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why is it that the inverse function of non-commutative operations is so difficult? | the inverse of adding and multiplying is subtracting and dividing. both addition and multiplication are commutative, and subtracting or dividing two numbers seems to require a very simple algorithm. yet, for all operations as or more complex than exponentiation, it seems to take a lot of computing power, and no algorithm is simple enough to teach in grade school. what is the underlying mathematical reason behind this | 600 years ago, division was a difficult computation and required a lot of experience and tables to work with. today kids learn it in elementary school. this is because of the introduction to base representations of numbers, ie place value. remember that 483 is nothing more than shorthand for the sum 4\*100+8\*10+3, and expressions like interact very nicely with addition and multiplication. mostly because of the distributive property. the distributive property is responsible for the easy computation of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. so the way we write down numbers allows us to easily compute these four operations by taking advantage of the distributive property. if we wrote down numbers differently, perhaps as roman numerals, then we wouldn't be able to take advantage of the distributive property and it would become much harder to do all of these things. intuitively, we are writing down numbers as sums and products, so the related operations interact nicely with them and so we get simple algorithms. it's harder to do roots or logarithms because the way we write down numbers don't really interact very well with exponentiation. addition and exponentiation aren't the best of friends so writing down our numbers as sums makes operations related to exponentiation (roots and logarithms) not so simple. there's no simple "distributive property" for the interaction between exponentiation and addition. the best thing we have is [newton's binomial theorem](_url_0_), while being great, isn't a very nice formula to reverse (since it's an infinite sum). if we wrote our numbers as products of exponents, rather than sums of products, then we might be able to work better with these operation. for instance, instead of writing 24 as 2\*10+4, we wrote it as [1,3], which would mean the exponents of it's prime factorization (3^(1)\*2^(3)), then the square root of it would be [1/2,3/2], which is 3^(1/2)\*2^(3/2). this is a particularly simple algorithm for taking square roots. it just doesn't input a base expansion and output a base expansion, it inputs a product and outputs a product. ------------------------------------------------ this being said, kids in grade school *should* be learning how to find roots and logarithms by hand, and there is something lost in the ease of the addition/subtraction/multiplication/division algorithms that take advantage of base representations. if you want to find the nth root of some number, all you need to do is do some guesswork and use an intuitive understanding about what roots are to find it. for instance, we can try to find the 3rd root of 12. we know that 12^(1/3) is the positive number a so that a^(3)=12. since 2^(3)=8 and 3^(3)=27, we know that 12^(1/3) will be somewhere between 2 and 3. further 2.2^(3)=10.648 and 2.3^(3)=12.167, so 12^(1/3) is somewhere between 2.2 and 2.3. and we can continue to refine the value in this way. it takes us understanding what nth-rooting is in order to find it, which overall increases our conceptual understanding of math. you can do things like this for division too. to find 17/3, we note that 3\*5=15 and 3\*6=18, so 17/3 will be somewhere between 5 and 6. further 3\*5.6=16.8 and 3\*5.7=17.1, so 17/3 is between 5.6 and 5.7. it takes an intuitive understanding about how multiplication and division interact to solve it, which results in a better conceptual understanding about these operations. but, if you go through the grade-school algorithm for long division, then you're separated from all of this conceptual stuff that's going on, you're just mindlessly following instructions which is of no value. so, while you can easily compute division using the grade-school algorithm, you aren't learning anything about division so it doesn't really mean anything. if we're just learning the algorithm, then you're just learning to compute, and there's no point to do that because of calculators and this gives justification to the question "why do i need to learn this?" but, if you're learning to do division in a way that emphasizes the concepts surrounding it, then the focus isn't on you being able to compute things, but on you understanding what division is, which is incredibly important and something that calculators don't help with. this is what common core is trying to do with a lot of it's stuff, focus on the conceptual rather than the computational. | 24 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_theorem#Newton.27s_generalized_binomial_theorem"
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the state of nuclear physics/modeling? | since i do electronic structure modeling (quantum chemistry, qc), i've got a bit of interest in nuclear modeling and methods since it's a somewhat related (many-body) problem, although there's little interaction between the fields. (after the [coupled-cluster method](_url_1_) was developed in nuclear physics, there were years of silence before coester and kümmel suddenly found themselves getting hundreds of citations from quantum chemists) i'd be the first to concede that nuclear modeling is far more difficult though, and i'm aware of some of the differences (yukawa vs coulomb potential, the relative importance of correlation, etc). the basic models of chemical structure and reactivity from the 1930s suffice to predict most chemistry (qualitatively), and with advances in methodology and computers we can now quantitatively predict stuff with useful accuracy ( > 0.2 ev relative errors for systems of up to several thousand electrons). so my question is basically how far the nuclear front has gotten. (admittedly a bit of a broad question, but one that's not easy to find an answer for) to spell it out: how accurately can we predict nuclear structure and energetic states? how well does it compare to experimental data? what about things like decay rates? i'm aware of the basic potential-well/tunneling model given in general textbooks, but can they be _quantitatively_ predicted with any accuracy? e.g. there's the well-known [island of stability](_url_2_) prediction; how certain is that? what kinds of general methods are used most in practice? (does the question even make sense? or is it still the case, as it once was in qc, that the focus is almost exclusively on method-development over application?) on a method-devlopment note, [dft](_url_4_), originally from solid-state, had a major impact on qc in the last 20 years, and i've heard about attempts to extend it to nuclear. any success? more generally, does it work to use the schrödinger equation with some effective nucleon potentials, or are qcd effects non-negligible? (qed effects are typically neglected in qc) finally a _very_ basic question: how much truth is there to [the popular picture](_url_3_), with the nucleus depicted as a cluster of spheres with essentially fixed locations? besides the obvious fact that neither the nucleons or electrons aren't actually spheres, is it a decent way of visualizing the nucleus, or is it as false as the electrons are in the same picture? (for the benefit of lay readers, that's _not at all_ a good picture of how electrons move around an atom. it's the [bohr model](_url_0_) picture, which was state of the art only between 1913-1926, but which stuck in the popular imagination as 'what atoms look like') it's hard to get a bird's-eye-view from online sources, since they're either very general (e.g. wikipedia), very specific (papers) or learning resources. | i can't discuss modelling techniques, but regarding your last question, the model of the nucleus is similar to the orbital model of the atom, except that the protons and neutrons each have their own energy levels. there's also the more rudimentary liquid drop model which is useful for figuring out the mass of a nucleus. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_model",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coupled_cluster",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_of_stability",
"http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stylised_Lithium_Atom.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_functional_theory"
] | [] | [
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would metal really instantly weld if oxygen were to disappear for five seconds? | ad the rest of these terrible events? is removing oxygen from a chamber a valid way to weld metal? | under several other constraints, yes. first of, let me point out that [cold welding](_url_0_) is already being used, so it's clearly feasible. it's not just the absence of oxygen that would be a prerequisite for such a process, however. most notably, most metal surfaces have a layer of metal oxide on top, which is probably the biggest obstacle preventing such spontaneous welding and hence would have to be first removed. in addition, one would also need to remove any other possible contaminants (e.g. water, oils etc.), which is why cold welding is done in a vacuum, using thoroughly cleaned surfaces. so in answer to your question, simply putting two chunks of metal together and simply removing the oxygen would not make them immediatly come together. but doing so in addition to all the steps outlined above and applying pressure (unless you're dealing with nano/micro-structures where much milder conditions can be used), you can in fact weld two pieces of metal. | 37 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_welding"
] | [
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how do we know hydrogen masers are reliable as frequency standards? | hydrogen is as simple as atomic structures really get. the photon released from a hydrogen maser of the result of the single electron in orbit around the nucleus changing spin. since photon energy is directly tied to photon frequency, and there is only one electron at one energy level to change the spin of, the emitted radiation will always be at a single frequency | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://tf.nist.gov/general/pdf/2467.pdf",
"https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=2ahUKEwjvxOrCjbXjAhVQCM0KHZp6CV0QFjAAegQIAhAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Ftf.nist.gov%2Fgeneral%2Fpdf%2F2467.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1SGXd9RZy009-aLb2tT7_x",
"https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&ved=2ahUKEwjvxOrCjbXjAhVQCM0KHZp6CV0QFjACegQIABAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fipnpr.jpl.nasa.gov%2Fprogress_report%2F42-88%2F88Z.PDF&usg=AOvVaw1JQgiIlWsPYBQyZg39fElI",
"https://ipnpr.jpl.nasa.gov/progress\\_report/42-88/88Z.PDF"
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|
would this method allow for faster than light communication? | i've used an image to explain this thought i had in the shower. i subject it to you appreciation, so you can help me learn why this wouldn't work. _url_1_ thanks for your time. ------------------------------------------------------------- update: thanks everyone for aiding me to see the flaw on this idea, specially to kanehau, who took so much of his time to answer this. til there's actually no way of accessing whether or not two particles are entangled in an experiment like this. i ended up speculating if it was possible for the measurement of a particle interfere in on the wave/particle duality of it's counterpart, so i made a second image for you to give your opinions on the feasibility of it. it's the "part ii" of this topic. please keep commenting! _url_0_ | no information is being transmitted faster than light in entanglement. your thinking of the old way entanglement was viewed (spooky action at a distance). i am going to make a very simple example - *which is incorrect but gets the point across*. i have two marbles, one white, one black. the fact that we know ahead of time that one is white and one is black is our entangled state (e.g., if we read the state of one particle, since it is entangled with the other, we instantly know the state of the other). i mix up the marbles and put one in one hand and one in another. there is now a 50% probability of each color being in each hand (they are entangled). i ask you to choose a hand and you find a white marble (entanglement collapses). you now know the other marble is black - but no information actually went anywhere. now... let us repeat the same experiment... however, one hand is given to alice and the other to bob. you, as bob, open your hand and discover the white marble. you now know that alice has the black marble. however, alice has no way of knowing that you did that. you can not transmit the fact that you determined the color to alice faster than light. if alice attempts to view the marble, and finds it black - she has just the same information as you (well, opposite) - but again, does not know if you know this fact and can not relay the info to you faster than light. if alice had peeked before you, she could have found either white or black. however, as soon as she discovered her color - she now knows your color - regardless of whether or not you have looked yet. | 27 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/n5imf/would_this_method_allow_for_faster_than_light/",
"http://i.imgur.com/Lz9AO.gif"
] | [] | [
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how the hell do siphonophores work? | in siphonophores the organism is said to be composed of several distinct zooids. how are these zooids differentiated from a single genetically uniform zygote? how are they organised into distinct parts of the organism, do cells migrate or are all the zooids in different parts of the organism with no hybrid tissue? these fuckers blow my mind like what the heck are they doing with this outrageous multi-species shitshow that invariably ends up looking super cool, examples of [glaucus marginatus](_url_0_) or just the portuguese man of war. how the frick do their embryos develop to form distinct zooids and how do these differ enough to be considered unique organisms rather than cell types. is it just spooky epigenetic shit that merits then being classified into groups of zooids? also side note on a specific siphonophore, how in the hell does glaucus marginatus consume cnidocytes without being affected by the compounds released when they burst. sorry for the overload of questions i am really enjoying these ocean lads rn. any answers to anything is appreciated | siphonophores are a type of hydrozoan. probably the best known hydrozoan is a [hydra](_url_3_), a small freshwater animal that's similar to a sea anemone. i'm going to start off talking about hydras to explain the basics, since they are like a highly simplified siphonophore, and then move on to the real thing. take a look at pictures of hydra, and they will tell you a couple of important things. the first is the body plan of the hydra. body plan is the basic shape of an animal...for example, the land-vertebrate body plan includes a head, four limbs, and a gut running through the body. a hydra is simpler, it's basically a bag with tentacles around the open end. the second thing to note is that most hydras you see in pictures have a bud or two coming off of them. basically, the hydra has a smaller hydra sticking off the side. this will eventually grow big enough, drop off, and become a new independent hydra. this is one way hydras reproduce. fundamentally, a siphonophore is not that different from a hydra where the buds do not fall off, but instead remain attached to the body. the different buds develop into different, specialized shapes that may be used for movement, defense, feeding, or reproduction, but they all share the same basic "bag shape" body plan of the hydra. this is why they are zooids and not organs...each individual zooid is a copy of the basic hydra body plan...imagine if your arm, for example, had its own tiny mouth and gut and limbs. siphonophore colonies are basically a string of zooids, usually hanging from a float. [this page](_url_2_) explains the body plan. the float is at the top, then there's usually a chain of specialized zooids that propel the colony, finally there's a chain of feeding and reproductive polyps. you can see this well in [this pic](_url_4_), there's a nub at the top, that'd be the float, the pneumatophore. immediately following this is a chain of propulsive zooids, the nectophores, and then down below is an orange, stringy clump of feeding and reproductive polyps. there's a growth zone where these zooids are budded off. really, all this is explained beautifully in [this video](_url_0_) i just found. **if you don't do anything else, just watch the video, seriously it's great**. some other notes: these things aren't actually multispecies, despite the zooids being very different from each other. you know how i said siphonophores usually have three parts: float, propulsive polyps, and then the feeding/reproduction polyps? portuguese man of war have a huge float but no propulsive polyps, and the feeding/reproductive polyps stay more in a clump rather than extending into a chain. glaucus marginatus isn't actually a siphonophore, it's a mollusk. it _eats_ siphonophores though, and steals their stinging pneumaticysts for its own defense. they are tolerant to the stinging poison but also have a slime that helps keep the pneumaticysts from firing. they eat the unfired ones and transport them through branches in their gut to the those frills that stick out of their body, and can shoot them out to defend themselves from there. [here's a link](_url_1_) with a good explanation. | 4 | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaucus_marginatus"
] | [
"https://vimeo.com/114198648",
"https://www.kqed.org/science/1929993/this-adorable-sea-slug-is-a-sneaky-little-thief",
"http://www.siphonophores.org/SiphPlan.php",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra_(genus\\)",
"https://i.redd.it/eq3o1kkyb03y.jpg",
"http://www.siphonophores.org/SiphLifeCycle.php",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrozoa",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obelia",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obelia#/media/File:Obelia_geniculata.jpg",
"http://www.siphonophores.org/SiphPlan.php",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra_(genus\\)"
] | [
