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if you were to take two people, one with bad eyesight and one with perfect eyesight and switched their eyes. would the person with previously bad eyesight now have perfect and vice versa? | no, definitely not. vision is possibly the most complicated topic in the human body. bad eyesight comes from many different things. * it could be because the eye is distorted and light isn't reaching the retina properly. * the lens could be clouded * the retina itself could be damaged * the brain doesn't know how to process the signal finally, if you could perfect the surgery and wire up all the nerves and muscles back together, we actually have no solid idea how our brain decodes what your eye is sending it. some believe (very roughly speaking) that each of our eyes has a unique language it's developed with its brain. if you switched them up, even perfectly, the brain couldn't understand what its new eyes were sending it. now what you could do, if and only if its the just that the lens is distorted (which is the most common cause of bad eyesight), is swap lenses. then what you're saying is correct. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
a new color? | reddit, this is a question that bothers me since i was a child. we know that there are many people out there who are [colorblind](_url_0_) - which means that they have deficiencies and can't distinguish between several colors, see different colors or can't see colors at all caused by their genes/cone cells. here's the question: assuming a person has 4, 5 or x instead of 3 different types of cone cells caused by genetic mutation. a) would that person, see a broader variety of colors than a normal person? b) see colors which a normal person can’t perceive? are such phenomena known? side question: would it be possible that there are other/new colors, which we would be able to see, but that are not yet known? edit: formatting | there are studies suggesting that a small part of the population actually has 4 different color receptors. _url_0_ different color receptors help you differntiate more colors. in particular color mixing would look different. to a normal person the mixing of red and green looks the same as yellow. however, if a person would have a separate yellow receptor, those two colors would look different. the electromagnetic spectrum is pretty well known and explored so any color can be described by that and is thus known. colors are more of a convention of describing certain effects. with an improved ability to differentiate, tetrachromates might need additional vocabulary to agree on colors. but then again, women need more vocabulary for colors than men ;-) | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_blindness"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachromacy"
] | [
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what's the deal with these possibly lorentz-violating neutrinos? | i mean, assuming they exist and aren't an error in the measurements. what are the implications, and potential applications? could they one day be harnessed to create some type of ftl drive and/or communication? energy source? quantum supercomputers? | do you mean the [opera anomaly](_url_0_)? because that turned out to be a loose cable. no ftl particles have been detected, and none are really suspected to exist. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faster-than-light_neutrino_anomaly"
] | [
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] |
how much has the us funding for neuroscience research increased? | i am trying to find out roughly how much of an increase in funding for neuroscience research there has been in the us. i am also interested in knowing if this trend has also been seen in other countries. | _url_0_ basically, as far and away the primary source of funding for neuroscience research is the nih. that money is awarded out to researchers and labs around the country as grants to be used to fund their scientific work based on project proposals they send to the nih. there are additional funds from private companies that mostly work on drug development/discovery/testing, as well as other agencies that give smaller amounts of money for neuroscience research (such as nsf), but these sources don't rfeally come close to that nih figure. generally, the trend is that the budget for neuroscience research has gone up up over the past years. the article above will make the case that it isn't enough when adjusted for inflation (they are effectively a lobbying organization seeking to gain more funding from the govt, after all). but, you will find other sources that show a more dramatic increase in funding by sourcing/processing their numbers diferently. that being said, the amount of neuroscience funding has not even come close to keeping up with the increase in the number of trained neuroscientists. even if the funding for neuroscience were doubled over the past 10 years, the number of newly trained neuroscientists over that period would still be struggling to find adequate funding. this is a bit of different problem, of course, but it still becomes a problem when trying to discuss neuroscience funding. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.sfn.org/advocacy/neuroscience-funding/us-funding-priorities/neuroscience-funding-through-nih"
] | [
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how do cosmologists compensate for gravity not being instantaneous when computing galaxy formations? | i'm trying to understand how galaxies form when objects are attracted to where they used to be, not where they currently are. | a lot of these effects are actually cancelled due to the fact that a relativistic gravitational field includes information about how the source is moving. that means, to a certain approximation, an object is attracted to where another one is "right now" with deviations starting to occur when the objects are moving faster relative to the speed of light. if one were to do a simulation, a "retarded potential" could be included, which takes into account the time delay. ultimately though, a newtonian retarded potential is less representative of the physics at hand than an instantaneous one, and a full general relativity simulation wouldn't require it. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the culture a person grows up in ultimately decide what areas of the brain direct specific actions? | i remember reading a story a while back talking about how, because the japanese language has more vowels than most languages native japanese speakers had language centers were located in different areas in the brain. do other aspects of an individuals upbringing effect in the same way? like could a change in culture create a change in our 'neural map'? | this seems highly unlikely. i'd be interested to read the story you refer to though. in general, the areas of the brain that are responsible for language comprehension (wernicke's area) and production (broca's area) are consistent across humans, as are the regions of the somatosensory cortex that correspond to sensing and controlling particular parts of the body. i imagine there may be some moderate amount of "repurposing" of unused areas (e.g., sensing/controlling paralyzed/amputated limbs), but in general, you're not going to see something like the occipital lobe picking up spoken language interpretation duties to help out an overtaxed wernicke's area. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what was the slowest observed wave we know of? | i was just looking at some antibacterial gel, and it looked like a standing wave, but it doesn't appear to be moving. what is the slowest wave we've seen. it doesn't have to be an e & m wave, but could be a liquid wave. you don't need to historically know the slowest wave, you could give me a theoretical minimum if you wanted. | if you stretch the meaning of 'wave', you can include various long-term periodic processes like [predator-prey dynamics](_url_1_) which oscillate over years, or the movement of planets (1 year for earth to loop around the sun ), or [observe beats between two periodic processes with close frequences](_url_2_). or you can look at [phase velocity](_url_0_) which can, in principle, be arbitrarily slow. edit: formatting. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_velocity",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equation",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uENITui5_jU",
"http://i.minus.com/iQWUpY900jtxb.gif"
] | [
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can the brain "rope memorize" infinitely? or does it hit a hard limit? | say i started memorizing a very long book. will the portion i am able to accurately recall continually increase, or does my brain hit a hard limit and start to overwrite at some point? edit: til: rote, not rope. | i think op's question is not necessarily 'what's the biggest book you can memorize?' but **'does the brain have a hard limit for information storage?'** | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what timezone holds the most people and what timezone holds the least at any given time? | this sounds like a trick question, since you seem to be implying that timezones move. this isn't the case. looks like the most populous timezone is the one that includes china, utc+08:00. the least populous seems to be utc-02:00, in the middle of the atlantic. source: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC%2B08:00"
] | [
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|
where can i begin learning the history of particle physics and cosmology? | i'm looking for reading material that can essentially give an entire history of particle physics, and something along the lines of cosmology. i've been reading many articles lately discussing quantum mechanics, talks about the sun and distant stars, and all of it seems so spread out i can't make heads or tails of how these discoveries are made. i'd like to know when and why key discoveries were made in these fields. when did, for example, the higgs boson come about, how was it applied to our already existing knowledge, and how does it tie in to other theories? i know this seems vague, i'm essentially looking for books on these topics that start at the beginning, and explain each logical progression rather than just mentioning that discoveries were made. **tl;dr looking for a detailed history of particle physics, and cosmology. both topics fascinate me.** edit: the reason i'm inquiring is that i'm in my second year of a chemistry major, and i feel as though i still know absolutely nothing relevant in science. i believe that knowing more about these topics will help me see the purpose of what i'm learning now, and help me decide where i want to end up in a few years. | i think [a short history of nearly everything](_url_0_) might be what you are looking for. not sure it will 100% meet your needs but a great book nonetheless and worth a read. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/A-Short-History-Nearly-Everything/dp/0767908171/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1334715235&sr=8-1"
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how can you tell what electric charge an object has? | so if you look in textbooks that describe electromagnetic charge (the "rubber balloon rubbed on wool" is a popular one), objects will be identified as having a negative charge, a positive charge, or a neutral charge. i get that ... but is there a way to look at an object and know what charge it has? can i tell if the balloon has a positive charge and the wool negative? is there a piece of technology that measures this like how a thermometer measures temperature? am i looking at this whole thing the wrong way? i get that two objects will attract with opposite charge and repel with like charges, and i get that, on average, most objects are neutrally charged, but how can i tell what charge something has, positive or negative? does it even matter? | the definition of positive and negative charge is arbitrary. at some point, someone decided to name it this way around and that was that. we could swap the terms "positive" and "negative" around and nothing would change (we'd just have to update a lot of text books, manuals and other things). so ultimately, you can only determine if two objects have the same charge (they repel), opposite charge (they attract) or at least one object is neutral (no effect). you can then apply the man-made definitions to assign the words "positive" and "negative" to the charges if you want. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the human brain wired to naturally perceive only a certain number of orders of magnitude? | **example 1** consider this example (people who don't know math can skip to the next one, don't worry): you want to plot this function: y=(floor(x))^2. now say you pull up your favorite program and you put the equation in and the program plots the thing. so here it is on your screen, you set it to only show the first quadrant - say x < 15, y < 200 - and [there you have it](_url_0_): 16 discernible steps. now you wanna see more steps, so you edit your axis range and you go x < 20, y < 400: [21 discernible steps](_url_2_). now i go higher to [x < 30, y < 900](_url_3_) and things start to get a little weird: i know in this particular case that there are 31 steps in the picture and i can discern them, but the difference between the 1st and 2nd step is getting minimal. let's ramp things up to [x < 150](_url_1_), now anything before 5 is a straight line. at [x < 300](_url_4_), everything before 20 is a straight line. at x < 1000 it's 50. and so on and so forth... **basically if i want to see bigger things, i'm gonna have to scale things up, but that way i won't be able to see little things anymore.** now, of course, this example could be easily dismissed as a problem of my screen's resolution. if i had a bigger screen with a higher resolution i could probably plot 300 fully discernible steps. but of course this stops working when you wanna see the 10,000th step, then things would start to get blurry again at the bottom. **i suspect this to be an inherent property of human perception: do we have a fixed scale that sets what is the biggest size and the smallest size in a series of objects we can perceive at the same time?** next example: **example 2** (edit: i found [this](_url_5_) video that is basically the same thing i'm describing below but with stars instead of cubes, i highly suggest watching it) imagine yourself on a flat, infinitely wide and infinitely long piece of land. somewhere a bit ahead of you is a series of cubes placed one next to the other in a row that runs from left to right. each cube is twice the size of the one to its left. you wanna see the most cubes you can so you start backing away from the cubes. this way, bigger cubes enter your field of view on the right and smaller cubes enter your view from the left. pretty soon you start to find that if you keep backing away you'll definitely see bigger cubes, but you'll also lose perception of the smaller cubes on the left. so you stop backing away and you just move sideways to the right to see bigger cubes, but as you go to the right, you find that the big cubes are just getting too big for your field of view, you have to step back to see them entirely. also, same thing with the small cubes on the left. if you're too far back and you wanna see smaller and smaller cubes, you'll have to step in and move to the left, but this is gonna make you lose sight of the bigger cubes. **my question is: is there an intrinsic limitation in my brain to not only see, but picture something, then something twice as big, then something 10 times as big and something 100 times as big without losing sight (or perception) of the original thing i was picturing?** also, i would be surprised to find out i was the first one to think of this problem, so i would suppose it might be something quite basic which i still can't find stuff about because i'm probably putting in all the wrong keywords. could you help me out on this too? what's the field of study which cares about this kinda thing? | i think what you're getting to here is absolute and differential threshold. there is the minimum amount of stimulus required to notice something. e.g., hearing range in terms of decibels. and there is the minimum amount of change in stimulus before it's noticeable. e.g., increasing the sound by 1 decibel (making up numbers btw) might not register as being 'louder' but increasing it by 100 might. in those diagrams what's happening is the flat lines are becoming smaller and smaller and approaching the point where we can notice the difference (i.e., falling below the differential threshold). if you think about it, even a normal line is composed of discrete dots- they're just too small for us to notice. to get to your question, if we can notice the dots and then zoom out will we always loose sight of the dots? not always, but usually. the differential threshold usually follows log scales rather than a linear increase. so a delta 1 decibel might be noticeable in changing the perception if the original sound is only 10 decibels, but if the original sound is 100 decibels that 1 decibel increase isn't going to be perceived. i hope that helps a bit. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/vqfWQkF.jpg",
"http://imgur.com/Sujzvyv.jpg",
"http://imgur.com/QzyUom7.jpg",
"http://imgur.com/W6CpVOG.jpg",
"http://imgur.com/NeJ2ODr.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/A_cosmic_sense_of_scale.webm"
] | [] | [
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] |
