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why don't we actually use scientific notation in daily communication? | we have long past the need for thinking and communicating using exponential scales and precision of measurement for understanding human affairs. especially when speaking of money and the state of the world. why not treat the currency symbol as a unit, and write 0.4e9$ in a news article instead of "$400 million"? same goes for all figures. why not write "5.7e17kg co2" instead of the far more awkward and slower to understand "570 trillion metric tons of co2" that also leaves out precision? every time i read a figure that uses worded numbers and a scaled unit name like metric ton vs kilogram or nanometer vs meter i have to spend a few seconds converting it in my head and i completely lose the train of thought. for people who don't routinely think in scientific notation and don't spend the time to actually convert it to a power of 10, doesn't this severely limit understanding? | i would say the vast majority would prefer 400 million to 0.4e9. a lot of people don't think in a mathematical way. i remember someone getting annoyed because i always talked in percentages, rather than half quarter third etc. a lot of people's brains aren't wired in a mathematical way, however you find it easier. most people see -illions and just translate that in their head to 'a lot' and move on, as it doesn't really matter. as an aside, many hunter gather tribes don't even bother with numbers, just stop at "a few" or "many". | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone help me understand how water pressure works? (diagram included) | ok, trying to wrap my head around a concept, i'd appreciate any help you guys can give. i get seemingly conflicting answers from googling around. scenario: i have a cylindrical tank, full of water, with a piston exerting a downward force on the water from the top of the tank. [see diagram here](_url_0_). i understand that the force on the bottom of the tank (red arrow 6) will be equal to the weight of the water column plus the applied force. after that however, i get confused. each red arrow corresponds to a force at a different position in the tank. assume the black dot in the middle is a 0-dimensional point, and that arrows 2-5 are at the same depth. ignore the different sizes of arrows. what i want to understand is, how do each of these forces (arrows) relate to each other? which are greater forces than others, which are equivelant in magnitude etc. in practical terms - if i were diving in this tank, at a point half way down, is water pressure acting upon me from all sides, or just from above? does the weight of the water cause a pressure on the sides of the tank? would the force experienced on the top of a diver at 5m down equal the force on the side of the tank 5m down? does the applied pressure on the surface of the water translate to increased pressure on the sidewalls of the tank, or just the bottom? basically, i just want to understand how pressure is distributed, both in magnitude and direction, in such a situation. i understand how a gas distributes pressure evenly in all directions (balloon etc.), but how do liquids behave? thanks! | the water is exerting pressure on the diver from all directions. interestingly because the diver has volume, the pressure exerted on the lower-side of the diver is a little more than that experienced on the upper-side (since the lower-side is slightly deeper in the water). this results in an unbalanced force trying to push the diver up. if the force due to gravity on the diver is greater than this unbalanced force, the diver will sink. if the force due to gravity is less, the diver will rise through the water. when you do all the maths, you find that the buoyant force is greater than the force due to gravity when the object is less dense than the fluid it is in; thus why we can determine whether an object will float or sink based on density alone. **edit: i'll do the maths... why not! :)** assume you have a rectangular object of height *h*, length *x*, width *y* and density ρ. the object is sitting upright in water of density ρw at depth *d*. the forces (not including air pressure) on the top and bottom of the object, and buoyant force, are: f_top = ρw.g.x.y.d f_bottom = ρw.g.x.y(d+h) f_buoyant = ρw.g.x.y(d+h) - ρw.g.x.y.d = ρw.g.x.y.h = ρw.g.v the full-stops (periods) represent multiplication, *v* is the volume, and we use a positive value for *g*. the force due to gravity is: f_g = m g = ρ.x.y.h.g = ρ.g.v the net force on the object is then: f_n = ρw.g.v - ρ.g.v = g.v (ρw - ρ) so if the density of the object is greater than that of water, the net force is downwards (i.e. it is negative) and the object sinks. if the density of the object is less than water, the net force is upwards and the object rises. | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/UitaQ"
] | [
"http://youtu.be/ZUfQmjcz2vg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Pressure_exerted_by_collisions.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohr_Circle.svg"
] | [
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could a tunnel from the equator to the arctic provide endless wind? | imagine an above ground tunnel with two openings. one is in the arctic, and one is near the equator. could the difference in pressure create wind through the tunnel? | why do you think there is a difference in pressure? the viscous drag of a tunnel this long would likely render any pressure difference nil anyway. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you measure the amount of energy that goes through a conductor(copper cable)? | in other words, how does an energy meter work at home? | there is more than one way to measure the electrical power flowing through a cable. the classic power meter at your house is a special type of electric motor. its rotation speed is proportional to the amount of power flowing through it. so, through gearing, the little dials on the meter just show how many revolutions the motor has made in its life. another way to find the power flowing is to use an ammeter to measure the current flowing through the cable and a volt meter to measure the voltage across the item who's power consumption you want to know. power can then be calculated as: watts = amps x volts old mechanical volt meters and ammeters are really the same instrument, just placed in the circuit differently. i won't go in to the details, but they use a coil of small wire to create an electromagnet when electricity flows through it. and the strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the current flowing through it. the needle on the meter has a spring attached to it. as the magnetic field gets stronger, it pulls the needle stretching the spring. thus, a stronger current causes the needle to move further. as far as how today's electronic meters work, sorry i can't help you much there. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
if i post something to a tree, will the tree stop growing rings? | attaching something to a tree will not stop it from growing rings unless you kill the tree. [here's a picture](_url_0_) of a tree growing over a bench. trees rings are just a by product of how trees grow. as the tree grows it makes new cells between the current wood and the bark. the new cells change size based on the environmental conditions. during the spring and summer the environment is favorable for making new wood and the cells are big but it the fall/winter the environment isn't good for making wood and the cells are small. the dark rings you see in a tree are lots of small cells stacked together and represent growth during the off-season. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/zMEn1LA"
] | [
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|
why is it that if people get a papercut on their hand, they instantly put the wounded area in their mouth? | _url_0_ saliva itself contains antibacterial compounds and promotes healing. because there can be other contaminants in a human mouth, wound licking can lead to infection, but not always. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wound_licking"
] | [
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|
why are electric bills in units of watts? | power is defined as an energy/sec, so i'm wondering why electric bills are measured in kw. i would think it would charge you for the total energy you draw over the month. is the measurement an average of the energy drawn per sec (total energy/secs in month)? | they actually charge you per kilowatt-hour (kw·h), which i suppose is handier than charging you per 3.6 megajoules (mj), to which it is equivalent. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in a standing body of water (or any fluid), is one side higher than the other because of the earth's rotation? | i know if we start a body of water into motion the side opposite the direction of travel will raise and the side closest to the direction of travel will lower. i can't think of what would happen once the "start" of acceleration has finished and the rotation has stabilized. as a secondary question, does the same thing happen to solids? | no. the lake's water is already moving at the same speed as the earth, so it's not accelerating east or west as the world turns--just straight down, which gravity more than takes care of. **however**, the earth's rotation brings the *moon* overhead once a day & lunar gravity does pull at the water, producing an enormous swell across the surface: tides. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the stereotypical "vat of acid" in movies really an acid? or would it more likely be a base or oxidizer? does such a substance exist? and if the movies messed up, how do you think this happened? | so this requires a bit of an explanation. i was talking to a friend at one point and he mentioned that the stereotypical "vat of acid that will melt your skin off" is actually most likely a very powerful base. i asked my dad who is pretty good with chemistry and likes it. he works in the medical field so i trust what he says, but seeing as how maybe some things he might have learned in school may be dated or what not i wanted to see if anyone here could answer this? so far i've gathered that a powerful acid would cause some sort of scar or scab tissue (cant remember the name) to form after burning you for a wile which it couldnt burn through any longer. a powerful base will continually burn through substance by converting it to liquid? (i probably said that completely wrong but i know the word liquid had something to do with it) and will continually burn until it runs out. an oxidizer is what most likely would burn/dissolve/deteriorate metal substances. so when someone in a movie brings out a vat of acid to melt someone, which is it most likely? an acid, base, or oxidizer, or something else completely. and if its not an acid, how do you think the movie industry and entertainment in general messed this up so bad? finally, what would be the closest substance to something like aliens acid blood that can burn through pretty much anything? sorry for the long question but i am really intrigued to hear more about this! i couldnt find anyone or anything that could help answer the question. | hydrofluoric acid might be what you're thinking of. it is a highly corrosive and dangerous acid. though technically a weak acid, it can burn through most things, including flesh and bone as well as glass. if you watch breaking bad, season 1 that's what they used. a vat full will definitley get rid of a body. small amounts on skin or clothing will burn a hole and create the scab/scar, but once it has be neutralized (or used up) it will stop doing damage. this is true of bases as well actually. hf also damages nerves, so when its burning it may not cause pain. but even after it burns it is highly toxic and can cause damage to organs including the brain once in the blood stream. movies probably use acids because its what they and the public are most familiar with, but your dad is right bases and oxidizer can do the same job. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromic_acid"