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[biochemistry]what happens when a ribosome encounters a codon it doesn't recognize? | i saw the reddit post about scientists successfully introducing unnatural base pairs into an organisms genome. so if a ribosome encounters a transcript that contains a codon which contains this unnatural nucleotide, what would happen? would transcription terminate? or would the transcript permanently "jam" the ribosome? | the issue is not so much the ribosome not recognizing a codon and more about not having trna that carries the proper anticodon. trna are the molecules that carry the amino acid that is linked to a codon -- the ribosome synthesizes a protein by allowing the codon on the mrna strand to link up with the complementary anticodon that trnas have. the ribosome doesn't "recognize" the codon, it just fits codon to anticodon, so when the ribosome encounters a codon that there is no trna for, it pauses and waits for one to come along. i guess you could say that it pauses and waits for *every* codon it encounters, but when there is a trna carrying the proper anticodon available, the wait is in the low milliseconds. i might be slightly off about that time scale. anyway, when the ribosome waits too long, it will simply disengage and protein synthesis stops. if the cell doesn't have a trna with the anticodon complementary to a synthetic codon, every time a ribosome encounters a synthetic codon, it will pause, disengage, and the protein won't be fully synthesized. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what actually happens when you get cut? | for example, a papercut. is the paper 'pushing the skin away' (i can't think of a better way to put it) or is it disintegrating a very very thin line of it? | your skin is made up of two layers as far as this is concerned, the epidermis (outer layer), and dermis (inner layer). the epidermis itself has layers on top of each other, stratum corneum being the top most layer that contains a high amount of keratin (which keeps skin hydrated), it is also found on your nails, so think of it as hard calcium (even though it technically isn't), this is where the white comes from when you have something scrape against your skin. if an object is sharp enough to go through the stratum corneum (and most objects are), then you will feel a skin desertion, meaning your brain can sense your skin being moved through your dermis. the dermis of you skin contains small blood vessels, they usually have lower pressure, so they won't bleed to the point where you lose a lot of blood. if you slice part of the upper skin away, you'll see a pinkish layer, this is *right* over your smaller blood vessels, cut anymore, and the bleeding starts. usually you won't go farther down than the dermis, unless an object is really sharp like a blade. this is where the fat tissue get cut as well, along with it, larger blood vessels meaning more blood will spill. all that really matters is that you think of it as different levels as you go down, larger and larger blood vessels will tear, meaning more bleeding. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does a common balance return to a horizontal position when there are equal weights? | there should be in equilibrium at any angle, since the torque of both the masses cancels out when they are equal. so what causes a common balance to get into a horizontal position? | that depends on the construction of your balance. normally, you would want the pivot point for a balance to be above the center of mass. if you tilt the balance (with equal weights on both sides), you shift the center of mass away from the line going down from the pivot point. gravity then takes care to bring it back to the horizontal. note, that you can easily conceive idealized balances in which the position of the center of mass (edit: for equal masses on both sides) is not dependent on the angle. such balances are not suitable for weighing stuff (edit: with high precision). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[mathematics] what math symbol would describe this kind of averaging? | i'm writing a conference paper that will eventually go into a journal paper, and i'm trying to find a symbol that will express what i'm doing. essentially i have pictures that i've done some math do, and at this point they're all stored as matrices where each element can have values -1, 0, or -1. over all the images, i'm taking an average (and some other statistical data) to come up with an average image. i'm also taking an average that ignores 0 values (unless the average of all the -1's and +1's comes out to zero). for these images, a value of zero meant that there was no flame present at that pixel, -1 and +1 were different kinds of flames. i know that there are some symbols for average values, and i'm trying to find a symbol to represent the averaging where i ignore 0 values. at the moment, i'm using < x > for the average value of x (x is the value of a pixel), and < x|b=0 > as that average ignoring zero values, (where b is the probability for a given pixel that it's value will be 0. a is the probability that it's -1, and c is the probability that it's +1). would this be an appropriate way to convey the averaging? edit: it just occurred to me that < x|x /= 0 > might be better. thoughts? | i'm not familiar with any standard notation for this sort of thing. if you're already using angle braces for arithmetic averaging elsewhere, the notation < x | x ≠ 0 > seems workable. be sure you explain the notation thoroughly in the paper and you'll be fine. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when the body is presented with an immune challenge that it has never experienced before, it seems to be able to produce a molecule to match. how does this happen? | there are two answers to your question, because there are two parts to the immune system. people spend careers studying small parts of this stuff, so it should go without saying that i am oversimplifying things to an almost obscene degree. 1) innate - let's say you've never seen a southern purple footed warbler before^1 . it's a bird. the first time you see one, you may not recognize it as a southern purple footed warbler, but you will certainly recognize it as a bird. this is because you recognize certain patterns that are associated with a bird. your innate immune system has the same ability; it may not have ever seen *haemophilus influenzae* before, but there are certain molecular patterns that let your body recognize it as "a bad guy". collectively, these are known as pamps (**p**athogen **a**ssociated **m**olecular **p**atterns). specific proteins in your immune system see certain stretches of dna, certain types of lipids (fats) in its cell membrane, certain patterns in proteins, etc, and recognizes them as being associated with pathogens. collectively, these are referred to as prrs (**p**attern **r**ecognition **r**eceptors). 2) acquired - this is a little more complicated. your acquired immune system has the ability to make even more specific recognition agents (antibodies). each one is *highly* specific. prrs are looking for "birds". antibodies aren't just looking for southern purple footed warblers, they are looking for the left third toe of a southern purple footed warbler. but that would require a *lot* of different kinds of antibodies. because you won't just have one to the left third toe....there are more toes. and a beak. and wings. and so on. check [this](_url_0_) page out. imagine that somewhere on that list is a toxic insult, one that will shame a specific bacterium so badly that it will have no choice but to curl up and die. another insult will kill another bacterium. some won't do anything. that's kind of how your immune system makes antibodies. it's a mix & match. there's a stretch of dna that kind of codes for column 1, column 2 and column 3. at some point in the development of a cell of the acquired immune system, it will trim down that list, picking one word from each column. it will then go around for the rest of its life going "rank toad-spotted codpiece?". now say you get an infection. an immune cell walks up to the invading pathogen and says "mewling pottle-deep miscreant?" and the pathogen does nothing. another immune cell walks up and says "impertinent full-gorged fustilarian?" and again...nothing happens. now our hero walks up and says "rank toad-spotted codpiece?" and the pathogen is so insulted that it dies, right on the spot. over the next few days, that immune cell will now start making copies of itself. and all of them will shout "rank toad-spotted codpiece!, rank toad-spotted codpiece!", and the pathogen will wilt under the onslaught. ^1 odds are you haven't seen one, because i just made that name up. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pangloss.com/seidel/shake_rule.html"
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|
is it possible to replace femur with something artificial? | yes, total femoral replacement is a relatively uncommon procedure usually indicated after extensive bone loss from tumor invasion or osteonecrosis and is considered an alternative to lower limb amputation. if the likelihood of obtaining infection clearance is too high hip disarticulation (amputation) will still be indicated. currently titanium alloy is the most commonly used material. [radiograph of tmr](_url_1_) _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4686438/",
"http://bjj.boneandjoint.org.uk/content/jbjsbr/93-B/11/1545/F1/graphic-2.large.jpg"
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|
what is the highest altitude that a human could acclimatise/live at and what biological differences would you see compared to someone living at sea level? | about 8000 metres above sea level is what is referred to as the death zone. put simply, it is the maximal height humans can breathe at, unassisted. it's due to air density - climbers simply can't take in enough oxygen to supply their body, which leads to nastiness like high altitude pulmonary edema and high altitude cerebral edema. put simply, sufferers drown in internal fluid. or their brain swells and the resulting pressure kills them. that's the maximal height. no amount of adaptation can allow going ablove that level without supplemental oxygen. adaptation to high elevations (below the 8k mark though) does occur, mostly over a lifetime. things like larger lung capacities, larger arteries and veins, a higher concentration of haemaglobin and wiry, efficient bodies. it is possible to adapt over the short term, but the adaptation is far less capable. that's just the air density. other factors also apply like the general inhospitable nature of high elevations. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how can you identify/find a geodesic? | to my understanding, if you have a 2d plane (or perhaps a plane with wiggles in it or something stranger), a geodesic is the shortest path between two points on that planey thing. but, how can you restrict the solutions to that planey thing? | the study of geodesics is of great interest in differential geometry and, perhaps further so, the physics of general relativity. for that reason, a lot of the technicalities and math behind geodesics can get very complex. the ability to calculate geodesics, and other similar mathematical constructs, fuelled a great deal of research from well-known mathematicians such as legendre, lagrange, euler, and gauss. this problem is traditionally known as the brachistochrone curve problem. the math to describe the way to find the shortest path is the theory of [calculus of variations](_url_1_). calculus of variations deals with functions of functions (which sounds ridiculously convoluted, but it's really easy to describe with a bit of abstraction). basically, if we consider a group of functions (e.g. some general equation f(x1,x2,x3,x4....xn)), which depend on some variables x1,x2...xn, we can create "functionals" (a function composed of these functions) which tells us something about how these functions behave. bare with me because i know this is getting a little mathy. now, say we construct some way to get the length of a curve described by a function y(x) (in 2d) and we call this arc-length. this is literally the length from point a to point b as defined by the function. finding the *minimum* value for arc-length would obviously give us the answer to your question. and this is where calculus of variations comes in. if we could find a sort of *functional derivative* that would act like a derivative for a normal function (as in classical calculus) save it would give us a function, not a point of minimum, then we would know which curve in the given x,y coordinates for such and such weird plain would give us the smallest length if we straightened it out and measured it. it turns out you don't even really need to do the fancy math of the calculus of variations every time you want to find these functions of minimal arc-length. euler (and lagrange) found this nifty relation which finds the minima (or more precisely -- the *extremal* functions -- maximal or minimal) of the functional. the [euler-lagrange equation](_url_0_) is a "differential equation" which gives you these functions if you know the general shape of the co-ordinates you are working with. if you then solve this equation you get what your looking for: a function that descibes the curve of shortest arc-length for your so-called manifold or "plane". if you'd like me to clarify any of this (i tend to get incoherent when i explain things) or if you'd like me to go into specifics on how to actually do the math i'd be more than happy to. ninja edit: mcmxcii gives a great explanation for how this is done in cartesian coordinates, and then how it generalizes. if you'd like to know more i throughly recommend researching the euler-lagrange equation / lagrangians and principle of least action. it's neat to see how the problem of minimizing a function can be applied to almost any classical physics problem. as well, the lagrangian has way too many applications in physics for it not to be considered nearly a cornerstone of modern physics. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Lagrange_equation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus_of_variations"
] | [
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explain to me the strong and weak nuclear force. | i understand the way gravity interacts with the universe as well as the force of electromagnetism, but i'm confused as to how the strong and weak nuclear force is propagated and what effect it has on anything. | the weak interaction is mediated by w and z bosons, which are unusually massive, and so decay very quickly. the short decay time of w and z bosons contributes to the comparatively weak strength and short distance of the weak interaction. the primary "effect it has on anything" is the beta decay form of nuclear decay. beta decay allows, for example, the decay of carbon-14 to nitrogen-14. the strong interaction is mediated by massless particles called gluons. it binds quarks together to form hadrons, including protons and neutrons. the strong interaction is about 100 times stronger than electromagnetism at the atomic level, and most of the mass-energy of protons and neutrons comes from the field energy of the strong force. similar to how electromagnetism is divided into + and - charges, the strong interaction has three "color" charges. the color charge is balanced within a proton or neutron, but there is a residual strong force, also called the nuclear force, that acts between protons and neutrons which holds them together in atomic nuclei. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beta_Negative_Decay.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interaction#Residual_strong_force"
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what information do animals like the echidna or platypus gain from their electroreceptors? | see the following for what i'm going off of for electroreception. _url_0_ i'm wondering: what kind of minute current is being detected in the atmosphere that is picked up by these types of biological sensors? what kind of useful information do these animals gain from these sensors? in other words how does that information actually benefit the survival of these creatures? (bonus) how do/could humans maximize the benefit these creatures gain with their sensory organs? thanks so much for your insights! | most electroreception is used by aquatic animals, as water is a far better conductor than air. they can work in two different ways, either the animal generates an electric field and then looks for distortions in that field, or it detects electric field emitted by animals around it. all animals generate small electric field as a result of the electric potentials of cells and the motion of muscles in the body. animals with electroreception either detect these fields or detect changes in their emitted fields by these fields. this allows them to locate animals to either eat or run away from in environments (caves, murky water, deep ocean) where eyes cannot be relied on. as for how humans can use this...we have a lot of technology that uses similar principles. metal detectors and magnetometers are used in thousands of applications. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1189155/"
