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why are always purines being used for energy delivery? | i always see cascades where there are g-proteins involved which obviously interferes with gtp and atp is involved in so many reactions for instance muscle movement and what not. but why is it always the purines and never the pyrimidines? might it be because of the little extension of the aromatic ring of the purines? | this is a question i wrestle with a bit, i work on a protein that binds gtp, while its closest relatives use atp. i'm not certain this is known why certain purines have specific roles. it's possible we might run evolution again and find out that ctp was the central energy carrier while utp was used for regulatory systems like gtp is now. something to know though is that cytidine and uridine nucleosides are still used as carriers in the cell, just not phosphate/energy carriers but instead carriers of [lipid precursors](_url_1_) and [sugars](_url_2_). in all four cases the nucleoside is a "handle" that allows an enzyme to gain better binding specificity than it would be able to have with just triphosphate or diphospho-glucose. i don't know quite how well established it is for atp/gtp, but [nadh/nadph](_url_0_) are chemically almost identical based on their role, the difference between the molecules allows the cell to have mutually exclusive pools of oxidant and reductant ready - there's a good chance atp/gtp are segregated in the same way to compartmentalize energetic versus regulatory functions. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26838/#A273",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citicoline",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uridine_diphosphate_glucose"
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why do thrown discs tend to fall to the left? | howdy all. avid disc golfer here. i've always wondered what the relationship between which way the disc is spinning and which way it tends to drift at the end of its flight. for right handed players, the disc always breaks to the left at the end. why is that? i know it had got something to do with torque and angular momentum but i need a better explanation. | because of the magnus effect. _url_0_ a right handed person throws a disc so it spins clockwise, and the on the right side passes along the spin rotation while the air on the left side passes opposite the spin rotation. this creates a pressure gradient which pushes the disc to the left. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_effect"
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is it possible to overwork your brain? | the question above. | this works on many levels: + all cells are not able to power itself and clean up at the same time, so the more it works the dirtier it gets inside, then you sleep/rest, they clean up. when working at a higher capacity, it's even worse. + we stay awake because the brain keeps signaling the reticular formation with time and exhaustion these signals stop. + on an endcorinal level, we have pulses of cortisol, and much less importantly thyroid hormone and pineal body and even less importantly growth hormone; these are you're endogenous energy drinks, specially alertness, span, cognition, ..etc + on a cellular level, the more a tissue exercises the better its blood supply gets (neovascularization & collaterals) and the more power plants it constructs (mitochondria), the brain has an additional perk which is improving the wiring. so like how you can exhaust yourself in an exercise your brain can be exhausted, if you were a regularly exercising your endurance would be better. and like how there are lower body or upper body exercises, there are areas in the brain like complex motor movements (cerebellum + cortex), cognition (frontal lobe), memory (many places), imagination, imaging (occipital), smelling (frontal), hearing (parietal), ..etc | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to get an exact measurement of any real object? | it seems to me that the traditional length/height/depth measurement is always going to be inherently flawed. the further down you dive into the exact boundaries of a specific shape, the more complex they get. but down the the nanoscale of things, there seems to be a finite end of quarks, neutrons, etc. (but most likely there is an universe of smaller magnitudes within those particles/forces). even if there is a finite end to the depths of scale of a certain object, there would be no way to get a simultaneous spot of where every single external boundary-creating particle way on any given object to get an exact measurement. density seems to be the only true way to get an exact measurement of something, unless that is also prone to these same laws as well... | once you dive down to a low enough level, the questions become more philosophical than strictly scientific: where do we define the boundary between a human being or a rock and the environment in which it exists? does this question even make sense? i can't pretend to give answers. i can only point out that, in terms of the physics and chemistry, the question doesn't make sense. if you're going to delve that deeply, the best you can do is to say that this molecule reacts with that one in such and such a manner, and that quantum effects result in this and that. what defines a macroscopic object is more of a value judgement than a scientific one. that said, this is a fascinating question, and i hope that someone more knowledgeable than i am might expand on it. that a question doesn't have a scientific answer doesn't mean that it can't be enlightening :) | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can undersea cables undergo creep rupture? | the pressure down there must be quite high. is there any proof that undersea cables have undergone creep? | submarine cables used to fail for lots of reasons. modern ones fail for three reasons: manufacturing defects at joints, dragging anchors close to shore, and deliberate interference. in modern material terms the pressures involved are not that impressive. transocean cables are laid at around 3-4km depths, which is only 400atm pressure. yes, that's a squeeze, but it's a long, thin, solid structure. the external pressure is applied uniformly along the cable, so creep is not an issue. modern (laid in the last 15 years) cables are capable of operating for many decades unless cut accidentally or deliberately. | 73 | [] | [] | [] | [
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hearts can pump for decades without stopping. could a person walk/hike for tremendous distances if leg muscles were similarly composed? what kind of energy and other demands on the body would this take? | if other muscles in the body were replaced somehow (methods unknown) by heart muscles, would they have the same ability to function tirelessly? | cardiac muscle function is predicated on an abundance of mitochrondria to keep the atp available. the abundance is one of the primary functional differences - the kicker being that it requires a large amount of blood and nutrients to function. another difference being that cardiac muscle conducts electricity. no idea how that difference would manifest itself. i think the primary distinction is that the idea of cardiac muscle being more efficient is not accurate. as alluded in the above post, we are actually very good at moving long distances and it would likely be extremely demanding to supply an equal quantity of cardiac muscle to complete the task, thereby making it an inefficient design. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does trying a knot in a string increase or decrease its entropy? | strings will naturally tie themselves into knots, but doesn't tying a knot yourself take work? is the work decreasing entropy? is there a point where tying another knot would have the opposite effect? | it would increase the total entropy since the process of tying a knot is not [reversible](_url_0_) due things such as friction. i found a paper on this topic here: _url_1_ > we estimate by monte carlo simulations the configurational entropy of n-steps polygons in the cubic lattice with fixed knot type. by collecting a rich statistics of configurations with very large values of n we are able to analyse the asymptotic behaviour of the partition function of the problem for different knot types. our results confirm that, in the large n limit, each prime knot is localized in a small region of the polygon, regardless of the possible presence of other knots. each prime knot component may slide along the unknotted region contributing to the overall configurational entropy with a term proportional to lnn. **furthermore, we discover that the mere existence of a knot requires a well defined entropic cost that scales exponentially with its minimal length.** in the case of polygons with composite knots it turns out that the partition function can be simply factorized in terms that depend only on prime components with an additional combinatorial factor that takes into account the statistical property that by interchanging two identical prime knot components in the polygon the corresponding set of overall configuration remains unaltered. finally, the above results allow to conjecture a sequence of inequalities for the connective constants of polygons whose topology varies within a given family of composite knot types. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy#Reversible_process",
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/1003.5134v1.pdf"
] | [
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] |
parsley can cause a miscarriage? | this there any truth to the old wives tale that during the early stages of pregnancy [parsley can cause a miscarriage](_url_0_)? | [there is some evidence that parsley might be partially effective in inducing abortion, but it doesn't appear to be very safe.](_url_0_) that "infographic" is at least ill-advised and possibly dangerous. | 6 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/NrhIP"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12807304"
] | [
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] |
let's talk about miscarriages. | what is the difference between a miscarriage and a stillbirth? how often does it occur? what causes it to occur? what steps does the body take in the process? do mothers who have gone through miscarriages pass any genetic material to their daughters, predisposing them to having miscarriages? is it more common in certain races? there was a post in another subreddit that got me wondering. i always hear the word, but never was taught what actually happens to. | [wikipedia is always a good place to start for wide ranging questions like this one](_url_1_). i'm not sure why march of dimes would know, but according to them [as many as 50% of all pregnancies end in miscarriage](_url_0_). it's not known for certain because many miscarriages happen without the woman even knowing she's pregnant. miscarriages of _known_ pregnancies are as many as 20%. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.webmd.com/infertility-and-reproduction/guide/pregnancy-miscarriage",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscarriage",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002458/",
"http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/pregnancy/miscarriage-19894.htm"
] | [
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] |
are relativistic effects taken into consideration when measuring particle interactions? | i know that the qm and gr are currently incompatible but specifically, is simultaneity of events an issue or concern when measuring particle interactions or properties such as momentum or position? could it ultimately be the loss of simultaneity (gr) that prevents us from reconciling momentum and position simultaneously (qm)? even more specifically based on the answers, are the reference frames of the particles different from the reference frame of the observer? edited for clarity. | quantum mechanics and general relativity are incompatible, sure, but it's easy to include special relativity. in fact it's absolutely necessary for high-energy physics. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin–statistics_theorem"
] | [
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will our probes ever decompose if left untouched indefinately? | so these probes we send out aren't likely coming back so if we leave them out there floating around until (if ever) the universe dies, will they breakdown into their most primative state possible? | space isn't empty, there's dust, gas, pebbles/rocks/particles (micrometorites) etc. out there all of which will eventually wear away at the probe. the record containing the sounds of earth that was included on voyager was designed to be somewhat resistant to erosion by these things and nasa expected its playable lifespan to be several hundred million years. so in answer to your question - yes all probes will decompose into their constituent atoms given a long enough timespan. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if in a ring build out of a superconductor the electric current can go on (nearly) unstopped. could one build a quasi perpetual motion machine with it? | certainly, and we actually use that quasi-perpetual current concept to construct extremely powerful and steady electromagnets. you find these superconducting loops in the heart of nmr spectrometers and mri machines. the superconductor must be cooled with liquid helium to maintain superconductivity, so they're expensive to maintain. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the mathematical difference between a map and a chart? | internet sources with a focus on geography purport that "maps are for land, charts are for water," or that ["charts are more detailed."](_url_0_) but while reading about [manifolds](_url_1_), i realized that there is a deeper mathematical difference between maps and charts, and what they are used for. what is the difference? | maybe a mathematician will chime in and correct me, but in my experience "map" is essentially just a synonym for a structure preserving function. in topology that would mean a continuous function. for manifolds that would mean a smooth function. in group theory it would mean a group homomorphism. etc. manifolds are topological spaces that come equipped with continuous functions (maps) that parameterize the space. these maps are called the "charts" of the manifold, and the collection of charts is called an "atlas". so the word "chart" is specific to manifolds. the charts of a manifold essentially define what one means by "smooth" on the space. in some places i've seen the word "smooth structure" used in place of the word "atlas". | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.nauticalcharts.noaa.gov/mcd/learn_diff_map_chart.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold#Circle"
] | [] | [
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what would happen to "you" if your brain was split in half? | your consciousness exists in your brain. lets say you're cleaning a guillotine and the blade comes down dividing your left and right brain, what would your last thoughts be? would it be any different if it divided it the other way? | i'm going to use wikipedia because it is the most available source to me and nothing i have read on the topic disagrees with what wikipedia says or makes me think this is particularly controversial. if your brain is simply "split" in half, by the surgical removal of the corpus callosum then you will continue to live with more side-effects that would not be detectable outside of careful scrutiny. people sometimes undergo this medical procedure to treat intractable epilepsy. the patients who have this performed are "[split-brain patients](_url_0_)". if your brain was split surgically and half was removed then the procedure would be called a [hemispherectomy](_url_1_). if this happened while you were an adult the side effects would be more dire and would include paralysis of the side of your body opposite to the side of the brain that was removed. you may also experience loss or degradation of vision. your personality will remain largely unchanged. your intelligence may decrease to the point of making you mentally retarded. depending on which hemisphere is lost, you may lose the ability to speak normally. if this happened while you were a child, there would not be any noticeable side effects (short of medical equipment that could detect you were missing half a brain). if your brain were severed by a guillotine, your last thought would be "why am i working on an armed guillotine?" | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-brain",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemispherectomy",
"http://www.wimp.com/amazingbrain/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-brain"
] | [
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shot to the head, bullet hole size | i saw a shitty report on tv yesterday (i don't know why i got stuck) and they were talking about some conspiracy theory murder. facts: the bullethole in the skin was 8mm, police stated that therefore the gauge couldn't be a 9mm. i was like: oh well, skin is ductile, so i could believe that since a bullet is conical, the hole could shrink behind the bullet. but they were not talking about the entrance wound, but the exit wound. wouldn't the brainmatter and especially the skull fragments make a hole much bigger than the bullet gauge? or ist this just when the bullet splinteres? tl;dr: if shot in the head with a 9mm, what would the exit wound possible look like? | exit wounds are going to change depending on the type of ammunition being used. 9 millimeters offer several types of ammunition such as [full metal jacket (fmj)](_url_3_) or [hollow point](_url_2_) just to name a couple. not only the *type* of ammunition but how the ammunition is packed and the condition of the ammunition. damage to tissue is caused by kinetic energy when dealing with [penetrating trauma](_url_0_) cavitation is what causes damage from projectile wounds. when the projectile enters the body, the kinetic energy displaces the tissue and creates a temporary cavity. the tissue soon closes that cavity, but the damage is done. if shot in the head, the bullet would travel through your skull, transfer kinetic energy to your brain, create a temporary cavity and then it may or may not exit your skull. the temporary cavity will fill itself with surrounding tissue and existing damaged tissue, but obviously some brain tissue is going to exit with the projectile or be displaced. internal organs have no significant strength against projectiles. they're more gelatin like, and would take damage from a projectile passing through them. hollow points are designed to disperse more kinetic energy by flattening out upon hitting tissue. they're also intended to stay inside the target and not exit. the hollow point bullet will expand easily once met with little resistance, creating a larger cavity, destroying more tissue. hollow points are *not* conical. projectiles don't necessarily splinter when being shot into flesh either. they may, but they're not intended to, unless you're using a specific ammunition that is meant to. slower velocity bullets will bounce off bone and the inside of the skull. with smaller caliber firearms, they may not be strong enough to create an exit wound, only an entrance wound. the path of the projectile will redirect once met with bone. the exit wound is going to be highly dependent on the velocity in which the projectile is traveling. if the round is packed light, meaning a slower velocity, it may penetrate the skull, but may not leave the skull. it may also transfer most of it's kinetic energy when entering and still have just enough to simply exit, not creating a large exit wound. if you were shot in the head with a 9mm, distance will play a part in the velocity of the projectile. as soon as a bullet leaves a gun, gravity is working against it. as is wind resistance and other prevailing factors in the environment. walls or shooting through something else, like glass or certain types of clothing will slow the velocity of the projectile. when shooting long distances in rain, calculations to compensate for the resistance of the rain have to be made. the exit wound would be the least of your worries, because most of that is cosmetic. the damage that the projectile caused while it was inside your head is what is going to play a big part in your future or your funeral. if the velocity has slowed enough, the projectile may have just enough kinetic energy left to create a hole big enough to get out of the skull and that's it. it won't necessarily be a hole much bigger than the caliber (gauge) of the projectile. ammunition packaging is commonly marked with a velocity. long guns will produce a higher velocity than a hand gun, barrel length is directly related to velocity. if you were shot in the head with a 9mm rifle, the exit wound would look different than being shot in the head with a 9mm handgun. basically the exit wound is going to vary depending on what type of firearm you were shot with, how far you were shot from and the velocity of the projectile. it potentially be anything from a hole just a bit bigger than the projectile to removing a good portion of the skull. there are numerous calibers [smaller](_url_1_) than a 9mm. if the exit wound was 8mm, the victim was more than likely shot with a firearm using ammunition smaller than 9mm. the kinetic energy just created a cavity that was 8mm. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exit_wound#Mechanism",