why is it that whenever the lower 48 has a cold snap it always warm in alaska? | i used ti live in alaska and whenever we would get our warm spells during the winter the lower 48 would get frigid. is this a coincidence? | no, cold air that is normally up north was displaced south and warm air the was the south was displaced north. this is caused by high and low pressure. usually what happens is the systems get positioned in such a way that air is being moved large distances north/south. [this](_url_0_) shows what's happening in the pacific northwest right now, with a really powerful low pressure system that has a cold front extending from alaska to hawaii. right ahead of that cold front the air is being moved north, bringing you warm weather before the front beings the cold. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/goes/west/nepac/flash-wv.html"
] | [
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how serious is china's stock situation? will it effect other countries? | and a follow-up, not-so-economic related question - how easy would it be for another country (like the us) to manipulate china's stock market? | the chinese stock market was seen as overvalued before the the crash (it had more than doubled in the last year), most people in the west were expecting it to fall which is probably why the crash has been as bad as it is -- tons of people saw the incredible growth and decided to hop on for the good times and to jump off the bandwagon when it started to fall. it's really serious in china because there's tons of companies on there and obviously it's going to be a giant hit to their tech industry but china is still in a pretty good place economically and there have been a lot of pledges from chinese banks and from the government to buy shares and try to control the downfall. they'll be fine in the long run, it won't cause anything close to the great depression (their stock is still trading at ~ 2x what it was trading at 20 months ago) so they're still doing well, just not as insanely well as they were before. how easy would it be for the us to manipulate china's stock market? i don't think a country could feasibly do it but that's not to say that it wasn't being manipulated. when you look at the growth rate that the market had it's pretty clear that a lot of it is just from speculators getting in to make some quick money and it just shot up out of control. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why or how do weighted blankets help with things like anxiety? | this is assuming that the cause of anxiety is sensory overstimulation (common with children/people with autism or adhd). weighted blankets provide proprioceptive input (aka joint sense) to the body. proprioceptive input is generally a “calming” input to the body. the weights provide a constant/uniform sensory input to the body which helps in regulating sensations. that’s also why you feel comforted when you’re being hugged or when you’re wrapped with a blanket. note: in the perspective of sensory integration | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
space walking | just a gravity inspired question. how fast could a space walking astronaut orbit earth? how long would it take to, for example, walk past australia? what's the science and geometry behind it all? speeds, distance from earth etc. | there's no walking involved, but if you mean how long would it take to 'float' over australia, or more accurately, orbit past australia then the velocity of a space walking astronaut is the same as their vessel's. now, since your question is inspired by gravity, the first thing i should say is that while i loved the movie and thought it was generally scientifically accurate, some liberties were taken with the orbits of the various structures you saw. the concept of space walking from one space station to another is a little implausible, but hey it's a movie! for reference, the iss tends to orbit around 206 miles. space walks have been performed at different orbits. the shuttle tended to orbit at lowish altitudes, between 200 - 330 miles. a figure oft quoted is a velocity of 17,500 miles per hour. therefore your spacewalking astronaut would be travelling at this speed. the reason they look like they're floating around gently is simply because your frame of reference is the ship, which is also hurtling around the earth at the same speed. so in answer to your question, one must first assume the orbital trajectory is taking the astronaut across the width of australia (which would be a rather odd orbit). the iss takes 90 minutes to orbit the earth, and the width of australia is about 2485 miles, comprising around 9.9% of the circumference of the earth (not quite as that measurement is taking an equatorial circumference), then your transit time over australia would be about 9 minutes. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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explain the subjective jumping of crt displays and some digital clock (7segment led) displays seen when chewing/jaw grinding. | some clock displays like alarm clocks and set-top boxes show the "jumping" very clearly, some digits jump up while others jump down at the same instant. anyone else know what i am talking about? it is so common that i almost feel there should be a name for this. sure, it has to do with vibrations to the eyeballs or to the skull/brain, but i was hoping for more details... does this distortion happen at the retina or in the brain? some links: _url_0_ _url_1_ _url_2_ | it's because we don't see in frames per second, but we see a constant light. 25fps for smooth motion is just an illusion, we can see hundreds of frames per seconds according to the right conditions. now, when you blink, swing an alarm clock, etc you see the blinking that you otherwise don't notice. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/last6/why_do_digital_numbers_jump_around_when_i_chew/",
"http://ask.metafilter.com/6434/Visual-Field-Distortion",
"http://boards.straightdope.com/sdmb/showthread.php?t=208969"
] | [] | [
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] |
what happens when two perfectly smooth surfaces meet? | imagine you have two surfaces, perfectly smooth, flat, rigid and parallel, that slowly move together. what happens as they meet? and what happens when you try to take them apart again? i realize this question can be approached from multiple fields, like physics, mathematics and engineering, but i appreciate any input on the matter. (but i'm guessing a purely mathematical approach would be fairly uneventful) further thoughts. will surface area affect the outcome(given it is not a single point)? will the surfaces experience friction if moved horizontaly? if the surfaces meet in an atmosphere, would the air be able to escape completely? would the surfaces be able to be separated again? what if they're in a vacuum? how will different materials/elements react? and while we're at it, how the heck does cold welding work? | in reality, surfaces aren't perfectly flat because objects are made of discrete atoms, so there is bumpyness at the angstrom level. if you have two "atomically flat" surfaces come together, they can merge in what is called [cold welding](_url_0_). however, surfaces will rapidly form an oxide layer when exposed to earth's atmosphere that will prevent this. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_welding"
] | [
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why do rodents have holes in their hard palate? | i have a few rodent skulls that i have that i found while hiking in the woods near my house. while i was cleaning them earlier i noticed that all three of them have two holes in the hard palate. why do they have these holes, and what are the used for? i thought maybe they were for the jacobson's organ, but i also have a cat skull from a stray cat that died under my house over a decade ago, and it doesn't have holes there. [the skulls in question.] (_url_0_) i have more pictures from different angles if you they would help you at all. | ah, we all love a little biological mystery, ey? these holes are present in the rat from the time of postnatal development as shown [here](_url_1_) above npal. as the rodents grow, this hole grows as well, now, you said that the cat does not have this hole, but you are mistaken on exactly what you are looking at. the rat hole is a foramina (opening in a bone). the cat has one, and us humans have [many](_url_0_). these holes allow for our descending palatine vessels (arteries) to suppy blood flow to the roof of our mouths and gums, and also allows us to sense the temperature of our food and drink with the connection of the greater palatine nerve. without one of those holes, we wouldn't have brain freeze :) great inquiry! | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/gallery/MCxlP"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_palatine_foramen#/media/File:Foramen_palatinum_majus.png",
"http://chemse.oxfordjournals.org/content/28/7/581/F1.large.jpg"
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what is the minimum gravitational or angular pull necessary to cause normal blood flow? | so, we know in microgravity, human's experience bloated sinuses and other adverse symptoms. 1) what is the minimum gravitational or angular pull necessary to cause normal blood flow? 2) would microgravity symptoms also occur on the moon? on mars? 3) what is the time to onset and time to recover from microgravity symptoms? especially in terms of sense of smell? looking at quality of life issues from a sci-fi author's perspective. great thanks! & #x200b; & #x200b; | the answer to the first two questions is that we simply don't know because we've never had the opportunity to experiment. we know that no gravity is unhealthy and 1 g is healthy, but we have no data on what happens in between. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do you measure the volume of a chunk of space in curved spacetime? | specifically, i'm asking how you calculate it, not what tools you would use | so you mean compute, not measure. if what you have on your hands is the metric g_ij, the (signed) volume of an infinitesimal bit of spacetime (or space) with sides dx^(1), dx^(2), ... dx^n is dv = sqrt(|det g|) dx^1 ∧ ... ∧ dx^n that's really the only possibility considering it has to be invariant under coordinate changes (because what kind of volume would that be if it depended on the coordinate choice?) then to get the volume of a finite region you integrate this thing on that chunk. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any plant in the world that can induce a miscarriage? | i used to live in the philippines. abortion is illegal there, and when women would get pregnant they would try to abort the baby by eating some sort of plant. i don't think it's worked, it certainly hasn't for one of my cousins. but it got me thinking, is there any plant in the world that could induce a miscarriage? | there certainly are plants that have been used as abortifacients. the real issue is balancing abortive intent with full-on toxicity and potential for harm to the pregnant woman. these are extremely difficult to study in a controlled fashion as well, seeing as most "wisdom" comes from cultural knowledge in the pre-pharmaceutical era, predating clinical trials, and are generally done under a veil of secrecy rather than recorded (whether successful or not). a modern plant-based clinical trial is unlikely too, given the importance of timing, concerns for maternal safety, effective dose (which is challenging to control in a plant, rather than pill due to inherent natural variation in biology), and the requirements for understanding mechanistic specificity of the "drug" before a trial will be approved. i found [a retrospective study from a poison center in montevideo which describes 86 cases of attempted abortion by plant/herbal infusions](_url_2_), with 23 ending in abortion (26%); 15 of those attributable to the plant alone (17% of total). obviously this is confounded by multiple factors including different plants, different fetal ages, and overall highly *not* recommended as many of these women suffered severe consequences (including multiple organ failure and death). but, i guess it does demonstrate that some plants will lead to miscarriage above chance. there's also evidence for spontaneous abortion in non-human species after ingestion of certain plants, including [ponderosa pine needles in cattle](_url_0_), and [locoweed or broomweed ingestion in goats](_url_1_), etc., but it's difficult to know if that applies to humans, and often these are low-grade poisoning leading to fetal loss as well (not a "neat" miscarriage induction). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/reproductive_system/abortion_in_large_animals/abortion_in_cattle.html",
"http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/reproductive_system/abortion_in_large_animals/abortion_in_goats.html",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12807304"
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can computers read a book and answer our questions beyond basic keyword searches? | questions like: * list the members of the fellowship (lotr) * plot explanation * complex religious problem by reading bible or quran | well, i don't think state-of-the-art is quite there yet for some of the more difficult reasoning tasks you mention. getting the list of characters in lotr should be easy, reasoning about complex religious issues is still far off. one involves simply identifying named entities in a text, the other requires first understanding the text and then making decisions based on that. there is a great deal of recent work on question answering, so progress is being made. but like many areas of ai, we're often bad at guessing how long it will be before our systems are capable of some harder task. i'm on mobile, can't link particular articles, but you may be interested in facebook's [babi dataset](_url_0_) which they developed to help researchers start solving some of the basic problems we need to overcome to make significant progress in this area. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://research.fb.com/downloads/babi/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_Web",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_search",
"http://www.ksl.stanford.edu/software/IW/Ex1/"
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what exactly happens when someone becomes 'out of shape', and what is the difference between that and, 'in shape'? | a variety of physiological changes happen as you train, going from out of shape to a trained state. cardiovascular fitness means that cardiac output increases per stroke, the heart itself will increase slightly in size, usually in terms of thickness. your arteries and veins will adapt to allow for a more rapid distribution of blood, along with adaptations to your nervous system. in the muscles themselves, the size of the muscle cells increases, cellular mitochondria density increases as does the capillary density. the tendons and ligaments adapt for increased load. these adaptations tend to have a cost in terms of calorific consumption to maintain, which is why the body will reduce to an out of shape level when not regularly placed under load. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what physically happens to your body when you get "out of shape"? | for example, i used to be a pretty good runner and kept up with running consistently. then i stopped for several months and it was a lot harder to keep the same pace i used to. why is this? | not sure about all the reasons, but for one, the more you exercise, the more mitochondria your muscle cells make (it is here that your cells use up the oxygen you take in and convert it to atp [energy]). your aerobic capacity is highly dependent on your mitochondria's ability to turn sugar (among many other things) into atp. when you stop aerobically exercising (don't run for a few months), your cells see that there is no point in keeping all those extra mitochondria if you are not using them. so the cell breaks them down and uses the parts for things more relevant to your body's current situation :) | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
do students in colder climates do better academically? | i've often wondered if students who went to schools in places where fall and winter were harsher and spring arrived later tended to do better academically as a result of fewer outdoor social functions and more incentive to stay indoors. is there any truth to this? although it could be argued that some of the better universities in the us and around the world are "where they are" as a result of merely society being more advanced and just staying there, but the continued ( or perceived) dominance of the schools in the northeastern usa seems to lend some inquiry into this. | this is an interesting speculation. however, i do not believe it to be true. while you compare between universities, other possible factors are being ignored. consider the [performance of international students assessment (pisa)](_url_1_;) in 2012. there's no correlation between climate and academic performance. rather, it seems it has to do more with culture, socio-economic status, social stability among others. there are tons of research articles you can find on [google scholar](_url_0_) regarding academic performances and many variables. in my three years studying psychology i have not yet come across a study that shows a correlation between academic performance and climate temperature. according to [the qs university rankings](_url_2_), there are notably a lot of us universities in the top 100. however, consider the shear hundreds or thousands of universities in the states and only 30 of those made it into top 100. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://scholar.google.com",