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in topology, does something without boundaries have a centre? | like the surface of a sphere, would it make any sense to talk about a centre or would every point be a centre? | in topology, nothing has a center, since a central point is a geometric property, not a topological one. in other words, there can be homeomorphisms (functions that preserve topological properties) that move a center, even in a bounded set. for example, the function f(z)=e^(it)(z+c)/(c^(*)z+1), with -pi < t < =pi and |c| < 1, will take the unit disk (in the complex plane) back to itself, and you can move any point to any other point using functions like this. these are homeomorphisms, but the move the "middle" of the circle around and so a center isn't a topological property. if, however, you have a distance metric on your object, then you can try to talk about centers. for instance, we can compare any two points and find their distance on the object and somewhere there could be a maximal (or, more technically, a supremum) distance between two points on the object and this is called the diameter d of the object. the center could be any point c so that if x is any other point in the object, then the distance between c and x is at most d/2. for example, the interval (-1,1) has diameter 2, and c=0 is the the only point so that if x is in (-1,1) then the distance between c and x is less than 1. but this doesn't have a boundary, yet it has a center, so the technical answer to your question is "yes". though, we can't always use this definition because sometimes the diameter is infinite, and then every point would satisfy this requirement, so none of them should be considered a center. for example, r=(-infty,infty) has infinite radius, so no point is the center. note that it isn't the existence of a boundary, but the existence of a metric that gives a finite diameter, which is a geometric rather than topological, that makes this happen. so the answer to the question you were probably meaning (can an object with infinite diameter have a center?) is no, unless you want to say that *every* point is the center. finally, (-1,1) and (-infty,infty) are topologically equivalent, so it has to be the extra geometric distance that allows one to have a center and the other to not. also, the unit disk, which we talked about, is topologically equivalent to the upper half plane ({x+iy, with y > =0} + {infty}) and one has a center and the other definitely doesn't. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there cycles of global moods? | in the same way that gravitational pull affects the oceans and everything else on the planet, does it also affect the internal chemistry that regulates everyones moods? | if you're asking whether there are trends which on average hold true for a large number of people, sure. seasonal effects on mood are well documented. this has mostly to do with how our bodies use external triggers (temperature, light) to regulate our circadian rhythms, and when those get messed up people start to get weird. by making sure to be exposed to proper amounts and qualities of light these effects can largely be managed. if you're asking whether there's some other inescapable force directly acting on the chemical reactions that dictate mood, then no, there is no real evidence for anything like that. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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as one of the effects of mdma on the human brain, what is the exact mechanism by which mdma affects the (left) amygdala? | mdma causes release of massive amounts (well, "massive" in a relative sense) of serotonin and dopamine. activation of seritonergic neurons in the amygdala is linked to a decrease in anxiety...thus, this is suggested to be part of the mechanism by which mdma could be useful for ptsd and severe anxiety disorders. mdma also does a lot of other things with other neurotransmitters (oxytocin, noradrenaline, etc.), but those appear to be in other places the brain/body than the amygdala. but, the massive neurotransmitter release caused by mdma is capable of actually permanently destroying seritonergic neurons in this part of the brain, leading to all sorts of bad things...hence, why so much more research into proper dosing would be required to make this a viable long-term treatment for...well...anything. anyone: please feel free to add. my neuropharmacology may be a bit rusty. sources: [1](_url_2_), [2](_url_1_), [3](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://jop.sagepub.com/content/23/4/389.full.pdf+html",
"http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_17-1-2014-11-35-46",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=bankson+2001+mdma"
] | [
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|
how many ways could i fill a 10x10 grid with x's? | you can use from 1 to 100 x's think of it like a lock with 100 numbers on a dial, the number of dials is the number of x's and no two dials can be the same number how many possibilities are there so there's 100 ways for 1 x to fill a grid. (1,1), (1,2)... (10,10) 99+98+97...+1 way to fill with 2 x's and i know 100 x's is 1 possibility but that's where i lose the math | for each of the 100 positions, that position can either have an x or not have an x, and this specification completely determines the state. this describes 2^100 total states, but you specifically stated 1-100 xs, so we have to discount the unique state with no xs. the result you're looking for is 2^100 - 1. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are some practical applications of pulsars? | quite a few! first of all, it should be said that pulsars can be used in understanding lots of fundamental physics, from gravity to plasma physics to nuclear physics. that means that understanding pulsars can lead to understanding other areas of phyics which could lead to practical applications there. however, let's talk about direct applications. pulsars are really stable clocks. really stable. so whatever you need a clock for you can use a pulsar. right now, the clock standard we use relies on a series of atomic clocks around the world. clocks can be characterized by how could their stability is (milliseconds? microseconds? nanoseconds?) and on what timescale, the latter part is ofen confusing. for a wristwatch, you may have to reset it once per month because it's drifted from the "true" time, and so you can imagine that the timescale for it to be stable is up to about a month of so (see [allan variance](_url_3_) for more info). like we have an ensemble of atomic clocks that provides an atomic-based timescale, work has been done on a [pulsar-based timescale](_url_2_). with an ensemble of pulsars, you could get to a potentially "better" time standard but it's still uncertain; it's still impressive that it's of the same order. the timing stability is being used for a gps equivalent that would hold through the solar system. [x-ray pulsar-based navigation](_url_4_) (xnav) uses an array of pulsars, rather than an array of gps satellites, to triangulate your position. the [nicer](_url_1_) mission is going up to the international space station and has a project called sextant that will begin tests of xnav. the launch of nicer is in "early 2017" so any day now! china has also launched it's own mission called xpnav-1. fun fact: shortly after their discovery, work was done to see if they could be used to [verify nuclear arsenals](_url_0_). note that it's not listed here because it ultimately wasn't used but the project was sponsored by darpa/us army missile command and i have part a report from the riverside research institute but i don't see where to find it online so i apologize. the goal was to assess using pulses from pulsars as a way to generate random numbers that both the soviets and the us would agree to; those random numbers would then inform both sides which silos to inspect, so it was a way of naturally generating those numbers that hopefully both sides could agree on if they decided to point their telescopes to the same pulsar at the same time. the study "led to the conclusion that the proposed technique is feasible" but the technique was never used. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_technical_means_of_verification",
"https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/nicer/",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1208.3560",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_variance",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_pulsar-based_navigation"
] | [
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|
is there a non trivial measure on all of p(r)? | as we all know, there are sets that are not lebesgue-measurable. but i was wondering, if there is any non trivial measure (as in one that doesn't assign 0 or infinity to most sets and isn't a generalisation or variation of a counting measure) that can assign a value to all subsets of the real numbers. and if there is no such measure, how about a content (finitely additive measure)? and if there are such, are there also some that fulfil some more useful properties? | very good, non-trivial questions. it's a bit unclear what you mean by non-trivial. does the following count as non-trivial? * *dirac mass at x = a.* a set *a* has measure m(a) = 1 if and only if a contains the point *a*. this measure can be generalized by taking a (possibly countably infinite) linear combination of dirac masses, with positive coefficients. this measure is perfectly fine on the sigma-algebra p(**r**). there *is* a theorem (haar's theorem) that guarantees the existence of certain non-trivial measures on certain measurable spaces. in particular, if *g* is a locally compact hausdorff topological group, then there is a *unique* (up to a constant multiple) non-zero measure on the borel sigma-algebra of *g* that satisfies various properties (left-translation invariant, finite on compact sets, outer regular, inner regular). if we give **r** the discrete metric, then it is a locally compact hausdorrf topological group and the associated borel sigma-algebra is just p(**r**). the only problem is that the left haar measure guaranteed by the theorem is just (a multiple of) counting measure, and that's true for *any* discrete group. so that doesn't answer your question, but it is a very powerful and interesting result nonetheless. yes, if we relax countable additivity we can do what you are asking. we can do even better actually. let *m* be the usual lebesgue measure, but restricted to the borel sigma-algebra (rather than the lebesgue sigma-algebra). then there exists a finitely additive measure *m* on **r** whose sigma-algebra is p(**r**), such that *m* is an extension of *m* (m(a) = m(a) for any borel subset a) and *m* is translation-invariant. this result was proved by banach and follows by a version of the hahn-banach theorem. as such, the measure *m* turns out to be non-unique, the proof is not constructive, and it relies on some version of the axiom of choice (not ac *per se*, but some weaker version iirc). here are some related results that give some insights but not necessarily answer your question in full: * *lebesgue decomposition theorem.* given *any* two sigma-finite measures *m**_1_* and *m**_2_* on a fixed measurable space, we can always decompose one of them such that where n*_abs_* is absolute continuous with respect to m*_2_*, n*_sing_* is singular continuous with respect to m*_2_*, and n*_disc_* is a discrete measure (a sum of point masses). so now put m*_2_* = lebesgue measure. if you want your candidate measure to be sigma-finite, then it might end up being trivial according to your other requirements. * *kolmogorov extension theorem.* this theorem describes how to extend a probability measure on a space to an arbitrary product of that space. * not all sigma-algebras are borel sigma-algebras. that is, there are sigma-algebras not generated by a topology. (the lebesgue sigma-algebra, however, *is* generated by a topology.) i'm not sure if that result particularly helps you though. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://mathoverflow.net/questions/103583/finite-measure-on-the-power-set"
] | [
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do oscillations truly go to zero, and if not, do we now how small they can decrease to? | consider a simple system of a 1 degree of freedom spring-mass/damper oscillator. when solving the differential equation that represents the equation of motion, we often get results that decay to a limit of 0 due to an exponential--i.e. overdamping, underdamping, and critical damping. i was wondering, do these ever truly go to zero? i realize it's most likely similar to cutting something in half over and over again trying to get to zero mass, but at some point you hit subatomic particles and can't get anywhere. so do we know of a point at which oscillations seem to stay at a constant value very near zero? more importantly, is my body still feeling that punch from the 3rd grade? | even if it never goes away, at some point, the energy will be just as dispersed in the atoms as the rest of the regular jostles of kinetic, rotational, and vibrational energy that is heat. it's like asking if your footprints are still in the grass of your grade school yard. well, the grass wouldn't be in the exact configuration it's in now had you never walked on it, but... come on. you wouldn't know the difference if you were shown the grass without your interference. | 121 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can i have an "electricity leak" similar to how i can have a water leak in my house that will drive up my electric bill? | the answer given by u/brandonsmash is completely wrong. you absolutely can leak electrical current from your house to ground, and it would increase your electric bill. it is usually difficult to do, but happens quite often due to poor wiring, or workmanship. source: am an electrician and have observed and fixed current "leaks" on numerous occasions. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leakage_(electronics)"
] | [
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|
what does particle horizon growth mean to observer? | i've read this title > _url_0_ still i can't get this: "note that the particle horizon grows over time. so more and more galaxies become visible until the end of time." so as for now these galaxies out of ph or inside? > yes, there are galaxies will never see at all, specifically those galaxies beyond a co-moving distance of about 65 gyr. does it mean we can find galaxy in a distance between 32 (the most distant galaxy we see already) & 47 (ph) gyr now but in a future we would be able to find something closer than 65 gyr? so 65 gyr boundary isn't increasing in time? so in infinte perspective ph is limited by 65 gyr? | no, the particle horizon keeps growing and the cosmic event horizon keeps shrinking. the particle horizon is the point from which we are currently receiving light from the beginning of time (or really, from when the universe was first transparent). the universe is currently 13.7 billion years old, so the light we are seeing has been traveling for 13.7 billion years. in another billion years, the light we are seeing will have been traveling for 14.7 billion years, from more distant galaxies. so we will see the *beginning* of things that are farther away. however, we will never see what they look like *now*, since that is determined by the cosmic event horizon. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4msj5s/do_we_suspect_there_are_galaxies_were_already/d3yxrw5/"