"http://sub-silentsuppressors.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/Complete-Rifle-Ammunition-Guide-Comparisom.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_point",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_metal_jacket_bullet"
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is fuzzy logic used in science, and more specifically in quantum mechanics? | so i am self studying fuzzy sets from [george j. klir's book](_url_0_). chapter 1 concludes with a discussion on paradigm shifts, and how fuzzy logic is a new paradigm that will change science considerably. the book was written in 1995 though. so did scientists adopt this new paradigm, and more specifically did this new paradigm make its way to quantum mechanics? | i've never seen fuzzy logic used in quantum. quantum mechanics is a probabilistic theory, sure, but we still work within well-defined sets (i.e., a normed vector space). it sounds like fuzzy logic works with a different sort of set. it's possible that this is because our language about quantum mechanics is based on observable operators, and when you make an observation in quantum mechanics, the result of that corresponds to a classical truth value - it either is in the state you are measuring, or it's not. we can describe the probability of it being in that state *before* we measure it, but *after* the measurement is made, it was *definitely* in whatever state was measured. it's like flipping a coin - while it's in the air, there's a 50% probability of it landing heads up. but after it lands, it's either *definitely* heads or *definitely not* heads. from the sound of it, fuzzy logic doesn't really help there. however, i think fuzzy logic *is* used to make things like control circuits and artificial intelligence. | 8 | [] | [
"https://www.amazon.com/Fuzzy-Sets-Logic-Theory-Applications/dp/0131011715"
] | [
"http://sipi.usc.edu/~kosko/Fuzziness_Vs_Probability.pdf"
] | [
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why is it that everytime we go up a "consumer" level on the food chain, the energy gained is decimated? | i learned in my numerous biology courses throughout middle school and high school and college that when plants produce sugars from sunlight and herbivores eat the plants, the herbivores only receive 10% of the sun's energy the the plant took in. and even further when a carnivore eats the herbivore they only recieve 10% of the sun's energy that the herbivore ate resulting in only a 1% gain in energy for the carnivore. so when we eat a carnivore we only get .1% of its energy? this is very confusing to me. is this loss of energy due to heat loss? it doesn't seem like i get less energy when eating a steak than when eating a salad... 100 times more. carnivores are also much bigger than herbivores, how does that tie in with their energy needs? | it depends on how you define "decimated". decimated once meant reduced by 1/10, but this meaning isn't the most likely one at present. no, these kinds of comparisons are usually meant to say that, (as one example) when we eat meat, we only get a small fraction of the energy that the animal absorbed from his food, and we would get much more usefulness from the food by eating what the animal ate instead of eating the animal. there are other uses for this kind of example, that's a common one. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain in simple terms for me how anaplasma phagocytophilum gets into cells, which cells it gets into, and how the cells are affected? | the bacteria mainly affects neutrophils which are one of the most common cells of the immune system. the bacterium binds to molecules on the surface of neutrophils and is then taken up by endocytosis into an endosome. normally the endosome would fuse with a lysosome or become acidified and whatever was inside would be broken down but the bacterium prevents this. the bacterium can then divide within the endosome until the cell breaks down or they leave to infect other cells. the bacteria disrupts the normal functioning of an infected cell. these functions include endothelial adhesion, motility, degranulation, phagocytosis and transmigration. if you want just a simple understanding then you don’t really need to know what these are, just know that without them the cell can’t do its job. additionally the bacterium causes the cell to increase production of il-8. this molecule increases the phagocytosis of neutrophils which allows the bacteria to spread to other neutrophils easily | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to control the automatic stimulated behavior of your body? | i am not talking about just heart rate when i mean regulatory behavior. i am more interested in the things that it seems we have no control over, like sweating or goose bumps. both of these generally occur due to an environment/stimulus, is it possible to cause these reactions without an enivronment stimulus present? thanks in advance for any in sights :) edit: to clarify a bit more, there are internal stimului that can cause some of these reactions to occur, like something embarrassing or being nervous causing you to sweat. i should clarify that i mean: is it possible to control these functions with the same sort of ease that we control arms/legs? | not really - these responses are typically stimulated by the autonomic nervous system, so named because we don't have any conscious control of it. the body isn't wired like that. the ans is crucial, because sometimes the body doesn't trust us to control crucial things, like temperature regulation. breathing is an interesting case, as we have both conscious control of it, and an autonomic system to take over when we don't really feel like it. (see *being in a coma*) however, most responses, like the erector pili muscles that pull up our skin hair, don't have the intricate nervous system required for somatic (brain cortex -- *most autonomic responses don't bother asking our cerebral brain-bits for permission, communicating instead with our spine or brainstem, and they're so valuable for this, as it gives them a speed and priority that bypasses our brain's obsession with "thinking about things..."* there's one caveat here. there are people who in some ways, seem to have "control" over certain aspects of their autonomic nervous system. this is most likely due to them being able to exercise some control over the very stimuli that cause these automatic responses to trigger. *for example, i've met someone who could flush their cheeks on demand, but he described it as really just being able to embarrass himself on demand!* | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i had a room in my house where matter has no effect on time, and i spent an hour in there, how much time would have passed outside the room? | basically how much does matter affect time | basically an hour. the two sources of time dilation are from speed and from strong gravitational fields. these only get significant if you are either moving close to the speed of light (or at least, over 10% of the speed of light) relative to something, or pretty much right next to a black hole or neutron star (or if you really really care about tiny bits of accuracy). for most practical usages, you can ignore time dilation outside of extreme environments, and assume classical universal time, which is what we often actually do in astrophysics and cosmology. for example, the time dilation factor from the earth's gravity on you is about a factor of one trillionth, or about 21 milliseconds per year. the time dilation from the sun's gravity is about 0.3 seconds per year. the time dilation from the earth's speed around the sun is about 0.16 seconds per year, and from the sun's speed around the milky way is about 8 seconds per year. so if you care about being really accurate, it does matter. but typically the uncertainties in our measurements are bigger than the effects of relativity. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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on august 14, 2014 at 9am was the earth in the same spot in space that it is in now? | it really depends on what reference frame you're talking about. in the reference frame of the earth, obviously yes. in the reference frame of the galaxy, no because it is moving very fast along with the sun. in the reference frame of the sun, it will be in a similar but not exactly the same place, due to the precession of the earth's orbit. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the brain develop? | i'm incredibly curious as to how the different regions of the brain develops, especially how white and grey matter develop. does the white matter develop first, then the grey? or do they grow together? perhaps this is why children are like sponges early on and lack much cognition and reasoning? | first, some definitions: "gray matter" is made up of the cell bodies of neurons, and "white matter" is made up of those neurons' axons, many of which are covered in an insulating fatty substance called myelin. the axons are like electrical cords, delivering electrical signals from one area to another, and the myelin is like insulation. (there's some interesting information about myelin in [this textbook](_url_0_), but i can't link to a specific section, sorry; you have to search with the keyword "myelin".) so gray matter and white matter are not really different parts of the brain, just different collections of neuron parts. but gray matter, made up of neuron cell bodies, is generated first, and many neurons in the nervous system only begin to be myelinated after they have reached their final targets. in the mouse, neurons are born between approximately embryonic days 10.5 and 15.5 (out of a total of 19.5 days of gestation), and myelination is relatively complete around two weeks after birth. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10921/",
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can you drown a wasp? | the other day, i was at the local swimming pool and a lot of bugs end up floating in the water. i tried to rescue any i saw and it became a sort of game for my 3 yr old son. we had rescued a ton of bees and wasps that day, but many didn't make it. so we decided to gather them up and make a sort of insect carcass pile. well, we would frequent back to the pile to add to it throughout the day when i noticed one of the wasps was moving. then the others started to as well. they slowly began to twitch and stretch until they all came back to life and ended up flying away. it pretty much blew our mind. some of the wasps were in the pool for quite awhile. my boyfriend was about 85% sure they were zombies. any answers you might have regarding this phenomenon would be much appreciated. tl;dr wasps drowned in the pool then slowly they came back to life. | i don't know about wasps, but i did a science experiment in high school where i learned that ants can remain submerged under water for over a week without dying. they just dry out and go on their way. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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vesovegal reaction | i'm not sure i spelled that right but moving on. my mom is a doctor, and the other day i had one of these suckers. i was curious as to the purpose of it. the body usually has reactions to help it, such as pain and positive and negative feedback loops, but i cant think of a reason that a reaction like this would help the body. any ideas/answers? | i'll agree with airwalker12 that the vasogegal response is likely a pathological condition. one remotely possible function i can suggest is to keep a trauma victim from moving about following an injury: allowing blood to clot, bleeding to slow, and the body to catch up with the true extent of the injury, no longer ignoring pain or making rash decisions because of adrenaline intoxication. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why some languages like english and french have a word for "evening" and others, like portuguese and spanish, don't, using a later division for the night called "madrugada" that starts after midnight? | basically, evening is an ideia that doesn't exist in portuguese or spanish, since the night for people from these cultures start right after the sunset. but they have a later division of time that starts around midnight, called "madrugada" in both languages, that doesn't exist in french or english, for instance. why is time divided differently in such cultures? | languages are *anisomorphic*. this means they divide up their semantic space in ways that don't completely overlap. as you know from your own personal experience, different people divide time up differently: is 5 p.m. late afternoon or early evening? is 4:30 a.m. late at night or early in the morning? at what point does evening turn into night? so given that the perception of time can vary even within a community of speakers, and given that languages encode the realities of their speakers differently, we should not be surprised that different languages, even those in close proximity, should divide up the parts of day differently. there is not necessarily a 'reason' for this. it's just an accident of history. | 27 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do wireless printers slow down large, shared networks so much? | i live in a college dorm, and every time a wireless printer shows up on the network list, the internet becomes slow as molasses and a building-wide witch hunt begins. why does one device cause such an issue? | the short answer is, they don't. what is most likely happening is the printer is advertising itself and all the computers in the building are responding, creating a lot of unnecessary traffic on a single wifi access point (ap). the ap/internet connection is also probably not equipped to deal with that much traffic. we can also consider how wifi works fundamentally. it broadcasts the signal to anyone in range. what this means is that when the ap communicates with a device technically the information is visible, and sent to, anyone in range. devices must listen and pick up traffic that is for them. security is accomplished with data encryption, but everyone still technically receives the traffic which slows things down, since **most** of the traffic coming out of the ap is unusable by any individual device. this creates a bottleneck of inefficiency because all devices are listening to the same *one* signal, as opposed to a switch or router that partitions traffic and only sends it to the correct device. so when the wireless printer gets plugged in, it is probably handshaking with every computer in the dorm. every other computer that is not talking to the printer is still getting clogged with the handshake traffic. there's just not enough bandwidth to go around. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in terms of special relativity, why doesn't induction occur for static charges near a conducting wire? | in [this veritasium video](_url_0_), why doesn't the charge that isn't moving get attracted to the wire with current going through it? i know that induction only occurs with moving magnetic fields, but is it possible to explain this in terms of special relativity and electric fields? | first of all, the video has some inaccuracies that annoy me, but are otherwise not *that* important enough to take away from the gist. in particular, the video seems to imply that an electromagnetic field that is purely magnetic in one inertial frame can be purely electric in another inertial frame. that is not actually possible, and is most easily discovered by considering the lorentz invariant scalar s = |e|^(2)-|b|^(2). in a frame where the field is purely magnetic, we have s < 0, and this scalar must have the same value in all frames. so it's not possible to have a frame in which the field is purely electric, since such a field has s the video first describes a positively-charged cat that is stationary with respect to the wire, in which a current is flowing. the video concludes that the cat does not actually move in this frame. that conclusion is true as long as we make some approximations. namely, we assume that the charge density of either the protons or electrons is continuous (that is, the distance between adjacent charge carriers is much smaller than, say, the length of the cat or the cross-sectional length of the wire). under that assumption, a uniform current density is actually consistent with a uniform charge density. so even though the electrons are moving, they produce a uniform charge density, which cancels with the uniform charge density of the protons. so overall there is zero charge density, hence zero electric field. (of course, microscopic differences in the position of charges will create very tiny electric fields, but the effect is negligible.) so what is the force on the cat? the electric force (**f** = q**e**) is 0 since there is no electric field. the magnetic force (**f**=q**v**x**b**) is 0 since the cat is not moving. so the total force is 0. **edit:** (i removed a paragraph that was previously in this place.) never mind, i thought there was a mistake, but i watched the video all the way through and it does eventually say that the moving cat is deflected away from the wire by a magnetic force in the frame in which the wire is electrically neutral. it's just badly presented imo since it first states there is no force, switches to the other frame to find there is a force, then goes back to the original frame to say "aha! there was actually a magnetic force". seems like it could be presented less confusingly. | 2 | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/1TKSfAkWWN0"