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what's the relationship between heart rate, oxygen level and calorie burn? | if i increase my heart rate from 80 to 100, do i burn 25% more calorie? does every heart beat pump the same amount of blood? would taking deeper breath(increasing oxygen intake) in itself burn more calories? | no, but your heart will probably use 25% more calories than normal. keep in mind that your heart uses only a small fraction of the total amount of calories that you consume. your other muscles and brain use a pretty big chunk too. if you did increase the heart rate from 80 to 100, you would probably burn just a few more calories per hour. this is unless your heart is beating faster due to exercise, in which case your heart uses more energy, but more importantly, your muscles use a lot more energy. sort of. the faster your heart is beating, the more blood it pumps per beat. for example, the volume of blood that your heart pumps per beat when your heart rate is 120 is significantly more than how much it pumps per beat when your heart rate is at 80. so when your heart rate increases, you pump more blood because you beat faster, but you also pump more blood because each beat will pump a larger volume. not really. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how accurate are heart rate monitor's for tracking calorie burn? | i just asked this is r/fitness and got some good replies but how accurate is one really? if there is a margin of error how big is it? | i don't know numbers about *how* accurate they are, but i can tell you how they estimate & *why* there would be error. you know they ask your age, sex, weight, sometimes your fitness level during setup? these are all plugged into equations to estimate how much blood you have, how much oxygen that blood can carry, and how much blood is pumped by each heart beat. it can then make a prediction about how much oxgen (energy) you make available to your muscles with each heartbeat. as you can tell, there are a lot of assumptions about **you**. for example, if you are out of shape, it may overestimate how much energy your lungs can take from the air, and also overestimate how much your muscle take from the blood. it also makes assumptions about how much muscle / fat you have. there are also assumptions about what your **blood** and what it's going to do. it assumes all the blood you pump will supply working muscle with oxygen, but that's not the case. some blood goes to the skin to divert heat from the body, and serves no energy producing purpose. alternatively, you can hit 120 bpm while running, or while cycling... the full body exercise has more muscles drawing energy & thus burns more calories despite a matched heart rate. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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black holes and unbreakable ropes? | [in this diagram,](_url_0_) what would happen if the forces from both sides of the rope were equal? what would happen if the force at the a end of the rope (either because the black hole or the object has more mass) were greater than b? i think that it'd be impossible for object b to be dragged out of the event horizon but then what'd happen? just a showerthought i had. | i don't think you can get a conclusive scientific answer to your question. like all impossible scenarios, it depends on which fundamental properties of reality you want to ignore to make the rope unbreakable, and in which order you chose to apply the impossible conditions. gravity is not really a force pulling things, it's the curvature of space-time which defines the paths of free-falling objects. you can't pull something out of a black hole, even in principle. there is simply no path leading outside from inside of the event horizon, as space is folded into itself. | 9 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/mcsSTpZ"
] | [] | [
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] |
in molecules with 5 atoms bonded to a central one such as phosphorus pentafluoride (pf*_5_*), why does the vsepr diagram from this [shape](_url_0_) instead of spacing each of the 5 fs equally from eachother? | in three dimensions, there is no such geometric configuration as 5 things distributed equidistantly from each other. the trigonal bipyramid is the optimum shape for coordination number five. for the same geometric reason, [five sided dice](_url_0_) look very odd. | 7 | [
"http://imgur.com/a/b9LzO"
] | [] | [
"http://random-ize.com/dice-rolling/all-dice/5-sided.jpg"
] | [
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] |
|
what is the average temperature? | so, if the earth was just flat landmass, no oceans or major valleys or peaks; at our average distance from the sun, what would be the average temperature of the planet (in habitable areas, not like the poles or anything) | [here](_url_0_) is the measured global land temperature average (around 15°c). in an astrophysics seminar i attended, we derived the "stable" temperature of earth. the assumptions were: * the sun is a perfect black body * the earth is a flat circle with the same radius and an albedo of 0.5 using equations for heat transfer by radiation, i recall that the result was around -27°c, much lower than our observed average. the reason for the discrepancy? geological activity, and *the greenhouse effect*. the very effect that could change the world is actually one that also made this planet inhabitable. just some food for thought. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/2012/5"
] | [
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] |
is there a handy, non-invasive and certain way of assessing people sleeping, also the sleeping phase they are in? | the gold-standard is [*polysomnography*](_url_1_). this involves a combination of electrodes, simultaneously measuring brain activity from electrodes on the scalp (eeg), eye movement from electrodes placed on the face (eog), muscle activity from electrodes usually placed on the chin (emg), and heart activity using electrodes on the chest (ecg). there are changes in each of these features between wake and sleep. brain activity is similar between wake and rem sleep (slightly more theta power in rem sleep) but very different in nrem sleep (much more high-amplitude low-frequency activity). heart and breathing rates are generally slightly slower during sleep than during wake, and less regular during rem sleep than during nrem sleep. rem sleep is characterized by phases of rapid eye movements and also by a near-complete loss of muscle tone. muscle tone is generally lower in nrem sleep than during wake. the stages of wake, nrem sleep, and rem sleep are *defined* in terms of these characteristic changes in polysomnographic measures. there are various cheaper alternatives to polysomnography, but none of them are quite as accurate -- none of them can give you a "certain way" of assessing whether someone is asleep or what phase of sleep they are in. but there are several methods that do a decent job. some sensor systems have been developed to just measure heart rate and breathing, and these can do a reasonably good job of discriminating between rem sleep, nrem sleep, and wake (see [here](_url_0_) for an early example). other sensor systems have been developed (such as zeo) to get a rough approximation to polysomnography (e.g., one eeg electrode and one eog electrode, both on the forehead), and perform decently in healthy sleepers under normal sleeping conditions. many of these systems haven't been well tested in more challenging conditions, e.g., shift-workers or people with sleep conditions. actigraphy is a more coarse measure that is commonly used for sleep assessment -- it's just an accelerometer on a wrist band. it does a [fair job](_url_2_) of discriminating wake vs. sleep, but not of discriminating nrem sleep vs. rem sleep. an obvious problem with actigraphy is that it can mistake periods of quiet wakefulness as sleep. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0013469473900412",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysomnography",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14998254"
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|
why do we see two images of a tachyon? | wikipedia [states](_url_0_) that we would see two images; one appearing and one departing ([gif](_url_1_)). how/why is that? i have some superficial understanding of the theory of relativity, but struggle to understand the concept of "frame of reference" when applied to this. | tachyons, by definition, travel faster than light. so, how can you see something coming that is ahead of its own emitted light? you don't. you see it coming only after it passes you. hence the two images: one that passed you, one of when it was approaching you. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyon",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Tachyon04s.gif"
] | [] | [
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ltp and ltd in the mesolimbic system contributing to addiction | i can't wrap my head around why drug-use seems to be producing ltp in the ventral tagmental area, but ltd in the nucleus accumbens. i'm sure the explanation is simple, but i can't seem to find it. it just doesn't make sense to me that everything is basically the same except for the opposite results. | ltp is the way that connections between neurons, synapses, are strengthened. ltd is the process by which synapses are weakened. ltd is thought to result mainly from a decrease in postsynaptic receptor density or a decrease in presynaptic neurotransmitter release. when you use drugs, it is believed that you feel drug reward due to activation of the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway (vta, nac, limbic system). so drug use causing ltp in the vta kind of makes sense, because by continually doing drugs you are pinging that pathway again and again and it becomes strengthened. the vta releases dopamine, gaba, and glutamate which affects the nucleus accumbens. the nac will naturally down-regulate receptors in response to being bombarded with neurotransmitter. hopefully that is helpful. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://perspectivesinmedicine.cshlp.org/content/early/2012/12/10/cshperspect.a012021.full.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2805560/pdf/npp2009110a.pdf",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/99/11/7740.short",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/089662739290248C"
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if you bisect a 3d object, you end up with increased surface area. is it possible to cut an object and end up with increased volume, or is volume always conserved? | if you cut a 3d potato in half, you'll end up with more surface area. would cutting a 4d potato or higher result in more volume, or is volume conserved unlike surface area? | volume wouldn't be conserved in the sense you mean. the pattern you identify continues into higher dimensions, in which the total "boundary" consisting of (n-1)-dimensional components of a geometric object in n dimensions increases as the objected is cut into pieces. you can sort of see how this would work with a [hypercube](_url_0_). imagine severing the longish axis of that 4d-cube with a knife that looks like a 3d cube (the dimensionality of the knife also has to go up!). the two resulting pieces would each acquire another "copy" of a 3d cube right where the knife sliced through. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://www2.bc.edu/~reederma/Images/hypercubeview_gr_34.gif"
] | [
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how did newton manage without vectors? how did he, or anyone else, calculate orbital trajectories? | so i've been reading about electromagnetism, and i've read that vectors didn't really appear until the 19th century, though i guess cartesian coordinates were around before then. i've programmed a little gravity simulator, so i know that in order to describe to the computer how the orbit is supposed to work, you have to use vectors. because without them, you're not working in 2 or 3 dimensions, right? but newton basically worked out how classical orbits worked before vectors were even invented. how? did he use some other trick that was similar to vectors to plot how a planet would move according to his gravity equation? | you can do things geometrically. if you know, for example, as kepler did, that celestial bodies orbit in an ellipse with one focus at the sun, you can come up with [kepler's equation](_url_0_) to calculate the (x,y) position of the orbital body in the orbital plane at any time. p.s. as you may have noticed, it was really kepler who solved the mechanical problem of orbits (i.e. how do i predict where a planet will be three years from now?). you don't actually need to know the underlying governing law to predict the planetary motion from what has already been observed, as we know because kepler predated newton. kepler derived the equations of motions of the planets and newton showed that they would result out of his law of universal gravitation, providing fantastic evidence for that law. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler's_equation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_theorem",
"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Mathematical_Principles_of_Natural_Philosophy_(1846\\)/Axioms,_or_Laws_of_Motion"
] | [
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] |
have any gras (generally regarded as safe) foods lost that status when we realized they were actually not? | i just came across the acronym [gras](_url_0_) on wikipedia. has there ever been a food that was gras and then not for some reason? | [bha](_url_0_) and [bht](_url_1_) are examples of food additives being removed from the gras list. they are still used today as preservatives, but their levels in food are strictly controlled. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generally_recognized_as_safe"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butylated_hydroxyanisole",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butylated_hydroxytoluene"
] | [
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got a sweating problem [x-post/ askreddit] | my answer probably isn't a great /r/askscience answer, but putting on baby powder helps a bit. it's best if you can put it on right as you start sweating, but that's obviously not always feasible. also, i'm not sure how well this works for really heavy sweating. it works for me when i'm playing basketball though. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a similar concept to "electricity", except with movement of different subatomic particles? | as far as i know electricity involves the movement of electrons. i am not a physicist so i am unaware of other structures like metals, that contain electrons, but with other subatomic particles. like what if you had a string of something that contained usable photons. could you pass useful energy or information along that string? are there similar concepts to electricity in deeper physics? | i'm not 100% sure what you're looking for, so please let me know if i've misinterpreted what you're asking. i think that you are using the word "electricity" to mean a current. in particular, you have a net movement of something, in this case charge. this can of course be done with other things, subatomic or not. and in fact useful information is passed with, say, photons all the time; that is what fiber optics do. what makes us rely so much on electrical currents in technology is that they can be created with simple tools (like magnets and loops of wire, as an example) in simple materials (like copper) and that we have developed a large array of machines which can control them. as our tools get better, we start to use other things like photons. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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dear reddit, what is the difference between a dipole-dipole interaction and a dipole-induced interaction? | from what i can gather, a "dipole-induced" interaction starts with a molecule that can't have a dipole moment by itself, but is able to in a compound where a second molecule with ions is present. perhaps it's the earliness of the hour, but this makes zero sense to me. asked in the context of: _url_0_ | in a dipole-dipole interaction, you have a permanent dipole moment in a molecule interacting with another permanent dipole moment electrostatically. in other words, you have an area of a molecule with a permanent partial positive charge interacting with another molecule that has an area with a permanent partial negative charged, due to the electronegativies of the atoms in the molecules in question, and dipole vectors adding together (example: water or ammonia have permanent dipoles). in a dipole-induced dipole interaction, one molecule has a permanent dipole, but the other does not. it has a relatively evenly distributed electron cloud (ie, all its dipole moments cancel out through vector addition). but remember, that this cloud is negatively charged! thus, if the negative end of the permanent dipole begins to interact with the non-polar molecule, it's going to force the electrons away, inducing a partial positive charge on the formerly non-polar molecule on one end, and a partial negative charge on the other end. | 4 | [] | [
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would anyone be willing to help me learn some biophysics? i would like to know how much energy is expended from the firing of a neuron. | i have some training in physics from a military school. i'm kinda rusty but with some practice i can do stuff like find how much energy it takes to melt an ice cube, or something like that. i'm wanting to know how many joules of energy is required to get a neuron back to its ready state of firing. the resting po some (hopefully) useful links [joules per atp](_url_0_) i think the rough outline of what's going on is to get a potential energy difference of 65-70mv, we're going to need x amount of joules to pump out x amount of ions to get that differential. i'm also curious to know how long it takes to convert sugar (i know there's different types so it may vary) into atp. | what you're looking for is the total wattage of the na+/k+ pumps on a neuron. an action potential is primarily a passive activity since it uses na+ and k+ concentration gradients. the na+/k+ maintains this gradients by using 1 atp to move 3 na+ out of the cell and 2 k+ inside. the pump has to work even when there are no action potentials which is why they can often consume at least 50-70% of a neuron's atp. there's also ca2+ pumps but their role in rmp is less significant. unfortunately finding the power usage of a neuron's na+/k+ pumps is going to be hard. the number of pumps vary significantly depending on the the type of neuron, and on a single neuron they are not evenly distributed. neurons vary too much so you're not going to get a uniform answer. you're best bet is to pick one part of one type of neuron and search the literature for the capacitance per square micrometer. a giant squid axon or a nerve cell node of ranvier would be good places to start. you can assume that the potential difference is 65mv (although it's actually higher); and with capacitance and potential difference you can figure out the power. if you want joules just remember the typical action potential lasts ~4ms. this should get you a baseline figure. | 2 | [] | [
"http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/AmberIqbal.shtml"
] | [] | [