] | [] | [
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logistically, how do you move terminally ill patients - particularly across the ocean? e.g. charlie gard | charlie gard is currently on mechanical ventilation. if the uk high courts had approved his transportation to the united states, how would that work? what would the costs be? | charter an air ambulance, they come stocked like an intensive care unit. pay a doctor and a nurse to fly with, cost $100k+. you are paying for chartering a private airplane, which without being stocked like a private hospital is $60,000+ for a one way flight from uk to us. if you want more information try googling air ambulance, they are litteraly small flying hospitals used for transporting sick people. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is chikungunya no longer a problem on the world? or vaccination and prevention campaigns where actually successful? | coming from a latin american country this virus was a pretty well known problem, it even meant some closure of borders as well as random checkups at airports and such. i recently saw that there was work been done for creating a vaccine. but i can’t really pinpoint when it just dropped from everyone’s conversation. did humans created immunities for it? or what where the causes for it not being right now such a problem? | as always, what's actually reported in the media has little connection to what's actually happening in the real world. chikungunya is still circulating and is just as much threat as ever -- if not more, as it is continuing to spread northward. it's just that the media has the attention span of a chipmunk on crack. there are experimental vaccines but none that are in widespread use. * [cdc pages on chikungunya](_url_3_) * [paho pages on chikungunya](_url_2_) showing over 150,000 cases in the americas in 2017 (2018 data aren't out yet as far as i can find) * [_url_1_ (pdf link)](_url_0_) has a summary of case numbers in the americas since it reached here in 2013/2014. the trend line does seem to be slowing down a little but they make the point that surveillance and diagnosis for the virus is generally pretty poor and there are probably many, many cases being missed, so we don't have a good idea of the actual number of cases out there. bottom line: chikungunya hasn't gone away, it's just that people are getting used to it and don't talk about it as much because it's not new any more. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=2ahUKEwjJ1r-L49bfAhVshuAKHWGqDNoQFjABegQICBAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fhealth.mil%2FReference-Center%2FReports%2F2017%2F06%2F01%2FChikungunya-in-the-Americas-June-1-2017&usg=AOvVaw0W4_RaE-EwHtE6FQwouVpc",
"Health.mil",
"https://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?option=com_topics&view=article&id=343&Itemid=40931&lang=en",
"https://www.cdc.gov/chikungunya/index.html"
] | [
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does getting punched in the abs make your stronger? | i would assume it only bruises. is it about the clenching of the muscles? then why punch? thanks /r/! | i would like to split this out into three questions: 1. does getting punched in the abs exercise the muscles... maybe by eccentric loading? 1. does getting punched in the abs somehow improve your ability to take a punch in the abs by some mechanism other than strengthening the muscles? 1. is there some psychological benefit from getting punched repeatedly that coaches want to train? | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how does the hot pocket crisping sleeve work? | random fact. the material inside the sleeve called a susceptor. basically it's only job is to further concentrate and convert electromagnetic energy (like microwaves) and radiate them in the form of heat energy (usually conduction) or infrared waves (if there is good spacing between the food and the sleeve). infrared waves do a great job of burning/heating the outside of the food without penetrating the surface. heat by conduction just helps to focus heat around the food and cook it quicker. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
are there any inedible plants that pass the universal edibility test? | the universal edibility test is a set of steps for determining whether an unknown plant is edible. generally it goes like this: 1. contact - rub on the skin, wait for signs of irritation 2. taste - if it passes the contact test, place on the tongue but do not chew 3. chew - chew the plant, keep it in your mouth but then spit it out 4. ingest - chew and ingest a small amount if it passes each of these steps, then the plant is likely safe to consume. usually there is an 8h wait between each step. are there any known plants that this fails for? where effects are not noticeable until after the 8h buffer, or ingesting a small amount has no effects but a meal-size portion would be bad. | some things that can cause cumulative toxicity will pass the test. for example, the seeds of [a cycad](_url_2_) were used as food by people in guam, but they contain a toxin that causes neurodegenerative disease with repeated exposure (some sources indicate that the main source of exposure was from eating bats that feed on the cycad rather than direct consumption). similarly, there is some evidence that a toxin in soursop and cherimoya can cause parkinson's disease-like symptoms, though evidence for this in humans consuming these fruits is lacking. there are probably a lot more examples too. there are also a number of mushroom species that have been historically regarded as edible, but can cause toxicity after repeated consumption. [paxillus involutus](_url_1_) is one example, and there was [a recent case](_url_0_) in china where consumption of a mushroom caused some people to die suddenly. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.com/news/10630155",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paxillus_involutus#Toxicity",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycas_micronesica",
"http://homeguides.sfgate.com/honeysuckle-poisonious-57584.html"
] | [
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] |
when you observe a proton, what exactly are you looking at? | do protons have some sort of physical "shell" or are you looking at a cloud of quarks, anti-quarks, gluons, etc.? | the proton does not have a physical shell, so you are looking at a cloud of quarks and gluons. however, the cloud is actually quite well confined to a region of about 10^(-15) meters in size. while the boundary at this distance is not perfectly sharp, *bag model* approaches to the description of protons and related objects work pretty well. in the mit bag model, for example, the proton is treated as a spherical cavity in which the quarks move freely inside, but are confined by a spherical boundary -- much like the physical shell you imagine. such models give a reasonable first approximation to the physics of nuclei. so the answer is that you're seeing a cloud, but if you pretended there was a physical shell, it would be a valid rough approximation. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is ruthenium's electron configuration [kr] 5s1 4d7? | [deleted] | as atomic number increases, [relativistic effects](_url_0_) become important, acting to lower the energy of s-orbitals. this makes the aufbau principle and madelung's rule unreliable predictors of electronic configuration. ru(iv) is a *d*^4 system. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/cr00085a006"
] | [
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question about briane greene's nova series the illusion of time | dr. greene illustrated how space and time are connected by comparing the space time of the universe to a loaf of bread. each slice of the bread was a "now" of a different section of the universe. he demonstrated how an alien on the other side of the galaxy going away from earth "now" would include our future. does the scientific community consider this theory likely to be true? edit: here is transcript of the show brian greene: to get a feel for the bizarre effect this can have, imagine an alien, here, in a galaxy 10-billion light years from earth, and way over there, on earth, the guy at the gas station. now, if the two are sitting still, not moving in relation to one other, their clocks tick off time at the same rate, and so they share the same now slices, which cut straight across the loaf. but watch what happens if the alien hops on his bike and rides directly away from earth. since motion slows the passage time, their clocks will no longer tick off time at the same rate. and if their clocks no longer agree, their now slices will no longer agree either. the alien's now slice cuts across the loaf differently. it's angled towards the past. since the alien is biking at a leisurely pace, his slice is angled to the past by only a miniscule amount. but across such a vast distance, that tiny angle results in a huge difference in time. so what the alien would find on his angled now slice—he considers as happening right now, on earth—no longer includes our friend at the gas station, or even 40 years earlier when our friend was a baby. amazingly, the alien's now slice has swept back through more than 200 years of earth history and now includes events we consider part of the distant past, like beethoven finishing his 5th symphony: 1804 to 1808. david kaiser: even at a relatively slow speed we can have, actually, tremendous disagreements on our labeling of "now," what happens at the same time, if we're spread out far enough in space. brian greene: and if that's not strange enough, the direction you move makes a difference, too. watch what happens when the alien turns around and bikes toward earth. the alien's new "now slice" is angled to…toward the future, and so it includes events that won't happen on earth for 200 years: perhaps our friend's great-great-great granddaughter teleporting from paris to new york. once we know that your now can be what i consider the past, or your now can be what i consider the future, and your now is every bit as valid as my now, then we learn that the past must be real, the future must be real. they could be your now. that means past, present, future…all equally real; they all exist. sean carroll: if you believe the laws of physics, there's just as much reality to the future and the past as there is to the present moment. max tegmark: the past is not gone, and the future isn't non-existent. the past, the future and the present are all existing in exactly the same way. | the [light cone](_url_0_) is an established way of representing things in relativity. i wouldn't call it a theory, more of a...graph. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_cone"
] | [
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how high can a building be before you can no longer see the top? | standing at the base of the building. also, provided there is no fog or visual obstructions. (a smooth surface) | assuming the building is a rectangular solid here. if it is taller than your eye level, you will be unable to see the "top". if you're referring to the side of the building at the top, it will be visible from the bottom no matter how tall the building is, though it will subtend a smaller and smaller angle on your retina. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can a battery discharge one side without discharging the other side? | the electrical potential of a battery is generated by a chemical reaction, right? so if i connect the negative terminal of a battery to ground, for example, wouldn't the chemical reaction from that side keep creating more electrons to replace the ones that travel to the grounded terminal? | batteries don't create electrons, they just move them around. forget about grounding for the moment, it just confuses the issue. you start with a battery sitting in empty space with 0v potential between it's two terminals. (say the battery is frozen so that no electrochemical reactions are taking place.) when you thaw the battery the electrochemical potential starts moving electrons from the positive terminal to the negative terminal until the potential difference between them is equal to the electrochemical potential of the battery (1.5 v or whatever). at that point everything is in equilibrium and no more electrons will move. the number of electrons that need to move to reach that potential is determined by the capacitance between the two sides of the battery. when you connect one side of the battery to earth you will increase the capacitance somewhat but probably not nearly as much as you expect. more electrons will move but they will still stop moving once the potential of the floating electrode reaches 1.5 v relative to earth. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how strong would a electric current have to be in order to break the isolation provided by wearing rubber soles shoes? | i'm thinking about regular running shoes or maybe crocs which are entirely made of rubber. to what extent goes the isolation provided by those? | it's not the current that causes an insulator to fail, it's the voltage! the [dielectric strength](_url_0_) or breakdown voltage of an insulator indicates its ability to withstand high voltages. neoprene rubber 15mm (0.6") thick is able to withstand about 300kv (300000 volts). that's about 1000 times the maximum 340v household supply in australia, and about 500 times the maximum 155v in the us (the 240/110 volts usually quoted is the [rms](_url_1_) voltage rather than the maximum). it is much more likely that breakdown would occur through the air. if we assume a path of about 30mm (1.25") from the foot to ground through the air, a voltage of around 75kv would cause breakdown in dry air. of course, moisture on the shoes (sweat, etc) and humidity in the air will change these values. you may also inadvertently be touching something that provides a better path. best not to chance it. as an aside, the antistatic mats used in electronics labs have a resistor in series with ground (around 1mω if my memory serves me correctly). these mats are designed to discharge potentially delicate-circuitry-frying static potentials (voltages) that can build up on the human body. if the mats were connected straight to ground, however, it would mean that if you touched a live mains wire there would be an excellent and perhaps lethal path for current to flow through your body and out to ground. the resistor is there to limit the current in this worst-case scenario. of course, there are lots of other paths through desks, chairs, bare feet, etc (and murphy's law to contend with) so don't rely on this protection! | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric_strength",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_mean_square#Average_electrical_power"