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what is the significance of herquline molecules in cancer research? | one of the head research labs at my university just published a journal stating that they synthesized herquline and different conformations of it. what is the significance of this molecule? & #x200b; is the molecule important in and of itself, or does researching this specific molecule help us understand a bigger picture? | in my brief reading, it's not particularly important for cancer research. the main achievement is that the herquline family are incredibly complicated molecules that are difficult to synthesize, so being able to do so represents a major accomplishment in organic chemistry. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens at the molecular level to your stomach from nsaids? | i know overuse of nsaids can cause gastric bleeding, and ulcers, etc. is the caused from the digestion process, or when the nsaid chemicals are circulating through your bloodstream to tissue? | to answer your question: yes. but to explain more fully, first we need to distinguish between nsaids and how they work. these drugs inhibit 2 enzymes: cyclooxygenase-1 (cox1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (cox2). these enzymes are key in making prostaglandins: compounds that act like hormones to regulate a wide array of biological processes, including inflammatory responses. because prostaglandins are involved in inflammation, blocking their production is capable of reducing inflammation; this is why these drugs are anti-inflammatory without being steroids. stomach issues are far more prevalent in nsaids that primarily inhibit cox1 (aspirin) or both cox1 and cox2 (ibuprofen), as opposed to the "newer" nsaids that are more selective for cox2 (celecoxib, naproxen). it was found that cox2, normally not highly-expressed in most cells, was up-regulated in inflammation and was causing the production of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. however, cox1 was expressed highly in the stomach tissues, as well as many other tissues in the gi tract even in the absence of inflammation. the stomach issues relate most directly to inhibition of cox1 -- something all the nsaids (no matter how "selective") do to some extent. other than irritation of the stomach mucosa (typical of many drugs), the gi issues with nsaids stem mainly from inhibition of cox1. prostaglandins produced by cox1 stimulate mucus production and inhibit acid secretion in the stomach; thus, blocking cox1 leads to a decline in the protective mucosal layer of the stomach, as well as increasing production of stomach acid that further eats away at the mucosal lining. systemically, cox1 is also expressed in platelets, where inhibition of the cox1 product thromboxane a2 (txa2) decreases platelet aggregation -- a good thing if you're worried about blood clots, but a bad thing if you have an open wound in the gut that's trying to stop bleeding. so it kind of feeds forward to increase gi bleeding in a bad way. interestingly, cox2 'selective' inhibitors are implicated in increased *lower* gi bleeds...this has (or so it seems) been linked to the formulation of the pills more so than inhibition of cox2. extended-release formulations are designed to release drug slowly in the intestinal tract, and that may be leading to local irritation and/or disruption of the intestinal mucosa via a mechanism similar to the stomach (cox1 inhibition). like i said, even the most cox2-selective of these drugs still inhibit cox1 to some extent, and this seems to be the root of the problem. as per usual, the dose makes the poison: higher doses and prolonged use exacerbate all of the above mechanisms and increase the likelihood of a gi complication. tl;dr: digestion of the drug alone can irritate the stomach lining, but it's really through the inhibition of mucus production and the increase in acid production that the issues arise. this is due mostly to blockade of cox1, caused directly through exposure to cells within the stomach, or through delivery of the drugs to those cells through the circulation. edit(s): grammar, more cogent explanations | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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top7, the artificial protein, what is it's purpose? | i'm trying to get an understanding of top7, from my understanding it's a man made experimental protein, that is able to exist, but it has not been found in nature yet. when top7 was designed on the computer, were the creators only testing to see if it was structurally possible or has there been further experiments to see what it actually does in an organism? thanks for the help and i'm sorry if my sentence structure is a little unclear. | what is special about top7 is that (a) it was designed "in silico" (on a computer), and when it was synthesized and its 3d structure was determined, it was found to be very close to the planned design; and (b) it has an unusual 3d folding pattern that is not found in nature, and which was "designed in". the novelty is the ability to predict and calculate what a protein's 3d structure would be solely on the basis of its amino acid sequence. i don't know that it has any meaningful biological activity, nor was it intended to. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any plausible genetic modifications or physiology that could produce a fire breathing dragon? | well, there is the bombardier beetle, which relies on mixing two organic chemicals that form a kind of steam explosion. only time will tell if it will evolve into fire breathing, but it seems to be going in your desired direction: _url_0_ | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_beetle"
] | [
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|
the larval stage of the elephant hawk moth has the ability to mimic the head of a snake when threatened (see gif). at the genetic level, how was this adaptation acquired? | _url_0_ tl;dr: specifically, in the context of molecular genetics, how do higher eukaryotes like this moth acquire the genetic alterations that encode this remarkable adaptation? it's amazing to me, that the species has evolved this remarkable ability to "turn into a snake." i understand that natural selection lead to this adaptation, as subpopulations that had this trait would likely have reduced predation. and i'd assume that it's not like all of a sudden this one random ass caterpillar just happened to be able to pretend it's a snake. i'm guessing that it was a buildup of genetic alterations over a large amount of generations, that lead to acquiring various genes that codes for tissue that resembles a snake. the behavioural adaptation to sway like a snake blows my mind even more, but that's a whole other can of worms haha. what i'm curious about is how these genetic alterations took place? genetic evolution in microbes like viruses makes a lot of sense. their high replication rate, coupled with an error prone polymerase (especially in rna viruses) are quickly gonna select for the the most dominant variant. but how does it work in higher eukaryotes? is it just homologous recombination or something like that? iirc, certain insects (or at least in drosophila) develop in segments. if that's the case here, do the cells at the part that becomes the snakes head just happen to have the recombination that encodes pieces of a fucking snake head/eyes?! thanks | evolution in animals occurs the same as in microbes, its just a lot slower. mutations still occur across every generation, and over millions of years you have millions of generations, so plenty of time to generate variation and for selection to operate on that variation. recombination helps with evolution since 'good' traits wont get stuck linked with 'bad' traits over many generations, but the source of variation is still mutations in the dna sequence. there is no actual snake parts in the moth, its just mimicry. there are genes that regulate how pigment is patterned over an animals skin as it develops. their are genes that influence how an animal behaves. the actual end product of patterning and behaviour is controlled by a complex interaction of genes and their products, so there is no one 'snake eye' gene or 'swaying behaviour' mutation, but nonetheless genes produce these traits and are under the influence of selection to produce this snake like appearance. what had to change to go from this moths boring ancestors to the current amazing snake mimicry would have likely involved thousands of mutations over hundreds of genes, each one making subtle changes to its appearance/behaviour. hope that helped! | 3 | [] | [
"https://i.imgur.com/ri1sTPL.gifv"
] | [] | [
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energy | is it possible to convert sound waves to electrical signals | yes, that is essentially what a microphone does. if you have a magnet on a membrane surrounded by a loop of wire, as the membrane vibrates (because of sound), the magnet moves back and forth through the loop, which induces a current. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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was the second snowball earth responsible for complex life appearing? | i don't know much about microbiology or organic chemistry. i studied astronomy and to me metals is everything about helium. reading an old "analog" article in the bathroom, there was a column about the rare earth hypothesis. one of the things mentioned is that cambrian explosion is said to have occurred right after the second snowball earth. would conditions in a completely iced over world force the eucarya to cannibalize each other more... dramatically increasing the competitiveness to acquire energy? i mean since a lot less energy would be reaching the oceans beneath the ice. was multi-cellular life an environmental response to drastically dwindling availability of energy? | i don't know the answer to the question, but here are a few relevant tidbits: first of all, while the snowball earth idea does have a lot going for it, it's not universally accepted among geologists. secondly, the last possible snowball period ended more than 600 million years ago, and the cambrian explosion happened around 530 mya. thirdly, multicellular life existed at least a billion years ago, but most of it was didn't have any "hard" parts (bones, teeth, armor, etc.) and thus left poorer fossil records. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any major concerns of maslow's hierarchy of need's? is it still a good model? | this idea was published within maslow's theory of motivation in the 1940's. 75 years later, does it still hold water, and is there a better well supported idea that is relevant to how motivation of humans along this same vein? | it is important to note that maslow's (1943, 1954) five stage model has been expanded to include cognitive and aesthetic needs (maslow, 1970a) and later transcendence needs (maslow, 1970b). psychologists now conceptualize motivation as a pluralistic behavior, whereby needs can operate on many levels simultaneously. a person may be motivated by higher growth needs at the same time as lower level deficiency needs. contemporary research by tay & diener (2011) has tested maslow’s theory by analyzing the data of 60,865 participants from 123 countries, representing every major region of the world. the survey was conducted from 2005 to 2010. respondents answered questions about six needs that closely resemble those in maslow's model: basic needs (food, shelter); safety; social needs (love, support); respect; mastery; and autonomy. they also rated their well-being across three discrete measures: life evaluation (a person's view of his or her life as a whole), positive feelings (day-to-day instances of joy or pleasure), and negative feelings (everyday experiences of sorrow, anger, or stress). the results of the study support the view that universal human needs appear to exist regardless of cultural differences. however, the ordering of the needs within the hierarchy was not correct. _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html"
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are the calculations for the statistic, "smoking a cigarette takes 7 minutes out of your life" true? and how do they calculate this number? | i was just curious how scientific this statistic is, how they calculate it, and if its true. it seems like a made up thing in the ads just to make people stop smoking (no i don't think smoking is healthy) | it's most likely based on existing (reputable) population studies of mortality rates between smokers (tagged by how many cigarretes per day) and non-smokers, of which there are many, and based on the existing data, extrapolated to find, on average, how much time does a cigarrete drains, because "80% increase in risk of lung cancer" does not carry the same shock factor as "7 minutes of your life lost forever for every cigarette" (especially, as the later is much more relateable by the watcher) can't call it "made up", but at this level of extrapolation (from probably averaged lifespan data to individual minutes), you **can't** provide such a precision, at least not without a gigantic confidence interval | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://i2.mirror.co.uk/incoming/article4436717.ece/ALTERNATES/s615b/Chronic-user-of-Cigarettes.jpg",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1117323/"
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] |
how do you calculate minimum flow velocity using settling rates of particles? | my fluid mechanics is very rusty and although some extensive reading now, i have hit an impasse. i am trying to use particle settling to quantify flow in a volcanic conduit, and am following the literature defined method for doing so. i have size and density information on xenocrysts (my "particles"), which i am equating to spheres because i haven't managed adjust even stokes flow for a simplification of shape to spheroids. my problem is that i can't calculate the reynolds number or drag coefficient without the flow velocity, which is the variable i wish to compute. any help on this most basic of steps would be greatly appreciated. the reality of the problem is that this is a huge over simplification, as the fluid is likely behaving as a bingham plastic with a turbulent flow and varying viscosities and rheology; but just help on even this first step would be grand. tl:dr how to calculate reynold's number and cd without uv | this is a problem we run into in fluid mechanics all the time. the solution is to iterate: assume a cd, use that to calculate re through the relation for a sphere, use that to calculate flow velocity. use that flow velocity to calculate a reynolds number, use that reynolds number to calculate drag, etc. you will (hopefully) converge on a solution. [this solution to a quiz from a csu northridge fluid mechanics class gives you the basic idea. in this case the drag force on a ball is what we want to solve for, but the reynolds number, which determines the drag coefficient, depends on the flow velocity, which is not known (because if it were, we would know the reynolds number, the cd, and therefore the total drag and terminal velocity). because we have a dynamics equation for the drag (and therefore cd) as a function of reynolds number and we have experimental results that tell us the drag as a function of reynolds number, we can use those two equations to solve for reynolds number and cd.](_url_0_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.csun.edu/~lcaretto/me390/qs11.doc"
] | [
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how do alphamale primates assert their dominance? | a few clarifying thoughts: * fighting over resources (such as females or food) is (potentially) costly so most primates will try and avoid direct fighting with rivals. instead they will make alternative displays of strength. such as: showing their size, making loud or complicated vocalizations, signalling for other partners to back them up. but for this to really work these need to be true signals, i.e. cheaters must be recognized. so that a larger male is really stronger, not just cheating by puffing up their chest. this is not just applicable to primates, but to animals in general. * [primate](_url_3_) is an order of animals which contains over 300 species including humans. depending on the species males or females can be dominant or sometimes both, or sometimes neither (egalitarian societies). * besides physical displays of strength (branch breaking, fighting etc.) primates (both male and female) may show their teeth (k9's), they may make loud or erratic vocalizations to intimidate rivals, they may use their environment to make displays (such as when chimps bang on tree roots) or any number of displays. * primate societies, that is the way these species organize themselves into groups is extremely varied. whole courses are devoted to the subject. a few examples: 1. you can have a single adult female and single adult male and their offspring in a group. kind of like a human 'nuclear family unit'. these individuals will occupy the same territory and will try and exclude other groups. in some cases males are larger than females but for all intents and purposes they are equal. sometimes these adult pair bonds are monogomous, but more often than not one or both adults will engage in extra pair copulations (i.e. they sneak away to have sex with someone outside their territory). example: [gibbons](_url_0_). "gibbons are social animals. they are strongly territorial, and defend their boundaries with vigorous visual and vocal displays. the vocal element, which can often be heard for distances of up to 1 km (0.6 mi), consists of a duet between a mated pair, with their young sometimes joining in. in most species, males, and in some also females, sing solos to attract mates, as well as advertise their territories." 2. you can have one male monopolize many females and their offspring. these males are called "alpha" because they are the leader male in their group. these alpha males may allow subordinate males to follow them around and these subordinate males may get a chance to mate with one of the females in that group. when young males reach maturity they will leave their natal group and form bachelor groups where they seek out other females or groups without alpha male or a weak alpha male. in the case of [gorillas](_url_4_), dominant males assert themselves using vocalizations and chest banging. if rival males come to close it may come to direct fighting. "the silverback (alpha male gorilla) is the center of the troop's attention, making all the decisions, mediating conflicts, determining the movements of the group, leading the others to feeding sites and taking responsibility for the safety and well-being of the troop. younger males subordinate to the silverback, known as blackbacks, may serve as backup protection... the bond a silverback has with his females forms the core of gorilla social life. bonds between them are maintained by grooming and staying close together. females form strong relationships with males to gain mating opportunities and protection from predators and infanticidal outside males. however, aggressive behaviors between males and females do occur, but rarely lead to serious injury. relationships between females may vary. maternally related females in a troop tend to be friendly towards each other and associate closely. otherwise, females have few friendly encounters and commonly act aggressively towards each other. females may fight for social access to males and a male may intervene. male gorillas have weak social bonds, particularly in multiple-male groups with apparent dominance hierarchies and strong competition for mates. males in all-male groups, though, tend to have friendly interactions and socialize through play, grooming and staying together..." 