"http://www.businessinsider.com/pisa-rankings-2013-12?IR=T&",
"http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2013"
] | [
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can our bodies utilize the slimy starchy residue that forms on cold spaghetti? | you know that translucent gel that forms on spaghetti after it's been sitting in the refrigerator? it kind of holds the spaghetti in the form of whatever bowl its been sitting in. can our bodies break it down and use it for nutrients, or is it simply passed through? | assuming the starchy residue is actually starch then certainly. amylases in saliva will break starch down into simple sugars. the only polysaccaride we eat in quantity and cannot digest is cellulose. (we're also pretty crap at digesting chitin and polyxyloses, but we don't really consume them in any quantity). | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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★in an statistical ensemble, what does it mean to keep a quantity fixed? | e.g. in the grand canonical ensemble, you have ndu. we know that the number density is not fixed, however (it is allowed to vary). so why do we have n du instead of udn? or the canonical ensemble is a function of q(n,v,t). but the differentials are udn,pdv, and sdt. so the things that are "fixed" are the things that can vary in terms of a differential. why? | in general, you can have de = udn + ndu + pdv + vdp + sdt + tds + and so on. you should vary all the variables in complete generality. now, depending on the problem given at hand, if you have number of particles fixed (given/implied by the problem), then dn term is zero, and so on and so forth. edit: these are sometimes subtle. a problem sometimes say a box of electrons blah blah blah.. you have to think in context and the physics related to the problem, like: are the particles number conserved? are the electrons interacting with protons such that they form hydrogen so we "lose" the number of electrons? another example is, photons' number are not conserved. it doesn't take energy to create or destroy them, so u = 0 for photons. etc etc. | 3 | [] | [] | [
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why is quadrature signal in complex notation? | i'm studying mri and i just can't seem to understand why quadrature signals are in complex notation. i figure it makes it easier to deal with since it allows the usage of euler's formula, and because complex numbers can be expressed two dimensionally with a single value. am i really off base? | assuming you understand why quadrature detection is used in the first place (to differentiate between positive and negative energies in the rotating frame), you are essentially right, it's mostly convenience. although i should like to note that you still need two numbers, the real and imaginary parts, not one. you also don't usually go to polar representation, as far as i know (at least we don't do it in lab nmr). the main reason for this is probably that the fourier transform is much faster to implement using complex numbers than doing a simultaneous sine- and cosine fourier transform on two time-shifted signals. this was a big deal some decades ago. these days it's mostly a convention. you may as well read re = mx and im = my in the rotating frame. this fits the, purely by convention, qm description where 2 ix = i^+ + i^- looks like a cosine (real part) and 2i iy = i^+ - i^- looks like a sine (imaginary part). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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because of the low viscosity of the atmosphere, the viscosity term can usually be neglected in geophysical fluid dynamics modeling except at the surface. how is viscosity handled at the surface itself? | so, the main issue with the surface is that there is a no-slip condition. with a bit of viscosity you get a strong vertical velocity shear and this creates turbulent eddies. these eddies, (along with convective eddies) are very effective at transporting momentum and heat. the planetary boundary layer can extend between 30m and a couple of km into the atmosphere in extremely stable or convective conditions respectively. the key to this surface layer isn't the viscosity but the turbulence induced by the viscosity. on most meteorological scales the turbulence is turbulence is below the spatial and temporal resolution. in synoptic systems they don't make up the bulk of the energy flow but in the boundary layer the turbulence become important. so now you have to find a way to resolve these eddies. you do this by dividing each variable up into a slowly varying meant and a component that is fluctuating fast. when you take a time average of latter component it disappears. you then try to solve for the evolution of the mean flow. to help you make use of other approximations like the boussinesq approximation. in areas away from shorelines and towns and other places that aren't spatially homogenous you can assume horizontally homogeneous turbulence. you can also then approximate to first order, balancing coriolis and pressure gradient forces and the turbulent momentum flux to solve for the horizontal mean winds. to get further information you can look at the energy sources of the turbulent energy and the sink (dissipation) and the dominant terms will give you qualitative information about the turbulence depending on the general atmospheric conditions. sorry, this is a bit messy, i thought i better write something since no one else has. there is generally a chapter on the boundary layer in 'introductory to meteorology' type textbooks if you want to read through things properly. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if our intestines are filled with other living creatures, how did they get there? | its said that the majority of our digestion is owed to a staggering host of bacteria that preside within our flesh-guts. its the reason we can process grains and such, but how did they get there? is a fetus in a womb containing the same bacteria we are? are they getting them from their mother, or what? | initially, the microbiota in the guts is seeded by the mother during birth. there are bacterial populations in the birth canal that essentially get smeared on the baby's face during birth, and these are the first species that get into the gut. these are really important too, and not just for digestion. the gut microbiota interact with and instruct the immune system. the importance of this initial seeding of bacteria is demonstrated by the fact that [children born by caesarean section have a higher risk of allergies than those delivered vaginally](_url_0_). | 33 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.liu.se/forskning/forskningsnyheter/1.489366?l=en"
] | [
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given the data provided by the american cornhole association, is it possible to calculate a perfect parabolic bag toss? | i was playing in a double elimination cornhole tournament this weekend and got absolutely smashed in both of my games. the objective is to get the bag in the hole (3 pts) or on the board (1 pt). some people prefer to throw high arcing tosses and others prefer a line drive which runs up the board and comes to rest. _url_0_ i honestly don't even know if its possible to calculate what a "perfect" throw would be given the variation within players (height, strength, arm length) or with the given information (distances, board diagrams, weight and composition of projectile). for this example just assume wind and humidity are negligible. | i would suppose that the "perfect throw" would be any trajectory that results in the bag landing in the hole. this is the same as asking what would be the perfect basketball shot? likely any ballistic trajectory that results in a score would be "perfect." i think the question you want an answer to would be "how can i throw to make it in every time?" that being said, i believe a higher arc in a basketball shot has been shown to result in a higher score percentage. however, the main difference there is that the hoop and ball are close in diameter and the ball can bounce out easily, while the bean bag and cornhole system operates differently. i haven't seen a cornhole shot where the bag "bounces" out. to answer your question about calculating that shot, i would say yes. given enough time, a computation could be made with all the conditions taken into account to allow for a 3-point score every time. but that's if a computer runs the calculations, your brain figuring the same thing out is a different process altogether. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.playcornhole.org/rules.shtml"
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does drilling into deep antarctic lakes (or any isolated environment) present an elevated risk of reintroducing a disease to existing environments? do the people doing this work need to take precautions beyond what is usually required with sampling any other environment? | i read recently about the samples taken from the very deep lake in the antarctic. i often hear about diseases being devestating to isolated populations. i'm curious whether this can work in reverse. do long isolated habitats represent a hazard to the biosphere at large? i don't mean to be in any way alarmist. i am just genuinely curious whether work like this carries any exotic hazards, or if a sample of lake water from under a kilometer of ice is just another sample of lake water. | short answer: no. it's highly unlikely that anything living in the lakes will be adapted to live in a human body, and even less likely that we couldn't fight it off with our usual immune system. what *is* important is that we not introduce new pathogens into whatever ecosystem already exists in the lake. killing everything would kind of spoil the science objectives. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
room-temperature superconducters | hi askscience, yesterday i watched a ted talk about superconducters and saw once again the quantum locking effect. after that i tried to find some information about room temperature superconducters, because obviously having something like that would be a great toy, and soon maybe the long awaited hover board (besides other, a lot more meaningful things) while googling around, i found this website: _url_1_ which obviously already looks a bit fishy. i have no means to judge if this is just bullshit or if this is a breakthrough. after reading this, i found an update on the topic on the same website: _url_0_. there it pretty much sounds like nobody is taking it serious. i guess that's for a reason. can anyone give me a little more insight about the topic? thank you! edit: i was just made aware that there is a typo in the title. sorry for that, english is not my first language. | first off, if it isn't in a peer reviewed journal, your bs meter should start to spin up. secondly, a room temperature superconductor would be *the* scientific discovery of the 21st century. it would blow the higgs boson away. it is the holy grail. if this way anything, the excitement in the scientific community would be overwhelming. and finally, this seems like a very easy experiment to replicate, but the fact that only one researcher has done so gives me a high confidence that this is bs. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.superconductors.org/rtsc2mkt.htm",
"http://www.superconductors.org/28c_rtsc.htm"
] | [] | [
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why is it taught to cover your head rather than your neck when in tornado position? | your head has a skull over it, while your neck has 2 *major* arteries, your windpipe, and your spinal cord (and by extension 90% of your nervous system). you would think that this would be the priority. funnily enough, you *are* taught to cover the neck during earthquakes. _url_0_ | first, the best thing you can do to protect yourself during a tornado is get to a basement or the lowest level in your house in an interior, central room away from windows such as a bathroom or a closet. now as far as being taught to cover your head or neck, a person's hands are not going to be able to cover your entire head and neck, and most likely won't do anything to protect you from debris flying at over 100 mph. a person might have to use their hands for other things such as holding a child nearby. the next best option would be using pillows or blankets to try and protect your head and neck. a recent study by the university of alabama at birmingham is actually recommending that people have a helmet as part of their tornado safety kit. any kind of helmet would work like a bicycle helmet, but a full head helmet is preferred. studies have found that most deaths caused by tornadoes are from objects becoming airborne. [uab paper on tornado fatalities and the use of helmets](_url_0_) | 7 | [] | [
"http://indyredcrossyouth.blogspot.com/2011/05/tornado-safety.html"
] | [
"http://www.uab.edu/icrc/tornado_helmet_com.html"
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in the '60s, chemist and nobel laureate glenn seaborg predicted "islands of stability" amongst the superheavy elements. is this hypothesis still plausible, and how well does the evidence support it? | as most readers of this sub are likely aware, elements heaver than uranium are, generally speaking, [unstable](_url_2_). however, since the 1930s (?), scientists have been creating superheavy, ["synthetic" elements](_url_0_) in the laboratory, the heaviest of which being [element 118](_url_3_), which was first created in 2002. now, generally speaking, these elements typically have very short half-lives, rapidly decaying into lighter elements. however, in the late 1960s, famed chemist [glenn seaborg](_url_1_) proposed that certain superheavy elements (somewhere around 120) might be stable -- or, at least, *metastable* (?). although nuclear chemistry is not my field, i can only assume that when dr. seaborg first proposed this notion, it was reasonable and plausible given the evidence available at the time. however, i can also only assume that the state of the evidence has changed somewhat in the 50 years since then. thus, my question: **in light of modern research/models/et cetera, how plausible is the "island of stability" hypothesis, and how strong is the evidence supporting it? how has the state of the evidence changed since dr. seaborg first proposed this hypothesis?** thank you. | we have some detailed threads about this in our [nuclear and atomic physics faq](_url_0_) (they are also listed under the chemistry faq). it's still a very real possibility. in fact, there could be more than one island of stability; they could potentially exist at any double shell closure. however it's extremely unlikely that any of them will truly be stable. it's just thought that they might be *more stable* than other nuclides with similar a. realistically, they will probably still decay very quickly on everyday timescales. there is no experimental evidence, because we can't yet produce nuclides near the next double shell closure. however there are theoretical indications that it might exist. at all of the shell closures we *have* been able to observe experimentally, we see enhanced stability. these are the nuclear "magic numbers". so it's reasonable to think that the trend continues into yet unobserved shell closures. additionally, the fact that we can't produce these nuclides doesn't mean that we can't try to calculate their properties. nuclear structure theorists can apply standard theoretical techniques to the superheavy nuclides to make predictions about their binding energies, lifetimes, etc. but the theories are often based on phenomenological inputs, so they are being extrapolated into a region we don't have experimental data about. so the results can vary by orders of magnitude, and we won't *really* know if the results are correct until we measure them experimentally. it hasn't changed much. theoretical calculation methods have advanced since then, but the data hasn't. we still haven't produced superheavies in the first island of stability, so we still have no experimental data about them. and the phenomenological inputs to theory calculations have expanded to include more data, but still no data from around the first island of stability. | 18 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_element",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oganesson"
] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/physics#wiki_nuclear_and_atomic_physics"
] | [
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] |
how does herpes produce a fluid? | when a cold sore forms it's essentially a blister that scabs over, right? my question is "what is the mechanism that produces the fluid that makes up the infectious residue and what is that part normally used for outside of the infectious period?" i want to assume it's either plasma or part of the sebum/sweat glands but that also doesn't sound right. skin doesn't normally produce an "ooze" when there's not a skin infection of some sort and i'm curious as to how *exactly* the infection can cause that. | [herpes](_url_1_), as a virus, does not really "produce" anything other than more viruses inside an infected cell. the cold sore itself is a response of the immune system to those infected cells. when the immune system detects that you have cells infected with herpesvirus, it kills those cells in an effort to keep the virus from spreading to adjacent cells. the fluid you notice is a mixture of [edema](_url_0_) fluid and dead cells that result from inflammation of the effected area. your initial instinct was almost right - the fluid is not quite plasma, but plasma filtrate known as interstitial fluid. during inflammation, capillaries become much "leakier" to allow immune cells and other factors to cross from the blood into the tissues and this also encourages interstitial fluid to be created at a much higher rate - it is this excess interstitial fluid that is called edema. so the cold sore fluid is probably a mixture of these dead cells, edema fluid, and even some red and white blood cells that have also come from the capillaries into the tissue at the site of infection. the important thing to remember is that the *infection* doesn't do any of this - the sore itself is caused almost entirely by our body's immune response to the virus. i am sure that the herpesvirus is also cytotoxic to a degree, which would also cause some cell death, but the majority of the symptoms are caused by the immune response attempting to rid the body of infection. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53445/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK47449/"