] | [
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can being around crazy people make a sane person crazy? | the phrase "you're driving me crazy" got me thinking about this. is there any evidence to suggest that being around individuals with mental health/emotional health issues can rub off on an otherwise mentally stable individual? can someone develop a disorder simply by being exposed to it for long periods of time? | well, it's an interesting question. in the most basic sense, no, a mental illness cannot "catch" over time. psychiatric nurses do not develop schizophrenia after hanging out with schizophrenics all day. kids sitting next to their adhd best friend at school don't get adhd. but in a more complicated sense, long-term exposure to disorganized/chaotic/maladaptive behavior can definitely trigger conditions in individuals with a predisposition to them already, or exacerbate existing conditions. for example, children who have diagnosable autism are more likely to have close family members who display autistic traits (without necessarily being at a diagnosable thresh hold). now, think about how autism is primarily characterized as deficits in social interaction. social interaction is very much a learned skill...we spend a lot of time in our lives watching and modeling social skills to learn them. if a child with autism is already at a deficit for social functioning, and his or her parents are also displaying traits that make them somewhat deficient in social functioning, then the child is receiving even less instruction in social functioning then if his/her family did not have these deficits. the same is true of lots of inherited mental disorders. close family members of schizophrenics are more likely to display disorganized/chaotic thinking and communication. family members of depressed people are more likely to espouse negative cognitive biases that are characteristic of depressed thinking. so it's very hard to separate how much of someone's disorder is purely driven by the disorder itself and how much is driven by familial overlap. there's also a theory of "triggering" the disorder for those with a genetic predisposition. for example, say a child in a family with a history of mental illness experiences some serious form of abuse. this may trigger the development of the underlying mental illness in a child who, given a totally secure/safe setting, may not have developed the illness at all. adoption studies have confirmed that very secure upbringings can buffer effects of mental illness. although that is not to say that a good upbringing always keeps mental illness at bay. but in essence, you could think of this sort of scenario as one in which exposure to another's mental illness does contribute to development of the illness in another, albeit not without other contributing factors. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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schuler oscillations | i have been trying to get a grasp on exactly what schuler oscillations are, how they affect gimbaled accelerometers, and how damping algorithms in the processing suite can minimize the impact of schuler oscillations. probably the best explanation i have found by googling is here: _url_0_ but this still doesn't really make much sense to me. are schuler oscillations something we try to mimic through damping? or is it a natural phenomenon that we eliminate through damping? what does a pendulum the radius of the earth have anything to do with gimbaled accelerometers, and what would happen to my ins system if it were not schuler tuned? thanks! | "are schuler oscillations something we try to mimic through damping? or is it a natural phenomenon that we eliminate through damping?" it's a natural phenomenon. "what does a pendulum the radius of the earth have anything to do with gimbaled accelerometers, and what would happen to my ins system if it were not schuler tuned?" it has to do with the fact that we are on the surface of the earth ellipsoid, if your ins wasn't schuler tuned, the non-inertial nature of the frame as you accelerate around would screw up your navigation. check out this discussion: _url_1_ i even preferred wikipedia to your reference: _url_0_ although that might be mostly formatting. holy cow that reference you linked was hard to read for me. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.gmat.unsw.edu.au/currentstudents/ug/projects/vonk/inertial%20platforms.htm"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schuler_tuning",
"http://www.aerostudents.com/files/avionics/navigationBasicsAndInertialNavigation.pdf"
] | [
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what is artic oscillation? | i m hoping someone can explain this in layman's terms and i'm pretty sure i'll have followup questions. i've tried other subreddits with so answer... r/askscience your my only hope | i did my thesis on this and the related north atlantic oscillation. the arctic oscillation measures the strength of winds that blow from west to east, girdling the arctic region. in concert with the higher west-east winds, we see more intense low air pressure over the north pole. this is the most important atmospheric fluctuation pattern from weeks to months. the pattern also seems to change from year to year, and is apparently strengthening as global warming intensifies, though its random variations from year to year make that a little difficult to see clearly. since weather is unpredictable on time scales of weeks to months, understanding the ao better might help to improve our long-range weather forecasts. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can the general network of neural connections in the brain be characterized (approximately) by a particular fractal dimension? | if so, how much does it vary when taking a narrower perspective and looking at various particular types of local neural circuitry? or when considering its larger-scale topological arrangements separately? | for the entire brain, probably not. neural cells as a whole are irregular, (chaotic), fractals so up until now research has been done on smaller, specialized systems. many smaller systems with specific function and some form of regular connection and repetition have been characterized using both fractal dimension and logging. one that comes to mind is retinal ganglion cells and local neurons, (mid 90's i think). using comparative analysis of several species, the variance of fractal dimension in 5 classes of neurons was 1.22 to 1.71. so, there's quite a difference depending on the area of the brain you're looking at. strangely, less specialized systems that perform several functions score higher. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does anything in biology use quantum physics to perform calculations | it's commonly thought that the next big thing in computation is using quantum physics to manipulate information. i was simply curious if it were possible that evolution has already made use of quantum physics for processing. i said calculations instead of intelligence because here i am not trying to define intelligence and i am not limiting it to brains but rather any sort of information processing capabilities (ex: our learning immune system). if not, why has evolution not been able to capitalize on this aspect of how the natural world operates? | well i think this question is too vague to answer in a precise way. what counts as "computation" and what counts as "quantum physics"? there are many biochemical processes that take place at the microscopic level, and some of them are incredibly subtle. [take this light harvesting antenna for example](_url_0_) -- this beautiful arrangement of molecules has 9-fold symmetry. this is not an accident at all -- it turns out that it is optimized for energy transfer. in this example, the appropriate framework to think about these things includes quantum mechanics. i'm less certain that it would be appropriate to say that this group of molecules is doing any "computation". | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.single-molecule.nl/research/previous-research/the-electronic-structure-of-a-bacterial-antenna-complex/"
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how/why does island tameness occur in animals? | are there selection pressures acting *against* being wary of predators, or is it simply that certain traits can be lost in the absence of any selection pressure, given a sufficient amount of time? | someone in another askscience thread gave the following example (paraphrasing): imagine a species which is very easily startled. some of the individuals will be less skittish due to natural variation. the skittish individuals will run away from nothing more often than the non-skittish individuals. running away takes energy and time which could be used to find more food and reproduce more successfully. an animal can also get injured while running away. the individuals which run away less frequently has a higher chance producing offspring. eventually the trait will be predominant in the species. so, there is a selection pressure. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does paper reflect sound as well as a solid object? | paper is too thin and low in mass to reflect most sounds. so, it tends to be acoustically transparent except for very high frequencies. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
what is this fascinating fish and why is it shaped this way? | [some camera-phone pics of the fish in question.](_url_0_) [a picture of the same species from someone else](_url_1_) i was fascinated by this little fish (seen in southend aquarium in the uk today). it has an odd body shape - about two inches long, a flat base and a chunky construction. instead of a flat tail in the vertical plane it has two prongs at the back. it swims with little side fins and a little fin at the back (all hard to make out in a photo) - it was very active and seemed quite manoeuvrable. two big prongs over its eyes. could anyone enlighten me as to what this fish is, what the evolutionary functions of its features are, and what are its closest relatives? | it's a cowfish (also known as boxfish sometimes). they are related to pufferfish, filefish, and mola mola. they are covered in bony plates, meaning the body itself is quite stiff. this, along with the spikes and horns (and toxins!), makes them harder to eat. it also means they can't swim in the usual fashion (by wiggling the body and tail) so they move around by fanning their fins in a distinctive way. they are also quite maneuverable (but slow), which is helpful for a species that lives on reefs with lots of little nooks and crannies. | 20 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/hBuEG",
"http://www.flickr.com/photos/natmeister/11525542/lightbox/"
] | [
"http://www.apologeticspress.org/APContent.aspx?category=9&article=1541"
] | [
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mobile recharged by lightning. | fried. the problem is bigger than just energy, it also matters how quickly it is applied. the battery needs to have a slower and longer application of a potential so that the ions have time to diffuse from one electrode to the other. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do you see things better by not looking directly on to them while in a poor lit room? | but rather by looking on a dark area slight next to them. | rod cells are much more sensitive than cone cells, and the periphery of your eye is much more rich in rod cells (vs. the cone cell rich center). thus, the peripheral parts of your vision are much more sensitive to light than the center. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1i1fyk/why_can_you_see_dim_lights_better_out_of_the/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/xnvb6/why_do_your_eyes_take_in_light_better_when_you/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/k3fa5/what_is_happening_when_at_night_i_see_something/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/12nzq5/why_can_we_see_light_better_on_the_sides_of_our/"