3. some groups live in multi-male and multi-female groups where there are many adult females and adult males in one group. for example in [chimpanzees](_url_2_) "common chimpanzees live in communities that typically range from 20 to more than 150 members, but spend most of their time travelling in small, temporary groups consisting of a few individuals, "which may consist of any combination of age and sex classes. the common chimpanzee lives in a fission-fusion society and may be found in groups of the following types: all-male, adult females and offspring, consisting of both sexes, or one female and her offspring...at the core of social structures are males, which roam around, protect group members, and search for food. males remain in their natal communities, while females generally emigrate at adolescence. as such, males in a community are more likely to be related to one another than females are to each other. among males, there is generally a dominance hierarchy and males are dominant over females...males maintain and improve their social ranks by forming coalitions. these coalitions have been characterized as "exploitive" and are based on an individual’s influence in agonistic interactions. being in a coalition allows males to dominate a third individual when they could not by themselves, as politically apt chimps can exert power over aggressive interactions regardless of their rank. coalitions can also give an individual male the confidence to challenge a dominant male. the more allies a male has, the better his chance of becoming dominant." 4. the most notable exceptions to male dominance over females occurs in the [lemurs](_url_1_): "the presence of female social dominance sets lemurs apart from most other primates and mammals; in most primate societies, males are dominant unless females band together to form coalitions that displace them...there have been many hypotheses that have attempted to explain why lemurs exhibit female social dominance while other primates with similar social structures do not, but no consensus has been reached after decades of research. the dominant view in the literature states that female dominance is an advantageous trait given the high costs of reproduction and the scarcity of resources available." to complicate things a bit further there is typically a dispersing sex. sometimes juvenile males will leave their natal group and seek other groups once they reach maturity. sometimes juvenile females will leave their natal group and finally in other cases both sexes may disperse. this influences relationships within the group. groups where females stay, well the females tend to form stronger bonds because they are related. whereas the males tend to be unrelated in such cases. this influences alliances, partnerships and who is aggressive to who. in sum, things to consider about who gets to display aggressive signals in primate groups: 1. what is the groups structure? 2. who is the dispersing sex? 3. is their a dominance hierarchy or are group members more or less equal? | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbon",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemur#Social_systems",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_chimpanzee",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla"
] | [
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|
one time i poured cold juice into a glass that had been warmed by the sun. explain to me why i deserved shattered glass all over my body. | the glass cup had been sitting in the sunlight for a couple hours, and was warm when i used it. i took some juice from the fridge and poured it into the cup. a few moments later, the cup suddenly shattered into a thousand pieces. how did that happen? | when you pour cold juice into the warm glass, the inner surfaces cool very fast down to (almost) the temperature of the juice while the outer surface of the glass is still warm. the change in temperature cause the inner part of the glass to contract. this causes internal stresses as the inner part "wants" to be smaller than the outer part but both are connected (it's the same glass after all). if the glass does not have the mechanical strength to sustain this stress, it shatters. normally, a glass should not break if you do not have ridiculous temperature differences (e.g. boiling water in a thick cold glass bowl). however, if you have a flaw (like a tiny crack) in the glass, smaller temperature differences can be sufficient to make your glass break. the same effect is responsible for the cracking of ice-cubes you put into not quite ice-cold liquid. the outer parts of the icecube get warmer than the inside (say outer side 0°c inner parts -10°c) and the resultant stresse cause the ice-cube to crack. edit thanks to minno | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_shock"
] | [
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does aluminum-coated roofing insulation work better than matte insulation? | i have recently been exposed to a lot of information about building materials. one debate which came up more than once deals with roofing insulation. some of the water vapor barriers used under drywall in poland have a reflective aluminum coating. the marketing materials as well as some people in the construction industry say that this causes it to insulate better. barring the added thickness of the aluminum, would a reflective coating make the material a better insulator? please keep in mind that drywall gets attached directly to this, so there is no radiation heat that i can think of which could be reflected. can someone set this debate straight? | as you imply, a reflective foil coating will only make a difference with regards to radiant heat. as such, foil coated insulation can make a minor difference with regards to insulation placed inside attic spaces -- the type you place on the floor of an attic, or on the floor and walls of attic crawlspaces. the problem is, using such a coating is mostly counter productive. in order to have any effect, the foil must be on the hot side of the insulation. it will do nothing at all if it is placed against a wall or ceiling. but, the proper place for a vapor barrier is between the living space and the insulation. placing a barrier on the hot side of the insulation will trap moisture, which will degrade the insulation over time. the minor gain in thermal efficiency is quickly outweighed by the harm it causes to the insulation. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how safe is it to eat food from the floor? | the best answer of course: it depends. *could* you get sick from eating food dropped on the floor? yes. [source](_url_0_) obviously some populations may be a bit more at risk than others. infants < 1 year old probably shouldn't be allowed to lick the floor especially in southern california. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.03171.x"
] | [
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|
do the upper most limits of the atmosphere display surface tension? | i always assumed that objects skipping off our atmosphere was similar to a stone skipping off the surface of a pond. i thought since gasses and liquids are both fluids they may display similar properties in this area. however i started thinking maybe objects skipping off the atmosphere is less a result of surface tension and more a result of aerodynamic lift. but couldn't you also say that a stone skipping off a pond is both a result of surface tension and hydrodynamic lift? i may be deviating from my original question but i am left confused by this line of questioning and i am eager to know more. | i'd go as far as saying that surface tension has a completely null effect on stone skipping. it's primarily effected by the rotational speed of the stone, i believe. the atmosphere doesn't have a surface tension. the atmosphere can be modelled (very approximately using boltzmann statistics) to exist in a uniform gravitational field and as such it's pressure tends to zero has height is increased (to infinity). there is no defined boundary where the atmosphere 'ends'. additionally, surface tension relies on intermolecular forces. gases are commonly modelled to be absent of intermolecular forces but if we were to consider including any we'd find that gravitational forces have a greater effect of the density distribution of the gas; the boltzmann distribution model of the atmosphere will dominate and a defined boundary would still not exist. i don't know the answer but i'd join you in believing that objects skip off of the atmosphere because of atmospheric lift. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes a raise in camp (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) levels? | could it be a certain diet, and/or stress or something else? also, does camp flow freely throughout the body or is the camp in the brain separate from camp in the rest of the body? thanks. | camp is a molecule found inside cells. it is pretty much in all cells and is a pretty ubiquitous signaling molecule. it goes up when a class of enzymes called [adenylyl or adenylate cyclases](_url_0_) are activated. there are dozens and dozens of different pathways that activate ac and thus make camp. camp can certainly go up with stress; in fact the stereotypical g-protein coupled receptor pathway that is used as an example is the [beta-adrenergic](_url_1_) receptor and it works upstream of an ac enzyme. the adrenergic system is activated by epinephrine and norepinephrine, so yeah, stress. diet -- i'm sure there are dietary moduli that activate gpcrs and other pathways upstream of ac. as i say, it's involved in dozens of things. i can't think of any processes off the top of my head which involve camp moving between cells or signaling outside of a cell. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenylate_cyclase",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_receptor"
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is the pain experienced in ovarian trauma homologous to testicular trauma? | i read [a comment](_url_0_) that said women are incapable of knowing what being hit in the balls is like and it got me thinking. it seems logical that trauma to the ovaries and trauma to the testicals would have a similar sensation. i have heard that when palpating ovaries it is important to handle them with care because they are very sensitive. would it be possible to gently tap a place on the abdomen above an ovary (maybe with a reflex hammer) to induce a similar sensation? i am not sure *why* anyone would want to experience this, it just seems like something that should be possible and saying it is impossible sends the pedant in me hunting for a trivial exception. | women would be incapable of knowing testicular pain as they do not have testicles and men would be incapable of knowing ovarian pain as they do not have ovaries. while this is a logical thing to assume, we must consider the innervation of these organs. the ovary is innervated by the ovarian plexus with fibres which derive from the renal plexus, mesenteric plexus and of the abdominal aorta. not only these but the ovarian plexus has nervous connections with the uterine plexus which suggest why ovarian/uterine pain is felt simultaneously. the spermatic plexus derives from nervous fibres that originate in the solar plexus, renal plexus and hypogastric plexus. while the origin is not necessary the same, we must take into account the difference in male/female anatomy, due to this difference in innervation the pain sensation will distribute itself in a large majority the same (low abdomen, back and kidney), whilst a small amount will differ especially when it comes to men (higher abdominal pain, gastric pain - when testicular pain is at very high levels, the one in pain might throw up due to the nervous fibres of the solar (celiac) plexus). tapping an ovary would be difficult especially with overweight and obese individuals, but in normal weight women it can be palpated through the abdomen. as these elements of biology might be relative from individual to individual, so is pain perception that not only increases the relativity of the account regarding pain perception, but also on a subjective understanding of pain. hope it helped. [source: med student] | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/2o5j1r/nsfw_what_is_something_that_the_opposite_gender/cmjvw42"
] | [] | [
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in the long term, which is less healthy: smoking or being overweight. | i realize the question is pretty broad, but i'm wondering if there have been any long term studies that compare the negative effects of smoking versus being overweight. additionally, based on the few studies i have read it seems there's some overlap in the negative consequences of both (especially when it comes to 'heart health'). do the studies that have been undertaken account for this overlap? | out of harvard school of public health, based on a u.s. cohort: "smoking and high blood pressure, which both have effective interventions, are responsible for the largest number of deaths in the us. other dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors for chronic diseases also cause a substantial number of deaths in the us." [the preventable causes of death in the united states: comparative risk assessment of dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors](_url_0_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000058"
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are single-biome worlds possible? | science fiction often presents worlds that have only one biome or are dominated by a particular biome (the forest moon of endor and hoth from star wars or arrakis from dune come to mind). could we ever find real planets/moons like that? | keeping in mind the examples you provide are not only hypothetical, they are also superficially presented in the source material [there could be *dozens* of unseen and subtle biomes on hoth we've never been told about - and arrakis does have more than one biome, if i recall], the closest example of what you seek i could suggest would be ice-moons. subject to our ignorance at never having witnessed any life there, which sort of makes the question moot for the time being, our current understanding of the *possibility* of life there is that it would cluster tightly around tide-driven hydrothermal vents on the seafloor. such vents are known on earth [although ours are not tidally-driven], where they are described as oases of life on the otherwise mostly barren ocean floor. in the absence of sunlight, the entire foodchain and energy source of the ecosystem is chemautotrophic reactions from the compounds and minerals in the hot acidic brines produced there. if that model holds on ice-moons, you could expect a mostly barrren low productivity ocean, with local rainforest-like oases dotting the ocean floor where hydrothermal activity is concentrated. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does a wave go up and down in a sinusoidal pattern? what causes it to oscillate? what force is acting on it at the peak of the wave to make it change direction? | i'm not really sure how to describe my question but i guess i'm wondering what causes a waveform (*edit: like light or sound) to go up and down in a repeating pattern. why doesn't the wave just go careening upward instead of falling back down after the peak of its amplitude. what force brings it back? i'm sure my question stems out of some fundamental misunderstanding of how waves work but i don't really get it. as a part b to this question, what causes things to vibrate back and forth? why don't they just vibrate in one direction? what pulls them back and forth constantly? | it depends on what kind of wave you mean. one example is the vibration of a guitar string. as the displacement of the string from the rest position increases, the elasticity of the string itself trys to pull the string back towards a straight shape. eventually this reverses the motion of the string. when it gets back to neutral position, there is no force acting on it, but it has some momentum. so it keeps going and the displacement increases in the opposite direction, until the spring force reverses it again, and so on. another example is a wave on the surface of a pond. where the water is at a trough, the pressure of the surrounding water is pushing it back upwards. where the water is at a peak, the net negative pressure pulls it back downards towards the mean water level (you could also see this as gravity pulling it down). and when it gets to the mean level, these forces are equal so there is no net force, but again the material has momentum so it tends to continue its motion either upwards or downwards to the next peak or trough. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
i'm flying from seattle to australia tomorrow, are there any cool experiments i can do to show that i'll be rotating roughly 90 degrees due to the latitude difference? | i was just thinking how i'll be rotating nearly 90 degrees. if i had a gyroscope or something, would i be able to see it slowly rotate as i fly south? any cool experiments that could be done to show this difference in latitude? | get a protractor, tape or glue a straw to the straight edge, and tie a weighed down string to the middle. when you get on the plane, look down the straw at a star that you can easily pick out from the night sky (hope you're travelling at night!) and is viewable from both hemispheres, and mark where the string hangs. once in australia and landed, repeat and notice the difference in where the string hangs. i'm pretty sure this will work, have a fun trip :) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pendulum"