] | [
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why is the 4th order runge-kutta method so commonly used in numeric integrators? | is it somehow optimally balanced between accuracy and efficiency? or is it just popular because it's the lowest order method that doesn't usually fail on complicated functions? | whether it's "optimal" depends on your perspective, but it's a good balance between accuracy, code complexity, and stability. it doesn't have many crazy artificial behaviors, and unlike other higher-order methods, it doesn't require extra un-natural initial conditions. adams-bashforth 2 is another common choice, it's less accurate but simple enough to memorize. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there an upper limit (threshold?) for the measurable brightness of illumination during bio-luminescence? | let's say you use the brightest known organism as an example, maybe? i really hope this makes sense. | this may not be the exact question you asked but i will answer it anyway. bio-luminescence/fluorescence/phosphorescence are all phenomenon which results from molecules absorbing energy and releasing it in the form of light. rather than talk about an organism, let's talk about a single molecule that emits the light, a [fluorophore](_url_0_). there are several important properties of that molecule that we should know. its absorption maximum (for those molecules that are excited by light), that is, the wavelength of light that best excites the molecule (making it competent for light emission). its emission maximum (that wavelength of light that it typically emits). its quantum yield (of say 100 molecules that are excited, how many actually emit light). and lastly, the concentration of the molecule in the animal. the limits of the brightness would be limited by those properties. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorophore"
] | [
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how are atomic subshells spatially arranged? | i understand the concept of subshells and orbitals and their shapes but how are they arranged? does a p subshell overlap with an s subshell? if we think of an atom as sphere, then as far as i understand it, the center of the s orbital overlaps with the center of the atom? is this the case for p, d and f orbitals too? if we think of an atom as sphere where inside the sphere does the node of a p orbital lie? my question is independent of hybridization, i would like to understand how the subshells are arranged before attempting to comprehend hybridization. textbooks always draw independent figures for all the different subshells, but how do they fit together? in other words what im trying to ask is can someone draw me a picture with say both an s and p orbital on the same diagram? | it's quite simple actually - you've already seen all the individual figures for all the separate subshells in textbooks. the origin of those axes represent the nucleus, so simply overlap the figures so the origin and axes match up, and you'll have a decent approximation to how the electron density for the atom as a whole looks. the reason you don't often see a mixture of orbitals drawn together is because they get messy, and therefore less informative. an example can be see in the [wikipedia article on atomic orbital](_url_0_) - see how the addition of all the d-orbitals lead to a shape that's hard to make out? edit: [this java applet](_url_1_) might help you visualize it. select "real combinations" to see a mixture of orbitals. however, as i said, it can be more complex simply because you're seeing contributions from multiple orbitals. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_orbital#mediaviewer/File:D_orbitals.svg",
"http://www.falstad.com/qmatom/",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/imgmod2/hy2s.gif"
] | [
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what is the most addicting chemical/substance known to man? | meth is amazingly addictive. just for a little comparison, an orgasm releases 800 to 1200 units of dopamine in the brain, while your first time smoking meth releases around 40,000 units and can last upwards of 24 hours. this causes you to chase the original high, but never reaching it. your dopamine receptors get so burnt out from habitual use that you cannot feel pleasure for upwards of 7 years, outside of the flood meth gives you. now most abused substance, caffeine for sure. source: emt (in training) | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if matter is mostly empty space, why don't my hands pass through each other? | as in the subject. what force or set of forces (or other thing) prevents solid matter (which is ultimately composed of empty space lightly dusted with atoms and molecules) from simply passing unimpeded through other matter? i'm asking specifically about human scales. i would assume that at stellar, galactic, and higher scales, the math comes out a little differently. | electrostatic repulsion. as your hands get closer so do the protons and electrons of your hands, the closer two electrons get to each other the stronger the repulsive force. you sitting in your chair right now is possible because the electrons on your butt (or clothes) are being repelled by the electrons on the chair. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any proven supplements beneficial to brain function? | not the voodoo type. i heard there is some claim for [acetylcarnitine](_url_0_) to serve as an antioxidant in the brain. so i was wondering, what else would be something to prevent turning senile too soon? i am sure there is no magic pill, but some push in the right direction might make a little difference. | [antioxidants do provide some neuro-protection](_url_0_). but there really aren't any "magic bullets". [aerobic exercise](_url_1_), while not a "supplement", will do your brain wonders. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl-L-Carnitine"
] | [
"http://lib3.dss.go.th/fulltext/Journal/J.AOCS/J.AOCS/1998/no.2/1998v75no.2p199-212.pdf",
"http://freud.psy.ohio-state.edu/lab/CNL/Publications_files/Colcombe,2006.pdf"
] | [
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] |
what is the science behind the cloud in a bottle trick? | [cloud in a bottle demonstration](_url_0_) | bill nye goes into details [here (video and text)](_url_0_). > pumping air into the bottle forces the molecules to squeeze together or compress. releasing the pressure by removing the stopper allows the air to expand and by doing this, the temperture of the air becomes cooler. this cooling process allows the molecules to stick together, or condense, more easily to form tiny water droplets. these groups of tiny water droplets are what makes a cloud. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ODImMpGFUa4"
] | [
"http://www.sophia.org/bill-nye-the-science-guy-cloud-in-a-bottle-demonst-tutorial"
] | [
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] |
could i scoop some cloud into a cup and have a drink? | if i could fly into a cloud, how hard would it be to move the cup in the cloud and gather enough to drink a few gulps? | i wouldn't suggest using a cup but [harvesting water from clouds is totally possible.](_url_0_) remember that fog is nothing more than a low hanging clouds so you can try this at home. if you're dead set on using a cup you'll have to wait for a cloudologist. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/2010/03/16/water_harvested_from_clouds_in_south_africa/"
] | [
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how does icy-hot work? | how does icy work and why does it affect some areas when applied more than others? also, can some areas sensitive to icy-hot become desensitized? | it works by chemically stimulating the cold/heat receptors on your skin causing a cold/warm feeling. it also contains methyl salicylate which is an analgesic. the reason why it affects some areas more than others is mainly because of the different thickness of skin in different places. the receptors are not on the very surface of the skin (which is mainly dead cells) but a bit deeper down. in places where the skin is thinner, the chemicals penetrate more easily and activate the receptors more strongly. yes, if you repeatedly use the cream you will get somewhat desensitized. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is a jukes cantor distance? what does it mean if it is high or low? | i am writing a critical review of [this](_url_0_) article for a seminar class. they seem to focus a lot on jukes cantor distances, but i can not find much relevant information. | jukes cantor distance is instantaneous rate of nucleotide base substitution relative to a common ancestor. high distance equals high instantaneous rate of substitution: the distance is proportional to the number of substitutions between two genetic sequences according to the mathematical/statistical model. | 3 | [] | [
"http://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/handle/123456789/26016/Chalopin_260165.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y"
] | [
"http://garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1990/A1990CZ67100002.pdf"
] | [
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what is the chemical reaction that takes place with the contact lens solution: clear care? | for some background it is a solution that contains hydrogen peroxide, sodium chloride, phosphoric acid, and a phosphate buffer that is takes 6 hours to react with a "neutralizing disc". it is an interesting process and i would like to know some of the science behind what is happening maybe in terms of reactants, products. | hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizing agent (similar to bleach) and will react with many organic molecules, giving it antiseptic properties. it's not something you really want in your eyes, though. it spontaneously decomposes into water and oxygen gas given enough time, but this process is slow. the clear care case has a metal catalyst that speeds up this reaction, so that the hydrogen peroxide can do its thing but be gone by the time you need to put your contacts in in the morning. i looked around and wasn't able to find out exactly what the metal was, but given the color i would guess manganese dioxide. the phosphoric acid/phosphate buffer are to maintain ph, and the sodium chloride is to make the solution isotonic (same salt concentration) to your eyes. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in the winter underneath frozen streams and rivers, what microbial colonies live there and thrive there? | i’m just wondering since i’m sending a cryolander down to a frozen river next year and i’m wondering if anything lives and thrives there other than fish. thanks. | in my last limnology class the prof talked about a micro climate at the very bottom of lakes, i'd imagine it's the same in many rivers; that there's reliably a tiny spike in water temperature due to microbial activity. certainly many species and colonies call the sediments home, but i can't help beyond that. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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for animals that live closely with humans, do we know of any specific adaptions they have undergone in response to eating human's food. | also, can we infer probable changes in our own physiology by looking at the adaption of animals like rats who presumably would adapt faster owing to their quicker reproduction and shorter lives. | coincidentally, [this research](_url_0_) article was just published last month about genetic variation between wolves and dogs. dogs had many more copies of the gene for amylase (30 to a wolf's 2), which means they have adapted to a more starch-rich diet. | 27 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2013/01/dog-domestication-tied-to-starch.html?ref=hp"
] | [
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are there any equivalents to logical gates in the nervous system? | maybe there doesn't need to be anything of the sort. i'm just wondering if there is anything like it, analog or digital or something else. | neurons function similar way as logic gates in computers (in reality they are more complex). a neuron receives input signals through its dendrites, then integrates over them and fires if some threshold is reached. synapses can be inhibitory, excitatory, weak or strong. some examples of neuron with two two excitatory inputs: neuron with two strong excitatory inputs, needs signal from one of the dendrites to fire so it works as logical or. neuron with two weak inputs fires only if both inputs are active so it works as logical and. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_potentiation",
"http://www.amazon.com/Memory-Computational-Brain-Cognitive-Neuroscience/dp/1405122889",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind"
] | [
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why is skull material stored in the abdomen after a craniectomy? | from wikipedia: _url_0_ > a drastic treatment for increased icp is decompressive craniectomy,[22] in which a part of the skull is removed and the dura mater is expanded to allow the brain to swell without crushing it or causing herniation.[19] the section of bone removed, known as a bone flap, can be stored in the patient's abdomen and resited back to complete the skull once the acute cause of raised icp's has resolved. alternatively a synthetic material may be used to replace the removed bone section (see cranioplasty) can anyone explain why the bone flap is placed in the abdomen of all places? i'm guessing it has to be in the body so that it doesn't die, but why there? how does it "connect" and stay alive? | it's unclear to me how the practice first started, although it's known since at least 1977 (nakajima et al 1977). you have to store the bone flap somehow if you're going to put it back. one way is to sterile-bag it and freeze it. when ready for cranioplasty (replacement of flap), the flap is autoclaved and then put back. a disadvantage is that this sequence "devitalizes" the flap (baldo & tacconi 2010), ie kills off the osteocytes and vascular bed. another way is implantation in the body. the flap is actually placed between the fatty tissue and the muscular layer of the abdomen (see [this page](_url_0_) for radiographs of the implanted position). this is a sterile environment which is easily accessible and, in most patients, provides padding and relative unobtrusiveness. | 6 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracranial_pressure#Treatment"
] | [
"http://learningradiology.com/archives2010/COW%20407-Skull%20flap/flapcorrect.htm"
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with the banach-tarski paradox, isn't right up left the same as just up? | in this video around 13:40 _url_0_ vsauce is talking about points on a circle. he puts a dot at right up left and up but shouldn't those be the same position? he says nothing about the distance of each direction and i'm so confused. if the distance is not fixed, then there should be up, up, up, etc forever since up up would be redundant. just one up could stand for all of them. | just setting aside banach-tarski, which is heavy stuff... let's just answer your title. rotations in 3d are non-abelian, in other words noncommutative. just do it yourself physically: take an object (e.g. a book) in front of you. place it in a given "reference" starting orientation of your choice. rotate it clockwise 90° about the vertical axis, then 90° about the horizontal axis, then 90° counterclockwise again about the vertical axis. then start all over again in the reference orientation, and rotate it 90° about the horizontal axis. you can see you don't get to the same final configuration. the point here perhaps is that you cannot study rotations by only examining their action on a single point on a sphere. there is an ambiguity because many different rotations can do the same thing to one given point. you need to track the motion at least two points to unambiguously know what rotation you're performing. p.s.: if i remember the video correctly he is trying to explain the embedding of the free group with two generators in so(3) (in fact two generic rotations of so(3) will generate the free group). for this fact to be even possible, noncommutativity of so(n) is essential and that's why the bt paradox needs at least 3 dimensions. | 9 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s86-Z-CbaHA"
] | [
"http://imgur.com/WOeEZR3"
] | [