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neuroscience question | i've known for some time that our thoughts and expectations have a huge influence on how we experience things, whether or not we are consciously aware of it happening. for instance, when a cheap wine is described to a wine critic as a gold medal winner, he or she might actually really enjoy it. i want to know more about how this actually happens. how does the part of your brain that recognizes things directly influence how something tastes? | this becomes a more difficult question to answer as the judgment in question grows more complex, but i think the best way to conceptualize these sorts of decisions in the brain is with a competition model. i'm more of a vision person than a taste person, so ill reframe this scenario into something i'm used to. suppose you present a bunch of observers gender-ambiguous faces and you ask them to make male/female judgments. before a given judgment, you flash the word 'female' and you find it biases them to say female. we can then suppose that there are two nodes in the brain, one for male and one for female, competing in terms of activation. the one that is more activated will be your resulting judgement. here, the process of flashing 'female' on screen pre-activates that node and makes it more likely that female will be your judgment. now, the real question is what are those nodes? specific neurons? clusters of neurons? tough question, and one that likely varies from system to system and probably stimulus to stimulus, but generally you can think of these nodes as diffuse networks of neurons which can be coactivated in particular ways to represent different stimuli. i hope that was at least a little helpful. tldr; its probably relative activation levels and competition. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the bbc ice finger video on the front page. how does the phenomenon happen? | _url_0_ | what's going on here is actually fairly simple. firstly, the process begins as water freezes. the crystalline lattice of water molecules has no room for impurities, so the salt molecules naturally present in seawater are forced out of the ice solution and into the water nearby. this water, called *brine*, now has all that extra mass from the dissolved salt, and becomes more dense than the normal seawater below it. furthermore, due to something called [colligative properties](_url_0_), the temperature that brine freezes at is lower than that seawater as well. so now what you have is extra dense, extra *cold* water sitting on the surface of the ocean. what does it do? it sinks, and around the edges of the sinking column, the sub-zero temperature brine freezes the normal seawater. this is why the "brinicles" look like a hollow column - what you have is the super cold brine in the middle which freezes the water which comes in contact with it. voila! brinicle. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/15835017"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colligative_properties"
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] |
what's causing the strange ice behavior in this video? | via r/videos: [ice needles flowing out of minnesota lake as it approaches ice-out](_url_0_) | hi there, since this is a crosspost linked to a very popular video on reddit at the moment, i figured i should welcome some redditors unfamiliar with askscience. welcome to askscience! we have a few specific rules on this subreddit, you can find them on the sidebar that way --- in a nutshell, please do not respond with personal anecdotes or speculations. please stay on topic, even though you might have a funny tangent to get that sweet sweet karma (you can post that [joke here instead](_url_0_)!). thanks askscience mod team | 76 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/videos/comments/1db0cy/ice_needles_flowing_out_of_minnesota_lake_as_it/"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/videos/comments/1db0cy/ice_needles_flowing_out_of_minnesota_lake_as_it/"
] | [
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do macrophages (and other immune defensive cells) vary in strength, size and lifespan? | i watched a video from kurzgesagt (in a nutshell) about how some our of immune system works. and i wondered about this question since in the video they mentioned that macrophages die after some time of fighting against the bacteria and they have to be kept living by other cells. but to the macrophages vary in those aspects? | macrophages are the handy-men of the immune system. they are involved in almost every aspect of the immunological system. they can sometimes initiate an inflammatory response, they are among the first responders, they live and divide in the peripheral tissues, they are antigen-presenting cells, they are crucial in the healing process, they release a wide variety of cytokines and generally perform most tasks that fall under the category "miscellaneous". because of this they are in fact very heterogeneous. the resident macrophages of the different body tissues, the type of macrophage that doesn't circulate in the blood or lymph, are specialized to exist and serve that specific tissue type. take for example the [alveolar macrophages](_url_2_) of the lungs and the resident [macrophages of the liver](_url_0_) (called 'kupffer cells' by some). see how different they look? [a paper](_url_1_) on the heterogeneity of macrophages and monocytes, the cell that matures into a macrophage. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.pathology.med.umich.edu/greensonlab/kupffercell.jpg",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16322748",
"http://www.siumed.edu/~dking2/intro/images/IN015b.jpg"
] | [
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what would hurt more saltwater or freshwater? | if you were to jump into a freshwater lake vs jumping into salt water, will the impact be harder on your body for one or the same for both? hypothetically if you could replicate both jumps from the exact same height, landing the exact same way and both bodies of water were the exact same temperature | as i see it, there are two considerations: surface tension; and, density. surface tension will be a minor element, but for completeness, the surface tension of salt water as measured in a lab over various concentrations averaged around [0.22 mn/m](_url_0_). whereas, for pure water, is around [73 mn/m](_url_1_). so, fresh water is "harder". however, since the force you experience would be from mass x acceleration, the density of the fluid you are displacing would dominate over the surface effect. seawater, as an example of salt water, is 2.5 - 3% more dense than fresh water. i can't calculate the force one would generate, due to too many unknown variables, mass, height (velocity) and surface are of impact, and associated deceleration. however, if someone wants to make some assumptions, and calculate how many newtons of force such jumps would generate to demonstrate the difference would not be in mn, then that would be worth bonus points on the quiz. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://web.mit.edu/nnf/publications/GHM222.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-tension_values"
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if a part in your brain gets bigger, does the rest get smaller? | i saw a video in school saying about how people with better memories have a certain part in their brain that is bigger than other people. i also heard that (obviously) the size of your head or brain does not mean you are smarter. so therefore if one bit gets bigger the overall size of the brain would have to stay the same size, so does the rest get smaller? p.s: i asked [this](_url_0_) a while ago but it didn't get much attention | size doesn't have as much to do with it as neural pathway density. think of connections between neurons as the ability of ideas to connect and relate with each other. the more one utilizes a pathway the easier it is to recall and reconnect down that line of thought at a later point in time. this is thought to increase the brains ability in parallel processing as well as improve lateral thinking. a good way of understanding this may be to compare our brain to a computer....the only advantage we have over computers is our ability to massively parallel process information on a scale not even remotely imaginable with today's technology, while computers are far faster at math, raw speed, and perfect recall. computers are essentially still single threaded devices even with 8+cores when compared to a brain which can count each neuron as something like a core itself. so while you probably can't be as smart as einstein anyone can train their brain to have nearly unlimited ability. the greatest way to increase neural density is really as simple as reading and exposing yourself to new ideas and concepts. the second part of your question is much easier. no you don't ever really lose a part of your brain to new growth. people in fact never really seem to forget anything they ever experience... the recall of an old connection just kind of fades away. but we can demonstrate that it is never really completely gone because randomly often through a smell or a sound we can instantly be transported back to an old memory we had totally forgotten about. that isn't to say that every detail is stored. our brain has a very selective filter based on heuristics to detail how specific to make a memory. which explains that feeling you get when taking a test where you can remember the exact page an answer is on but not the actual answer. because our brain filtered the information out as extraneous. brains often have to be tricked into storing trivial information like that because the brain is smarter than you and knows that detail is really a waste of resources to store. source: cognitive philosophy and science major. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/18zmkv/if_a_part_in_your_brain_gets_bigger_does_the_rest/"
] | [] | [
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] |
why is strong recognition of self-mhc-i or -ii bad during the differentiation of t-lymfocytes in the thymus bad? | i don't quite understand why you only want a weak recognition. | the point of this is to avoid having the t-cells react strongly towards self-antigens. if they did you would have an immune-reaction against yourself - if this goes uncontrolled it can result in autoimmune disease. if you are healthy t-cells and b-cells that are strongly reactive against self are eliminated. an overview: _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_tolerance"
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why is natural selection not a tautology? | before the torches and pitchforks come out: i'm a huge proponent of evolution, accept macro/micro, think id is stupid, and all that good stuff. now onto the actual question. can i get a detailed explanation on why natural selection isn't a tautology (i.e. circular logic/self affirming statement)? it states that the genes assist in the survival/reproduction are more likely to be passed down. it sort of seems self affirming though i think for me, it's just since i feel it is so obvious. specifically looking for: * examples of actual tautologies and how they differ from natural selection * examples of similar statements that are not actual tautologies | [this is what you are looking for.](_url_0_) a well defined deconstruction of the tautology argument from talk origins. for anyone curious, the op's question concerns this idea: "natural selection is the survival of the fittest. the fittest are those that survive. therefore, evolution by natural selection is a tautology (a circular definition)." the basic concept (and why it is not a tautology) is that we do not define fitness as the ability to survive. fitness is defined as multiple advantages (like strength, reproductive ability, attractiveness, etc.) that exist and can be compared to the rest of the population and that lead to survival and therefore reproduction. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolphil/tautology.html"
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why do we need both humoral and cellular immunity? | immunology course was a while ago (3 years), and i'll be a doctor in a year (europe, not us). granted, i doubt i'm going to go into infectology or immunology, but i'm still interested in the field. so, my question is, for example when hiv attacks cd4+ helper t cells and lowers their count, the body starts experiencing opportunity infections such as oral candidiasis or some cancers such as kaposi's sarcoma or dlbcl in the brain. so, my question is why (i probably forgot since immunology). why can't polymorphonuclears such as neutrophils and other mononuclears such as b cells, nk cells, macrophages etc. protect the body without helper t cells? in the same way, if we were to remove just b cells from the body, would the end result be the same (opportunistic infections) or would it be different? why is every part of the immune system necessary for a functioning immune system? and also, additional question, when somebody has an immunodeficiency, so they're more susceptible to infections, why is their response to infections greater, like spiking a fever from bacteriemia? if they're immunodeficient, wouldn't immune cells which secrete endogenous pyrogens (il-1, il-6, il-8, tnf-alpha) be damaged or absent, thus making it unable for the person to spike a fever? i know the questions are stupid, but we learned so many things during immunology course (adcc, crossreactivity, opsonization, apc, etc.) that after a few years it all got jumbled up in my head and i want to be able to connect it to clinical practice at least a little, and i can't find an answer online. | we have two branches of the immune system to allow for several types of protection that are not possible with only an innate immune response - immunization is not possible without an adaptive immune system. we are also able to respond much more vigorously and rapidly upon re-exposure to infectious agents because of our adaptive immune system. th cells (t helper cells) kind of bridge a gap between the innate and adaptive immune responses - when the body is potentially going to be overwhelmed by an invading pathogen, innate immune cells (like dendritic cells) carry the antigen to the th cells, which in turn activate the appropriate response on the part of adaptive immunity. b cells are an easy example here - under the right conditions, th cells activate b cells to start secreting antibodies. now consider what might happen if an hiv infection disabled the th cells’ ability to do this - the patient will appear to have a b cell disorder, but are instead suffering from a th cell disorder. this same concept can be applied to your immunodeficiency question. there are t cells that function to resolve the immune response, called regulatory t (treg) cells. so, if a patient has a deficiency in these treg cells (as can be the case in broad t cell dysfunction or chemotherapy), it will (likely) lead to overproduction of cytokines (by innate immune cells) associated with an innate immune response. again, the patient appears to have an innate immune dysfunction , but are fundamentally suffering from an adaptive immune dysfunction. this tight integration and coordination of a wide variety of cell types means that when one cell type fails, others will likely either fail as well, or cause catastrophic problems. it also means that the body must be able to properly regulate every aspect of an immune response very precisely across time and space. again, when this fails in even a small way the problem usually becomes magnified as a result. innate immune cells do provide front-like protection from infection, in the absence of b and t cells - in fact, it’s probably a safe bet to say (given that you have a fully-functional immune system) that your innate immune system carries the majority of the load in protecting you against infection - you just don’t notice it, because it’s doing such a good job. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the ripples next to the atoms in the movie 'a boy and his atom'? (link in description) | i was watching the movie made by ibm research 'a boy and his atom' (link: _url_0_) and noticed there's ripples surrounding every atom (and even in some places where there appear to be no atoms but no idea if it has to do with something that had been there behind the scenes or something). i've read the atoms are carbon monoxide molecules, one atom on top of the other, on top of a copper substrate. thanks in advance! | the co molecules are being placed on a copper crystal to make that movie. in a metal, the electrons are free to move around. so placing the co molecule on the copper perturbs the electron density a bit and makes the periodic ripples. if you line up the co atoms in a circle, you can get the ripples from each atom to add constructively. the same research team made a ["quantum corral"](_url_0_) this way a while back. | 16 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oSCX78-8-q0"
] | [
"http://eng.thesaurus.rusnano.com/upload/iblock/e0e/quant.jpg"
] | [
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in ibm's atomic scale stop-motion film, "a boy and his atom," what are the ripples around the atoms? | link to the video: _url_0_ what are the visible ripples around the atoms? i feel like the answer is either really cool or really mundane. perhaps both. | [from here](_url_0_). in short, they are small charge differences on the plate that is sitting under the carbon monoxide molecules that are being used as the "atoms" in the film. it's the equivalent, sort of, of putting a baseball on a bed sheet — the bed sheet isn't really what you're meant to be looking at, but you'll see little indentations from the weight of the baseball (in that case, due to gravity, in the case of the movie, due to the electric charge). | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oSCX78-8-q0"
] | [
"http://www.research.ibm.com/articles/madewithatoms.shtml#fbid=NOc0T93DwSQ",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedel_oscillations",
"https://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/photo/22152.wss"
] | [
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] |
what does water and food feel like when you eat in space? | does water feel like watery jello? | from what i've read food in space tastes bland. not sure that's because of your olfactory and taste buds being messed up because of zero-g or not. most taste is done in your nose. lots of astronauts ask for hot sauce. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how were the circuits in the lunokhod vehicles radiation-hardened? | the question is mainly about the techniques, methods, materials and technologies used for radiation-proofing the circuits in the lunokhod vehicles, but anything to do with radiation hardening (theoretical methods and proposed solutions as well) is appreciated very much. :). | radiation hardening is usually a combination of shielding, large process fabrication size, redundant transistors and/or voting circuits, and special fabrication materials. in general, the larger the process size, the less vulnerable to radiation, (and vacuum tubes are significantly less vulnerable than modern ics), while smaller processes like 45nm and below that are used in commercial products are too vulnerable. something like the [rad 750](_url_0_) is an example of a modern rad-hardened processor; there are also rad-hardened fpgas and asics available. from a theoretical perspective, the best hardening is probably voting logic, where the same operation is performed by several different circuits at once and the majority answer is selected. of course, this requires a theoretical much more cheaply, combined hardware and software techniques such as ecc ram and error detecting/correcting coding can be used to handle errors caused by radiation. the easiest (but often not practical) solution is to increase the physical shielding around the electronics, but this adds size and weight to the vehicle, which increases launch costs. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.baesystems.com/product/BAES_028145/rad750-family-of-products?_afrLoop=386239732863000&_afrWindowMode=0&_afrWindowId=null&baeSessionId=zqbpRF0FddTvVrF77kvTbwDp8WbC21HLJGLDlzpqp4yhvJbNtk1l!334407658#%40%3F_afrWindowId%3Dnull%26baeSessionId%3DzqbpRF0FddTvVrF77kvTbwDp8WbC21HLJGLDlzpqp4yhvJbNtk1l%2521334407658%26_afrLoop%3D386239732863000%26_afrWindowMode%3D0%26_adf.ctrl-state%3D17dggmaozz_4"