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how are drug classes grouped or chosen? | i hope this makes sense, i had a hard time wording the question. how does a drug class or type such as ssris, ppis, nsaids, get decided on and grouped? is it because they all have a similar effect, similar structure, or anything else i haven't thought of? | you can group them by any of those categories to be honest. ssri's are all selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, meaning they all have relatively similar affects on the brain/neurotransmitters. ppi's and nsaids are also grouped by effect. you can also classify by structure like tca's. tca's are all tricyclic amines that have quite a wide variety of processes that they affect differently and to different extents so they are harder to classify by effect and moreso by structure. you can also classify them by the diseases they treat, examples are the dmards. they are disease modifying anti rheumatoid drugs (i believe, mighta got a word mixed up in there) and they are a few diff types of drugs that are supposed to help prevent progression (not just symptoms) of arthritis and similar type diseases. does that help and/or make some sense? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can't we use capillary action to produce a perpetual energy machine? | maybe you could have an array of tiny tubes that move the water up into a reservoir, and the water could then drain downward turning a water wheel. then the process repeats. please explain from a physics perspective why this wouldn't work. thanks!!! | if you have ever seen a meniscus in a graduated cylinder you will have your answer. water will climb the sides but even if you fill water up to the top of the cylinder the water will not climb over the top. having something above the top (like a pool of water) is only going to exert pressure against this climbing force. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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iron core solenoid question | so i know that the magnetic field inside a solenoid is made stronger by placing an iron core inside of it, but what if instead of a solid core, the iron placed inside is a hollow tube that just fits within the inner wall of the solenoid. is it possible to increase the strength of the uniform field just by inserting, say, a rolled up piece of sheet iron or steel? | it will increase the inductance, but the increase will be proportional to the area of the inside that is iron(to within about 1%), and no the field inside the tube will not increase. it will probably decrease. the field will only increase if you have a gap with permeable material around it. putting a tube of iron inside the solenoid basically "shorts" the field, bypassing the air inside. if you want to increase the field, you put iron on the outside. make sense? | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the edge of the atmosphere really like? | let's say somehow we created a jet pack that let you get all the way to the edge of the atmosphere. what would leaving it be like? is there an impact moment or is it gradual? | it's very, very gradual. for every 8.5 kilometers (5.2 miles) you go up, our atmosphere gets 2.7 times thinner. at a point around 100 kilometers (60 miles) up known as the "homopause", the atmosphere is thin enough that turbulence dies out and the constituents begin to separate. below this height, turbulence keeps things evenly mixed; thus even though carbon dioxide gas is a lot heavier than oxygen gas, it stays well-mixed where we live because of constant atmospheric motion. above this height, the atmosphere starts acting like oil on water - carbon dioxide at the bottom, oxygen above that, and nitrogen above that. this is considered by many to be a reasonable definition as the "edge of space". it's so thin at this point that it's considered a decent vacuum by earthly laboratory standards, though there are still plenty of gas molecules floating around. somewhere around 300 kilometers (180 miles) up - the same height at which the international space station orbits - our atmosphere starts to interact strongly with the surrounding solar wind. there are still a few gas molecules from our atmosphere here and there at this height; it's not many, but it is enough that the space station does need a boost every few months to keep its orbit from decaying due to atmospheric drag. **tl;dr**: there is no hard edge. about 60 miles up, the atmosphere starts separating out into individual gases. about 180 miles up, our atmosphere starts interacting with the solar wind. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why aren't brains vulnerable to esd? | brains aren't effected by static discharge because they do not support static electrical fields. they are embedded within and made of a maginally conductive fluid. esd cannot happen when there's a resistive path for the charge to take to equalize the potential over a set of surfaces. furthermore neurons do not work like electronics. while there is a voltage associated with an action potential in a neuron the actual charge movement is all completely transverse to the direction of the action potential. the charge is only moving ~15nm across the bilayer lipid membrane of a given axon. while electrical potential transients (voltage) can depolarize (or hyperpolarize) a neuron extremely fast transients of some microseconds (like typical esd from the outside world) are well below the integration timescales for charge movement in neurons. they won't effect functioning. if you want to look at a pathological case of outside of the brain electrical discharge effecting brain function then we can use transcranial magnetic stimulation. but, there is a caveat: it is not esd. static fields will never effect the brain. it's not the electrical field of the discharge that is causing the neuronal effects. instead the electrical field creates a very rapidly increasing current of many kiloamperes. this current is directed through an inductive coil to generate a magnetic field. the magnetic field, then, is changing in time with the current. the rate of change in the magnetic field is directly proportional to the electrical field it then induces in the brain. by applying the inductive coil directly to the scalp this rapidly changing magnetic field then induces an electrical field which can induce depolarization of neurons in the outer cortex. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
could you create white light in a pitch black room using 7 different colored bulbs, one for each roy g biv? | yes, but you don't need seven bulbs, [three is perfectly sufficient](_url_0_). the screen you are reading this on has three bulbs in the back of it, but can produce a white background just fine. you have three spectrally tuned photoreceptors in your (daylight) visual system. if each of these is being equally stimulated then the brain will infer that the incoming light is uniformly-spectrally-distributed (i.e., white). for more, see [this recent askscience post on how r, g & b leds can produce bananas](_url_1_). | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.digikey.com/es/articles/techzone/2011/may/creating-white-light-by-adding---not-subtracting---color",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2in493/how_can_i_see_a_yellow_banana_on_an_led_display/"
] | [
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|
why is the magnetic permeability constant multiplied in the biot-savart law, yet the electric permittivity constant is a divisor in coulomb's law? | the placement is arbitrary. the history of maxwell's equations is rather rich. for instance, they used to be written as a set of 20 equations. (modern physics writes them as two.) so there are likely some historical accidents that placed the constants in different places. the physics do not change if you simply define a new constant nu equal to 1/mu and write everything in terms of nu. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
general explanation of fdm, fem, and fvm? | i'll admit my linear algebra and high level calc isn't the strongest, but i think i got a decent understanding of these methods after reading up on them. finite difference based on taylor series, finite element with approximation and trial function, finite volume.. well that one kind of lost me but i'll get back to it later. but i kind of have trouble grasping them visually/conceptually, especially moving onto 2d. like i get fem you can visualize like an mesh of nodes and fvm similarly but with volumes instead of points, but i have trouble connecting the math to the visual. hopefully this isn't too much to ask. i don't want step by step of the math, that's certainly asking a lot, but just a conceptual of what it's doing and how it would solve something like a simple 2d advection problem. it's like when i was learning vector calc and these books went over gradient/curl/divergence and i got the math but really didn't understand what i was doing until someone just drew it out with a vector field and it was a painfully obvious and simple concept (on another note, what's with textbooks never having enough visual figures to explain stuff like this?). i know it won't be that simple but something along those lines would help me greatly. | hey, i know all this stuff, but it's hard to imagine what you're after, and what kind of answer would satisfy you. **finite differences:** the solution is approximated at a set of gridpoints. the equations coupling these gridpoints come from replacing differential operators in the problem equation with *finite differences*, which are conceptually like inverse taylor series (instead of estimating the value of a function far away based on the derivatives, we instead estimate the derivatives based on the value far away). if your grid is uniform, this can be done the same way everywhere, except at the boundaries. there, you'll have to do the same thing with the boundary condition instead. if the geometry of the problem is such that your grid can't be uniform, you will have to compute the difference quotients for each gridpoint. **finite elements:** is concerned with methods for creating function spaces used in galerkin-type methods after transforming your problem into a weak variational form. the galerkin approach is to require the variational property to hold only on finite-dimensional subspaces of the problem space. in finite elements, these function spaces are built by creating a mesh of the computational domain, specifying a set of degrees of freedom (dofs) on each element (these are elements of the *dual space*). usually all the elements are affine transformations of a single reference element, so all the dofs can be defined in terms of it, which is quite helpful. based on some additional restriction (typically polynomial of order ≤ something) the dofs then implicitly define a function space on each element. these have to be spliced together to form e.g. globally weakly c^(1) functions, depending on what the problem requires, so it's important that you pick your dofs carefully, otherwise this might not be possible. **finite volumes:** in the context of hyperbolic transport problems, the strategy here is to assume the solution to be *piecewise constant* on a mesh which can be quite general (more so than in finite elements). since the original problem usually doesn't allow piecewise constant solutions, the problem has to be reformulated in terms of flux conditions that operate across the borders between two volumes. the choice of flux has a huge impact on the performance of the method, and the study of finite volume methods is largely the study of fluxes, at least from what i've seen. if you have a triangular lagrangian finite element method (if you've done heat equation simulations in school, this is almost certainly the method you used), you can consider the finite volume method in some sense the dual, but this only works in very specific cases and for well-behaved meshes. i'll be happy to answer if you have more specific questions. in a way the use of the word *method* for any of these is a bit suspect. they're more like classes of (fairly well understood and tested) problem-solving strategies. my experience is mostly with finite elements, so i apologise if the levels of the explanations were very different. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can rbc's come in different shapes or sizes? if so, what are the implications? | would people with "smaller" rbc's have more blood cells packed in one ml than people with "larger" blood cells? how does this affect circulation? would people with "larger" be more prone to peripheral arterial disease? can people have varying blood cell sizes in their blood and if so, how does it affect them? this all comes into question assuming that the first assumption is true. | fun fact: red blood cells start out larger and shrink down to the right size to carry hemoglobin. the shrinking process requires vitamin b12 and folate, so if you're deficient in one of these you get stuck with large blood cells that are not the right size to carry hemoglobin, giving you a large red blood cell anemia. if you don't have enough iron to make hemoglobin the red cells shrink down even smaller, and you get a small red blood cell anemia. you can get a mixed anemia with both large and small red cells floating around. usually the anemia that causes problems with the peripheral vascular system is sickle cell anemia. but in general it's part of the spleen's job to destroy misshapen blood cells so they can't go circulating around and clogging other vessels. the reason sickle cell bypasses this is that the sickle-shaped cells do so much damage to the spleen that they usually completely destroy it. | 3 | [] | [] | [
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tracking relaxase conjugation experiment | vird2 relaxase is first recruited to the coupling protein, vird4, and then afterwards is pumped into the nucleus of a plant cell. i’m looking for an experiment to prove that vird2 relaxase is pumped into the nucleus of the plant cell. i was thinking of using some kind of florescent tag on vird2, but i’m having trouble working out the details. any ideas would be appreciated. | yup, attach a gfp to your protein. try and find a vird2 null mutant, than rescue it with your gfp construct. make sure the cells still behave as wt with your gfp tagged protein, then live image (fluorescence microscopy should be fine) and watch the protein enter the nucleus. ideally you'd use homologous recombination to replace the endogenous vird4 with your gfp tagged version but i don't know how easy this is in plants. if this doesn't work you can do a time-course experiment where you take cell samples every hour or so (depending on the temporal resolution you want), the lyse the cells and spin down the nuclei. then you can lyse the nuclei, spin down the protein component and identify your protein (assuming there's an antibody) on a gel. if vird2 is entering the nucleus you'll see a band in the gel that increases in intensity over time. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does nucleation of crystals happen microscopically? | i am trying to purify a rather large batch of rochelle salt by recrystallization. i have observed some weird things concerning the nucleation of crystals, and as i want to grow one big single crystal, i want to minimize nucleations. so my question is as the title says, what happens microscopically during nucleation of crystals? and how exactly does it explain the following four points: 1) i used an clean old glass oven dish with a lot of scratches with my first batch. even though there were a lot of scratches only 6 big crystals formed. **why didn't all the scratches form crystals (see also (3))** 2) i got one crystal out with a toothpick. the next day, everywhere my toothpick touched the glass small crystals were growing. (i have seen a similar effect with escaping airbubbles in nearly boiling water after stirring with a spoon) **how does a wooden toothpick alter the glass surface in such a way that crystals are nucleated wherever it contacted the surface?** 3) after the first batch, while resupersaturating a new batch, i cleaned the oven dish with tap water, i dried it with a towel, and rinced it three times with distilled water. (first time i didn't dry it with a towel, i just rinced the dish) the next day the entire bottom of the dish was covered with a layer of small crystals strongly adhered to the bottom of the plate. **how did the towel change the glass surface? probably similar to (1)** 4) since that crystal layer was difficult to remove from the glass, my third batch was in big flexible tupperware(clone) pot. also with plenty of scratches. similarly to (1) there were a few big crystals growing. 5) is there a procedure that minimizes nucleation in general? i want to grow a single, flat crystal with a specific crystal plane pointing upwards on a plane of glass. how can i be sure that i have replicated situation (1) so that i don't have to worry too much about random nuclations spoiling my big crystal? thanks! | it's hard to answer your observations but the towel could be leaving behind fibres which act as additional nucleation points. same with toothpick. for large crystal recrystallisation purity is very important so i'd just make sure you do a few recrystallisation but not down to room temp to get some pure salt. think about what impurities you could have and compare their solubilities to rochelle. then i'd recrystallise from a melt as rochelle's melting point is only 75 degrees c. as for a specific orientation, that'll be hard and you'd have to do it epitaxially i.e. with an underlying crystal substrate. or get lucky. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if a four story building crushes, who is more likely to live: people on the 1st floor or the 4th? (xpost r/askreddit) | askreddit wasn't helpful! assume noone is allowed to run outside, to the basement etc, so proximity to those is irrelevant. | sad to be cliche, but it depends.. if the building is crushing under controlled demolition, or if the building was structurally weak and was crushing for example in a quake, then it would most likely collapse in place. all the floors would be coming down in sandwich style, and you would be a lot more likely to survive if you were on top floor. but, if the building was very rigid, the reverse is true. maybe the ground liquidified during an earthquake, or maybe there was a landslide nearby, and the whole structure just topples down. then the top floor habitants would be out of luck, and the bottom floor people would most likely come out with minor injuries. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are their differences in skeletal structure between humans from different regions of the earth? | i have heard that there are differences based on your area of origin. is this true today, or was it at anytime true but now no longer so? | there are 3 different types of racial structures that most osteologists would recognize. mongoloid (of asian descent), negroid (of african descent), and caucasoid (of european descent). the differences are primarily noted in the skull. for example a mongoloid trait is high zygomatic processes (cheek bones), and can be identified with the "pencil test." this is where one would place a pencil across the nasal aperture, and note if there is space between the arches and the ends of the pencil. if there is a space it is considered non-mongoloid, and if there isn't a space it is a mongoloid trait. other racial characteristics look if there is an overbite/jutting of the teeth, orbital shape, or suture configuration. there's a ton of different things that you could look at to identify a skull's racial origin, so remember these are small examples. as far as overall skeleton structures there are going to be differences that follow diet, day-to-day activities, and the particular pressures of the region. sorry if that's what you were actually looking for, and i went off topic. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how come there are no accurate computer models of wetlands? | we have good models for weather, crops, e.t.c. it just seems to me that science is lacking, especially for an ecosystem that provides many benefits. | how do you define accurate and what aspect of wetlands? there are certainly a variety of simulations of different aspects of wetland ecosystems, e.g. [the hydrodynamics of wetlands](_url_2_), [growth of marshes](_url_1_), and a lot of focus on [simulating constructed wetlands](_url_0_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C19&q=%22numerical+modelling%22+subsurface+flow+wetlands&btnG=",
"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0,19&qsp=3&q=marsh+growth+numerical+simulation",