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in a magnetic hard disk, how are the servos that position the read/write head so accurate? | with the data tracks as narrow as they are (on the order of a hundred nanometers or so wide), these servos must be incredibly precise. how do they achieve that level of precision? | the tracks themselves have embedded information called servo codes that act like a map. the heads are moved by a voice coil motor and can read these codes and see how far they are from where they need to be and then adjust accordingly. check [this](_url_0_) out. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h23eFR-AhTU",
"http://toshiba.semicon-storage.com/product/storage/pdf/ToshibaReview_vol66n11.pdf"
] | [
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what causes arthritis? | so i've been digging through the ask science sub-reddit, and i've seen a lot of "does cracking your knuckles cause arthritis?", "why not?", etc. but i haven't seen a "what causes arthritis?" so i'm asking. is it a virus? genetic defect? wear and tear? bacteria? symptoms of injury? diet? i've heard about the various types, but never a solid cause. | there are quite a few different causes for arthritis. the two most prominent that come to mind are rheumatoid and osteoarthritis. rheumatoid is an autoimmune disease where the immune system, which normally should not be sensitized to the joint capsule, gains immunity against it and attacks joints. rheumatoid arthritis is devastating, and i wouldn't wish it on my worst enemy. joints and ligaments are completely destroyed by the immune system, eventually leaving nothing behind. the most common arthritis is osteoarthritis and it is more or less wear and tear. we see it on xray as joint space narrowing; the cartilage on the ends of bones degenerates and thins, causing bone on bone contact. this causes pain. eventually this degrades to the point where these articular surfaces may need to be replaced in a total joint arthroplasty, which i had the pleasure of doing all last month. bacterial arthritis is far less common, but can happen. the joint need only be inoculated with a few bacterial colonies to facilitate joint infection. in my experience, orthopedic surgeons are way more concerned with sterile technique in the or than other surgeons for this reason. bones do not seem to have very good immune response capability (despite largely being responsible for the production of the immune system in bone marrow), and osteomyelitis (bone infection) is difficult to cure. gout and pseudogout are crystalline forms of arthritis. basically what happens is that something in the joint fluid precipitates into crystals which are sharp and make you very unhappy. there are some ok treatments for this one. as with many things in medicine, arthritis actually has a ton of different causes. diseases in medicine tend to be grouped together by symptom instead of etiology, probably because we didn't used to know what caused problems. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone validate/bust the scientific claims in this post? [x-post r/trees] | here's the link _url_0_ thanks | mostly true, often oversimplified. 220kps is only correct for a very specific frame of reference, saying that microbial dna which you got from your mother *in utero* is 'not you' is somewhat facile, 'empty space' as used here is not necessarily a meaningful concept in quantum physics, and the physical phenomenon responsible for a rainbow exists independently of you, you are just responsible for the personal conscious percept which represents it (just like every other perception you ever have). but yeah, mostly fine. however, i don't see how any of this has anything to do with epistemology or judging people. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/v0PZm.jpg"
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if two variables are directly proportional, is it mandatory that when graphed, the line passes through the origin? | i was tutoring a student the other day and came across a question that asked the student to identify which of the following graphs demonstrates a relationship that is "directly proportional." all of the answer choices were linear functions that either had positive or negative slopes, with no scales/values on the axes. it turned out the proper answer was a positively-sloped line through the origin. (poor quality, but [here](_url_0_) is the picture of the problem) i get that this makes sense because if direct proportionality implies y = k * x, then for any x=0 or y=0, it must follow that y=0 or x=0, respectively, so it should go through the origin. but is this absolutely mandatory? because then i think of inverse proportionality, aka k=y*x, in which there is no requirement for passing through the origin. so why should one linear relationship include (0,0) while the opposite/inverse of it does not? | yes, proportional quantities must pass through the origin, so long as the relationship is defined there, at any rate. as far as i can recall, it is not necessary that the slope is positive. they are different relationships, so there's no particular reason to expect them to behave the same way. i don't think it is useful to think of inversely proportional variables as “the opposite” of proportional variables. one way to visualize what happens is that you are effectively replacing *x* with 1/*x*, so that in the latter case *y* is now proportional to 1/*x*. this transformation has the effect of “mirroring” the positive *x*-axis around the vertical line *x* = 1. the point (0,0) then ends up in (∞,0), and you will find that, just like all proportional relationships satisfy (0,0), all inversely proportional ones satisfy (∞,0), in the limit at any rate. | 10 | [] | [
"http://gyazo.com/d376024038788b1bae386ca501af1ea5"
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can spectral flux density be negative? | i was reading through [a paper](_url_0_) and on figure 1b the spectral flux density is shown, where the axes themselves are on linear scales. the blue curve on this plot in particular corresponds to the stokes v parameter (i.e. circular polarization), yet appears like it goes slightly negative in this case. i was simply wondering how that could be as i thought this was related to intensity and was always positive. | the stokes v parameter is negative if the circular polarization is left-handed. it is not a measure of intensity. see the examples [here](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1611.05758v1.pdf"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokes_parameters#Examples"
] | [
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physicists create multiverse in a laboratory setting. how is this possible? what are the implications of such research? [link inside][xpost /r/newsoftheweird] | _url_0_ i guess what i'm asking is, how is it possible for scientists to create a universe within our own, let alone a multiverse? is this a use of terms whose definition differs from the laymans'? is this a common experiment that's being reported on as though it's new? and, what exactly is a minkowski universe? i'm interested in science, but this all flies right over my head. | they shone light through a material that has non-trivial optical properties. the multiverse thing is just an analogy they came up with to describe the optics they observed. no universes were created. minkowski space is basically the space-time version of euclidean geometry. | 8 | [] | [
"http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/147110-physicists-create-worlds-first-multiverse-of-universes-in-the-lab"
] | [] | [
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what sort of behavior has been observed in cloned animals? do their behaviors and temperaments stay the same? | [this](_url_0_) got me curious about pet cloning. is there anecdotal evidence from the pet owners, or any research done on the emotional/psychological state of cloned animals? | there actually have been studies on the behavior of cloned animals, particularly livestock. according to studies, the behavior of both pigs ([link](_url_2_)) and dairy cattle ([link](_url_3_)) and ([link](_url_0_)) is very similar to similar animals. one interesting note from the cattle studies is that the cloned cattle preferred each other's company, and were more friendly towards their clones than they were to their non-clone siblings. cattle in general have been shown to "recognize" related cattle before, so this is not entirely surprising. a couple things to think about with these studies: they are working with small group sizes, because cloning is still relatively new, and behavior is tricky to assess in an objective and repeatable manner. also - each species seems to need slightly different techniques for successful cloning. so we would certainly need more studies, and it's possible that as we continue to clone more animals finally, this commentary ([link](_url_1_)) from a head researcher in norway indicates that cloning does not produce as much of a mirror match as we might have originally thought it would. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-10-22/koreas-sooam-biotech-is-the-worlds-first-animal-cloning-factory"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17904214",
"http://sciencenordic.com/does-perfect-clone-exist",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/04/030416085546.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20708240"
] | [
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what are the long, clear, plastic-like structures inside crab legs called? | i tried googling it, but i couldn't find it. at first i thought it might be ligaments, but that doesn't really make sense because it isn't where the legs bend. also, i don't even know whether or not arthropods/crustaceans have ligaments. does anybody know what these are? bonus question, what are there physiological functions? thanks, beegeepee | [i'm assuming you're referring to these clear tubes.](_url_0_) that's cartilage. crab muscles are surrounded by cartilage and that's pretty much all it is. edit: culinarily speaking, people have called it cartilage. i don't like just leaving it at that because i had to ask myself: is this cartilage in the true sense? that is, is this the cartilage of the vertebrates or something that is cartilage-like? this is an anatomy piece i'm not at all familiar with, even though i should be. i eat more crustaceans than any other seafood. might need to come back to this one tomorrow when i can open a book. **edit 2, the full story:** so this structure, i'm happy to report, is the tendon for the muscles in the claw. in fact, the tendon is the backbone. some studies call them tonofibrillae, tonofilaments, intracuticular fibres, or intracuticular rods. but essentially, they are tendon and connect the muscles to the body. cartilage might not actually be what these tendons are made of. nor may they be made of collagen. in fact, nobody knows really what the heck they are made of. at least not yet. so, for the most part, they perform a mechanical function rather than a protective one. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-kaJpI9YLEos/T0m6VPVIfNI/AAAAAAAAPdg/HZuPJqNi5sc/s1600/Tudor+House+Miami+Florida+Stone+Crab+claw+cartilage.JPG"
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why doesn't newton's second law account for energy? | so this scenario came into my mind today during a physics lecture. so in physics, force is measured in newtons (n) and the metric units of that are kgm/s^2, because it is a measure of force required to accelerate a given mass to a given acceleration however, lets say i'm standing still and then jump. i will land on the ground with force (f1). now, say i jump off a tall building and hit the ground with force (f2). surely f1 =/= f2 because the force of the second impact would certainly have been able to accelerate a given mass to much greater than acceleration than the first force would have. the reason being is because velocity is the difference between the two jumps since the second person jumped from much higher, he had to to accelerate to terminal velocity, where as the first person only fell from a few meters and didn't pick up much speed. the reason for the difference in these two impacts is the energy, which is affected by velocity e=1/2mv^2 so, if energy and force seem to be tied to eachother, why is energy not accounted for in newton/s second law? | i think you've hit upon the [work-energy theorem](_url_0_), which states that "the work done by all forces acting on a particle (the work of the resultant force) equals the change in the kinetic energy of the particle." here, work is defined as a force acting over a distance. as shown in that article, the work-energy theorem can be derived from newton's second law. so to answer your question, energy is implicitly accounted for in newton's second law, and if we want to, we can rewrite it in those terms. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(physics\\)#Work.E2.80.93energy_principle",
"https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=100+lbf&wal=header"
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] |
what happens to a group of entangled particles when you measure one of them? | multiparticle entanglement is complicated, for n=3, there's two main kinds, * _url_1_ * _url_0_ what happens when you measure a single member depends on which we're dealing with. for the ghz, if you measure one member, the other two become untangled. for the w, if you measure one member, the other two remain entangled. generalizations for n > 3 for both kinds of entanglement exist as well, but i am less familiar with them. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W_state",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberger%E2%80%93Horne%E2%80%93Zeilinger_state"
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|
why is it so difficult to make things look random? | if you take, for example, a handful of pennies and throw them in to a corner, they'll be scattered randomly. but if you were to take these pennies and place them one at a time, it would look artificial, even if you tried desperately hard to make them look random. this may be a bad example, but the point remains the same. it may just be me, but i've always found it almost impossible to make something look like it happened naturally. | it is because of a phenomenon called "poisson clumping" or "poisson bursts." this phenomenon is that is random processes often produce clumps of events. in your penny example- if you throw a bunch of pennies on the ground, the poisson distribution will describe how they land, and for large numbers of pennies, you will expect to get "clumps" or "large groups" of pennies. you won't know beforehand where these clumps will occur, but you can expect them. the problem is, while this is truly random- when we are trying to artificially make random distributions, we tend to avoid making groups. two interesting occurance of this in real life. itunes and ww2. first, itunes. people complained that the itunes random shuffle was bad, because occasionally the same songs would get played in clumps- but it turned out it happened just as much as statistics predicted it would. so itunes was changed so that it was actually less random, to avoid poisson clumping. in ww2 the germans were bombing britain. the bomb landing locations were really pretty random, but due to poisson grouping the bomb landed in some clumps- which led the british to think that the germans actually had better targeting ability than they actually did. | 75 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how are dipoles, the electrostatic force, and the magnetic force related? | well you can calculate the contribution to the electrostatic force field from a dipole moment by expanding the legendre polynomial... _url_1_ google "multipole expansion of electric charge densities" to see how the problem is set up. maxwell's equations give you the relation between the electric and magnetic field of some given charge density. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations#Equations_.28SI_units.29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendre_polynomials#Applications_of_Legendre_polynomials_in_physics"
] | [
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|
