becomes possible to deduce a mechanism and thus an rds. for example, the iodination of propanone (the canonical example used to explain the rds), is given by: ch3coch3 + i2 == however, the rate is order 1 wrt [propanone] and order 1 wrt [h^(+)], but order 0 wrt [i2]. how can this be? this suggests at or before the rds, propanone and h^+ react in some way, in a 1:1 ratio. it turns out that h^+ adds onto the carbonyl group in propanone to form a hydroxyl group (-oh), in a slow step. h3c-co-ch3 + h^+ == then, in a fast step one of the outer carbons' hydrogens is eliminated and a c=c double bond formed: [h3c-c(oh)-ch3]^+ == next, the iodine quickly adds via electrophilic addition: h2c=c(oh)ch3 + i2 == finally, the central iodine and the hydrogen on the oh group are quickly eliminated: h2ic-ci(oh)-ch3 == since the only slow step is the first one, that's the rds. this fits with our experiment, since h^+ and propanone combine in a 1:1 ratio. all the other steps are fast and irrelevant. if there were fast steps before the rds, those would also affect the order of reaction though, so be careful. ps: i hope this makes sense, especially the formulae and equations. without subscripts it's pretty hard to get across chemical formulae. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the heliopause less than 2 lightyears away? | since our nearest solar neighbors are the centauris and they are 4 lightyears distant (and similar to our sun in mass), i would expect our own sun's solar wind to extend until it met with the solar wind of neighboring stars — or 2 lightyears away. but i understand that the two voyager probes may have already passed through the heliopause (where the solar wind ends) and they are certainly not that distant. wikipedia refers to an "interstellar medium" ending our sun's solar wind. wut? | the interstellar medium (ism) consists of the gas, dust, and other free particles floating around in interstellar space, i.e. the space between stars. interstellar space is not actually a vacuum, though the densities and pressures are far smaller than any place on earth. the sun is releasing particles into the interplanetary medium (i.e., the space between planets), which we can call the solar wind. those particles are creating an outward pressure. the pressure of the solar wind decreases with radius (particle counts will drop as the [inverse square law](_url_0_)). when that pressure is balanced by the pressure of the ism, you get the boundary layer known as the heliosphere, of which the outermost layer is the heliopause. the scenario you've outlined would happen if there was no ism, in which case the solar wind would extend outward and would not be balanced by anything until it hit the solar winds of neighboring stars. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law"
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my brain: sequential or parallel inputs? | how does the brain handle sensory inputs? are we able to process simultaneous events? e.g. sight and pain at the same time or pain in two locations of the body at the same time. does the brain treat each equally with divided attention or does it queue them up? | i don't know much about the senses outside of vision, so i'll have to stick to that. the answer here is highly limited parallel processing. attention is a very big area of cognitive research, both in psychology and neuroscience, and has dominated large parts of vision research. the whole idea behind attention is that we evolved a system which will reduce the information coming in from our eyes into a much more manageable quantity of information. we can't process everything that we see, and it wouldn't be beneficial to process absolutely everything coming in (all those not-moving things in the corners of the room right now don't need to be processed). there is still a lot we don't know about attention. we don't know *what* attention is, really. we know that there are certain stimuli that seem to be preferentially processed (sudden onset bright lights, for example), and we know that if something is relevant to a goal then it is special (ever look for a tomato in the fridge and have your eye caught by every red container?). we don't know what the mechanism is that makes this so. the next issue in this is that we don't know *when* attention does its thing. there are a lot of steps from the world hitting your eyes to you making some kind of response to this information. for a long time, there was a debate about whether attention happens early (at visual perception) or late (at response selection). what seems to be the case is that attention is flexible, and will process a lot of stimuli when demands are low, and process less stimuli when demands on the attention system are high (so-called load theory). so, what are some actual numbers? in terms of how many things we can attend to at any one time, four is kind of the agreed upon number for [visual working memory](_url_0_). this is the number of items or features (components of items) that you can keep in visual memory and work with. this number will change with the complexity of the individual objects. there is also a limit to the rate at which we can process information. this is borne out most clearly in an experimental paradigm known as the [attentional blink](_url_1_). in these (very dull) experiments, participants view a stream of letters. these appear for very little time, and there is usually little or no time between the letters. the stream could be something as simple as: v a b t k l h j u v l a the participants task would be something as simple as pressing a button every time they see a vowel. pretty easy. if two vowels occur close to one another in time, there is a high chance that the second will be missed by the participant. that is, if you see a vowel, a, and another, e, occurs within 500 ms of the first, there is a high chance that you won't "see it". the thing that is important about this experiment is that this is not a failure of your eyes to receive the letter and process them, but of your attention system to notice and process the letter. while there is still a lot of debate about what the ab actually tells us (is it attention? is it visual working memory? where in the visual processing stream is it happening?), it is a nice example of a temporal limit. if you slow down the letters or you increase the space between the two vowels to be greater than 500 ms, then the ab disappears. the important thing to take from this is that even when working with single items, we can be overwhelmed if two *important* items happen together. [here's an excellent review on the topic](_url_2_). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v390/n6657/abs/390279a0.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attentional_blink",
"http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/marois/Publications/Marois_Ivanoff-2005.pdf"
] | [