] | [
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is there such a thing as "good calorie" vs "bad calorie"? | i believe one significant difference is the time profile of the metabolic energy that these different nutrients make available. pure sugar causes a short-lived and extreme spike in blood glucose, which will send the blood insulin level soaring soon after it. simple carbs have a slightly smoother time curve and complex carbs, fats and proteins are significantly slower-release. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is molten metal pored on dry ice showing the leidenfrost effect? | acording to wikipedia, the effect happens when "a liquid, in near contact with a mass significantly hotter than the liquid's boiling point, produces an insulating vapor layer keeping that liquid from boiling rapidly." [in this gif](_url_0_) there seems to take effect, but the molten material is the hot, and solid is the cold which evaporates. is it the same effect, or something else? | the situation in the gif is a bit different from the standard "water drop on hot plate" situation. here the hot (liquid metal) is actually dropped on the cold (solid dry ice). additionally, as /u/brownclan974 pointed out, here is no liquid vaporizing, but a solid sublimating (i.e. going from solid straight to gas). but what is happening is acutally quite similar. the colder material "creates" a gas phase which isolates it thermally from the hotter material. if you still can call it leidenfrost effect maybe up to semantics, but the underlying effect is the same. | 3 | [] | [
"https://i.imgur.com/lHRYflC.gifv"
] | [] | [
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when discharging a capacitor, what causes the metal to become pitted where the capacitor terminals contacted the item, for example a screwdriver? | (backstory): i was playing with a power supply board from a surround system i had taken apart and began fiddling with it as it puts out many different voltages and decided i could use it for a bench supply, anyways i though i had figured out how to turn it on similar to connecting your green and ground on a computer psu so it will start up. anyways it didn't work so i unplugged it and decided to give it another shot. common sense told me to discharge the caps on the board before i start grabbing the board. so i took a screwdriver and shorted it out. question: why does the metal piece used to short the cap become pitted in the areas of contact? | when you put a bar across a a charged capactor your producing a large current. this large current can like a welder. the metal that went missing was probably due to the metal melting from heat of the current and getting blasted away. when you got larger voltages and bigger storage capacities, you can get some really big bangs. it's best to discharge any capacitors before working on any poewr supply. i recommend using a large resistor ( > = 1m ohm) and connecting it between the terminals of the capacitor before starting any work. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do particle image velocimetry and schlieren (photography) differ? | i was reading online and came across schlieren photography, and then later i was reading a magazine that referenced piv. to my ignorant brain, they seem to be the same thing. | particle image velocimetry (piv) involves taking two pictures of a flow field, populated with some sort of illuminated seed particles, very short time apart. the seed is usually illuminated by a laser sheet. you then take the two images and study how the seed moves between the first and the second image, which gives you a flow field. the two images are studied in small "windows". this image illustrates what i'm trying to say: _url_0_ this is only 2d cross correlation piv. there's tomographic and stereo piv, that i'm not familiar with, but you can look them up. they're 3d, and give full 3d flow field, instead of the 2d vector field. schlieren photography involves taking a picture of a fluid with light illuminating it. if the fluid has a density gradient (as it would, when an object is passing through it fast), then it would have different refractive indices, which causes variations in the shadow, captured in the schlieren image. i've only ever used 2d piv, hence have a more detailed knowledge of it. this is my first time commenting on /r/askscience. please let me know if i've violated any rules. more information on cross correlation piv can be found in: keane, richard d., and ronald j. adrian. "theory of cross-correlation analysis of piv images." applied scientific research 49.3 (1992): 191-215. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/gallery/vAMarN1/"
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are there underwater supervolcanoes? | i know that we are aware of supervolcanoes on land and the world is mostly ocean, are there supervolcanoes that are underwater? and if so, what would be the result of one of those erupting? | you can see on this [map](_url_1_) that all of the known supervolcanoes are located on land. i can explain the basics here, and i'd love to hear what the volcanologists have to say. the term 'supervolcano' simply refers to [large eruption capacity](_url_0_) and is not linked to any specific volcano type, though some types of volcanoes are relatively more prone to large eruptions than others. volcanoes sourced by [felsic magma](_url_3_) tend to be explosive because their high sio2 and volatile (co2, h2o, so2) content increases viscosity, and therefore allows greater pressure to build up between eruptions. mafic magmas, on the other hand, have less of these components and are therefore less viscous. they tend to just extrude a lot of runny, black lava. felsic vocanoes occur exclusively on continental crust, which tends to be above sea level, and therefore explosive eruptions tend not to be found in the oceans. yellowstone is a popular supervolcano, and, indeed, it is generated by a hotspot of magma from the mantle punching through the continental crust of the north american plate. in contrast, [toba](_url_2_) is associated with a subduction zone, which generates magma in a striking different way--instead of coming up from the mantle, water-rich sediment deposited on one plate is brought down a trench and slides beneath another tectonic plate. weirdly enough, the water in the subducted sediment helps to melt felsic minerals in the overlying plate, which creates a magma that is more felsic than either of the two oceanic plates were to begin with. the resulting eruptions are explosive, and eventually large amounts of this "fractionated" material create continental crust that comprises large island chains like japan or indonesia. and, of course, in reality it's all actually a little more complicated than i explained. here's an [example](_url_4_). | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/yellowstone/yellowstone_sub_page_49.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano#/media/File:Supervolcano_World_Map.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Toba",
"http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/Controls.html",
"https://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/archive/2003/03_05_22.html"
] | [
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typical rate of sinking in saltwater? | essentially we're doing some underwater camera work, and we had a fishermen drop one of our new cameras over the side attached to a lobster pot, after about 30 seconds the camera ran out of light to function properly, so i was just wondering if there was any calculation to give a ballpark estimate of how far it may have sunk over that time frame. thanks! | there is no "default" speed that all objects sink in salt water. for someone to give you an answer, they need to know the density of the object as well as some information about the hydrodynamic drag of the object. if your setup is denser and more streamlined, it will fall faster. sorry i couldn't give a more satisfying answer. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how pancreas cells feels level of glucose? | how pancreas cells feels level of glucose in blood, for producing insulin or glucagon? | β-cells have the facilitative glucose transporter glut2 on the surface of their membrane, these make the cell take up glucose from circulation which through glycolysis raises the atp/adp ratio. in response to this change potassium channels open which activate downstream signalling to produce insulin. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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thinking of buying a dna analysis kit. any recommendations or experiences? | forewarning: this is a double post on my part. i tried this question in a generic ask subreddit and got nothing. figured this may be a more suitable subreddit for this kind of question. anyway, i'm interested in ordering a dna analysis kit with the hopes of accurately tracing my ancestry and to find out about any genetic markers for diseases and such. my little bit of research shows they're kind of expensive so i wanted to make sure i pick a reputable organization to go with. so far this place looks okay: _url_0_, but i'm open for suggestions from others who have had good experiences with organizations. what has been the general consensus with these types of services? are they accurate and worth the $. has anyone found out any interesting or useful information about themselves from a dna analysis? i'm also curious if by submitting your saliva for analysis, are you automatically entered into some governmental dna database used for law enforcement? not that it affects the decision, just curious. | just a users experience here. 23andme is done by testing 1 million points across your genome. it is done with an illumina microarray (approx 1 million snps). if you are interested generally out of curiosity the 100$ is probably worth the money. from there you will have a stepping stone to see the limitations. i have about 300 people who are predicted to be related upto the point of being a 6th cousin, in fact the closest relation is suspected as at best 3rd cousin with a match of about 0.40% and there are quite a few at 0.10 . you may well find the health analysis interesting but realise that it is mostly based on predicted risk and from my experience there are quite a few contradictory studies which 23andme report and their standards are supposed to be fairly high. you get access to the raw data in form of a list of rs numbers and the allelle or variation you have. each snp or single nucleotide polymorphism has one of these rs numbers. the raw data that they provide can be downloaded and used in various 3rd part software and at websites so you are not limited to just the information from 23andme. if you choose 23andme be prepared to pay a low $100 (sometimes it is free or reduced i believe and sometimes it is more, it seems to change but generally you are required to sign up for a period of 1 year or something at about 5$ per month to continue to access your account. your account is regularly updated when new studies are okayed by 23andme and your list of possible relatives tends to change, presumably as new customers come and board. not sure what i think about the whole thing really but i continue to participate. they do surveys and i think they are trying to use the data to make discoveries and recall some minor finding they published. they seem a professional organisation and i believe google are partners with one of the google founders probably sergey brin's wife being ceo or something. apparently he has an interest in this field and has discovered an elevated risk of some neurdegenerative disease due to genetic testing. if you are curious i think its worth the money as you never know what you may find out , to me i am not concerned over the data being held etc by government etc. i guess it could be abused but my opinion is that there is far greater benefit to sharing my data for the benefit of scientists and others to use and i think the more data available the more interesting and useful it becomes. you should definitely sign up for a trial account to see what sort of things you will get to see when you test is complete. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.23andme.com"
] | [] | [
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] |
not that this is something that could be easily quantified, but what 'paranormal phenomenon' is the closest to being plausible given our current understanding of science? | and/or which one somehow manages to creep a toe past your barrier of skepticism, despite your knowing better? | intelligent alien life frequently gets lumped with "paranormal" and if intelligent aliens appeared tomorrow it wouldn't particularly upset any scientific principles. or do you mean things that defy the laws of physics? well then i'd go with the superliminal neutrino result (its paranormal) as there's some evidence for it (though i'd still bet on it being a systematic bias). | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://193.189.74.53/~qubitor/people/david/structure/Documents/Non-Technical/Frontiers.html"
] | [