do random properties in subatomic particles have macroscopic effects? | i've heard that some particles, like electrons, have certain properties that are random, like their spin. so, since we're all made up of theses particles, will these randomly assigned properties make a difference in our world? for example, if the universe were to be rewinded and the big bang happened again, under the same circumstances, would the universe be exactly the same as it now is (ignoring the properties of those particles), or would things visibilly change? the reason for this question is because the most common metaphor for the multiverse theory, is that in another universe, i would have made a different decision, but could everything be the same as our universe until that moment where we made a decision? if our decisions are influenced by our past, then the past cannot have been the same and our decisions different, unless those properties affect us. | yes. an example would be spontaneous magnetization of a ferromagnet below its curie temperature. if you imagine a lattice of ferromagnetic atoms below its critical temperature, with zero external magnetic field, the individual dipole moments will tend to align in some direction (for simplicity, just say up or down). once the dipole moments start to align more in one particular direction than the other, the whole magnet (or close to it) will eventually align in that direction. but which direction it starts out in is essentially random. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what major hurdles would a business like mcdonald's face in order to make a fully robotic/computer ran facility? | no physical workers needed unless for networking/maintenance/stocking purposes. no customer interaction. | cost, safety which is a component of cost, and the reception of the consumer to having to order and pay in some kind of interface when a large group of people can't even figure out credit card terminals at the grocery store. additionally, wherever the food comes out you'd have to make sure it got i the right person though that would probably be easier in a situation like this where wait times are considerably less. technology wise, everything they need to make this happen exists, it would just be costly to make it foolproof and safe. if they did automate the food assembly portion you would honestly end up with better food presentation than what you currently get which would be nice. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does it mean in physics when something is said to have an "energy level"? | i've read many times that atoms have "electron shells" that have different "energy levels", with only so many electrons occupying a particular shell. and that these are regions of space that take the forms which are referred to as [electron orbitals](_url_0_), and in each of those particular shapes, there is a 90% chance that one will "observe" an electron. why do they take those particular shapes? why is it that an electron can be measured to be in one particular region of space more often than a completely different region of space? in addition, what is to be said about the behaviour of the electron when it isn't being measured? i've heard that asking the question of what the behaviour of the electron is like when it's not being observed, is making a categorical error. that is, it doesn't make sense to ask about the behaviour of the electron, when it's not being "measured" (source: _url_1_). but what does that mean? does that mean that the electron is still 'behaving' but we lack the cognitive ability to understand how it is doing so? or does it mean that that particular electron doesn't even exist unless it is measured? | electrons can be thought of as waves. if you have a string, you can vibrate it at the at its fundamental frequency, but you can also vibrate it at integer multiples of that. the wave an electron moves in is a little more complicated than just having one dimension and being fixed at both ends, but the basic idea still holds. there's discrete modes of vibration. the faster vibrations are higher energy levels. the probability of finding an electron in a given point is proportional to the square of the magnitude of the wave at that point. the reason for those weirdly-shaped orbitals is that it's how it's vibrating. it's akin to the shapes you get when you have [a plate driven by a speaker](_url_0_). the sand is being driven away from where it vibrates the most, so that's really more like where you won't find an electron, but that's why you get weird shapes. | 4 | [] | [
"https://chemlinks.beloit.edu/Stars/images/orbitals.jpg",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNpLfXOfzZ8"
] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wvJAgrUBF4w"
] | [
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why does electricity going across a wire release heat? | more or less self-explanatory i think | conductive materials, such as the metal in a wire, have loosely bound, [delocalized electrons](_url_0_) that don't really belong to any single atom. their orbitals are all overlapping and contribute to a giant "electron sea". that's what makes conductors so good at passing electricity: the electrons are shared on a macroscopic scale between neighboring particles in the solid. when you pass current through a wire, you are really just adding an electron to that sea and then pulling another out from the other end. so in the classical picture, this is like taking one electron and then shifting all the others down a little bit. there is some small [drift velocity](_url_1_) that describes the average speed that the line of electrons is moving. as the electrons pass through this wire, they collide with the nuclei of the material and transfer some of their kinetic energy to the solid. temperature is a measure of kinetic energy, so as the motion of the particles in the solid increases, so does the temperature. so, the solid heats up. this is how incandescent light-bulbs work: current passes through a tungsten wire, which heats up and emits [blackbody radiation](_url_2_). and, as you can imagine, the resistance of a material is proportional to how often the electrons collide with the lattice. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delocalized_electron",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_velocity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation"
] | [
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is there an ancient or classical euclid-like text regarding the simple machines? (physics,engineering,history) | euclid started book 1 with a point, and built one of the most influential early works on geometry known to [this] man, by systematically introducing concepts and recombining them into each possible configuration, before introducing a new concept. is there a similarly fundamental text on physics and engineering? i'd assume that it would build with the simple machines or the simple machines *known at the time it was written* but i may be wrong in that assumption. | this is actually my field. i think you'd probably find the pseudo-aristotelean *mechanica* to be the most interesting of the classical texts on mechanics - this [transation](_url_0_) is pretty good, though i'd ignore his conclusions about the authorship of the text. the theoretical explanation of the law of the lever in this text was far more influential on early mechanical though (until the middle ages) than archimedes'. *on the equilibrium of planes* is quite dry, in translation and in the original, though the axiomatic method employed by archimedes should be familiar from euclid. there is also a *mechanica* by heron, though only fragments are extant in greek - it survives mostly in arabic. you won't find a translation of this online, unless you read german. the fragments that remain in greek are almost all from a late mathematical collection by pappus of alexandria. heron's *pneumatica* is also interesting, as is his *on automaton-making*, though these aren't as closely related to your question. there are also a bunch of texts on artillery construction. i can recommend plenty of books and collections of translations if they would be of interest. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/classicsfacpub/68/"
] | [
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] |
what is a coulomb explosion and why do alkali metals create it when in contact with water? | a coulomb explosion occurs when electrostatic repulsion between parts of a charged object overpowers the forces holding it together. in the case of an alkali metal in contact with water, it's energetically favorable for the metal atoms' outer electrons to leave the metal and become [solvated](_url_0_) in the water. the loss of electrons simultaneously weakens the bonds between metal atoms and leaves the metal with a net positive charge, and it appears to be that repulsion that breaks up the metal. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvated_electron"
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|
why is solubility of gases inversely proportional to tempreature? | this question came when talking with some friends about saunas after a scuba trip. why does gases get less soluble when the temperature increases? for normal reagents, it is directly proportional. why is it different? -- btw, could you explain why solubility of normal stuff increases as temperature increases? if it is an equilibrium process, and dissolution mean the formation of intermolecular bonds (exothermic), wouldn't an increased temp discourage dissolution by le chatelier's principle? | consideration of equilibrium is necessarily when considering the effects of temperature on a system. generally: changes to a system at equilibrium will cause the system to adjust to counter the effect of the change, be it temperature or concentration. firstly, solids that dissolve well at increased temperatures tend to have ionic crystal structures (salt, sugar etc) and so have high enthalpies of fusion/ lattice enthalpies. dissolving an ionic lattice is therefore endothermic and so requires heat. the endothermic pathway becomes more favourable at higher temperatures as the system readjusts to the change in temperature. on the other hand dissolving gases is [exothermic](_url_0_) - they barely interact in the gaseous phase. here an increase in temperature will favour the endothermic pathway leading to a reduction in the amount of dissolved gas to combat the increase in temperature. edit: spelling | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://webserver.dmt.upm.es/~isidoro/dat1/Heat%20of%20solution%20data.pdf"
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are planes a faraday cage? | since an airplane is pretty much all covered in metal, can it be considered a good faraday cage? i know that an external antenna must exist to assure communications. if it is like a faraday cage, is that why we should turn off our transmitters (phones, computer...) because that would mean that the signal would never come out and thus cause a more strong interference? does this contribute significantly to the high radiation dose that people receive when flying? | depends. an airplane is basically a metal box with holes in it (windows). the effect of those holes depends on the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave. waves much bigger than the windows can't get through, and the plane acts like a solid metal box and the faraday effect applies. smaller waves, around the same size as the windows, will "diffract", getting scattered in all directions as they go through. waves much smaller than the windows will go through in a straight line, so you'll only receive them inside the plane if you can see the wave source through the window via direct line-of-sight. it's similar to the door of a microwave oven, which is a metal screen with lots of tiny holes: short-wavelength visible light can go through in line-of-sight, but long-wavelength microwaves cannot. the radiation dose people receive from flying comes from waves and particles which have such high energy that they go right through the aluminum skin of the plane: the windows are irrelevant. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much truth is there to the term "beer gut"? | is drinking a lot of beer more likely to give you a potbelly aka the beer gut? if so, is it just beer or is it other alcohols--what about the possibility of "wine gut"? | there is little scientific evidence to suggest that "beer gut" is caused by alcohol. it's the large number of calories in beer that makes heavy drinkers fat. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's going on in my month old exploding fridge smoothie? | so in an effort to eat healthy and efficiently i blended up the following ingredients: blueberries (1cup) s fresh spinach (1 cup) flax seed (5 tablespoons) almond milk (1/2cup) and whey protien powder. tasted awful so i stuck it in a mason jar in the frigde and forgot about it for a month. now it is exploding in my back yard, would this just be the result of decomposition? what exactly happened to it? edit: [photo](_url_0_) | when things like yeast eat it, they can produce gasses. or it could be something more dangerous like botulism. but same thing. | 2 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/qYlG1"
] | [] | [
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what exactly is taking place to allow a substance to exist at the triple point? | the three phases exist in thermodynamic equilibrium. none of the three is preferred over the other two. the chemical potentials of all three phases (or equivalently, gibbs free energies per particle) are the same. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is energy expenditure directly correlated to heart rate? could you use just heart rate and relative constants like age, sex, weight, and height to measure energy expenditure? | given that the amount of glucose burned is dependent on the amount of oxygen available which is dependent on the rate of blood flow, is energy expenditure directly correlated to heart rate? given that, can energy expenditure be measured using just heart rate and a few constants **irrespective of the type of activity**? would other factors, like variability in haem levels in the blood (and therefore oxygen delivered per rate of blood flow) or anaerobic respiration throw it off? | it would be a useful analogue for respiratory rate, but heart rate is affected by other factors than oxygen demand, such as temperature and drugs. _url_0_ for a healthy individual it should be proportional, but between individuals there is some variation in heart capacity, so one heart rate for a fit individual would deliver more energy than the same heart rate in a less fit person. oxygen demand itself is not always proportional to energy expenditure, as the body can consume energy anaerobically at times, although the lactic acid is later oxidised. _url_1_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_rate",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid"
] | [
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what is mucor mycosis, and why is it so hard to treat? | i'm curious about the effects of a mucor infection of the sinus/skull in a patient with a compromised immune system, for example from chemotherapy. what effects would make it so dangerous, and why is it considered hard to treat? | wiki is a great source. essentially, it's when a fungus has infected the sinuses/eyes/brain, and it's nasty. what happens is the filaments of the fungus start growing into the vascular structure, causing thrombosis (clotting, think stroke), cell death, and resulting necrosis. this stuff moves rapidly, but since fungus can regenerate from filaments in infected tissue, surgery often means the removal of significant chunks of tissue, which is why fungicides are the first step of treatment. all of this adds up to difficult and dangerous treatment of a dangerous parasite. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in a really long line, if the first person moves forward, what's the average time until the last person moves. (that is, what's the speed of wave propagation in queues)? | i was waiting in a long line (queue) at a theme park yesterday and started wondering: how long does it take from the time that the first person moves until the opening gets to me and i can step forward? that is, what's the speed of wave propagation in queues? i'm picturing waves of people moving forward though the line, and it's kind of a neat image. i've tried google searching a bunch of related phrases but haven't turned anything up. surely someone has measured this. although i can't really think of any practical implications. any ideas? | slower if the people have luggage. but it doesn't always propagate as neat wave either. i don't think you can assign a meaningful single number to it. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd_simulation#Crowd_dynamics"
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how does electricity produce heat after a load in a dc circuit? | i'm trying to think of this in fairly deconstructed terms, but i can't get my mind around the fact that you have to size your conductor properly to avoid excessive heat on both sides of a load (talking strictly about dc circuits here). my simplified understanding of electricity tells me that voltage is a way of measuring an electron's ability to do work. the action potential that an electron has is directly related to how much work that electron is capable of doing, but wouldn't that mean that once an electron has passed through a load, and has essentially converted its action potential into work (spinning a motor, heating water, illuminating a light bulb, etc.), then shouldn't it have significantly lower potential energy on the ground side of the circuit? then how is it still capable of producing energy (heat)? i'm aware that the flow of electrical current is a lot more complicated than an electron possessing potential energy and zooming through a wire, but that simplified mental image has always worked well enough for me, up until now. | voltage is purely relative. a length of wire does not care what voltage it is at relative to ground/the negative battery terminal. all it sees is the voltage drop across it. it could be at 10,000 v, 10 v, 0 v, or -100 v. if the voltage drop across it is 1 v, then the voltage drops across it is 1 v and the heating is proportional to that 1 v drop. simple dc circuit, let's say we have 10 v at the battery, 9 v at the supply terminal of the load, 1 v at the return side of the load, and then 0 v at the negative of the battery. so the supply wire is roughly at 9 v higher potential. 1 amp is flowing through this circuit. therefore losses in the supply wire are the 1v drop in potential times the 1a current, so 1w. same goes for the return wire, 1v x 1a = 1 w. only the potential *drop* matters, not the potential. it doesn't matter if a conventional charge falls from 10 v to 9 v or 1 v to 0 v, it's losing exactly the same amount of energy. i say conventional charge, as an electron being negative goes against the current and falls upwards in voltage making the wording odd. same difference though. alternatively, just forget about voltage entriely. doesn't matter what the voltage drop or potential is. if you know your supply is producing a certain amount of amps, or your load is consuming a certain amount of amps, you know the amps going through both the supply and return wires. the losses are p = r x i^2 . again, a wire doesn't care what potential it is at overall in your circuit, only what actually goes through it. r x i^2 comes out the same for both, it's irrelevant whether the wire is before or after the load, it is still carrying the same current and will therefore produce the same amount of heat (assuming the wires are identical resistance). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would you hear if you played a middle c at 440 hz? | the note middle c has a frequency of ~261.6 hz. if you were to grab a guitar or piano and play middle c 440 times a second (middle a has a frequency of 440 hz) what would you hear? a c? an a? both? | what an ... interesting question ... i don't know the answer, but i can justify all three of your possibilities (a, c, or both) 1.) you hear a pure middle c - for example, when you draw a violin bow across a string, the fibers and rosin of the bow is interacting with the string at a very high frequency, but the pitch you get is not whatever the frequency you are interacting with, but the pitch of the medium (the string), so you get a c, always. 2.) you get a pure 440 a - because the resonant frequency of the medium simply contributes to the [timbre](_url_1_) of the sound, not the pitch. i imagine this is the case in the limit of low resonant frequency of the medium (for example, for a clarinet tube, a guitar body, or a piano body). 3.) you hear [beating](_url_0_) between the a and c. i'm really not sure, but i'm guessing the answer varies between these three choices based on *what is making the sound*. good question though. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_(acoustics)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbre"