"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0,19&qsp=2&q=wetland+systems+numerical+simulation"
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you are standing on a scale. in order to lose a fraction of a pound, should you breathe in or out? | neither. i haven't done any work to see if the water you exhale is a bigger effect, but here is my stab at it. inhale as much as you can. this will make no difference, but then compress your chest as much as you can without exhaling. this will hurt, but the compression will increase the density of the air- that is, you will become smaller, while not becoming less massive. this will reduce your buoyancy. edit: it looks like 900 breaths / hour is normal (at rest). say we exhale 65 ml of water per hour (_url_1_), that's .0722 lm per breath, which weight 72.2 milligrams. wikipedia has trumpet players blowing about 1.9 psi (_url_2_) that's would bring lung volume down to .8867 * original volume. a person can exhale around a litre of air (_url_0_) which weighs 1.27 grams, so the difference in displaced air mass outside the body during the compression would weigh 1.27*.8867 = 1.12 grams, which is much more than the 72.2 milligrams of water. so your best option is by far to inhale a lot of air (to get the mass), then compress it inside yourself (to reduce your volume). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_volumes#Values",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22714078",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_%28pressure%29"
] | [
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|
could high ferritin and/or iron levels in a human body increase electrical conductivity? | so, i have a cochlear implant. during my adjustment sessions with my audiologist, it was discovered that i could process sound with the ci at a much lower voltage then is usually required(ci's work by sending electrical impulses into the cochlea which stimulate the auditory nerves). in fact, we had to reduce the voltage (or current? forgive me, i'm ignorant when it comes to electrical terms) at each subsequent session because the electrical impulses were stimulating nearby facial nerves. now, this is perfectly normal - everybody reacts differently to their ci and require repeated adjustments before it works properly. however, i was recently diagnosed with iron overload (we don't know the cause, yet) which led me to ask the question in the title. my brief internet search found a forum for people who suffer from hemochromotosis, and some were complaining about getting more static shocks than normal people and setting off metal dectectors. however, that doesn't really confirm that high ferritin increases electrical conductivity and i was hoping someone on this subreddit could give a more definitive answer. thank you! | iron levels shouldn't have a large impact on your electrical conductivity. animal tissue is somewhat conductive because it contains dissolved ions or electrolytes. of these, sodium and potassium are the most important cations. the concentration of iron ions is so low compared the the high concentration of sodium and other ions that any survivable iron overload condition would have a negligible effect on the total ionic strength (and therefore the conductivity) of blood. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in ecological competition, parasitism is when one species benefits at the cost of another. why haven't the 99% risen up and torn the shit out of the parasites that take everything from us out of pure instinct? is the instinctive defense mechanism no longer active in humans as a species? | what are you talking about? if it's economics in america, then the reason is that the us vs. them 99% bull is inaccurate and an oversimplification of the real situation. yes there is greed, corruption, and unfairness in our system but that's the price you pay for freedom. if you think indiscriminately killing rich people will solve your problems then you're a little bit insane. the solutions to our economic problems are subtle not brutish. despite the urge, there is no enemy to direct your anger towards besides the inherent weaknesses in the economic system which is by most estimations, the best we can come up with. if you want someone to blame, blame the ignorance and shallow attitudes of the american public as a whole who allow their political system to be dominated by a partisan bitchfest who seem more concentrated on defeating the enemy of the opposite party than they do on governing. we elected these clowns and we're the reason all the news and politicians have to talk about is long-ago settled reproductive rights and how stupid the other party is. you want to make a difference? educate yourself and the people around you, and don't tolerate the bullshit you're being constantly fed. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how is a behavior passed down through generations? | my dog is a retriever, we never had to teach him to bring stuff back, he just does, unlike other types of dogs. how is this written in his genes, and how can he pass this to his pups? | you may be underestimating the ability of your dog to respond to positive reinforcement; you never had to purposefully, deliberately "teach" him, but showing approval through body language allows them to learn, through experience, that this behavior is wanted and rewarded. dogs are amazingly [attuned to human behavior and gestures](_url_1_). there is surprisingly little research, though, on the cognitive behavior of dogs. a lot of things we just sort of take for granted. i do recommend this book, [inside of a dog](_url_0_), as a good overview of what we know about dogs and understanding how they view the world. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.amazon.com/Inside-Dog-What-Dogs-Smell/dp/1416583432",
"https://thebark.com/content/whats-point",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silky_sifaka",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_of_Madagascar"
] | [
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could the use of corticosteroids effect the results of medical imaging in diagnosing tumors? | i've read that corticosteroids such as prednisone are frequently used in combination with chemotherapy to help kill cancer cells, but prednisone is also used to help reduce inflammation for other diseases such as crohn's or rheumatoid arthritis. so my question is, if cancer was suspected in a patient who was on a type of corticosteroid to help with inflammation, and a ct scan was ordered to search for any masses, is it possible for the steroids to drastically reduce a possible mass to the point where it could be missed by a radiologist? | corticosteroids such as prednisone can theoretically mask the signs of lymphomas (and related cancers) and complicate the diagnosis. corticosteroids disrupt lymphocyte migration and proliferation as well as decreasing the general immune response. the effect on lymphocytes helps slow growth and stimulate cell death in certain white blood cell related tumors. it also enhances the response to chemotherapy, making it a common (at least in animals) addition to chemotherapy in treating lymphomas, lymphoblastic leukemia, and multiple myeloma. it also can cause stimulation of appetite and increased energy, which helps combat some side effects of chemotherapy. the tumor-shrinking effect could make them more difficult to detect. whether this happens enough in people to be clinically relevant, i don't know, but [here's a study done in children that claims it does complicate diagnosis.](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10873047",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21666852",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK13383/"
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concerning the recently imprisoned italian seismologists: can anyone comment on their predictions? | my first gut reaction to hearing about the sentences these researchers got was one of outrage. however, i also have heard nothing about the way these seismologists got to their predicitions. was it based on solid science? are their sentences in any way justified? | there was nothing wrong with how they went about making predictions. they were imprisoned because of a fundamental misunderstanding of how prediction works. there were tremors in the time leading up to the event, and seismologists released a statement that these small tremors are normal behavior and the risk of a major event was low. since a major event *did* happen, prosecutors decided that the tremors beforehand must have been a huge red-flag that a major event was coming, so the seismologists are guilty of providing misleading, incomplete information that costs lives. it comes from a fundamental misunderstanding about probability. if you say there is a 5% chance of an event, it doesn't mean that event won't happen. in fact, if it's a perfect prediction, that event *should* happen once every 20 times a 5% prediction is made (in aggregate, not in every 20-case subset). there are countless times that these tiny tremors show up and then a huge earthquake *doesn't* happen, but prosecutors can easily convince a judge that there is a straightforward cause/effect relationship in retrospect using a post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy. the whole thing is disgusting, and will ultimately result in either a country-wide abandonment of these kinds of predictions by the scientific field, or the establishment of useless "predictive" systems that just predict an event 24/7 to shield the providers from legal trouble, since a false-alarm doesn't result in a six-year prison sentence. and if this case is used as precedent to push for similar revenge-prosecution in other countries, you can expect these outcomes in those countries as well. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/10/22/italys-troubling-earthquake-convictions/"
] | [
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did the ostrich ever have a flying ancestor, or does it have yet to evolve flight? | ostriches definitely had a flighted ancestor! i have an [answer on another post](_url_0_) that talks about the evolution of flight in dinosaurs, and birds are (for the most part) flying dinosaurs. more than that, the current thinking is that flight was lost multiple times in ratites, the group that includes the ostrich and other birds like emus, cassowaries, and kiwi ([source](_url_2_) and [source](_url_1_)). kind of interesting, because you'd think flight would have been lost once in the group, but that doesn't appear to be the case! edit: i should add that the "yet to evolve" line of thinking isn't really how evolution works. flight wasn't a goal in the evolution of birds. evolution has no goal. even if the ancestors of ostriches hadn't been flighted, that doesn't mean their descendants would evolve flight. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1p7mss/did_dinosaurs_evolve_into_birds_because_flight/cczmzn9",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24855267",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2533212/",
"http://www.giantflightlessbirds.com/research/2007/12/did_ratites_fly_to_new_zealand.html"
] | [
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|
is a strong jawline purely based on genetics or can it be improved by exercises? | unfortunately, the shape of your jaw is almost entirely based on genetics. also, there really isn't any need to "work out" your jaw. you already do it around three times a day. i don't know if whatever exercises you have in mind will hurt you, but they certainly won't help to give you a wider jawline. the key muscles you use during chewing are lot located in places that would make your jaw appear wider if they increased in size. if you're curious, your chewing muscles include the masseter, temporalis, and pterygoids (sp?). late edit: i suppose you could technically say that you're exercising your jaw a lot more than three times a day. i forgot about things like speaking. d'oh! | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there any scientific reason to be worried about the calcification of the pineal gland? | i hear a lot of pseudo-science people claiming that the calcification of our pineal glands is responsible for a myriad of problems. at first i didn't even believe that the pineal gland calcified, but apparently it often does, seen in x-rays: [link](_url_0_). i'm really curious what/if there are any consequences to this. does this inhibit pineal gland function? is this why we tend to produce less melatonin as we age? ([source](_url_1_).) | even though the reasons behind calcification of the pineal gland seem not to be completely understood at this point, it is widely accepted that this does, in fact, happen. [this paper](_url_0_) from 2004 links decreased melatonin production in the pineal gland with the onset and progression of alzheimer's disease. it suggests that not only does melatonin deficit strongly affect the ability of ad patients to maintain normal circadian rhythms, it also suggests that a deficiency in melatonin's antioxidant properties may speed the progression of ad. to address the link between the decrease in melatonin with calcification of the pineal gland, [this 2007 study](_url_1_) correlated increased nighttime calcium levels with decreased nighttime melatonin content. [an even more recent study from 2008](_url_2_) found that alzheimer's patients have a smaller ratio of uncalcified pineal tissue to calcified than patients with other forms of dementia, with depression, or control subjects. alzheimer's patients also had a higher degree of calcification in the pineal than did other subjects. degree of calcification was correlated with the individual's ability to produce melatonin. alzheimer's patients notoriously have decreased melatonin production, and thus, disrupted sleep cycles. anyway, yes, it appears that there is a link between calcification of the pineal gland over the life span, decreased melatonin production with increased calcification, and pathologies associated with decreased melatonin. | 7 | [] | [
"http://pubs.rsna.org/doi/abs/10.1148/radiology.142.3.7063680?journalCode=radiology",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3783419"
] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-079X.2004.00196.x/full",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-079X.1994.tb00098.x/abstract",
"http://www.neurobiologyofaging.org/article/S0197-4580\\(06\\)00362-9/abstract"
] | [
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what determines the rate at which the prefrontal cortex develops? | can it be altered by certain external stimuli? epigenetic factors? is there variation across socioeconomic class? across geography? | the prefrontal cortex (pfc) is an important region of the brain; since it oversees executive functions such as decision making, impulse control, emotional regulation, pattern recognition, planning, and other forms of complex cognition, it is largely responsible for giving hought that myelination of the pfc (and really, any region of the brain) therefore facilitates more effective neuronal communication and connectivity both within the pfc and between the pfc and other brain areas. myelination is a process that is critical during early development and mri shows us that the amount of myelination in the brain rapidly increases throughout infanthood, childhood, and adolescence. various studies in both humans and animal models have shown that significant environmental and social stressors (social isolation, social defeat, chronic physical stress, etc) during early development (childhood and adolescence) can greatly impact myelination in the pfc. conversely, exposure to an enriched and stimulating environment can help reverse this impaired myelination. these studies have shown that exposure to stressors in early life can lead to certain genes displaying patterns of epigenetic markers that are very different from those of "healthy controls". the theory then is that social stressors lead to differential epigenetic regulation of genes related to the hpa axis (the body's physiological stress response system), myelination, and neuronal development, perhaps in an attempt to counteract or compensate for the detrimental effects of the stressors. this in turn leads to deficits in pfc development, which can result in impairments to cognition, mood regulation, emotional control, and personality. presumably, myelination is greatly influenced by environmental stimuli in early life, which acts as a critical period of development. studies have shown that human subjects who have experienced significant stress (extreme starvation, physical/mental/emotional/sexual abuse, neglect, etc) as children are more likely to display abnormal or reduced myelination in the pfc. these impairments are tied to an increased likelihood of developing mood and anxiety disorders, as well as general problems with emotional regulation and other cognitive deficits. such exceptionally negative experiences are often tied to socioeconomic status and geography. for example, many of these mri studies were conducted in romanian orphans who experienced significant poverty and stress due to war, famine, and abuse. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the dow jones industrial average have a sample size of 30, why not more? | i was wondering why with the advent of computers does the djia still include only 30 companies in the average. with so many large corporations composing of many different fields and markets, how can 30 companies be a statistically significant poll of the "health" of the stock market. | and also, it's not really an average at all, it's a sum of the values (with certain adjustments that take place to avoid changing the value when one stock is replaced with another) of thirty difference share prices, using large cap companies that have a history of trading similarly to the market in general. it's a guide, no more | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes hppd? | what causes it to happen with some people and not others? could it be a simply mental placebo effect or is it legit. any interesting info about hppd would be greatly appreciated. | [hallucinogen persisting perception disorder: what do we know after 50 years?](_url_0_) 2003 just use google scholar for case studies and theories. try /r/homework help if you get stuck. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037687160200306X"
] | [
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what's this flavor in my mouth when i get caught doing something i shouldn't be doing? | layman medically, as you know, but: some basic googling indicates this is common(i get this too, for example.), and seems to be a form of mild panic attack. specifically, seems to be a mild form of a [simple partial seizure](_url_0_). most likely triggered by [adrenaline](_url_2_) as a stress reaction: _url_1_ if you're wanting to search for an exact answer, i'd suggest googling for "stress taste in mouth". generally where i'm getting my info. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_partial_seizure",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stressor",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenaline_Rush"
] | [
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|