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when an iron core or iron bar is wrapped around a solenoid with current passing through the solenoid, what is happening within the iron bar? do electrons in the bar get displaced due to either the electric or magnetic field? or is nothing special happening at all? | the bar is being magnetized by the field created by the solenoid. the individual magnetic domains inside the ferromagnetic material are (mostly) aligning with the direction of the external field. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
regarding amplifiers | so i'm reading about programmable gain amplifiers and a/d converters, and the text said that amplifying "a low level signal by 10 or 100 increases the effective resolution by more than 3 and 6 bits respectively." the example given is that, for a 12-bit a/d converter, any signal below 2.44 millivolts on a 10 volt range will go undetected. but if you amp the signal by 1000 before the conversion, the resolution could be increased to 2.44 microvolts. can someone show me the math behind this and why the resolution would increase? | try [this picture](_url_0_). although this only shows a 3-bit adc, the theory translates directly. if your input signal is a single-bit resolution, you get a square wave out of the adc: 0 or 1 are the only two possible options. this is the case if you have an input signal, in your example, which varies from 0v to 2.44mv (2.44mv peak-to-peak). if your input signal is 4.8mv peak-to-peak, you get a steppy square wave out - you get a 1 (01b) out of the adc at 2.44mv, and a 2 (10b) out at 4.88mv. each 2.44mv you increase the input signal gets you another higher number out. if you use the first two bits of the adc fully, you get 0 to 3 out of the adc - but that requires 7.32mv peak-to-peak. the first three bits, 0-7, requires 17.08mv. four-bit resolution gets you 0-15 out, and requires 36.6mv in. as you input signal increases in amplitude, you use more and more of the adc's range - until, at a full 12-bit resolution (10v peak-to-peak input signal), you get a signal out that looks a lot like the sine wave you put in originally. it has steps from 0 to 4096, but not such huge steps that you can't get a good approximation of the analog signal. so when you amplify the input signal, you are not changing the adc range at all - you're simply using more of the available range, which means you get an output that more accurately reflects the input - it looks more like a sine wave and less like a square wave. for the resolution, if you define 0-4096 as 0-10v, your resolution is 2.44mv/bit. but if you start with a 1v signal, amplify it by 10, and then define 0-4096 as 0-1v, your resolution is suddenly 244uv/bit - a 10x increase. if you define 0-4096 as 0-10mv (with the same circuit plus a 1000x amplifier), your resolution just went to 2.44uv/bit. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.hitequest.com/Kiss/dac_sine.jpg"
] | [
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could models of biological species growth, decline and extinction, be used to model the populations of social networks groups? | short answer: they are! long answer: oh geez. there's so much. and i'm only just pushing into dynamical social interaction research so i don't remember a lot of specific research off the top of my head. i'll try to share what i do remember - [adaptive network dynamics - modeling and control of time dependent social contacts](_url_3_) [spatial dynamics of human populations](_url_0_) [dynamics of social group competition: modeling the decline of religious affiliation](_url_2_) [computational models of collective behavior](_url_1_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://faculty.ucr.edu/~hanneman/spatial/game_of_life/game_of_life.html",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364661305002147",
"http://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.088701",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4236028/"
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|
chemistry in adventure time- carbon anion? | _url_0_ chem isn't my cup of tea, i dropped out of 1331 and in 1300 i'm still completely lost. i believe this is a carbon anion right? if so, what are it's real world applications... is it "important?" | a [carbanion](_url_2_) is a molecule with a negative charge on a carbon. in your image, the top picture shows the resonance structures of [carbonate](_url_1_). the bottom is asking for resonance structures of [benzene](_url_0_) (i assume the small figures around the ring are numbers for numbering carbons, not any formal charge - it's hard to see). neither are carbanions. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/y9x8HWb.png"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzene",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbanion"
] | [
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why are the leads of a single-chamber or dual-chamber implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (icd) placed in the right chambers of the heart (versus the left chambers)? | it is because the electrical conduction system of the heart starts in the right atrium (near the ending of the vena cava), in the so called, sinus node, as you can see in this image: _url_0_ when you stimulate those areas before the a-v node, if it is not damaged, those stimuli will get to the left ventricle following a "natural" path, thus diminishing the chance you could start an "anomalous stimuli" which could cause a reentry phenomena thus causing some anomalous electrical rythms (vf, af...) that could stop your heart also, there's another important point: it is much easier to get to the right side of the heart (since you start from a peripherical vein, and follow it to the cava vein using x-ray imaging). by the way, in case you're curious, there are some dispositives called i-crd (implanted-cardiac resynchronization device) used for crt (cardiac resynchronization therapy) which are byventricular, meaning that they have one lead in each chamber, and these also have icd function. they're used in some heart failure patients | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Electrical_conduction_system_of_the_heart.svg/250px-Electrical_conduction_system_of_the_heart.svg.png"
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|
what is an atom's "orientation"? | ibm recently announced they have successfully stored data on a single atom by manipulating and reading its orientation. i'm hazy on the concept of "orientation"; is it simply the physical direction the atom is facing? | if the particle is at rest, the only meaningful or "special" direction it has in space is the direction of its spin. spin is intrinsic angular momentum which particles carry with them under all circumstances (although some particles have spin-0). charged particles with spin also have magnetic dipole moments. a magnetic dipole moment is another vector quantity collinear (parallel or antiparallel) to its spin. the "orientation" of a particle is the direction of its spin. and in practice the way you control the orientations of the spins of charged particles is making their magnetic dipole moments line up in some particular direction. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what processes or materials are required when high temperatures are involved? | i recently saw the reddit post about the iter fusion reactor that's being built in france. i remember reading that the machine at the core handles temperatures in excess of 150,000,000 degrees celsius. how are such things possible when the most heat resistant materials have a much lower maximum temperature? i realize it's probably some sort of cooling system, but it seems unfathomable to cool something by that amount without the structure around the core melting. | the material involved in fusion is suspended using magnetic fields as a form of containment. the air would be circulated around it rapidly. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.iter.org/newsline/233/1273"
] | [
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cortisol and insulin resistance in cushing's syndrome | how exactly or through what physiological mechanism does cortisol induce insulin resistance? | ahh, cushing's; one of my favorite derangements of the adrenocortical axis outside of pheochromocytomas. independent of the actual cause, cushing's has several mechanisms that cause increased insulin resistance: 1. **direct opposition of insulin's actions via excessive cortisol release**. much of cortisol's hormonal action is directly in opposition to insulin. many of the metabolic pathways that would be switched on by insulin are switched off by cortisol and other insulin opposers such as epinephrine, glucagon, and growth hormones. 2. **peripheral insulin resistance due to obesity**. [much like other causes of obesity](_url_0_), increased body fat causes peripheral insulin resistance. this is also the mechanism behind insulin resistance in type ii diabetics. 3. **suppression of insulin release.** minor effect compared to #1 and #2, but still contributory. if you want a more detailed explanation, i can dive more into the biochemistry. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=10908161"
] | [
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] |
weather channel vs. national weather service? | has anybody seen a report comparing the track record of weather channel forecasting (_url_3_) vs. national weather service forecasting (_url_0_)? the awesome power of [yahoo answers](_url_1_) suggests all weather forecasts come from the same source. however, when i check wc and nws for tomorrows high, they were simply different. a [simple google search](_url_2_) wasn't very revealing either. so my next stop on the quest of knowledge is you reddit. | forecasts don't come from the same source, but a lot of raw atmospheric data does. the goes satellites are operated by the government; they are geostationary weather-monitoring satellites. the nws also operates a network of doppler radar installations across the country, as well as other weather observation stations (often in cooperation with other agencies and even private entities). weather forecasters (nws, twc, accuweather, etc) base their forecasts on those data along with their own models and methods. | 3 | [] | [
"www.weather.gov",
"http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100424123009AAze6Nx",
"http://www.google.com/search?gcx=c&ix=c1&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&q=weather+channel+vs+national+weather+service",
"www.weather.com"
] | [] | [
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if gravitons are extremely hard to detect if they’re real, is there any other way to experimentally verify their existence other than direct observation? | it depends on what you call "verify their existence". showing that you can entangle objects via gravity would show that it acts quantized. that means there should be something like a graviton. [here is a proposed experiment for that](_url_0_). if there are extra dimensions then the massless graviton has heavier related particles - we could find these heavier particles. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.quantamagazine.org/physicists-find-a-way-to-see-the-grin-of-quantum-gravity-20180306/"
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|
how feasible is the alcubierre drive? is it even possible to create the bubble? | there was a physicist a hand full of years ago who proposed a way to move faster than light relative to the universe but not relative to space immediately surrounding a hypothetical ship. short of the power required to make it happen, how feasible would this mode of travel be & is it something we could possibly see implemented in the next hundred years? | it's totally impossible with current technology, and any technology in the foreseeable future, and plausibly with any technology that will ever exist. it's also impossible by any standard physics. we know of nothing with ability to bend spacetime in the necessary way. we also don't have theories predicting anything that can do it, and are unlikely to stumble across something any time soon, if such a material even exists, which it probably doesn't. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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observational causation: does the number of observers matter? | i recently read [this article](_url_0_) which states: > krauss points out that measurements can affect the outcome of the system. he suggests that our measurements of supernovae in 1998, which detected the existence of dark energy, may have reset the false vacuum's decay clock to zero, switching it back to the fast decay regime, and greatly decreasing the universe's chance of surviving. "in short, we may have snatched away the possibility of long-term survival for our universe and made it more likely it will decay," says krauss. > how could something like this possibly happen? in quantum mechanics, there is an effect known as the quantum zeno effect—an oddity of the quantum world that suggests a system can be kept in an excited state simply by repeated measurements. this can be described using a quantum system initially in state 'a'. after time begins, the system wants to decay to state 'b' but, before it reaches state 'b', it will exist as a superposition of states 'a' and 'b'. if one measures the system shortly after it begins, it would have a high probability of collapsing entirely to state 'a' again, essentially resetting the system's internal quantum clock. krauss is suggesting that, by observing the dark energy, we reset the internal quantum clock of the false vacuum universe, and that may have caused it to return to a point before it has switched from the fast decay to the slow decay—in the process greatly reducing the universe's ultimate chance of survival. does the number of observers matter? do more observers increase the probability of the system collapsing back to the initial state? and by consequence, the more people who observe dark energy, the larger the probability that the *false vacuum*'s quantum clock gets reset? | the whole verbiage of "observation" of a quantum mechanical is a bit old. it comes from a day and age where quantum mechanics was much less well-understood. at the time, equations for the quantum evolution of a system were known, but translating these to experimental results was regarded as a a discontinuous change in the system known as 'wavefunction collapse'. eventually we began to understand that 'wavefunction collapse' is really the result of many-body dynamics in quantum mechanics known as 'quantum decoherence'. quantum decoherence has nothing to do with 'observation', but rather the interaction between two systems, an experimental one which we call 'the system', and the rest of the universe, which we call 'the environment.' a better way to say what causes wavefunction collapse is *interaction with the environment*. when the wavefunction of the environment and the system start to interact with each other, the probabilities are no longer independent- and the end result is that a person in the environment will see a definite state for the system. in short, it's not about the number of observers. the zeno effect occurs which the system is constantly interacting with an environment so that the relative state of the environment and the system must stay, in a loose sense, 'in sync' with each other- which prevents the system from decaying. the actual property of the whole universe which determines if the evolution of a system appears as in independent quantum-mechanical evolution or 'synched-up' as in the zeno effect is *whether or not information about the state of the system is propagating to the environment*. as such, i'm going to have to agree with this segment in the article: edit: more info on collapse vs. decoherence. | 2 | [] | [
"http://arstechnica.com/old/content/2007/11/human-observation-of-dark-energy-may-shorten-the-life-span-of-the-universe.ars"
] | [] | [
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what's the difference between the part of my brain that really wants that cup of coffee and the part telling me not to? | is it "conscience"? does that even exist? how can my brain want something but not want it at the same time? | it's the balancing act of your pleasure system and your logic system. that coffee tastes great, and you know it does. you have memories of that coffee, and drinking the coffee will release endorphines into your blood stream. but your logic system can operate at a level higher than your base needs. really things are only pleasurable because we evolved to want them, because they help us stay alive. but, we have evolved to the point where we don't need to forage for food and have permanent homes. and along with that, we developed high ordering thought processes, like logic. do you really need that coffee? no, you don't need it at all. you will survive without it. but, that coffee will still activate your pleasure systems because they are hard wired into the brain. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what does "absolute magnitude mi[z=2]" mean? | i know what absolute magnitude is, but what does the added mi[z=2] mean? does z mean redshift or far infrared in the ugriz magnitude scale? this is reference to the row "mi" in the sloan digital sky survey data release 10 quasar's catalog descriptions [here](_url_0_). thanks for any help | in [this paper](_url_1_) they state that i band magnitude normalized at z = 2 (richards et al. 2002). so i band means it is infrared or the "i band" in the ugriz band system used by sdss and the z=2 means that the absolute magnitudes are normalized at a redshift of 2 instead of the typical 10 parsecs. the i band used by the sdss goes from roughly 7000 a to 8000 a from looking at the qe curve in figure 4 on page 513 of [this article](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [
"http://data.sdss3.org/datamodel/files/BOSS_QSO/DR10Q/DR10Q.html"
] | [
"http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-3881/123/1/485/pdf/1538-3881_123_1_485.pdf",
"http://users.obs.carnegiescience.edu/yshen/repo/papers/qso_cmass_xcorr_dr10_preprint.pdf"
] | [
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why is 5 the minimum number of points required to trace a conic curve? | on the program geogebra i have, to trace a conic section you need to create 5 points on the plane by which can be traced hyperbolas, ellipses, etc. any arrangement of the points takes me to a different conic... it's weird | the conic sections are the nondegenerate second-order polynomials in the cartesian coordinates (x, y). that is, every conic section can be written in the form ax^2 + bxy + cy^2 + dx + ey + f, where at least one of a, b, and c is not zero. do note that "nondegenerate" refers *only* to the polynomial; some equations of this form still don't produce real polynomials. now, there are six degrees of freedom in that equation. it turns out that if you fix a general area in which you expect the polynomial to be (that's not quite technically accurate, but it's close), this gets rid of one of the degrees of freedom. so if you're working in a specific area, you have five degrees of freedom, which means that you need exactly five points to fully specify an arbitrary conic section. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how long does it take for a particle to loop around lhc? how much does it change for the particle due to time dilation? | since time passes slower(/faster depending on perspective) for muons traveling close to c and space 'warps' so that they see the atmosphere as ≈50 meters deep. how long does a trip around lhc seem to a particle and how long does the particle 'think' it is? | _url_0_ so, if the protons going around the lhc each had watches, their watches would appear to elapse by (9 x 10^-5 s) / (7500) = .012 microseconds, from a stationary observer's point of view. of course, in the protons' reference frame, time would appear to pass normally, but the the watch on the stationary observer would appear to move very quickly. edit: yes, i should have divided to get the indicated time on the proton as observed from a stationary position. from that point of view, it would appear that the protons' watches were moving very slowly (and i confused myself into thinking that time moving slowly corresponded to a larger delta on the proton watch - not the case, as is clearly indicated in comments below). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider"
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is there such thing as retina burn in? | i flashed the lights in a dark room very quickly and i could see a blue tinted version of what i saw when the light was on for about 5 seconds before it fades away. if i turn my head or even close my eyes the image is still there. how is this happening? | afterimages are thought to be the result of several processes. visual transduction is performed by proteins called opsins. light isomerizes a chromophore bound to the opsins, 11-cis retinal, to all-trans retinal, which induces a conformation change and eventually results in hyperpolarization through the closure of sodium channels. this process is reversible, but not instantaneously. therefore, depletion of 11-cis-retinal impairs the phototransduction process and produces visual artifacts. however, this process only explains afterimages resulting from bright stimuli. a second type of afterimage can be seen by fixating on an image for a period of time. stimuli which are not bright enough to bleach photoreceptors are still capable of producing this type of afterimage. [relatively recent research](_url_0_) points to adaptation of retinal ganglion cells as the basis for this phenomenon. due to the short duration of exposure, the afterimage you experienced was likely photochemical in nature, rather than neural. although your light was likely not especially bright, photopic conditions are sufficient to completely bleach rods due to their much higher sensitivity. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982211013984"
] | [
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can emmy noether theorem be explained in simple terms to a nonmathematician? | i read a bit about her but still do not understand her thorem. something about symetry and conservation of energy? | noether's theorem establishes a link between continuous symmetries and conservation laws. if the laws of physics do not depend on where your system is located in space, then momentum is conserved. if the laws of physics don't depend on what direction your system is facing, then angular momentum is conserved. if the laws of physics do not change with time, then energy is conserved. there are other conservation laws as well, but these are the most well-known and easy to explain. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens in the brain during a "demonic possession"? what is actually happening to cause the symptoms reported? | i'm not sure if this has been asked, or answered, but i would love to have some insight provided on this. i am a college sophomore studying biology and neuroscience and have always wondered what causes the types of symptoms seen during a "demonic possession"? | unfortunately i don't think you will find any good answer to this simply because there is no limit to what the religious might consider demonic possession. epilepsy, temper-tantrums, diabetic impairment, apostasy, or homosexuality have all been blamed on demons. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what effect did the kt event have on continental drift? | this has been addressed previously at this thread: _url_0_ also, the term "continental drift" is defunct. we describe the process as plate tectonics now. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1fgvm6/was_the_impact_that_caused_the_chicxulub_crater/"
] | [
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|
what "physically" is the wave described in pilot-wave theory/bohmiam mechanics? | in pilot-wave theory (de broglie–bohm theory), what **is** the wave that the particle is interacting with? is it like a quantum field theory wave, one for every particle or type of particle in the universe? some sort of interaction with space-time? or some sort of emergent property of the particle itself - in which case how does that differ from wave-particle duality? | the pilot wave in dbb is not much more than a variation on a standard wavefunction. it's simply part, alongside the hidden classical trajectory, of the dbb description of the quantum state. there's nothing much to it - the state is simply a description of the information you have about the system. as long as there's something happening and someone caring about it, there's going to be a state. i throw a ball and you watch it. the state you assign to the system includes a position vector pointing from origin to ball. what is "physically" this vector? is it emergent? an interaction with spacetime? what **is** it? nothing, it's just an arrow you drew in your head to make sense of it. now another point about the dbb pilot wave, just because you mentioned it. it's way, way, way, way, way bigger than this the pilot wave (though this also applies to normal copenhagen wavefunctions) is a single wave for the whole universe, but it does not lie in our physical 3d space, but in the space of all configurations. for a field theory like the standard model, this is a terrifyingly large space. imagine all possible combinations of waves you could have of all fields of the sm throughout all of space, and each possible combination you think of as a point, and all of these points together make up a gigantic space, and the pilot wave / wavefunction is a wave on *that*. it's really, really, really big of a concept, another reason not to worry too much about its physicality or any similar stuff. sometimes (always) physics is just about measurement results; philosophical problems such as this are not a main concern (if a concern at all). p.s.: we don't all believe field theory is fundamental though. if string theory / holography are correct, this space actually has a finite number of points, and wavefunctions are not that big. still big however. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0403034"
] | [
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ocean conveyor belt and global warming. | the disruption of the ocean conveyor belt is often mentioned as one of the possible consequences of global warming. the descriptions of such outcome in popular media kinda implies that the conveyor belt will quickly come to a sudden stop and all kinds of bad things will immediately follow (a la "the day after tomorrow"). but why the heck would it just stop all the sudden? shouldn't it just start slowing down first? and if so, wouldn't it in fact act as a regulator of global temperature? that is: warmer temperature - > less arctic ice - > conveyor belt slows down - > colder arctic temperature - > more arctic ice - > larger albedo - > colder temperature | the conveyor belt is one of the worst simplifications of ocean circulation. it reduces a highly-variable, multi-path circulation into a simple, cartoonish flow. you are correct that impressions based on "the day after tomorrow" are worthless. the flow won't suddenly stop and their won't be sudden flooding of coastal cities. also people often talk about the gulf stream shutting down which will not happen. only 10-15% of the gulf stream transport is driven by the overturning thermohaline circulation (conveyor belt) - the remainder being wind-driven. even if the conveyor belt shuts down, the gulf stream will persist but only be slightly weakened. the mechanism for shutting/slowing of the thermohaline circulation is based on arguments connected to vertical stratification of the water column at high latitudes. deep water formation occurs when the surface water is cooled to near freezing temperatures - the water gets dense compared to surrounding water and sinks deep into the ocean (sometimes to the bottom). this can be shut off if the surface water becomes anomalously fresh - if there is a layer of relatively fresh water at the surface, it doesn't matter how cold you make the surface water, it will never get dense enough to sink. freshening of the high-latitude seas can come from melting ice or large freshwater discharges from rivers. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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mike the headless chicken, who had only a brain stem, would attempt to eat, preen his feathers, and walk about. what would a human do with only their brain stem? | wikipedia article on [mike the headless chicken](_url_0_). there is no mention of who performed his necropsy, nor any sources on it, so it may be nonsense. i do recall an experiment with a largely-decapitated cat that could be made to exhibit three different types of movement (stalking, walking, and running if i recall correctly), but don't remember who performed it and can't find the details. but anyway -- if a human being were to have everything bar the brain stem removed, what would we expect from them? would they simply remain catatonic with a beating heart and pumping lungs, or could we get them to walk, scratch an itch, retreat from pain? in a situation where the optical, auditory or olfactory systems were preserved along with the brainstem, could we expect that person to react to, say, the sight and smell of food? | **fair warning, the wikipedia article i link to might have some uncomfortable pictures.** there is a condition called [anencephaly](_url_0_), where newborns only have a brain stem. some responsive functionality still exists (touch, sound, light). but they don't survive very long. two examples of this are [baby k](_url_3_) and [baby faith hope](_url_1_). as for a removal of everything except the brainstem in humans -- i have no idea. i would assume survivability would be limited. however, resective surgery in children at a young age doesn't have devastating impacts later life, as [here](_url_2_). but the later resective surgeries are done, the worse the outcome. when parts of the brain are removed or damaged later in life there can be substantial and irreversible deficits, like with phineas gage and hm. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_the_Headless_Chicken"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anencephaly",
"http://babyfaithhope.blogspot.com/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC321164/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby_K"
] | [
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creationists argue that the earth is at the center of the universe due to the presence of discretized redshifts. can anyone explain what these are, and if this argument has any merit? | there is no merit to the argument. red shifts (tendency of light towards a lower frequency) result when an emitter of light is moving away from the observer. similarly, a blue shift (tendency of light towards a higher frequency) results when an emitter is moving towards the observer. the universe is expanding, resulting in red shifts of light from distant sources, but it does not mean that we are the center, as the expansion is not centered at one particular point, and other places of the universe are experiencing similar red shifts. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if we can never reach 0k, then how did we come up with that number? | how did we know that at 0k, (or −459.67f) that particles will stop moving, if we can't even test that? | here is a short mainstream history of the kelvin scale: jacques charles expanded on work by robert boyle (maybe you have heard of boyle's and charles's laws) showing that at constant pressure, volume increases linearly with temperature for all gasses he used. when viewing it as a decrease, it showed that volume went to zero as temperature went to -273 c for every single gas, and the volume would be negative below that temperature. since this is impossible it was suspected that this was the lowest temperature possible. this is also (with contributions from avogadro) how the ideal gas laws came into existence. a few years later lord kelvin came to the same conclusion for the same reason and [published a paper](_url_0_) on it, and that is why we have the kelvin scale. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_an_absolute_thermometric_scale.html"
] | [
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i currently have a holter monitor on me for 24 hours. 7 wires are taped to me in locations from my upper chest to lower torso. can anyone explain what each of these are reading, what they tell the cardiologists, and how are the wires that are nowhere near my heart collecting anything useful? | sorry if this sounds a bit vague. if any more information is needed on what i specifically have, please do ask. | note that [medical advice is prohibited](_url_0_) by our guidelines, so please do not add in specifics about your condition. a holter monitor is basically a trimmed down [electrocardiograph](_url_2_). a very simple explanation for a ekg is that it has leads on various parts of your body that can detect electrical signal (originating from the heart). the leads are placed in specific areas to help give us a 3d view of the electrical activity, as the electrical activity in the heart [is complex](_url_3_) and directionality is important. ekgs can give us [a lot of information](_url_4_) about the way electricity moves in the heart, which can then give us a lot of clues about any disease there as well. holter monitors are typically used to detect [arrhythmias](_url_1_) - abnormal conduction in the heart. in the us the most common would be atrial fibrillation, where the atria (top chambers) of the heart are not synchronized with the ventricles (bottom chambers). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/s4chc",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhythmia",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrocardiography",
"http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/healthlibrary/GetImage.aspx?ImageId=125477",
"http://www.datasci.com/images/cardiovascular-ecg/heart.png?sfvrsn=1"
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how do particles sense eachother across a vacuum gap? | i am trying to understand how it is possible for attractive and repulsive forces to exist. i know we probably don't have the exact answer yet but, respectfully, how do you think the smallest particles communicate? even if it isn't conclusive i would be interested in a hypothetical explanation. thank you. | there are particles which we call force carriers. these particles are used to explain how forces act on a distance. for instance in the sense of magnetic attraction and repulsion we explain it by an exchange of "virtual" photons. as you may know photons are massless and thus the distance they can travel is infinite. other forces such as the strong and weak nuclear force are mediated by other particles which do have mass, that is why these forces get much more weaker over a distance than the electromagnetic force. on very small distance scales these forces are stronger than the electromagnetic force and thus protons can exist (protons are positively charged and thus repel each other but on the small scale in the nucleus the nuclear force is stronger). for the very same reason fusion is so hard to achieve. we first need to overcome the electromagnetic repulsion from the electrons and nuclei before the nuclear force can take over. wikipedia is quite helpful with this: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_carrier"
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] |
was bathing the dog in the tub when i noticed something funny about my shadow when my hand broke the surface of the water, but didn't happen completely submerged or above water. can someone please explain it for me? pics inside. | [here's my hand above water](_url_2_), note the solid shadow. [partially submerged](_url_1_) shadow gets fuzzy, i imagine it's because of refraction off the water or something. [fully submerged](_url_0_) this is what kind of surprised me, i expected for the water to continue scattering the light, but my shadow is as solid as my hand being completely out of the water. my initial guess was that my fingers presence in the surface may have "compressed" the water directly around it which modified the behavior of the light going around it, but i honestly have no idea and this is a lot more fun than googleing it. thanks! | so, here's what's going on. i'll try to explain the best i can without pictures. the refractive index of water is different from that of air. you probably know this already, it's what causes straws to appear bent in a glass of water. basically, when light goes into water at an angle, it gets slightly bent and travels along a different path. when your hand is partially submerged, surface tension on the water is creating a small lip between your hand and the water, similar to a meniscus in a graduated cylinder. in addition to the effects of refraction, this is in essence creating a small lens of sorts, bending the light around the edge of your hand and smearing it along the edge of your shadow. pretty neat, actually. | 16 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/Jnv6bZB",