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for those who live in countries that tend to use sulfuric acid as a way to attack someone, would carrying around a box of baking soda help? | my thinking would be if you got hit in the face with a big bottle of sulfuric acid, if you could cover your face with enough baking soda maybe you could neutralize the acid so that the damage would be minimal. would this not work out? or would the damage still be the same? would the baking soda make it worse? thanks! | no. it would make things worse. bases neutralise acids, yes, but the process releases an extreme amount of heat. this would burn worse than the acid. the best solution with acid is washing the area with water. wash the acid away from the skin and eyes. it will take time and the longer you can wash the better. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can parasites "target" a certain area of the body? how do they know what it is? | example: explain how the parasite can target the large intestine. how would it know that what it is in is the large intestine? | it's more a question of scale and hit-and-miss. for parasitic infections you either need a big parasite (e.g. a worm of some sort) or lots and lots of smaller ones (e.g. malaria). in both cases it's a matter of time until receptors match up between the target site in the host and the parasite. in the former case it is easier for a single organism, but for infections which utilise many cells like malaria, it's a case of bombardment. the amount of cells involved makes it likely that at least a few will attach by chance to the receptors, leading to a sustainable infection. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do ecosystems(biosystems?) exist on the microscopic level and are they significant? | i have a layman's understanding of codependency regarding plants and animals within an ecosystem. if predator x goes extinct, herbivore y becomes overpopulated leading to the extinction of plant z...and so on. yet, i also know about the eradication of smallpox. the two topics never jived with me. i was taught about how viruses and bacteria interact with humans and animals, but not how they interact with each other. do microscopic ecosystems exist and, if they do, a) are they significant? b) how does the eradication of some diseases affect such systems? | certainly. your very own body is also an example of a microbiome where a bunch of bacteria compete to live on/in you. it is also why sometimes antibiotics can be harmful even when they don't harm human cells. antibiotics can indirectly cause nasty bacteria like c. difficile to colonize by eliminating its competition, non-pathogenic bacteria that normally live inside your gut. similarly, your immune system fending off a disease causing microbe could allow different microbes to colonize and takeover wherever that pathogenic microbe used to be. viruses on the other hand tend to be very host specific and moving to a different host is usually an "accident", so the eradication of smallpox might not have any impact on other species in general. indirectly, an infection with hiv could weaken the immune system of a host, and allow opportunistic viruses (that would otherwise by eliminated by a non-immunocompromised individual) to proliferate. as for direct viral-viral interactions, i don't know much about it, but i assume it would be rare, because neither of them would have what each other want (cellular machinery for replication). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_microbiota",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interspecific_competition",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations"
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could you live on just food? | let's say.. you aren't aloud any liquid besides what is already in the food, and you are limited to just what you normally eat (but you can eat whatever). is there enough water in food to satisfy a human body? | if you ate things like watermelon and cucumber- sure- they're pretty moisture heavy. do you define soup/stew as food? that's also "food" that's moisture rich. the body particularly doesn't care *where* you get water from. i think it might become an issue if you worked a very heavy labor job or lived somewhere very hot (and spent a lot of time outdoors) because you would have difficulty consuming the right volume to liquid ratio out of solid foods. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the asthenosphere a molten liquid? | the asthenosphere is molten silicate rock but further down its solid why ? it goes from the surface solid semi sold molten solid why ! | phase (that is, solid/liquid/gas) depends on both temperature and pressure. as you descend through the earth, pressure increases at one rate while temperature increases at another, meaning that different layers can be in different phases. there are some other factors at work, too, like different compositions (the core is mostly metals, for example). that being said, the asthenosphere *isn't* really liquid. it's a soft, "squishy" solid, with a consistency analogous to hot wax. it was once thought to be liquid, on the logic that it's the source of magma near the surface, which must have flowed upwards as a liquid. this is true, and as it turns out the asthenosphere *under volcanic areas specifically* does melt at the top, but that's not its normal state: it's caused by extra heat (as with mantle plumes), added water that lowers the melting temp (as with subduction zones), or a removal of pressure from weakness in the crust above it (as with continental rifts and mid-ocean spreading centers). | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible that we could ever generate electricity from the momentum being carried in falling raindrops - by capturing the force with which they land on a rooftop panel? | seeing this elsewhere on reddit today made me wonder: _url_0_ | a better way would be to collect it in large reservoirs and flow water from the reservoir through an electromagnetic turbine. we already do that. you can do the kind of thing you're talking about with some kind of piezoelectric actuator (converting vibration into electricity), but i doubt you'd get much out of it. | 13 | [] | [
"http://sciencenewsjournal.com/future-solar-panels-will-generate-energy-raindrops/"
] | [] | [
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why doesn't my friend conduct electricity? | we were playing with an electric fence, as you do. one of my friends wasn't finding it very entertaining, saying that he couldn't feel anything. we did some tests, which to me seemed conclusive. he took his shoes off and still couldn't feel anything. we made sure he wasn't faking by forming lines of people holding hands, all linked to the fence. wherever he was, anyone after him in the chain would not get zapped. he was by no means the biggest, smallest, fattest, or thinest person there. he's not the sort to try and pull the wool over anyones eyes, i believe he was genuinely confused by this as anyone else. does anyone have any idea's why this may be? | not everybody conducts electricity the same way. some peoples hands are too callused to conduct it. and some have just a natural resistance to it. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the relativitistic electromagnetism explain inductors? (esp. magnetic field energy and back emf) | edit: or a better phrasing: **the video below shows how special relativity makes 2 wires appear to repel each other electromagnetically, but how does this explain a single inductor in empty space?** whilst reviewing basic ac circuit theory for my power machines exam this weekend, veritasium's [how special relativity makes magnets work](_url_0_) came to mind. this explination of magnetism works fine for motors and its fun to think about how the pushing happens between each side of a motor air gap. but an infinitely long, perfectly straight, copper wire in empty space carrying a current would still have an inductance, according to theory. in this case, all the elecrons in this example universe are moving at the same speed. so surely the apparent magnetic effect wouldn't come into play in this example, yet there is still energy stored in the effective inductor, and it would work to resist changes in current. | at work, can't watch video, so i'm flying blind here. but einstein first developed relativity, not really to answer "why can't anything go faster than light" or other famous conclusions, but really to answer "why is it a lorentz force when the wire is moving, and an electric force when a magnet is moving?" ie, suppose i have a loop of wire, and i move it toward or away from a magnet whose pole is aligned along the axis of the loop. the charges have some velocity v, and qvxb tells us there's a lorentz force of magnetism pushing the charges around the wire. but if the wire is held steady, and now it is the magnet moving, we note that db/dt = del x e (eh i'm not looking up the equations exactly, but that's more or less the point). the changing magnetic field creates (induces) an electric field that curls around the magnetic flux, and this electric field is what's pushing the electrons around in the wire. but the universe doesn't really care whether the magnet is moving or the wire. it should be exactly the same thing, wire moving, or magnet moving. yet the "physics" according to pre-relativistic e & m is entirely different. magnetism and electric forces separately. what einstein does, at least eventually, is realize that electricity and magnetism don't just "make" each other. they *are* equivalent things. they're aspects of an overall "electromagnetic field." this bears repeating. in our heads, we hear of "electromagnetism" and we often interpret it as "well electric fields make magnetic fields and vice versa." but einstein and relativity say the only difference between and electric and magnetic field is how *you* are moving relative to some charged particle(s). for a slightly more mathy description, if you're familiar with vectors, you know that they have both magnitude and direction. one way to express them is a one-column (or row) matrix (which we often also call a "vector"), where each component is the strength in some direction. electric or magnetic fields have such a description. at any point in space (x,y,z) there's some (ex, ey, ez), electric field components pointing in the x direction, the y direction, and the z direction. but we can extend this to a kind of product of two vectors. for every position in space, and for each coordinate in space, there's a full vector of stuff. (x,y,z) has (vx, vy, vz), where vx = (vxx, vxy, vxz) and so on. this is called a (rank-2) tensor (field). {you'll often just hear it called a "tensor" because we're lazy, but tensors are the whole class of things from scalars, vectors, rank-2 tensors and beyond. and they're a field because every point in space has a different tensor that describes that specific point; so the proper name is rank-2 tensor field} however, to make electromagnetism work, you don't just need space, you need *space-time* (i go into [greater detail about what space-time is here](_url_1_), and [here](_url_0_) pardons if it veers off into the story of gravity as well.) and so we have this big matrix, [a rank-2 tensor field, that describes the electromagnetic field of... whatever you can think of](_url_2_). this is the *true* nature of electromagnetism. whatever we're used to in "electrostatics" or "magnetostatics" is only an artifact of how that tensor field appears relative to our specific observation frame. we may be moving "at rest" with respect to a charged particle and it appears to be a static electric charge, and all the forces look like coulomb forces alone. or we may be at rest to a neutral charge distribution (like a metal wire) with the charges themselves in motion within it (like that wire carrying current) and the forces look like purely lorentz forces. or we may be in some other weird state, moving and mixing both e and m. and this formulation also allows us to talk about the fact that electromagnetism isn't instantaneous, since now the changes in the em tensor field will only propagate at the speed of light. | 12 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1TKSfAkWWN0"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/20woji/could_someone_explain_the_relationship_between/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/gpaha/what_causes_gravity/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_tensor"
] | [
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i have a huge maple tree in my backyard. it towers over our three story house. what measurements/data would i need for someone to give me a good guess about it's age? | it makes delicious maple syrup too! | i'm not a scientist but i can answer this. find someone with a friend/relative who works in the forestry industry/education/government etc and borrow their core sampler. you basically drill a core sample from the center of the tree and count the rings. if the tree is really big, you might not be able to do it this way. :/ | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what insights can the tree-level feynman diagram give to the correlation function of a quantum field? | and can wick's theorem develop renormalization group perturbation theory? | the tree level feynman diagrams are the first contributions to any amplitude, and they correspond to the scattering correlation functions of the *classical* theory. see for example [here](_url_0_). by contrast the loop contributions involve additional momenta that are unfixed by momentum conservation and must be integrated over, leading to divergences and the need for a regulator. these are associated with quantum corrections. the tree level diagrams are the zeroth loop order. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/27388/tree-level-qft-and-classical-fields-particles"
] | [