are there any good scientific arguments against a mechanistic view of humanity and the universe? | this is as much a philosophical question as it is a scientific one, i suppose. to wit, do recent scientific discoveries -- such as new theories of quantum mechanics -- effect the likelihood that phenomena such as thought and consciousness are reducible to the interaction of quantifiable (physical) components? i'm inclined to believe that consciousness and free will are illusions resulting from the organization of a very complex system (the human form), and that -- given a knowledge of some (admittedly unattainable) equation for the universe -- everything is explicable and predictable. what does modern science say about this? | interactions on the quantum level are inherently probabilistic, so even if you knew everything there was to possibly know about the universe, you still can not exactly predict how it will evolve. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how did ancient cultures figure out the recipe for iowaska? | for those who don't know what iowaska is, it's a psychedelic beverage consisting of dmt and an maoi. i can completely understand how a lot of the other psychedelic plants were discovered (mushrooms, peyote, etc) because all it takes is ingesting that single plant. with iowaska, dmt isn't active orally unless taken with an maoi. this was figured out way before anyone had any concept of biochemistry. it just seems that the odds of some shaman randomly combining two plants in the right way would be very very low considering all the biodiversity around them. | ayahuasca? they figured it out from watching the jaguars eat it - i learned that at _url_0_. don't ask me how they figured out licking toads would get you high though - probably a lot of trial and error. _url_1_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"cracked.com",
"http://www.singingtotheplants.com/2009/02/jaguar-on-ayahuasca/"
] | [
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there are 4 types of muscle fibers that run on slightly different fuels. do brain cells have a similar dichotomy? | for instance, in muscle fibers: * type iib - creatine phosphate * type iix - creatine phosphate/glycogen * type iia - glycogen * type i - triglycerides/lactic acid | as an aside, this situation isn't a dichotomy, to be precise. a dichotomy has two mutually exclusive parts or categories. the breakdown of four muscle cell types would be a polychotomy, or tetrachotomy. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ploscompbiol.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.1002686",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19664276",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22571985",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18625458",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC332976/",
"http://scibite.com/site/library/2013_2/1/0/23415649.html",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3321471/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23276384",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6410799",
"http://www.jci.org/articles/view/105650",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23241062",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23131121"
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what happens to a metal baseball bat when "it dies". | in most non-pro leagues expensive, metal baseball bats are used that typically last for 1-2 years (less if used by a whole team) before they are considered "dead." this means the bat no longer seems to have the pop as the ball comes off the barrel and typically results in the baseball flying slower and shorter and becoming easier to play. so what changes inside the baseball bat from when it is brand new to when it is considered "dead"? | high-cycle metal fatigue. collisions between a new bat and the ball are mostly elastic and lose little energy, transferring most of the kinetic energy of the bat into the ball. over repeated collisions, the metal fatigues and the collisions become increasingly plastic, losing more and more of the kinetic energy into plastic deformation of the bat. most aluminum alloys lack a fatigue limit and will eventually fracture even under weak repeated stress. | 48 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_hardening"
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which would be more harmful to the human body, the worlds strongest acid or the worlds strongest base? | if it matters, lets consider skin contact and if ingested. | this is a somewhat tricky question to answer because the methods we use to classify the strength of an acid or base don't necessarily translate to a super-acidic or super-alkaline solution once they have dissolved in water. as an example, the record for strongest acid is held by [fluoroantimonic acid](_url_0_) (h2 sbf7). the strongest known are comprised of highly charged anionic species that are almost completely insoluble in any solvent. they are held together by strong ionic interactions that are hard to break. lithium nitride (li3n) is a good example of that. the nitride ion (n^{3-}) is so basic that we have never directly measured it's pkb, as far as i have seen. as for health hazards, it gets a little weird. if a material is insoluble, it can't really hurt you. the surface of lithium nitride would be corrosive to the touch as it combines with the water in your skin or esophagus to form ammonia and hydroxide. if you dissolved it in water and drank it, it would certainly hurt, but not as much as if you inhaled it in the powdered form. the superacid example is also a bit weird. the maximum acid concentration you can achieve in water at standard pressure is about 15 molar, the concentration of nitric acid. this is due to its extremely high affinity for water and small molecular size (i.e., you can squeeze more molecules into a small space.) this translates into a ph of -1.2. this will mess you up. fluoroantimonic acid, on the other hand, if you were to dissolve it in water, would lose its acidic properties, reverting back to it's building blocks, hydrogen fluoride and antimony pentafluoride. hf is a significantly weaker acid than a superacid. in fact, it's only a bit worse than vinegar. that doesn't mean i'd want to eat it. hf is extremely toxic, and a little bit can give you a heart attack. | 28 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoroantimonic_acid"
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is it possible for us to bulid a star map like in prometheus? | i mean a simplified map. one where you walk into a room and 3d stars are projected into the air as you walk around them... | we don't have the technology for volumetric displays like that yet. we have some prototypes that involve plasma generated by lasers, but you can't walk into them. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if black boxes have such critical information why can't we relay it to land in real time? | every time a plane crashes finding the black box becomes a very challenging task. if the data is relayed in real time we wouldn't have this issue. | as important as that information is, the cost of streaming it constantly from a plane is probably an uneccessary one for most airlines. it takes a lot of data to stream voice data and instrument data constantly over a flight and depending on the route taken, their best coverage might be a satellite link which is too slow for the task. crashes just don't happen nearly enough for that much redundancy to be paid for since it does nothing to improve the immediate safety of flight, and adding complexity to something that works relatively well might not always be a great idea. so the bottom line is probably airlines are too cheap to afford such a luxury feature. though i believe some flights have started using that technology it is far from becoming commonplace | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are troglobites colorless? | since they evolved in total darkness, where their predators can't see them, why would a loss of pigment be an evolutionary advantage? wouldn't you expect them to be randomly colored? (is white the "default", and pigment the mutation that didn't continue?) | creating pigment costs energy. if nothing can see why make a pigment? edit add-on: any creature that doesn't make more pigment has more energy available (might be a very small amount granted) to hunt, reproduce etc. any edge in such a hostile environment is likely to be selected for. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why aren't pulsars "dopplering"? | maybe i've missed something fundamentally simple, but shouldn't the pulse rates of pulsars be diminishing if the universe is expanding? | virtually all of the pulsars we know of are in the milky way, and the other 20 are in the magellanic clouds. neither the milky way nor its system of satellites is expanding, so the expansion of the universe is not relevant to pulsar signals. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[psychology] how do you profile someone (such as suspected killers or political leaders) and what are the realistic applications of profiling? | so, i think that a distinction needs to be made. violence/crime profiling takes two forms. the first is when we know that a crime occurs, but have no idea who committed the crime. the second is when an individual has committed crime/violence in the past, and we are profiling them in an effort to assess their likelihood of recidivism (i.e., repeat offending). i'll admit that my area of experience and knowledge is the latter (identifying those individuals who have a high risk of recidivism). regarding the former, there's not a lot of empirical support for the processes used (chifflet, 2014; kocsis, 2003). however, kocsis (2003) argued that professional, well-trained profilers have a higher chance of accuracy than lay people (i.e., untrained persons). chifflet (2014) goes on to state that difficulties in developing ethical studies is a major obstacle to developing empirical support for profiling techniques. further, chifflet adds that many professional profilers are hesitant to engage in such research, arguing generally that the continued need for profiling by law enforcement is all of the proof that they need. this argument is poor in that it has nothing to do with the scientific support for the process. a related practice is when schools or related institutions review their subjects to assess who is more likely to engage in violence. a clear ethical dilemma is present here in that high-risk assumptions are being made that may have dire effects on individuals, despite a lack of empirical evidence. the second area--predicting recidivism--falls into a category known as violence risk assessment (vra). vra has a substantial area of empirical support, and is often used in (a) schools, (b) inpatient facilities, (c) detention centers (monahan, 2000). the general practices in vra are to assess the individual's previous offenses, assessing factors such as whether it was planned, if a weapon was used, the number of previous offenses, and so forth. other individual factors such as a history of offenses, familial history of violence, peer relations, academic success, extracurricular activities and hobbies, commitment to work, and so forth. psychometric measures of negative thought patterns, empathy, and pathology. all of this information is combined and a decision is made, estimating how likely the individual is to engage in recidivism. chifflet, p. (2014). questioning the validity of criminal profiling: an evidence-based approach. australian & new zealand journal of criminology. doi: 10.1177/0004865814530732 kocsis, r. (2003. criminal psychological profiling: validities and abilities. international journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology, 47. 126-144. monahan, j. (2000). violence risk assessment: scientific validity and evidentiary admissibility. available online: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/wlulr/vol57/iss3/8"
] | [
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|
how can scientists tell that a pyrophoric substance is toxic? | i recently learned about silane (sih4) as part of a class, where i learned that it was both toxic, and pyrophoric (it will ignite when exposed to air). how is it possible to measure toxicity if the substance ignites when exposed to the atmosphere? would the same processes that cause it to combust take place in the body? | according to the [msds](_url_0_) they did a inhalation test with rats. not sure exactly how they did it, but i would guess controlling the temperature and concentration of gases is the key. if you cooled down the silanes, and diluted them sufficiently with the nitrogen of air beforehand you might slow the oxidation to a rate that prevents a fire. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.airgas.com/msds/001073.pdf"
] | [
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] |
how much force is required to break the meissner effect? | i just watched this super cool video, from the front page today, illustrating the meissner effect: _url_0_ this got me thinking, how much force is needed to overcome the effect. obviously the weight of the disc is not enough to overpower the effect because it floats. but it is also quite easy for him in the video to reposition the disc with his hand. with a different sized disc or magnet, would the meissner effect become more powerful? in other words, could this be scaled up to hover board, roller coaster or train size? | you can have a hoverboard - with limitations. magnetic fields don't propagate well through conductors. the applied field creates magnetic fields in the conductor that push against the applied field. superconductors are perfectly conductive, and tend to go flying away from magnets. type i superconductors push out all magnetic field lines passing through them when they cool. that is the meissner effect, and is not actually what is shown in the video. what you are seeing is [flux pinning](_url_0_) in a type ii superconductor. basically it's full of holes; magnetic field lines can pass through the material, but only through current vortexes. the magnetic field lines don't want to move and the vortexes don't want to move around in the superconductor either, so the superconductor just floats there. this force is potentially massively, massively strong - easily 70,000 times the weight of the superconductor if the sheet of superconductor is very thin and in a strong field. superconductors have maximum currents they can carry before they break down and stop being superconductors, but holding up a person isn't really a challenge. you could easily have a hoverboard if you soaked a board containing a thin layer of a type ii superconductor in liquid nitrogen and set up a massive field of magnets to skate over. this would be extremely awesome but utterly impractical. if anyone ever invents a room-temperature superconductor then we won't need the liquid nitrogen. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lC-3li6ScUE"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux_pinning"
] | [
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what fuels the mitochondria? | it's not atp, so i don't know what to expect. | carbohydrates and oxygen. when you looks at the reaction for cell respiration (what your mitochondria do), something in you should go “that doesn’t feel right!” that’s because the reaction for cell resp is a combustion reaction! the mitochondria just does this reaction over a series of steps in which the energy is used to form atp | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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t-rex blood cell results? | hey guys, in 2005 news broke of a find of t-rex blood cells in the marrow of a fossil. i never heard of a report on results of any investigation into them, like dna and such, and i can't find anything on the nets. anyone know what happened to them? original news break: [t-rex blood cells found](_url_0_) thanks | it looks like two articles were published from this fossil find^[1](_url_0_)[2](_url_2_). they found structures that looked like blood vessels and maybe cells, but could only definitively identify the presence of the protein, collagen, an abundant protein in connective tissue that is relatively resistant to degradation. neither paper mentions dna so i assume it was unrecoverable. however, it seems that an indirect discovery to the analysis was the idea that well-preserved protein (collagen in this case) recovered from very old specimens can be used as a reliable source for molecular phylogenetics^[3](_url_1_). | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7285683/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/scientists-recover-t-rex-soft-tissue/#.T6lUaetYuSo"
] | [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/307/5717/1952.abstract",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/320/5875/499.full",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/316/5822/277.short"
] | [