"http://imgur.com/wAE5fnT",
"http://imgur.com/LzDYVmG"
] | [] | [
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can one build a magnetic field sensor array? | how fine could the data be and would it be very complex? would it be able to feel a regular fridge magnet and from how far would it be able to do so? | first factor is the rate of change of the magnetic field. if it is slow, you want to use something like a hall effect sensor, which works via mechanisms that can detect slow or static fields. if it is varying rapidly, you can use a coil, which will generate a voltage proportional to: number of turns, loop area, and frequency of field fluctuation. you could combine both into an array and be able to detect a broad range of fields and speeds. the second factor would be spatial attenuation. magnetic field drops off roughly 1/r^3 or 1/r^4 from a source, so it is very tough to remotely sense. a good rule of thumb is that it is easy to detect a magnetic field one "coil diameter" away, or in the case of a permanent magnet one length away. if you are able to have the sensors close to what is being sensed, that is always preferable. the third factor is data acquisition. do you need to catch a 1ms event every 10 minutes, or do you need continuous streaming data with a 100ms sample rate? these parameters will greatly influence the end cost of the system. to roughly answer your question, you could detect the rough location of a fridge magnet using an array of a half dozen hall effect sensors and an arduino. depending on how much you are willing to spend, you would be able to sense fairly well unto the magnet gets a distance away of around 2-3x its size. you could probably pull this off for a couple hundred bucks no problem. if you want to measure the symmetry of an electric arc on the microsecond timescale with high spatial resolution, you need to spend around $50,000. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do scientists study organelles? | how is it possible for scientists to study such incredibly small structures and find out incredibly large and specific amounts of data about these structures? what are their methods? | battle__born gives a great answer about how we're able to visualize organelles, but you don't always have to see organelles to study them. different parts of the cell have different compositions and different densities. by breaking cells apart and centrifuging them, we can often isolate the specific part that we're interested in and discard the rest. [here's an example protocol for how mitochondria can be isolated from a rat liver](_url_0_); once isolated, you can run all kinds of tests on the mitochondria that are still functional and figure out all kinds of things about them. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/studies/mitochondria/mitoprep.html"
] | [
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magnets:this is not a troll question | i want to know how magnets work. i know that most people will think this is a troll question but i bet there are some people out there who really want to know. i know they have poles, but why do the poles attract without being like, superdense or something? | it took me four years into my studies of electrical engineering to get a satisfactory answer and i still don't understand as well as i'd like to. well you know about electric and magnetic fields? they're vector fields defined at every point in space. the electric field is defined as the force per unit of charge that a charged particle would be subject to at that point in space, pretty simple. the magnetic field is a bit weirder. well lorentz law says that the force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field goes as: f=q*v x b. where the x is the vector cross product. so (take my word on this one) the force will act perpendicular to the movement of the particle. in a constant magnetic field a charged particle will move in a circle, essentially. as a corollary to this, a charged particle that moves in a circle will create a magnetic field. right now, take your right hand and make a thumbs up sign. observe that your fingers curl around in a counterclockwise direction if you look down at your thumb and your thumb goes up. well, when a charged particle moves around a circle like that (or current moves around in a circle like that which is just many charged particles moving at the same time), it will create a magnetic field inside the circle that points in the way your thumb would. (this isn't anything special about right hands, it's how we defined it.) that's how electromagnets work, anyway. now permanent magnets, what's the deal with those things? well, because of the property of electrons having quantized spins, every electron is a magnet. most atoms have many electrons, and the electrons can have either up or down spins (we'll just call them up and down for the purpose of this lecture i believe they're like +1/2 and -1/2). when an atom has electrons with opposite spins, say four up and four down, it'll have no net magnetic moment. some atoms though, do have net magnetic moments, like iron. now to be magnetic on a large scale, it's not sufficient for the atoms to merely have a net magnetic moment, but the atoms' magnetism must be aligned the same way. this happens in the crystals of ferrous iron but not, say, copper. so that's what a magnet is, a crystal of metal where all the atoms have at least one electron spinning the same way. now, why do different poles attract, i've never given it enough thought to understand it, and if someone would like to explain that to me i'd be glad. i wonder if an easy enough example would be to have two positively charged particles rotating on a spoke of a wheel, and each wheel would be on a single axle. then work out the forces the charged particles would see, i'd imagine they'd be attracted to each other if they were rotating the same way, and repelled if rotating opposite directions. now why magnetism? it can be shown that magnetism is the result of relativity applied to the plain electric force. i've also never looked into that enough to understand that myself. i have heard, though, that one thought experiment would be to launch two positively charged particles at relativistic speed parallel to each other. now they will repel each other, but when observing their paths, they would have repelled each other slower than one would classically expect due to relativistic time dilation. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it when my car keys are out of range, if i put them to my temple they will work? | i don't think it can do any harm to your head by doing that. it is possible that the remote control is barely working at that range and it just happened to work the second time. generally you can increase the signal which goes one way by positioning your transmitter close to something which will reflect your signal, so more of the signal goes in the direction away from the reflector. but i don't know if the head reflects enough radio waves to accomplish that. another possibility is that when your hand is free you tend to point the key at the car, but when you press the antenna to your head you point a different part of the transmitter at the car and that "lobe" of the transmitting antenna actually works better. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what does this chemical notation mean? | i was recently in the natural history museum in london, where there is a wonderful geology room filled with hundreds of rocks and minerals. looking through these i stumbled upon a chunk of empressite which was tagged with the chemical formula: ag^(5-x)te^3 what does the (5-x) mean? (apologies for the use of superscript - i have no idea how to subscript.) | it means that in the crystal structure of this mineral, the chemical formula can vary a little. it isn’t a perfect 5:3 ratio of these two elements and it isn’t always the same amount. it is 5-x:3 where x is between 0 and 0.5. when we simplify chemical formulas, this is a way to acknowledge that it isn’t always the same exact ratio. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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mitochondria questions | i have a few biology questions related to mitochondria: 1.) how did the first mitochondria cells get into our cells (or ancestor cells)? 2.) are there any complex animals that do not have mitochondria in their cells? 3.) are there any other examples of independent species living within another independent species? | 1.) the front running explanation for the origin of the mitochondria is the endosymbiotic theory. the idea is that previously mitochondria were free living bacteria, possibly a parasite or food source of the proto-eukaryal ancestor. once the cell was absorbed by the proto-eukaryote it was able to evade being digested and eventually the aerobic benefits it could provide led to a long term symbiotic relationship. _url_1_ 2) i had thought that "possessing mitochondria" was a defining feature of eukaryotic cells but a quick google reveals there is at least 1 phylum of protists, the metamonads, which have no mitochondria. _url_0_ 3) i assume you mean species of cells which live within other cells. there are many. mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis is one well known example. lichens are arguably another example. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamonad",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracellular_parasite",
"http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7007/8/30"
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almost killed in car wreck. the shot of adrenaline cleared my sinuses. por que? | i have notoriously bad sinuses. while on a road trip and suffering through a stuffed up nose, the driver swerved violently avoiding a disaster with a semi truck. with the adrenaline pumping through my system i noticed my sinuses/nose were immediately cleared. why? | the adrenaline you felt was a mixture of both circulating adrenaline, plus neurally released noradrenaline. when your body enters "fight or flight" mode, it activates a system of neurons called the "sympathetic nervous system". this releases noradrenaline onto target organs, including the heart (your heart beats faster and harder), your guts (local blood flow is decreased) and your airways (which dilate) and your adrenal glands, which release adrenaline into your blood. it also causes your pupils to dilate and blood to move away from your skin. all of this is to fight for your life. your airways (not just your nose) dilated so you could get more air. they did this in your nose by constricting blood vessels there. in your lungs it causes muscles to relax, widening your airways. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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on the iss do they have to adjust for flatulence because of the closed loop environment? | no, there are multiple, different types of filters responsible for removing components of the air. carbon dioxide, being the main culprit, is absorbed on a zeolite and dumped overboard (by reheating). other minor impurities (such as methane and thiols from your butt) are captured in carbon filters, which are regularly replaced and disposed of. | 45 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
why are good conductors of electricity also good conductors of heat? | i understand that good electrical conductors are such because of their free electrons. but why is this correlated with heat conductance? | the microscopic property leading to both is a highly regular atomic lattice. for electrical conductors, electrons can move freely between the atoms through the lattice as you said, and for heat conductors, sound can propagate better through a regular atomic lattice, which improves heat transfer. there are exceptions, such as diamond which is an excellent heat conductor but an electrical insulator. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/thercond.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiedemann%E2%80%93Franz_law"
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what units do i use for 'e=mc squared'? i'm pretty sure it's not watts = pounds*186,000 squared. | energy has units of joules. m has units of kilograms. c has units of metres / second. of course these are just the usual si units. you could measure e in kilowatt hours, m in solar masses and c in furlongs per fortnight if you were so inclined. it doesn't make sense though, for e to have units of watts - watts is a measure of energy per time, while e is a unit of energy. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do pheromone sprays actually work? | i recently came across a pheromone forum where people talk about which sprays to use for certain occasions and the type of effects that they noticed people have when around them. i then went to the site that the forum promotes and you have sprays that help you with attraction, help people feel good around you, make people open up to you, for trust & respect, for people to be more honest and more. the members post great results but it feels too good to be true and the paranoid part of me thinks that what is happening is that when trying one of these sprays they're either giving their surroundings more notice to see if it's working or it's some sort of placebo effect where when they spray it confidence goes up and they report it as results. the reason that i think that there maybe something to it is that it's not a forum with a small number of users, there are a lot of posts and threads on there and it's not like all of them can be because of the above mentioned effects. so i'm really interested in what people on here know about this subject. | hi there. let me first say that you probably haven't gotten a very quick response because there is a lot of controversy regarding pheromones in humans. so with that being said... pheromones are chemicals that allow animals to communicate via "smell" (chemoreception). so for this you need two things: * a chemical messenger sent from one animal * a receptor to pick up that chemical in the receiving animal non-human animals contain an organ called the [**vomeronasal organ**](_url_0_) that contains receptors specifically for pheromones. two common pheromones that are used in out pets are [*dog appeasing pheromone*](_url_1_) and [*feline facial pheromone*](_url_5_). both of these are sold over the counter in diffusers to help calm anxious pets, and there is evidence that they work. in humans, however, there is debate as to whether or not the vomeronasal organ exists at all, and if it does, whether or not is it vestigial/functional or even innervated. there is no evidence that "pheromones" that are listed on that website work at all. this is a mass placebo effect. it's tough to look at the large numbers of people who are rating them positively and think to yourself that there must be something behind it, but there are also lots of people out there who will swear up and down that vaccines cause autism, so watch out for being convinced by numbers alone. scents may put you at ease because they smell good, but not due to pheromone activity. there is [some evidence](_url_2_) that [mhc](_url_3_), an element of the immune system, can have "pheromone"-like effects when people are judging attractiveness, but this is the only pheromone-like mechanism that i'm aware of in humans. edit: links, clarification bonus: whenever you see an animal [doing this](_url_4_), they are trying to pick up pheromones via their vomeronasal organ. the behavior is called flehmen. themoreyouknow.jpg | 16 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomeronasal_organ",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog_appeasing_pheromone",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453008002667",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flehmen_response",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat_pheromone#Feline_facial_pheromone"
] | [
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are there any parts of the human body that can’t be transferred to another person? | like taking an arm and giving it to someone else brain heart anything what can’t we do that with and why? | when someone donates eyes, the entire eye is removed, but only the cornea is transplanted into the new person (the entire eyeball is easier to deal with than a mostly clear, very small cornea). the optic nerve has too many nerve fibers to connect together. the zebrafish has some method of regrowing the nerve, but we haven't figured it out yet. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organs_of_the_human_body",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplantable_organs_and_tissues"
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why do potassium levels in the blood go down when we experience hypothermia? | when performing therapeutic hypothermia, serum potassium levels go down and patients require supplementation to prevent problems with hypokalemia. here's [an abstract](_url_0_) from pubmed that kind of describes problem. | transmembrane sodium gradient drives transmembrane transport of several important chemicals, including glucose. transmembrane sodium gradient is created and maintained by the sodium-potassium pump, which transports potassium into cells while transporting sodium out of cells. as a result, increased demand for transmembrane transport of nutrients leads to increased activity of sodium-potassium pump, while leads to decreased extracellular concentration of potassium. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20828913"
] | [] | [
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what rate does time dilation change as compared to percent c? | basically, how must time dilation do i experience travelling 50% the speed of light, compared to 75% the speed of light, compared to 90% the speed of light, etc. compared to a point at rest? is it a squared relationship? linear (i doubt it)? or something else? | dt'/dt = gamma where gamma is the lorentz factor. gamma = 1/√1-(v/c)^2 [this is how you calculate the time dilation in special relativity.](_url_0_) at 75% the speed of light, gamma is about 1.5. so clocks run 2/3 times slower (1/1.5) on the moving spaceship compared to you. | 10 | [] | [] | [