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why are epidurals offered rather than nitrous oxide as pain relief during childbirth? (in the united states- not sure if this is as true on other countries). | rather than? because epidurals are much more effective at killing all pain. as an optional alternative/supplament? it's not clear. other countries do use it quite often. _url_0_ i would guess it's because of money. that is the key difference between the us medical system and most others. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ourbodiesourselves.org/2008/05/why-isnt-nitrous-oxide-widely-available-for-l/"
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|
what animal evolution experiments could reasonably be done at home? | whatever you've got. i was thinking of continually breeding insects and then spraying them with some sort of pest spray to try and create a breed of insects immune to it. | you can do natural selection on fruit flies pretty easily. here's a fun one: train flies to fly either left or right to get food (always the same direction). after about half the flies have learned which way to go for food, kill all the flies which go the correct direction and breed the rest. repeat. after many generations, you will end up with extremely stupid flies who can't learn simply associations and exhibit all kinds of messed up behaviors. this is just micro-evolution of course, you're not going to see speciation, but it is adaptation through natural selection. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the story behind the male cat's barbed penis? why would such a thing evolve like that?? | as humans we tend to associate reproduction with pleasure. i've always figured that our species would go extinct if it weren't thanks to the orgasm. so any cat experts out there that know the story behind such an apparently painful dong? do female cats actually experience great pain from this? edit: for spelling | cats are "induced ovulators" meaning that they do not ovulate unless triggered to do so. the barbs scrape the vagina and induce ovulation. it is also theorized that the barbs help scrape away the sperm of the competitor. yes, withdrawal of the penis seems painful for the female, as you can hear them yowl, but i suppose we don't know for sure whether it's out of pain or pleasure. the way the barbs face would not make insertion painful, however, so i suppose it could be pleasurable up until that point. i don't know if studies have been done on these things. mating is an instinctual drive, however, that is based very much on basal urges rather than anticipation of pleasure. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1096-3642.1946.tb00111.x/abstract"
] | [
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what is the smallest thing that you could set fire to? | like can you make fire on a micro/nanoscopic scale? | that depends what you mean by "fire". do you mean rapid exothermic oxidation? because that can happen at the molecular scale. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what caused this island vortex in lake of the woods? | _url_0_ found this while perusing google maps. if i were to hazard a guess, i'd say some sort of rotating glacier. are there other examples or is this the only one? | it's actually structure in the bedrock of the lake. the rocks in this area are extremely old and have been folded by tectonic action. this particular area has either been folded into a dome or a basin, exposing different layers of bedrock. glacial activity has more or less planed the area flat, and differential erosion of certain layers within the folded area formed valleys that flooded where the rock eroded faster. [source](_url_0_). roughly circular doming or downwarping is actually fairly common, but it's more rare for water to highlight it so clearly. impacts can also cause similar structures. see lake manicouagan for an example of this type. to tell the difference, one needs to look at the rocks closely, looking for signs such as [shatter cones](_url_2_), [shocked quartz](_url_1_), or silica that has been compressed into high-pressure phases. | 65 | [] | [
"http://goo.gl/maps/M5WaV"
] | [
"http://www.mhs.mb.ca/docs/transactions/1/lakeofthewoods.shtml",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shocked_quartz",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shatter_cone"
] | [
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why aren't runways sloped? | seems to me that a plane can accelerate faster upon takeoff, and decelerate faster upon landing, with a sloped runway. | which way do you slope it? take off and landing direction for a given runway changes depending on wind direction. also, a lot of airports have multiple perpendicular runways, that would get tricky. and they're extremely expensive to build as it is, i can't imagine adding a slope would offset the cost of a slightly shorter runway anyway. finally, sloped runways are a little tricky to land on because they create an optical illusion that makes it seem you're too high on the approach (or too low, if it's sloping down away from you). level runways provide a consistent sight picture so you don't get confused or disoriented about your glideslope. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do scientists determine if there are hidden variables in an experiment? | i’m putting this under physics because quantum mechanics is a good example of proving there are no hidden variables, but how do scientists know for certain other unknown variables are not changing which could drastically skew how the experimental variable is understood? | simple answer: we can’t. but we do our best to make sure we’ve accounted for everything possible and think through everything that can happen during an experiment and attempt to reason out what may have skewed any results. then let the community know so it’s no longer an unknown. to share an experience of a friend working in synthetic chemistry. he found that using the exact same recipe for synthesis of oxide particles produced different sizes and shapes over the course of his study. after combing through all of the notes, examining the precursors (ingredients), testing the calibration of various equipment involved, etc...it was found that the quality of the synthesis depended on the season of the year. specifically, we are in a 4 season region where it is more humid in the summer and dry in the winter, and at some point during the synthesis the ambient humidity played a role. now that “hidden variable” has been identified and we know the whole process needs to be done in a controlled atmosphere to produce consistent results. bummer for the past samples that were poor due to varied humidity, but overall that’s actually a scientific discovery: effect of ambient humidity on the synthesis of these particles. then we published an article about it so other scientists know about it. you’d be surprised how much of science is an “accidental” discovery. sorry if this wasn’t quite the answer you were looking for, but i think it’s a pretty standard experience for many scientists. the whole business is figuring out these hidden variables that we dont understand yet and their connections to what we do. sorry for any typos, on mobile and this ended up being longer than i anticipated. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do i make intuitive sense of lagrangian density? | i'm puttering my way through [quantum field theory for the gifted amateur](_url_0_), but i've hit a bit of a snag. he defines the (non-field) lagrangian, and i understand it fairly well from what i learned in my c-mech course, but i'm sort of stuck at trying to understand what lagrangian density means. the definition lancaster gives is l = ∫**l**dx where l is a typical lagrangian and **l** is the lagrangian density. the integral is, as far as i can tell, implied to be over all space(time?). what i'm having a hard time with is understanding what **l** means in an intuitive sense. mathematically it's straightforward, but i can't really get any sort of physical bearing on what it means if, say, i were given a function(al?) for **l**. edit: if we're being anal-retentive, l = ∫**l**d^(3)**x**, as far as i can tell. he only uses the spacetime derivative in a lagrangian density context. | start from your usual lagrangian. the one you could use to describe a free particle for example. l = p^2 / (2m) now add a second particle. and an interaction between the two (just to avoid making it too simple). l = (p_1)^2 / (2m) + (p_2)^2 / (2m) + v(r_12) now repeat until you get to n particles. every term in your lagrangian will carry one or more indexes associated to the i particle. assume now that the index can be turned into a continuous parameter, which means that you are turning your discrete distribution of particles into a field. that's exactly what you need for your field theory. but the summation over a continuous index is an integral and the continuous parameter is the position **x** . therfore the sum of a discrete number of terms becomes the integral over a continuous parameter **x**. in this sense there is nothing weird in your lagrangian density. it has of course to satisfy dimensional requirements. not incidentally these requirements are extremely significant because they limit the number of interaction terms in your theory (see for example peskin & schroeder 4.1). this also answers another question: what about the interaction term? it appears at first that you have to find some functions of the fields whose integral over the space is your original potential. but the argument before tells you that only a very limited set of interactions is allowed so that you can start working directly with the lagrangian density and almost forget the original one. actually many of the classical results, such as noether's theorem, eulero-lagrange equations, etc. have an analogous in terms of the lagrangian density. the time integral of the lagrangian, or the space-time integral of the lagrangian density is still the action which is another extremely important quantity (it enters the expression for the transition amplitudes, i.e. to compute feynman diagrams, among other things). there is still a tiny little problem. the boundary of your space might give non null contribution to the integral. this can be treated (as far as i know) but it is usually avoided, with the assumption that your theory is somehow local. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Quantum-Field-Theory-Gifted-Amateur/dp/019969933X"
] | [] | [
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why is the "plasma frequency" in electrodynamics called "plasma"? | [plasma oscillations](_url_0_) are a general plasma phenomenon. electron motion in a conductor in response to an electric field is similar to the kinds of oscillations that would happen in a literal plasma. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_oscillation"
] | [
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|
can someone explain to me why this math doesn't seem to check out? | in optics, according to snell's law, n = (sin i) / (sin r) but, when finding the critical angle(θc) (when r = 90) it would seem to follow that: n = sin (θc) / (sin 90) so n = sin θc / 1 n = sin θc so: θc = sin^-1 (n) but this is not the case, why? it is actually: θc = sin^-1 (1/n) | it's been a while since i did optics, but i think you're using two different 'n's. snell's law relates the ratio of refractive indices n_*in*_ and n_*out*_ to the sines of their respective angles θ_*in*_ and θ_*out*_ via n_*out*_ / n_*in*_ = sin(θ_*in*_)/sin(θ_*out*_). the first equation you present appears to be assuming n_*in*_ = 1 (perhaps the beam is incident through air and you're using an approximate value), so n in this case is n_*out*_. on the other hand, the last equation you present (the "actual equation" for θ_*c*_) is true when you assume n_*out*_ = 1 (where the beam is refracted through air), so n in this equation is really n_*in*_. note that you only get total internal reflection when you go from a higher index material to a lower index material. if you're coming from air, you're not likely to encounter many materials with lower refractive indices, but that's what you're assuming in your derivation. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why does hseo4- have a higher ka value (ka=2.2x10^-2) than hso4-(ka=1.2x10^-2)? x-post from r/chemistry. | i just finished a test (gen chem ii), and this question absolutely baffled me. according to everything i've read hydrogen sulfate should have the higher ka due to sulfur's higher electronegativity, being that the oxygens are not a factor because they are matched in the hydrogen selenate. | i don't have any answers that are not pure hand-wavy speculation, so i did some digging. there's [this article](_url_2_) which found the ka of the second proton of sulfuric acid to be 1.2 x 10^-2, while the corresponding proton for selenic acid was 1.0 x 10^-2 - interesting result, especially considering [this paper](_url_1_) which found the delta g values to be 2.67 kcal/mol and 2.26 kcal/mol for bisulfate and biselenate, respectively. these two results seem to conflict - and there's even [this lecture (page 11)](_url_0_) which states that sulfuric acid is stronger than selenic acid, though which proton he's referring to is unclear. so given all this, i really have no clue. however, given that you're in gen chem ii, the answer they're looking for probably is the polarizability of the two atoms, with selenium having its bonding electrons in a further orbital, making the pi electron more labile and giving the selenium the bigger partial positive charge. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mpilkington.com/Lecture_22.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022190264800166",