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why does the surface area of a revolved solid include the arc length formula? why not just integrate the circumference formula? | ***(see sidebar of /r/math to render equations properly in your browser.)*** clarifying your question --- just to clarify your question, you seem to be asking the following. suppose we rotate the graph of the curve *y* = *f*(*x*) (from x = a to x = b) about the *x*-axis. we want to compute the area of that surface of revolution. the standard way to "prove" the formula is to approximate the surface by a sequence of *conical* bands ([see this image](_url_2_)). we can calculate the surface area of a conical band rather easily, then we add up the area of the conical bands, take a limit as the number of bands approaches infinity, and we get the formula `[; a_1 = 2\pi\int_a^b{|f(x)|\,ds} = 2\pi \int_a^b{|f(x)|\sqrt{1+f'(x)^2}\,dx} ;]` your question is about why we use *conical* bands and not *cylindrical* bands, similar to what we do when we calculate volumes of solids of revolution. so you are imagining something [like this picture](_url_0_). if you go through the same process and limiting procedure, you would get the formula `[; a_2 = 2\pi\int_a^b{|f(x)|\,dx} ;]` so why is *a**_1_* correct but *a**_2_* not correct? there are several reasons (some deeper than others) why *a**_2_* is not correct. what happens in the analogous 1-dimensional case? --- i think the easiest way to see why the "circumference method" for calculating areas has to incorrect is to examine what happens if we were to apply the same reasoning to the 1-dimensional case, i.e., calculating the arc length of a curve. so the setup of the problem is the same, except we want to calculate the arc length of the curve instead (not the surface area of revolution). the standard way to find the arc length formula is to approximate the curve by a polygonal curve ([see this picture](_url_3_)), add the lengths of the straight line pieces, then take a limit as the number of pieces approaches infinity. you can also think of it like this: you are approximating the area under the graph by trapezoids and you are summing the slanted lengths of the tops of the trapezoids ([see this picture](_url_1_)). what is the analogous "circumference formula" for computing arc length? that would be simply approximating the curve by *horizontal* straight lines and then adding up those segments. you can also think of it like this: you approximate the area under the graph by rectangles and you sum the horizontal lengths of the tops of the rectangles ([see this picture](_url_4_)). but hopefully you can already see why that method is going to fail. no matter how many rectangles you use, the sum of the lengths of the tops of the rectangles is *always* just *b*-*a*, the length of the interval. so unless you want to say that the arc length of any curve above the interval [a, b] has length *b*-*a*, that's clearly the wrong way to compute arc length. essentially what's happening is that you by using rectangles only, you miss everything about what's happening with the function in the vertical direction. when we compute the area under the graph, we don't really care. it's as if the error only talks about the vertical direction (1-dimensional), but if we were calculating areas we are doing calculating something 2-dimensional. but if we are calculating arc length (something 1-dimensional), then we care very much about what we miss in particular directions. (the last few sentences are not very precise, but hopefully you can understand roughly what i am trying to say.) deeper reasons why the circumference method is wrong --- i think the previous section is probably enough to convince you why the circumference method is wrong. but if the circumference method is so bad, how do we know the conical band method gets it right? to answer that we need some more advanced math, beyond calculus ii. for starters, what do you even *mean* by the area of a surface? maybe you mean something like "if i need 5 square-meters of paint to paint the surface of the object, then its surface area is 5 square-meters". okay. well, that definition isn't really going to be very useful for finding the *formula* for area. maybe you mean something like "if i approximate the surface by flat pieces, then unroll the pieces and compute *their* area, i can get a better and better approximation of the true area by using more pieces". okay. that's perhaps better. you are using formulas which you already know to build up to a formula you want to discover. (how you *know* the formula for the area of a rectangle or trapezoid is a related discussion though.) this method isn't going to work for surfaces that are intrinsically curved though, like the sphere. there is no way to "unroll" a sphere without introducing some sort of distortion. both of these methods also only make sense for surfaces that are embedded in 3 dimensions. what about surfaces in 12 dimensions? how should we calculate their area? now even though these naive definitions of area are not satisfactory, they do implicitly suggest that whatever is meant by area can probably be defined by the properties we want area to have. that is, suppose we are given some surface *s* and we want to calculate *a*(*s*), the surface area of *s*. what properties should *a*(*s*) have? for example, we may propose the following: * **non-negativity:** *a*(*s*) ≥ 0 for all surfaces. * **finite additivity:** if *s**_1_* and *s**_2_* are disjoint surfaces, then *a*(*s**_1_* ∪ *s**_2_*) = *a*(*s**_1_*) + *a*(*s**_2_*). * **invariance:** if we translate, reflect, or rotate *s* to get a new surface *s*', then *a*(*s*) = *a*(*s*'). * **normalization:** the surface area of the unit sphere is some given, positive number. all of those properties seem very simple and exactly what we mean by surface area. if we want to be a bit stricter, we have to say what *kinds* of surfaces this formula applies to. but for our purposes, all of the surfaces you can visualize are perfectly fine. ***it turns out that these 4 properties are enough by themselves to determine a unique surface area function!*** (again, strictly speaking, we have to tweak some of the properties to be more precise. for instance, we need to replace finite additivity with countable additivity. we also need to stipulate that the surfaces themselves must be what are called *borel* subsets. there are also some other technicalities, like our formula being *outer regular* and *inner regular*. we only need translation invariance (and not reflection or rotation invariance). finally, we have to specify the number in the 4th property to determine the surface area function *uniquely*. for those familiar with measure theory, this theorem is *haar's theorem*, which characterizes invariant measures on locally compact topological groups.) of course, to prove that these 4 properties are enough takes quite a lot of machinery, well beyond calculus ii. but the formula you do get is exactly the formula that is taught to you in calculus ii. for those have done calculus iii... --- in calculus iii you usually do a whole bunch of vector geometry (cross products, inner products, intersections of planes, etc.) and then you do a whole bunch of vector calculus (surface parametrization, flux integrals, divergence theorem, etc.). suppose you are given a surface with parametrization `[; \vec{x} = \vec{x}(u,v) ;]` you should have learned that the partial derivatives `[; \vec{x}_u(u,v) = \frac{\partial\vec{x}}{\partial u}(u,v), \vec{x}_v(u,v) = \frac{\partial\vec{x}}{\partial v}(u,v) ;]` lie in the plane tangent to the surface at the point `[; p = \vec{x}(u,v) ;]`. if the parametrization is nice enough, these two vectors are actually linearly independent, and thus span the tangent plane at *p*. now if you are given two vectors `[; \vec{a} ;]` and `[; \vec{b} ;]`, the area of the parallelogram spanned by them is `[; a = |\vec{a} \times \vec{b}| ;]` which can be proved using basic geometry. all we need to know is the formula of a rectangle. hence an infinitesimally small patch of our surface at the point *p* has area `[; da = \left|\frac{\partial\vec{x}}{\partial u} \times \frac{\partial\vec{x}}{\partial v}\right| ;]` the area of the entire surface is just the integral of this expression. `[; a = \int{\left|\frac{\partial\vec{x}}{\partial u} \times \frac{\partial\vec{x}}{\partial v}\right|\,dudv} ;]` so what's the parametrization of a surface of revolution. in the original example, our parametrization would be `[; \vec{x}(u,v) = (u, f(u)\sin(v), f(u)\cos(v)) ;]` note that *u* is playing the role *x* (or *r* in polar coordinates) and *v* is playing the role of θ, the azimuthal angle. if you work out the partial derivatives and their cross product, you eventually recover the calculus ii formula. `[; \vec{x}_u \times \vec{x}_v = \left(-f(u)f'(u), f(u)\sin(v), f(u)\cos(u)\right) ;]` `[; \left|\vec{x}_u \times \vec{x}_v\right| = |f(u)|\sqrt{1+f'(u)^2} ;]` `[; a = \int_0^{2\pi}{\int_a^b{|f(u)|\sqrt{1+f'(u)^2}\,dudv}} = 2\pi\int_a^b{|f(u)|\sqrt{1+f'(u)^2}\,du} ;]` all done! for those interested, if you want to see how this formula generalizes to computing areas of surfaces embedded in higher dimensions, take a course on differential forms and/or integration on manifolds. the area of a surface (a 2-dimensional manifold with or without boundary) in that context is *defined* to be the integral of a certain two-form over the manifold. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/5/volumes.2/microcalc3.gif",
"http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/ApproximatingDefIntegrals_files/image002.gif",
"http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/SurfaceArea_files/image004.gif",
"http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/ArcLength_files/image001.gif",
"http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/AreaProblem_files/image011.gif",
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SurfaceofRevolution.html"
] | [
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|
why do beta spin states go against field direction in nmr? | in nuclear magnetic resonance we see that the low energy alpha state is in line with the magnetic field. why does increasing the field strength cause the protons to start spinning against the field direction? | in general, the spins are always in a superposition of spin-up and spin-down states. these states have corresponding magnetic moments, governed by the gyromagnetic ratio, which describes the relationship between the spin and the magnetic moment. the presence of an external magnetic field causes an energy difference between the aligned and anti-aligned magnetic moments. through spin-lattice relaxation, the system will tend to slightly lower energy states. note that it is the alignment of the magnetic moment that matters, not the spin. for nmr active nuclei, the gyromagnetic ratio is usually positive. however some nuclei, like 15n, have negative gyromagnetic ratios. this means that 15n nuclei will tend to favour spin states that are opposite of 1h, but with their magnetic moments pointing in the same direction. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the graph of inverse sin(x) look how it does? | i understand this is an awkward question but i have no clue why it looks as it does. just for further reference, this is the graph that i mean: _url_0_ thanks. | if you have a graph of a function and then graph it's inverse, then what you will get is the exact same graph, but with the x and y axes mirrored onto each other. or, said another way, if you draw a perfectly diagonal line on the graph, then the inverse graph will be the exact same as the original graph, but mirrored about this line. you can see an example [here](_url_0_). so how does this apply for the graph of arcsin? the big issue is that sin(x) actually does not have an inverse function. it does not pass the [horizontal line test](_url_2_). for a graph to be a function, it must pass the vertical line test, which says that every vertical line hits the graph at most once. for your function to have an inverse, then it's mirror image about the diagonal must also be a function, which means the mirror image must pass the vertical line test, but because the mirror image of a vertical line about the diagonal is a horizontal line, a function will have an inverse exactly when every horizontal line hits it's graph at most once. sine does not pass the horizontal line test. how can we fix this? maybe we can cut sine up into a much smaller graph where it *does* pass the horizontal line test. it doesn't make sense to start at x=0, because that's kinda in the middle, we want to start at one of the maximums or minimums of the graph. so if we start at x=-pi/2, where sin(x)=-1, and trace it to x=pi/2, where sin(x)=1, then we will have hit every point that sine can take, and if we enlarge this at all, then we'll repeat numbers and fail the horizontal line test. [this is what this restricted graph of sine looks like.](_url_1_) it clearly passes the horizontal line test and has an inverse, and you'll notice that if we mirror that graph about the diagonal, you get [exactly the graph of arcsin(x)](_url_3_). | 20 | [] | [
"http://www.calculatorsoup.com/images/trig_plots/graph_arcsin.gif"
] | [
"http://www.sprinklernewz.us/assets/inversefctn.jpg",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sin%28x%29+for+-pi%2F2%3C%3Dx%3C%3Dpi%2F2",
"http://colalg.math.csusb.edu/~devel/IT/main/m06_inverse/images/sineqhalf.gif",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%7Bx%2C+sin%28x%29%2C+arcsin%28x%29%7D+for+-pi%2F2%3C%3Dx%3C%3Dpi%2F2"
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[computing] how do i deal with a lot of data? | you're adorable. anyway... the way i do this, in systems where the stock visualizer isn't sufficient, is - and don't laugh, it works - to run a ridiculously old version of acdsee - 3.10, dating back to some fifteen years ago - via wine. yes, yes, i know, it's a hack and you shouldn't have to run windows software in emulation in 2014 - but i have never found a native visualizer that's faster and won't choke on huge directories *or* huge files, and it's compatible with everything relevant, including animated files. i use it in windows, too. just don't use it to actually edit the pictures - the editor applet is agricultural to say the least. bonus nostalgia feel: dat win95-styled interface. in any case, even if you don't use my deliciously vintage solution, dividing up the collection in smaller directories would be good (assuming it isn't already, but if it was it probably wouldn't choke the file manager). | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does electricity *know* the shortest/least resistance way to the ground? | it's common knowledge, i'd say, that electricity follows the path of least resistance, but how is that done? say i have a copper wire, which as some point is split into two. one split goes off for a few kilometers and ends in open air. the 2nd split goes the other direction 50 meters into the ground. the electricity will go off into the 2nd split, but how does it know to go that way? | easy. electricity does *not* follow the path of least resistance. that's horseshit. it follows all possible paths in inverse proportion to their resistance. imagine a bucket of water with lots of holes in the bottom. the water will flow out of all the holes. it will simply flow faster out of the bigger holes than the smaller ones. if the hole is really small there might not be any significant flow, especially compared to the big ones. likewise, electricity will flow along all possible paths. it's just that some paths have such high resistance that the current flow through that path will be small or negligible. if you had two identical wires from point a to point b, half the power would go through each wire. | 29 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can two things ever truly 'touch'? | yes, because touch and contact are words defined by our experiences, which means that it isn't an issue of scientific nomenclature. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the microscopic explanation of water pressure? | so, the temperature on the bottom of marianna trench is close to 0, the water density is just 5% bigger than on the surface, but the pressure is enormous. i'd like to have an intuitive explanation as to why? clearly, this is not ideal gas. so, where is all the energy contained? from the point of view of a single water molecule, it is not moving faster, and there are not much more neighbours. but if you bring down a submarine filled with atmospheric pressure air, and open a tiny hole, the water molecule will be propelled inside with an enormous force. how does it work? | the pressure comes from the weight of all the water above it. think of the ocean as a container filled with marbels, the ones at the bottom have to carry the weight of those at the top.. and the further down you go, the more is the weight you have to carry. now, if you put an air balloon at the bottom of the container, it'll be crushed by the weight of the marbles... just like a submarine that went too deep. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do words you use every day randomly look like they're spelled wrong? | you know, you go to type the word "guard" and all of a sudden you look at it and you wonder, "am i an idiot? that can't be right..." | basically, words correspond to specific neural activity. when you hear or say the word multiple times, that word's neural activity occurs multiple times very rapidly and leads to inhibition of that activity. when the activity is inhibited, you don't really know what the word is and it begins to look/sound like nonsense. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_satiation"
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] |
there's steel reinforced concrete and there are metal foams. are there metal foam concrete composites? | metal foam is primarily used in applications where weight is a factor. concrete is pretty much never used in any weight-sensitive application so there's not a compelling reason to use a more expensive material in place of plain steel rebar. metal foams are also typically very stiff which can be good depending on what you're using it for, but the point of using steel rebar in concrete is to allow the steel to bear some of the flexural and tensile loads (which regular concrete is poor at dealing with), so i'm not sure a super stiff metal would be a good choice for that. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
askscience cosmos q & a thread. episode 4: a sky full of ghosts | welcome to askscience! **this thread is for asking and answering questions about the science in *cosmos: a spacetime odyssey*.** if you are outside of the us or canada, you may only now be seeing the third episode aired on television. if so, [please take a look at last week's thread instead.](_url_3_) this week is the fourth episode, "a sky full of ghosts". the show is airing in the us and canada on fox at sunday 9pm et, and monday at 10pm et on national geographic. [click here for more viewing information in your country.](_url_0_) **[the usual askscience rules](_url_2_) still apply in this thread!** anyone can ask a question, but **please do not provide answers unless you are a scientist in a relevant field.** popular science shows, books, and news articles are a great way to causally learn about your universe, but they often contain a lot of simplifications and approximations, so don't assume that because you've heard an answer before that it is the right one. if you are interested in general discussion please visit one of the threads elsewhere on reddit that are more appropriate for that, such as [in /r/cosmos here](_url_4_) and [in /r/space here](_url_1_). please **upvote good questions and answers** and **downvote off-topic content**. we'll be removing comments that break our rules and some questions that have been answered elsewhere in the thread so that we can answer as many questions as possible! | if black holes could theoretically be used as entrances to other parts of the universe or even other universes, why are there not black holes that seem to be "exits" where light/matter is coming out of a black hole? i'm just thinking that if being sucked into a blackhole could theoretically be an entrance to a tunnel that takes you to another part of the universe, where are the exit tunnels? | 32 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Cosmos/comments/1zg9tl/cosmos_a_spacetime_odyssey_episode_guide_info_on/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/space/comments/21se5b/cosmos_a_spacetime_odyssey_episode_4_a_sky_full/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/index",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/216wrv/askscience_cosmos_qa_thread_episode_3_when/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Cosmos/comments/21sccx/cosmos_a_spacetime_odyssey_episode_4_a_sky_full/"
] | [
"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/science/farthest-galaxy.html",
"http://www.cosmosontv.com/watch/206329923913"
] | [
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why is a pound of human muscle tissue so much weaker than, say, a pound of ape muscle tissue? | it isn't. human muscle is just as strong as anything else. however, our bodies are set up differently. humans are excellent endurance runners. few animals could run the week-long ultra-marathons people do. our bodies are built for it. muscles are attached close to the joint, allowing for endurance but sacrificing short-term strength. people also have less of a focus on upper body strength than apes. apes move around using their upper bodies more than humans do by swinging from trees, but humans need to run. a human might very well squat more than an ape, but it has less upper body strength. humans are built for running thousands of miles. apes are built for swinging around on trees. the muscles are the same, but they evolved different configurations to suit different tasks. this is from a layman, but i'm paraphrasing an excellent book i read called born to run. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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