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nsfw: sexual reproduction related question | could you reframe your question to be more about biological processes? you're (apparent) question is: "why does ejaculate become whiter at times?" or "why does the consistency of ejaculate change?" you can follow up with a question in the text that says (something like): "does (or how does) ejaculate consistency effect getting a girl pregnant?" try to connect the first part of the question to the second, while keeping it grounded in science. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i've always wondered how they treat or how they would treat asthmatics or asthma in ancients times medically what could be done? | from the new england journal of medicine [a patient with asthma seeks medical advice in 1828, 1928, and 2012](_url_0_). doesn't quite hit ancient times, but you might find it interesting. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1102783"
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|
how does the extra food mass exit the body of an exerciser? | two people consume the exact same diet. one exercises and does not gain weight. the other sits and does gain weight. which bodily excretion accounts for the extra loss of mass from the active person? sweat, exhalation, urine, feces, or other? | believe it or not, one of the major evacuation routes for body fat is exhalation. obviously, unused vitamins and minerals and solid waste goes out the back way, along with waste water in the form of urine, but the act of exercising causes the body to eventually burn into fat stores, using oxygen to break down the fatty carbohydrates into carbon dioxide and water. your lungs then pull out the excess carbon dioxide and replace it with new oxygen. it is important to note that forcing yourself to hyperventilate (breathe faster) will not actually do anything of value to your system. it is the heavier breathing caused by the exertion of exercise that expels the carbon dioxide. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if glycemic index is so important, why isn't it on nutrition fact labels [usa]? | today, in class, there was a guest speaker who talked about pre-pre-pre-diabetic stages, and glucose sensitivity, and how glycemic index is crucial to integrative management of these levels/phenomena in the prevention of diabetes (for those who are susceptible for any number of reasons.) why is glycemic index not so commonly discussed as to be readily available, public knowledge on nutrition labels? | because the usda nutrition guidelines aren't based on our best understanding of dietary and nutritional science, instead they are the product of a messy bureaucratic system that is beholden to many interests (including supporting various american agricultural industries). additionally, glycemic index is more difficult to measure than caloric content because it requires having a human in the loop (and thus a good, statistically significant sampling of them). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a common term for the shape of creatures that would describe an milipede, an ant, a cat and a moose (and many more)? | you know, walking around on however many legs you've got with your spine (in the case of vertibrates) up and your legs down, or to phrase it otherwise, your body oriented lengthwise above your legs. biped and quadruped describe how things move around, but how about a term for being oriented like [this](_url_1_) and [this](_url_0_) as opposed to being oriented perpendicularly to those general types of stances? damn easy questions are hard to ask some times. | in the perspective of biomechanics and locomotion those examples you have given are quite different. insects have a 'sprawled' posture regarded as primitive with the upper limb close to horizontal from the body and a lower limb more vertical. the cat has an 'erect' posture with legs gathered below the body, allowing longer periods of activity in general because of not deforming the chest cavity significantly whilst walking and being seen as more advanced as a result. there is also 'pillar erect' which you see in crocodilians where their forlegs are semi-erect and better for a semi-aquatic lifestyle, which also shows that determining which posture is 'more evolved' is as subjective as usual. so the insects and other sprawled animals don't fit in with your reasoning for the group, they're just all animals with legs. i am interested if there is a more general system of classification for legged animals which can be provided by someone with more knowledge than i. sources: mainly charig, a.j. (1972) the evolution of the archosaur pelvis and hind-limb: an explanation in functional terms. in studies in vertebrate evolution (eds k.a. joysey and t.s. kemp). oliver & boyd, edinburgh, pp. 121–55. - sorry can't find an ebook/online as it's a book, but if you're at university they'll probably have a copy for you to loan. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/insects/label/ant/label.GIF",
"https://static.newworldencyclopedia.org/thumb/5/5b/Cat_anatomy_diagram.png/350px-Cat_anatomy_diagram.png"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_locomotion#Posture"
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when you begin going into total organ failure, which organs fail first? why are they the first organs to fail? | probably depends on what caused the organ failure in the first place. and usually it's just one or two organs that fail at a time. i'd say that probably the most prominent organ failures are the liver or kidneys. these are responsible for metabolizing and getting rid of all the toxic chemicals that go in your body. but sometimes the immediately metabolized chemicals are more damaging than the original ones and destroy nearby tissue. moral of the story: don't drink alcohol then take tylenol. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/760145-overview#a6"
] | [
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] |
|
why do those parts on top of hydro poles have that circle/twirly shape? | these things: _url_0_ | [from wikipedia](_url_0_): "high voltage insulators for outdoor use are shaped to maximise the length of the leakage path along the surface from one end to the other, called the creepage length, to minimise these leakage currents." when they are wet, it makes the path along the insulator longer making it less likely to short. | 5 | [] | [
"http://us.123rf.com/400wm/400/400/craigpj/craigpj0710/craigpj071000020/1859789-utility-pole-with-insulators.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_insulator#Design"
] | [
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what are currently the best solutions, in theory, to help control the dead zones in the gulf of mexico? | i'm trying to understand what has currently been done besides just limiting the agricultural runoffs, or is that just the only current solution that would yield the best results? | right now we know that waaaaaayyyyyyyy too much nitrogen fertilizer goes into farming operations. if we could reduce agricultural runoff by increasing efficient fertilizer use (while simultaneously saving farmers on fertilizer and saving the atmosphere from the co2 produced by fertilizer production), we could do a lot to reversing dead zones. human sewage puts a lot of nutrients into the water as well. instead of dumping our "treated" waste into bodies of water, we should look for other things to do with sewage. like figuring out how to compost it and use it as fertilizer. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do the permanent magnets in coal power plants ever need to be replaced? | in other words, do the magnets in electrical generators ever need replacement? | no. they use electromagnets, not permanent magnets. the bearings do need occasional replacement, but they replace them without shutting down the generator. replacing moving parts on a giant generator which is spinning at 3600 rpm gets interesting. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do all of the rockies seem to stop at 14k feet? | the rockies mountain range in colorado is known for its "fourteeners" - it's got 53 peaks, all within a relatively narrow range of 14,000-14,440 feet. the tallest mountain, mt. elbert at 14,440 feet, is just +12 feet higher than the second-tallest, mt. massive at 14,428 feet. and there are 5 other peaks within 100 feet of elbert. for comparison denali (20,310 feet) tops the second-highest in the alaskan range by +2,860 feet. the scales for the himalayas are a different ballpark, but everest has +778 feet on k2. aconcagua has +231 feet on ojos del salado in the andes. and mt. blanc has +570 feet on monte rosa in the alps. what is it about the rockies that gives it so many high peaks, but not any one particularly dominating high peak? | the rockies are older than all of the other mountain ranges you pointed out, so they've been eroded down over the years. there is ongoing subduction underneath alaska and the aleutians as well as underneath the andes so those mountains are all growing. additionally the alps and himalayas are collisional belts that are still growing as india is moving northwards into china and africa is pushing north into europe. the rockies stopped forming around 30-50 million years ago (i can't remember the exact number off the top of my head but it's in that range) so they've experienced 30+million years of erosion by wind and rain which acts to level everything out. in the next few hundred million years the rockies will be as tall as the appalachians which have been eroding since about 200 million years ago. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a minimum non-zero speed(may be infinetsimal say 10^-30) for any body? | as such relativity doesn't speak anything about a lower limit on speed. however, there may be constraints on speed imposed by the planck length and planck time. so, is there any non-zero lower limit on the speed of a body in any reference frame | the minimum speed of any object is 0 and is achieved in the *rest frame* of that object. this is tautological since the rest frame is *defined* as the frame in which an object's speed is 0. all motion must be defined relative to some frame or to some object (and it is understood that the frame is the rest frame of that object). what is your speed relative to yourself? zero. this question asks about two topics that come up very often in this sub. * "is there a minimum speed?", "how fast am i really going since earth, sun, milky way are all moving?" * "in light of planck units, is there a minimum distance?", "do planck units describe a pixelation of spacetime?" all motion is relative. to describe where something is or how fast it is going, you must specify with respect to what. so the answer to all of the questions of the first type is almost always that the question is meaningless. you are not *really* moving in any sense because there is no absolute reference frame. you have a different speed depending on the reference frame. with respect to yourself your speed is 0. with respect to the center of earth, your speed varies depending on your latitude; it is 0 at the poles and a maximum of about 460 m/s at the equator. with respect to the sun, your speed is about 30 km/s. with respect to that window curtain gently swaying from the draft, your speed is a few centimeters per second. as for the second group of questions about planck units, [i refer you to the faq](_url_0_). the planck unit system is a unit system obtained by combining 5 natural constants (each of which is characteristic of a different branch of physics) in such a way to get a full set of units. for instance, ħ is taken from quantum mechanics, *g* from general relativity, and *c* from special relativity. there is a unique combination of these three units that gives a length, called the planck length. given *any* unit we can combine the 5 natural constants in such a way to make a characteristic "planck unit". the significance of these units has nothing to do with a pixelation of the universe or the "minimum distance" or "minimum time". (indeed, the planck mass is many orders of magnitude larger than the proton or electron mass.) planck units simply give a scale at which several or all branches of physics must be properly incorporated to give an accurate description. the planck length, for instance, is about 10^(-35) m, and so at about that order of magnitude, we should expect that physics is properly described by *both* quantum mechanics and general relativity, i.e., quantum gravity. that's all there is to it. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/physics/plank_scale"
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how does supersymmetry work and can we measure/see the superpartners? | how does supersymmetry show itself, what suggests that it is real? and finally, the potential superpartners, are they measurable in any way and how would we know if we find them? | supersymmetry has many attractive qualities. supersymmetric theories are often free from dangerous quantum corrections as the contribution to them from the fermions cancels with that from the bosons. for example, the vacuum energy of a non-supersymmetric theory such as the standard model includes contribution from the vacuum fluctuations of all the different fields at all energy scales up to the planck scale. the vacuum energy turns out to be *huge*. we know it experimentally to be minuscule. in a supersymmetric theory, it's zero. same thing for the higgs boson mass. it should receive giant contributions from scales up to planck yet it is incredibly small compared to what you'd expect. supersymmetry would explain that as the quantum correction from the top quark cancels with that from the stop. and supersymmetry makes beautiful things work. supersymmetry is very constraining and so allows you to deduce a lot of information about a supersymmetric theory, informations that for complex theories would be absolutely impossible to obtain by standard techniques. this information is valuable as it can often be extrapolated to complex non-supersymmetric models sufficiently similar to those. and string theory is able to do most of its magic with supersymmetry. however, the world is not supersymmetric. supersymmetry wants at the very bare least the particles to be grouped in "supermultiplets" including each equal number of fermions and bosons with the same mass and quantum numbers. this is clearly not the case. so if susy is real, it must be spontaneously broken at a certain energy scale. above that energy, supersymmetry is manifest; below, it's invisible. now the point is you'd like that scale to be as low as possible, because the positive qualities susy has in terms of taming quantum corrections only hold in the unbroken phase. basically if the breaking happens at energy x, then the quantum corrections only appear below x. so instead of the corrections = 0 you expect in a fully supersymmetric theory, or the corrections ~ planck you expect in a non-supersymmetric theory, when susy is broken at x you get corrections ~ x. however, x just cannot be too low. all the superpartners are now invisible because they acquire masses of the order of x. we haven't found sparticles yet, so x must be higher than what we've looked. that's hugely simplified but basically that's the general idea: we're not seeing susy in accelerators, not yet at least. now either you hope the susy breaking scale is behind the corner (low energy supersymmetry) and so you have both a prediction for a bunch of new particles, a partial explanation for the hierarchy problems, and so on, or you think it's actually really big, perhaps gut (10^(16) gev) or even planck (10^(19)gev) scale, making it unaccessible to experiments. both are possible. and both include millions of other subcases. so the most important thing is that talking about supersymmetry does not necessarily mean stops at the lhc. and the claim that theories that predict supersymmetry (such as string theory) need superpartners at the tev scale is false. there is no need for the susy breaking scale to be low. now how would you recognize a superpartner in a collider? easy: it shares the quantum numbers of its partners, but with different spin. for example squarks would be scalars that are coloured (interact with the strong force like quarks) and have the same electric charge, etc etc. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where do plasmids come from? and why are they there? | so recently we talked about plasmids in my biology class and the first thought that popped into my head was why is there something so useful just laying around waiting for a bacteria to pick it up? i mean in the context of all living things this seems to make the least sense. generally speaking nature is random. mutations are random and sometimes are helpful but most of the time harmful. so why would there be something so beneficial just out there? forgive me if i have something incorrect, i am only a business major so biology isn't exactly my forte. | it is probable that plasmids evolved within bacteria, separately from the primary bacterial chromosome (the main unit of inheritance within bacteria). plasmids carry genes. for example, a gene coding for antibiotic resistance. as they can be transferred between bacteria, (the chromosome cannot) it is more likely that bacteria containing these plasmids will survive to reproduce, and to further spread the plasmid via a process called conjugation. plasmids probably didn't evolve just like 'that', they probably came into existence through a series of random mutations - which is the basic principle of evolution - a slow accumulation of random mutations that are beneficial to the host. the fact that most are harmful are the reason why this process is so slow. (that and dna proofreading etc etc). final year molecular bio undergrad here. references and verification can be given on request. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hok/sok_system",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1000652513822"
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why don't humans have plasmids? | hi, so i'm a little confused. my biology notes says plasmids naturally exist in bacterial cells, and that humans have bacterial cells in our digestive and respiratory systems. my biology notes also says humans don't have or need plasmids. doesn't the bacteria in our digestive and respiratory systems have plasmids? if not, why? | when your notes say that humans don't have or need plasmids, that means that the human cells don't have or need plasmids. the bacterial cells that reside in our bodies are certainly able to have plasmids. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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