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if i place multiple hair dryers back to back, could i get ever increasing air speed out the front? | assuming one hair dryer on its own accelerates air to 5 m/s, if i put 10 back to back, would i get air flowing out the front at 50 m/s (minus some losses)? | nope, although it would be pretty cool if you could. inside each hair dryer is a fan of some kind. when you turn on the hair dryer, the electric motor turns the fan, rotating at some speed, x rpm, which forces the air to flow at y cubic feet per minute (cfm). if x speeds up, then y speeds up. now, let's say that we artificially speed up the air going into the hair dryer, so that it's moving at 2 x y. if the fan was trying to move air at 2 x y by itself, then the fan would have to turn faster - at least 2 x x rpm (probably more; it's not precisely a linear correlation). anyhow, at the point where we're injecting the fast-moving air, the fan is still trying to turn at speed x, so it will actually *slow down* the fast-moving air. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do scarecrows actually work on birds, or is it obvious to them that those are just lifeless pieces of cloth or other material? | i'd say it depends. the same scarecrow in a field, day in, day out, will probably have birds get used to it and not work as a deterrent. some species of bird, particular corvids, are incredibly intelligent, able to recognise individual faces and have what can be somewhat considered as a basic language. i think a good analogy to draw from is; do birds land on statues of people? if they do, they can obviously tell a well made human mimic from a human when it's in the same place all day, despite statues generally looking a lot more like humans. moving the scarecrow around, changing its appearance, and maybe having people in the field to actively chase off birds might make one more effective as a human mimic. the idea is birds still need to confuse it for a human, much like how snakes that mimic venomous or poisonous species need that species around or there's no advantage to their mimicry. they need to have a fear of the scarecrow. if there is no reason to fear, no mental bridge between the scarecrow and danger, they're not likely going to be afraid of it - save for the caution of something new. one thing i can consider is shooting. maybe if birds realise or understand that fields with scarecrows in are more dangerous, that farmers might shoot them or there might be dogs around to kill them, etc, they might be less likely to risk landing in them and avoid them not so much because they're scared of the scarecrow, but perhaps what it represents? they're just thoughts off the top of my head from what i can remember about animal behaviour from college, i don't have any sources and it's my first time posting in this sub, but i hope this answer can be useful and maybe give basis for someone else to add. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when is a tissue considered an organ? | what does a tissue need to fulfill (are there criteria?) to be an organ? | only got a bit of time to make this short. but a tissue (or collection of tissues) counts as an organ when it contributes, as a whole, to a greater physiologic function. for instance, heart muscle (myocardium) is a fairly organized tissue type that consists of very specific myocardial cells, all capable of spontaneous depolarization and contraction. however, it is the greater structure and organization of this myocardial tissue (including pacemaker tissue, bundles of his, etc) produces the functional effect of pumping blood to the lungs and greater systemic vasculature. hope that helps! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do some microorganisms look like bugs or insects? is there any correlation between them? | they don't really look all that similar. some protozoa doe look sort of insect like (for example trophozoites of giardia look like tiny manta rays) but that is simply convergent evolution-the same kind of shapes/structures are useful to fulfil the same sort of tasks. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
which is more stable: balancing a cube on a pyramid or balancing a pyramid on a cube? | assuming you use the same two points of contact for each, there would be no difference. balance implies that the forces in all directions cancel each other out. an example of unbalanced forces would be if you tried to balance one on top of the other by putting it on at a crazy angle. obviously it wouldn't work. this is because the force due to gravity causes a net torque (angular acceleration) in some direction on the top die causing it to accelerate and then it falls off. the top die balances when you put it perfectly so that all of the forces in all directions cancel out. neither has any sense of "stability" because once you tilt it in the slightest angle, the torque caused by gravity will not be balanced in all directions and it will fall off. the same can be said for any [rigid body](_url_0_).if you were balancing a die on top of a bean bag there would be some "stability" because you could change the angle of incident (the angle at which the two faces are oriented in respect to each other) and it could still balance because the non-rigid body would deform to account for the change in unbalanced forces to put them back in equilibrium. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigid_body"
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|
do cows get bored? | like, they just stand around in fields all day eating and standing. do they get bored or do they accept it as the standard and have nothing to compare it to? do their brains have to capacity to feel boredom or stimulation? | there is a video of cows being let out to pasture after being kept in a barn all winter. they are jumping, galloping, and making noises -- if you can consider play to be defined as the undirected, unnecessary (in the survival sense) expenditure of energy, then these cows are clearly taking an opportunity to play after being restricted for months. moreover, if you watch calves in pasture it's pretty clear that they also engage in play. so if you can acknowledge that they are able to play, then it's not a stretch to think that they experience the desire to play, and are aware when they are deprived of play. edit, here is the first video i was thinking of: ["happy cows"](_url_0_) and here's another one, [happy cows skipping out to grass for the first time](_url_1_) | 73 | [] | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/kUZ1YLhIAg8",
"http://youtu.be/huT5__BqY_U"
] | [
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in the cmb scientists say that the em waves undergo cosmological red shift due to the expansion of the universe. does this mean that the wavelengths actually increased, or that they only increased for us, the observer, due to our relative motion to them? | you are mixing up two effects here. there is a class of observers called *isotropic observers* that see the cmb as, well, isotropic. that means these observers see the cmb as just some uniform photon gas permeating all of space. over time, because of the expansion of space, these isotropic observers will see the cmb photons redshift. this is probably what was meant by "cosmological redshift" in whatever article you read. however, not everyone sees the cmb as isotropic. observers on earth, for instance, see a dipole anisotropy. so, relative to what the isotropic observers see, the cmb is blueshifted in one direction and redshifted in the other. this effect is more like a doppler effect and has nothing to do with the expansion of space. (we can use measure this dipole anisotropy to determine our speed with respect to those isotropic observers.) | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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