] | [
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why is so much research only available to the scientific community and 'hidden' from the public behind paywalls and institutions? | i'm not entirely familiar with the history of scientific journals and their "pay-to-read" mentality, but i can give you some perspective as to why people and publishers want to keep it that way: * publishers ensure that work is peer reviewed * large journals and publishers have a far greater sphere of influence, and are able to get your research recognized and searched for relatively easily * publishing companies are for-profit and want to make more money (after all, [elsevier had a 38% profit margin in 2010](_url_2_)) of course in the past decade, efforts have been made to increase the amount of publications in [open-access journals](_url_0_). this has included boycotting of journals and their parent publishers. one major issue with many open-access journals is that article submissions usually aren't peer reviewed until *after* they have been published. and even then, some articles are never really peer reviewed. [obama recently announced that all published federally funded research must be available online and free for viewing one year after publication.](_url_1_) i believe that the [nih already requires all published research](_url_3_) to be available for free. additionally, some schools, like the [university of california](_url_4_), is or will be offering free publication of any and all research. the trend is definitely moving towards open access to (federally-funded) research, but it remains to be seen how the big publishers like elsevier will survive. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-access_journal",
"http://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2013/02/22/expanding-public-access-results-federally-funded-research",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsevier#.22The_Cost_of_Knowledge.22_boycott",
"http://publicaccess.nih.gov",
"http://osc.universityofcalifornia.edu/openaccesspolicy/",
"http://www.arxiv.org",
"http://www.ams.org/notices/200705/comm-toped-web.pdf",
"http://thecostofknowledge.com"
] | [
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] |
|
why can't a line of people go from a standstill to moving quickly in an instant? | i understand the eli5 version that objects can't move through each other, so each person must wait for the person in front of them to not be in the way. i also understand that if they were all in perfect sync and stepped the exact same distance, etc. that the acceleration would happen more quickly in a straight line. turning would throw a spanner in the works of course. i want to know the principle behind this. i have a fellow who insists that this will work if we just take larger steps. i say we must also start with more distance between the people to take larger steps, but in the end, the people in the rear have to make up more ground to reach the original destination, so the amount of spreading the starting points becomes proportionally less effective the wider the gap. i don't really care at all who is right or wrong, i want to solve the problem. in reality, the problem is a line of thirty people are trying to follow the leader in a large circle around a stage in a short amount of time before returning roughly to their point of departure. a marching band could possibly pull this off with less of a slinky effect, but this isn't a marching band, and we have inadequate space. | you have described a classic problem in traffic flow, a problem that is often seen in introductory courses on partial differential equations when first discussing *shock waves*. similar problems include the following: * flow of a queue of people after first in line is served * flow of traffic after a red light turns green * flow of gas in a pipe after a stopper is removed * flow of water after a dam breaks all of these problems have the property that the flow is static until time t = 0, until which time all of the fluid is stopped behind some jam or obstacle. then at t = 0, the jam is removed and the fluid may flow into the region previously devoid of fluid. these four problems are not exactly the same though. for instance, the water behind a dam also has some height, and so not only does the removal of the dam affect the flow, but gravity also affects the flow. the basic properties of the solutions to these four problems are all the same though, with only some fine details differing. for instance, in all of the problems, the flow after the removal of the jam exhibits a shock wave, but the profile of the fluid may be different in each problem. (the density profile for the cars in the traffic problem is linear, but the density profile for the water behind the dam is parabolic.) the basic idea in each problem is that the removal of the jam must be communicated through the fluid, and this communication is not instantaneous. when the red light turns green, the first car starts moving immediately. but the next car cannot move until the first car has moved sufficiently far ahead. the third car cannot move until the second has moved sufficiently far ahead, and so on. the "signal" that the jam has been removed (i.e., the red light has turned green) travels backward through the traffic (the "fluid" of cars), and this signal has some finite propagation speed. that signal is exhibited as a *shock*. in a problem like the flow of a queue or traffic, we do make some assumptions so that we can use a fluid model to derive a solution for the density of people or cars, and then ultimately find the speed of the shock wave. these assumptions allow us to even define "density of cars" or "density of people" to begin with. for instance, we might assume that the length of an individual car is negligible compared to the length scale of the flow. we may similar assumptions for real fluids (like a gas in a pipe or water behind a dam); we might assume that a given volume of fluid contains a sufficiently large number of molecules so that we can use the continuum approximation. yes, none of these assumptions are exactly true, but they do a good enough job to describe the flow. the fundamental principle at work in these shock waves is a *conservation law*, in particular, *conservation of mass*. "mass" in this sense means "integral of density". so "mass" may mean "total number of people crossing a given point" or "total number of cars crossing a given point" or "total mass of water/gas passing a given point". that is, at any given point, the total mass in an infinitesimal volume (or length in the case of one-dimensional flow) is the sum of two masses: the mass flowing out and the mass flowing in. in all of these problems, there is no source or sink of mass, so the total mass flux has to be 0. if you have the requisite background, a good place to start to examine the solution yourself is the most basic of so-called *hyperbolic conservation laws*, a basic advection equation. for one-dimensional flow, if *ϱ* is the fluid density and *q* is the fluid flux, then conservation of mass gives the following equation: or in pretty latex (see sidebar of /r/math to render in your browser): `[; \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t}+\frac{\partial q}{\partial x} = 0 ;]` the simplest model for the flux is just q = ϱu, where *u* is the fluid velocity. for a problem like traffic flow, the velocity *u* as a function of *ϱ* can be measured approximately. in general, the velocity *u* should *decrease* as *ϱ* increases. (the higher density of cars, the lower the speed of the cars.) the simplest of all possible models is linear, or `[; u(\rho)=u_{\max}\left(1-\frac{\rho}{\rho_{\max}}\right) ;]` simplifying the constants (set them equal to 1 and measure u and ϱ relative to their max values), the typical "red light turns green" problem is modeled by the following initial-value problem. we are trying to solve for the density ϱ = ϱ(x,t) of cars (or people or whatever) that satisfies the pde `[; \frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t}+(1-2\rho)\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial x} = 0 ;]` with the initial condition that `[; \rho(x,0) = \left\{\begin{array}{ccc} 1 & , & x < 0 \\ 0 & , & x this initial condition describes the fact that the density is at a maximum behind the traffic light, which is at x = 0, and the density is 0 in front of the traffic light. that is, all of the traffic is stopped behind a red light. the pde then describes the evolution of the density. one solution is obviously that the traffic just never moves at all, i.e., the red light never turns green. but we are interested in solutions that are not static. (this initial value problem is also called a *riemann problem*.) in a typical course on pde's, this will be the first type of equation encountered that exhibits shock waves, and the preferred method of solution is the method of characteristics. once a solution is found, you can then ask and answer interesting questions like the following: * what is the speed of the shock wave? that is, at what speed does the signal that the red light has turned green travel backward through the flow? * in this model, the speed of the wave is the maximum speed of cars, or u*_max_* = 1. (perhaps about 30 mph in a city.) * what is the trajectory of an individual car? that is, what is the position *x* of a car as a function of time *t*? (although the shock wave moves backward at the maximum speed, individual cars do not travel at the maximum speed.) * in this model, a car that starts a distance *d* behind the red light is stationary until time t = d/u*_max_*, when the shock wave has reached that car, and the car may begin to move. from that time on, the path of the car is x(t) = u*_max_*t - 2√(u*_max_*dt). (note explicitly that the car never quite reaches maximum speed.) * which cars get through the traffic light before it turns red again? * in this model, let *t* be the amount of time the light stays green. then all cars a distance behind the light greater than u*_max_*t/4 will not get through the light. (in a city where u*_max_* =- 30mph and t = 2 minutes, this means that a typical green light will let a quarter-mile of traffic through before turning red again.) | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the gravity well of earth affect measurements of lorentz invariance? | i was reading [this](_url_0_) article about a new experimental bound to lorentz invariance. what i don't understand is how this interacts with gr, i believe that gr locally allows li but not globally due to curved spacetime. is this correct? does this have to be taken into account when doing an li test in earth's gravity well, or is it way too small an effect to measure? | it is correct that you can always have local lorentz invariance in general relativity. what local means in this case is just that your area of interest is too small for you to notice the curvature. this is usually illustrated by the idea of dropping two balls, you can notice curvature if their trajectories converge (rather than simply remaining parallel) in a measurable way. this means as long as the differences in gravitational strength between the parts of your experiment are negligible (this equates to your experiment being locally flat) then it won't interfere with your measurement of lorentz invariance. | 2 | [] | [
"http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2015/01/28/quantum-computer-as-detector-shows-space-is-not-squeezed/"
] | [] | [
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how realistic is it that science will find a way to overcome the obesity problem? | i am curious if we will ever see a day where people could eat huge sums of calories without the risk of the weight gain. with discoveries like the recent weight loss hormone irisin: _url_0_ i feel like its only a matter of time before science finds a way to make weight loss an easier task. so basically i am asking what the chances of a weight loss breakthrough coming within the next ten years? | not my direct area, but i can give you some information. . . first, let me just say that there have been weight loss drugs like [xenical/orlistat](_url_0_) approved for the treatment of obesity. there effects, however, are considered rather modest. history has seen a lot of these drug removed from the market due to abuse or safety issues, so clearly the matter is difficult -- as you can imagine targeting something like obesity might be. many pharmaceutical companies and private groups are working on anti-obesity and anti-diabetes drugs, targeting things like nutrient absorption, appetite, metabolism and other increasingly complicated targets/body systems (like the fat type distribution you mention). there are a good number of drugs coming up the pipeline seeking approval for use. very recently, [qnexa/qsymia](_url_1_) gained fda approval for use in controlling obesity, so this is the kind of thing you are asking about. patients in clinical trials for the drug showed fairly good weight loss -- greater than 10% (which is an efficacy barrier that many have been trying to break) and there is evidence to suggest this effect can be sustained out to 2 years. we will see what the next ten years bring, but we are getting better at it. it's important to keep in mind that most of these drugs are and will be treatment options, not "cures" -- so we will need to see how they hold up over long term treatment. the intention is to reduce weight to gain health benefits, not necessarily to deal with cosmetic issues, so it also remains to be seen how that is received. [a fairly good, comprehensive review here - heal et al, 2012.](_url_2_) | 2 | [] | [
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2012/01/11/newly-discovered-hormone-boosts-effects-of-exercise-could-help-fend-off-diabetes/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlistat",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phentermine/topiramate",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.med.nyu.edu/science/article/pii/S0028390812000378",
"http://www.gizmag.com/white-fat-to-brown-fat-mechanism/23596/"
] | [
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why does the maclaurin series for sin(x) only work with radians? | wouldn't calculating the series but using degree yield the same exact series? | sin(x) is defined to be the y-coordinate for an x-radian angle on the unit circle. the variable x is necessarily radians, so everything involving sin(x) deals with radians. if you want to do things in terms of degrees, then you can have s(t) be the y-coordinate for a t-degree angle on the unit circle. this has a formula as s(t)=sin(pi\*t/180). kinda gross, and its taylor series is * s(t) = pi\*t/180 - pi^(3)t^(3)/(3!\*180^(3)) + pi^(5)t^(5)/(5!\*180^(5)) - pi^(7)t^(7)/(7!\*180^(7)) + ... which is not nice and is not equal to the taylor series for sin(x) because it's a different function. in general, you want to avoid anything that are not radians as much as possible, because trigonometry is most naturally done in radians. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any evidence to suggest your name affects your long-term success? | i've read articles, mostly on baby name websites and the like, which suggest that the name you choose for your child will affect their success in life. is there any real evidence to suggest this is true? | [robert lane named his sons winner and loser](_url_0_). loser grew up to be a police officer and winner became a criminal. not entirely what you were looking for, but kind of interesting. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sahio.com/the-story-of-two-brothers-named-winner-and-loser/"
] | [
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how is having two colors depending on the angle possible? | a friend of mine extracted a substance that is green if you shine light from the bottom and red if you shine light from the side onto it. how does it work? | for most cases, things having a certain colour means that that something absorbs and/or disperses different wavelengths of light. each colour corresponds to a different wavelength. the way light interacts with matter depends on its specific wavelength, potentially causing different angles of shinning to show different colours.a common example of this dependency are rainbows and the sky itself. rainbows form due to dispersion, where different wavelengths disperse at different angles ( shorter, bluer, wavelengths are more dispersed). depending on the angle you can see different colours from different positions. the same way, the sky is blue because blue light is more dispersed than red, although when light is forced to travel through larger portions of the sky (sunrise, sunset), due to the angle of the sun being different, the sky will be red since most blue light will be "gone". in your case, i'll assume its something of the later case, where light is traveling through different lengths of the sample, leading to different absorption/dispersion for each case, leading to different colours. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[xpost] if you put a wick in a jar of vick's, would it burn like a candle? | why don't you just try it and get back to us? you don't have a wick, you say? roll up a piece of paper towel; it works just as well. happy science! don't burn your house down. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what, if any, negative effects can somebody experience from daily consumption of "5-hour energy"? | a guy at work drinks these *every day*. that must be bad for you, right? here's the ingredient list: _url_0_ | no worse than a couple cups of coffee and a multivitamin every day. it is pretty much just caffeine, vitamins and amino acids. | 35 | [] | [
"http://www.5hourenergy.com/ingredients.asp"
] | [
"http://bodyodd.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/06/30/6975082-5-hour-energy-binge-lands-woman-in-hospital"
] | [
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what does a "real" atomic model look like? | as we progress from high school to university and beyond, we are taught many different versions of the atomic model. | the models you were taught while not completely accurate are also fairly good starting points. some of the first ways of thinking about the atom was to treat the atom as sort of a hard sphere or electrons orbiting much like the earth orbits the sun. these give a few basic concepts, but they are also wrong. more realistically from quantum mechanics, one of the better ways to decribe the atom is a blob of locations the electrons occupies. a way to sort of visualize is if you have ever seen a time exposure shot from a camera of something like a freeway. example: _url_0_ in this the camera is allowed to capture light over a long period of time such as 5 minutes. what comes out instead of a normal image is a sort of mesh of the moving objects over time. the atom is actually much the same way. in the photo you see a long red line and long white line that represents where a car's headlights have been, but the interesting thing is there is no one single headlight which created that image. it was a mesh of many different head lights overtime, but the key is that while there were many different types of headlights at different positions, they generally did not deviate heavily from a given path (aka the road). the atom is more like a time exposure of the positions the electrons take. the electrons move around the center of the atom based of their orbital in a very chaotic pattern, but the electrons stay close enough to certain distances around the atom that it creates "blobs" of electron density which gives the atom its shape and chemical characteristics. the original models had some ideas like the electrons orbiting the nucleus, but they had a problem of constricting the atom to a certain geometry when the atom is a dynamic constantly moving particle among other problems that quantum mechanics assists in dealing with. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://us.123rf.com/400wm/400/400/luissantos84/luissantos840905/luissantos84090500357/4926930-a-night-time-shot-of-speeding-traffic-on-a-freeway.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_orbitals"
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does anyone know if the number of blades on a fan has any correlation with airflow or noise? | & #x200b; | it definitely has to do with noise; the sound produced is due to the frequency of blades passing a given point. the more blades, the higher the frequency, both of passing the point and of the sound. but since less speed is needed the more blades there are, the less energy goes into the sound, which means it will be quieter. as for airflow, if you have too few blades, you aren't pushing enough air unless you increase the speed. if you have too many blades, there isn't enough room for proper airflow. so you have to find the optimal number when the rotation speed, air gap and frequency all work together to minimize noise (which is wasted energy) and maximize airflow (or water flow for that matter). | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do we know that yellowstone is overdue to errupt? | we can date the eruptions with radioisotopes in a similar way to carbon-14 (if you're curious, the predominant method now is [argon-argon dating](_url_0_)), so we know that it had major eruptions 2.1 million years ago, 1.3 million years ago, and 640,000 years ago. so if you say it's on a 600,000 year interval, you could say it's overdue i guess. but volcanoes aren't that simple, there's not a clock that decides when it's time to erupt again. and as you can see from the last three eruptions, the average interval isn't 600,000 years anyway. volcanoes are complicated, and things like the rate at which magma enters the chamber are highly variable with time. the yellowstone hotspot is still around and it'll almost certainly erupt again, but there's no special reason to think it'll erupt in any of our lifetimes, or even in this millennium. so the short answer is, yellowstone isn't overdue to erupt. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon–argon_dating"
] | [
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|
is it better to leave a flap of skin from a cut on or trim it off? | i've heard conflicting info on this but never a real source. if you cut yourself and theirs a flap of dead, white skin hanging off, should you cut it with nailclippers or leave it on, assuming your putting a bandage on afterward. does the skin provide some sort of natural barrier against infection that's maid redundant by the bandage, does it get in the way, or does it hurt the healing process more to trim it? | the issue comes with large areas of dead (necrotic) tissue as they can provide a prime breeding ground for bacteria. however if the wound is significant enough for large sections of necrotic tissue you should be seeing somebody for it anyway. if it's a tiny cut, probably doesn't matter either way as long as it's clean. if the flap is dead it'll fall off on its own soon enough | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
are our oceans 'dying' and if yes, what are the consequences? | there are certainly some things wrong with the oceans. the oceans are acidifying due to absorbed carbon dioxide. good for us in that it hides some of the carbon dioxide we release, bad for fish and anything with a calcium carbonate skeleton (clams, some plankton, corals). lots of [general information](_url_3_); ph is on a logarithmic scale so it doesn't sound like much when stated in those units but acidity has gone up 30%. i consider having such a profound chemical effect on the ocean to be one of humanity's most astounding accomplishments. we've collapsed a lot of fisheries. once the population gets too low it takes a really long time for their numbers to recover. a single large tuna can be worth millions of dollars and market pressures will probably continue to hunt them down to extinction. people never seem to be able to stop until it is too late; our plates would be empty and a lot of people would be unemployed. trust me when i tell you to enjoy wild-caught seafood, especially the large predatory fish, while you can. the oceanic conveyor belts are [shutting down](_url_0_). sea ice leeches columns of cold, salty water. this flows down in the arctic, spreads out, and drives major ocean currents. we melt the sea ice, this stops, ocean currents stop, and then the models give conflicting results on what happens to us but those currents were important for keeping the ocean mixed and controlling weather patterns. we cause impressive algal blooms. you should see what our fertilizer runoff does to the nitrogen cycle; we fix more nitrogen from the atmosphere than all life on earth through the haber-bosch process! when excess fertilizer washes off farms and into rivers and ultimately into the oceans, it fertilizes algae. some of these algae die, sink, and suck all the oxygen out of the water leading to massive fish kills. some of the algae is also really nasty and makes neurotoxins. clouds of the stuff bother some people even if they're just on a boat or at the beach and you don't really want to swim in it. sometimes it looks vaguely like huge amounts of blood in the water, and combined with all the dead wasted fish it has a nice apocalyptic ambiance. the algae blooms seldom go more than a couple of kilometers from shore though. it is possible for oceans to truly die on a more fundamental level than mere red tide. this rarely happens in earth's history but [this has happened before](_url_2_). during the permian mass extinction, anaerobic sulfur-breathers and methane-producers seized control of all but the top few meters of the oceans, killed 96% of life in the oceans, and about 70% of life on land through runaway climate change and [poisonous clouds of hydrogen sulfide](_url_1_). this is not a serious threat right now but you wanted to know what the consequences could be. personally i believe in humanity and what we can accomplish, and given our jaw-dropping achievements at modifying ocean chemistry so far i think we can manage to completely and utterly destroy the oceans as they are now. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=159",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/02/050223130549.htm",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140331153608.htm",
"http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F"
] | [
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|
settle an argument for me on blacktop asphalt. | apologies, as this is a unique question and i didn't know which sub-reddit to place it in. through a discussion about a road that just got re-paved near us w/ blacktop asphalt. cars that drive up and down it now release an audible squeal when going around curves. - i stated that it's common and due to the asphalt being new that the sound will dampen and go away over time. essentially, after it "breaks in". - he stated that the sound is a result of a fault by the workers. ~~(i assume w/ the mixture.)~~ so, who is correct? the reason i am arguing it is due to the fact that i've heard many, many new roads do the exact same thing. can anyone lay some rest to the discussion? edit: in going over my messages w/ him my friend just stated, "it's the worker's fault the road squeaks now, plain and simple." | this could be due to a few reasons. without knowing the details (curve superelevation, speed of cars, mix used, etc), my best guess would be that this is due to the asphalt mix that was used and the interaction between the lateral friction forces at the tire/pavement interface. if there is no superelevation, or not enough for the speed of the vehicle, the lateral force on the vehicle can cause the tires to skip along the pavement, causing a squealing sound. this article provides a very basic description of how superelevation and vehicle speed play a role in friction forces on horizontal curves. [link](_url_0_) in regards to the mixture...blacktop asphalt is a made of several ingredients: stone, liquid asphalt binder (a byproduct of petroleum refining, similar to tar), and various other chemicals/admixtures. stone is mixed with heated liquid asphalt at the plant until the stones are coated in asphalt. the mixture is then placed on the road grade and compacted. as the mixture cools, it 'solidifies' and binds. over time, the asphalt coating on the stones at the pavement surface will wear off. you could call this 'breaking in,' but really it is just surface wear. source: i am a construction manager in the highway construction industry. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/niatt_labmanual/chapters/geometricdesign/theoryandconcepts/SuperElevationAndSideFriction.htm",
"http://www.asphaltpavement.org/"
] | [
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how do snakes digest things like shelled eggs? | based on this post: [_url_1_](_url_0_) & #x200b; i guess the overarching question is how does a snakes digestion track work? but also is it powerful enough to consume egg shells? does it have painful eggshell shits? what about parts of animals like bones, bird beaks and limbs, stuff like that? thanks in advance! | depending on the size of the egg, snakes will swallow the egg whole, then regurgitate the egg shell after it is crushed internally. if the egg is small enough it will get dissolved to an extent, but it's easier to think of it as the hard to digest parts being broken down to small parts before being excreted. the same applies to bones and hair, but sometimes parts can't be digested and if they are small enough they still pass through, but other times it can cause an impaction. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/natureismetal/comments/c1mtkv/snake_finds_an_eggcellent_meal_while_mother_bird/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/natureismetal/comments/c1mtkv/snake\\_finds\\_an\\_eggcellent\\_meal\\_while\\_mother\\_bird/"
] | [] | [
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would microgravity effect reaction kinetics in aqueous solutions? | i shouldn't think it would, but i don't know a whole lot about chemical reactions in space as they aren't particularly common. | probably not. gravity doesn't influence brownian motion or diffusion much, so an aqueous solution in microgravity would behave more or less the same as one on earth. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does wave height effect water pressure below the surface? | if water pressure equals (density)(gravity)(depth), then does the water pressure at the bottom of the ocean change under surface waves as the depth changes with rising and falling waves? | yes, but contrary to what /u/alwaysatheist says, the pressure change gets weaker as you go down, both in relative *and in absolute* terms. this is only exactly true if the water's surface is still and flat. in reality, waves at the surface affect the flow of water *in all directions*, not just directly below, so at depth the water feels the impact of the crest of the wave overhead, but also the troughs to either side: these cancel each other out more the deeper you go. the net effect is that in deep water, when you're at a depth equal to half the wavelength of the wave, the changes in pressure, velocity, etc. are 20 times smaller at the surface. when you're a full wavelength down, they're 500 times smaller. it's an exponential effect: below a few hundred feet of depth, surface water waves are basically negligible. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mechanical-engineering/2-016-hydrodynamics-13-012-fall-2005/readings/2005reading7.pdf"
] | [
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i'm pumped up on adrenaline. it almost feels surreal. how does adrenaline work? | backstory: i was driving and saw an old lady fall and not get up immediately. i instinctively pulled over and ran over to help her. after i helped her up and made sure she was okay, my heart was racing and the whole thing seemed dreamy. i don't really remember my thought process throughout it and it seems like a blur now. so my question is why does this happen? what causes the body to get filled with adrenaline like that? thanks | something startles/stresses you - -- --- ---- ----- ------ ------- just for some clarification - an enzyme is a protein that is shaped in such a way that it facilitates a chemical reaction. almost every chemical reaction in your body is catalyzed by a unique enzyme, because most of the reactions are unfavorable at physiological conditions. for example, turning sugar into water and carbon dioxide is something we do all the time. it's technically a spontaneous, energetically-favorable reaction that releases energy, but the reaction would never happen in your body without enzymes helping out. now, you don't always want an enzyme to be active, because conditions aren't static in the body. in this vein, enzymes can be turned on and off to accommodate your body's needs. epinephrine, and hormones in general, have profound effects on the body at extremely low concentrations. one of the ways this is accomplished is by activating enzymes that activate enzymes that activate enzymes and so on and so forth. since each of these enzymes can activate more enzymes, each step down this cascade leads to an increase in the effect of that one molecule by an order of magnitude (i don't know the exact value, i'm ballparking it). | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response"
] | [
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