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01257a010"
] | [
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what is "nothing" made of? | so if i had a vaccuum chamber and pumped all of the air out (which would be o2 n2 h2 etc) to an absolute vacuum, then the chamber should then be free of any molecules. is there anything in the now created void/ making up the space? which brought me to space.. so that's a vaccum, and uv rays, light photons, solar radiation etc. travel from the sun.. but is there no real medium they travel through? just thinking, and i couldnt come up with an answer based off my knowledge lol thanks! | there will still be a tiny amount of air in your vacuum chamber, you can't pump out every single molecule. but otherwise, no, there is nothing "created in the void". space isn't a perfect vacuum, just a very dilute gas. electromagnetic radiation (light, uv, etc.) doesn't need any medium. they are waves in the electromagnetic field, which exists everywhere in space. a medium can modify the electromagnetic wave because any material has some response to electric and magnetic fields. this effect gives rise to the refractive index of a material. solar wind is more or less hydrogen plasma, so it's just ions and electrons flying through space. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can we have a mental limit of comprehending things just like we have a physical limit to which we can push our bodies to? | i mean is there a point where there is no more knowledge to be ascertained because we are mentally incapable to understand it? | the mind is bounded in many ways. describing these limits is more complex than describing limits for physical exercise, which can often be better quantified. to give a few examples: we make systematic mistakes in estimating risk or generally making decisions. for example, people are afraid of plane crashes rather than heart disease, even though heart disease is relatively likely to kill us. these mistakes can be explained by mental shortcuts, which work quite well in general, but fail miserably on occasion. we are limited in how complex sentences can be; the actual limit is soft rather than hard, but it's clear that shorter, simpler sentence structure is understood more easily by more people. we are quite limited in our memory, too. that one is easy to understand, but more difficult to actually quantify. psychologists have proposed hard limits here - such as 7 plus or minus two items for working memory, or "about two" items. subsequent research then showed that things are more complicated than that. similarly, our long-term memory is not perfect. however, research has shown that much of these limitations are often helpful, as they let us focus on what is in context and thus relevant for the current situation. these are just examples. cognition is full of such limitations, and individuals differ, to some extent, in what they can do with their minds. as you see, research has developed ways to describe the limitations, which are much more concrete than just saying that they are limits to "comprehending things". i do not think that there ought to be reasonable limits to human exploration of nature. in the enlightened time since, perhaps, j.w. goethe, individuals have no longer been able to have a reasonable understanding of all of mankind's knowledge. as a species, as well as as individuals, we will be able to manage the complexity of available information. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in iss time lapse video, it says "aurora australis over madagascar". can this be true? | according to my knowledge about auroras, they are created by the magnetic fields forcing particles form solar winds down around the poles. surely madagascar is not south enough to have aurora australis? the video can be seen at 2.02 at this link: _url_0_ | i find it odd that your immediate reaction is to doubt nasa. pretty ssure they know what they're about. the most important bit of info you're missing is the existence of the "south atlantic anomaly", it's almost like a hole in the earth's magnetic field, or another pole. at it spreads from south america all the way to the edge of madagascar. the saa is most likely responsible for the existence of aurorae near madagascar despite it being at only 20 deg. s latitude. | 4 | [] | [
"http://vimeo.com/32430473"
] | [] | [
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do all living things use electric impulses throughout their bodies to move and do everything else? | from my (admittedly limited) understanding of human beings' bodies, i assume that we use electric impulses throughout our entire body to move and do pretty much everything else that is required to be alive. is this true of other organisms? are there any creatures out there that manipulate their bodies in some other way that does not involve electric impulses? specifically, i'm curious if it is accurate to say: all living things send electrical signals throughout their bodies and this is how most functions (from "brain" to body) are carried out. i appreciate any help that is offered! edit: i also don't know if this would fall under physics, chemistry or biology, so i have no clue what flair to attach to this question. any help with that would be greatly appreciated too! | the neural system, in evolutionary terms, is a pretty recent invention. it allows for very fast communication between different cells within a multicellular organism. it allows an organism to integrate stimuli from the environment and produce a single response to them. for any unicellular organism, there is no need for this fast communication, because the organism is a unit by itself and hence all coordination required for survival is intracellular. they don't use electrical impulses to communicate. i'm sure if you look at simple organisms that are 'less evolved' they would not have a nervous system. however, i'm not a biologist, so i can say for sure what they are! but the basic idea, electric impulses allow quick communication between cells that have to work together for the survival of the whole organism :) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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infectious mononucleosis and fatigue | i'm doing some research on infectious mononucleosis. i'm interested in the pathophysiology of the disease, but as it turns out, a lot of it is either unknown, unproven, or burried deep in the depths of the internet. i was wondering if maybe some kind smart redditor could point me in the right direction! my major question is this: how does mono cause fatigue? i know that it infects b-lymphocytes in the bloodstream, but i don't understand how this leads to fatigue. the other question i had is probably simpler; how does the typical amoxicillan rash result from mono? thanks in advance! | epstein-barr virus (the virus that causes mono) is unusual because in people who don't have a functioning immune system, it quickly produces what is basically a b-cell lymphoma (cancer of the b lymphocytes). when certain viral proteins are produced in human cells, they send signals to the nucleus to make the cells proliferate uncontrollably. when you first get infected by ebv, your immune system obviously hasn't encountered it before, so the killer t cells don't recognize the viral proteins. therefore there's a window of time in which infected b cells can multiply uncontrollably. the cells that get infected are mostly not in the bloodstream, they are in lymphoid organs like the spleen, lymph nodes and tonsils. after a few days, t cells also start to multiply, and the t cells start killing off the infected b cells. all of this cellular proliferation leads to visible swelling of the lymph nodes and tonsils. eventually the number of infected cells decreases, but it takes a while. after the infection is resolved, you end up with very few infected cells, and those ones are in the bloodstream. so how does it cause more fatigue than other viral infections? well, like many other viruses, it causes fever, flu-like symptoms, lack of appetite and general tiredness associated with the body having to use a lot of resources to fight off an infection. but this virus also has the unusual ability to induce massive proliferation of b lymphocytes -- so you are also using a lot of energy to produce first the b lymphocytes and then the t lymphocytes which kill them off. and then once those cells are killed, the liver has to put a lot of energy into breaking them down. that may not be a complete explanation (it doesn't explain why sometimes the fatigue lasts for months after the initial infection has been controlled), but it should indicate how this viral infection differs from other viral infections. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a while ago i read somewhere that there is no true equation for flight. if this is true, why is this so difficult to equate? | i read somewhere that there is no actual equation for flight. there are equations that are components for flight, however there is no one equation. have i been fooled? if not why is this so difficult to come up with. | the [kutta-joukowski theorm](_url_0_) is probably the most intuitive and general equation for lift as it covers both an airfoil or a ball with backspin, but it doesn't consider angle of attack. the navier-stokes equations are even more general, but often need numerical methods for their solutions. so what you may be referring to is the lack of an analytically solvable equation which encompasses all the lifting forces during flight. regardless if you are interested in equations of flight you should check out that wikipedia link, and don't be intimidated by the derivations. it basically says that the lifting force equals (length of wing)x(density of the medium)x(the velocity of the craft)x(the circulation around the wing) lets break that down. **length of wing and density** longer wings equal more lift, but so does a denser medium. this is why submarines have such short "wings." they move through water, which is 3 orders of magnitude denser, so they provide way more lift with shorter "wings." **velocity** this is why planes need a runway to develop speed before taking off **circulation** this is the trickiest to understand, but isn't too bad. imagine a steady wind. if you made a closed loop in this velocity field, in which you add up the velocity that each element of your loop experiences it would sum to zero, because all your upwind segments would cancel your down wind segments. now do this for a ball spinning in the air and you will have a non zero number equal to the circulation. if the ball is now moving it generates lift. if you do this for a wing you also get a non zero number because the air travels faster above the wing that below due to the asymmetry of the airfoil. now consider an acrobatic plane flying upside down. clearly the airfoil isn't the only thing that can provide lift. the angle of attack becomes much more important in many scenarios. angle of attack is what your fan blade uses to push air around the room. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutta%E2%80%93Joukowski_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations"
] | [
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what is the benefit of using a "perfect white" calibration material like spectralon for photospectrometers? | i recently saw a presentation where i learned that spectralon is used to calibrate photospectrometers because it reflects close to perfect white light. later on there was demo of spectroscopy readings, and they instead used a home-made integrating sphere that used rgb lights and titanium dioxide white paint. he noted that the data product showed a slight planck curve because he was using an incandescent light source. if he had used spectralon, would it have still produced the planck curve? or would it have normalized the curve somehow? sorry if these are dumb questions, my understanding of optics is fuzzy. | spectralon is just really good white paint, it will reflect the spectrum of your light source really well, but it won't make a non-uniform source any more uniform (with the exception of a theoretical light source that is just ever so slightly non-uniform in the exact ways to be canceled out by spectralon's slight non-uniformities). to have an ideal reflected spectrum you need an ideal light source **and** an ideal reflector. real life light sources and reflectors are not ideal, and they are generally not ideal in a directional way (specular / non-lambertian components that vary by wavelength), so you generally can't perfectly model the reflected spectrum without accounting for the angles involved (light source to reflector, reflector to detector) -- with good light sources and good reflectors (like spectralon) you can get the anglular non-uniformity aspect down to negligible for most applications. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what are the universal wave function and universe boundary laws and why do they make this comic funny? | i came across [this smbc comic](_url_0_) and i tried looking at the wiki pages for the theories it says but i still don't get it. what's the joke? | the universal boundary condition is the original state of the universe, ie: exactly what it was like when it "began." the universal wave function would be a description of how any given state of the universe changes into any other (a theory that describes how *everything* behaves, everywhere). it's saying "the reason wwi happened is that the universe began the way it did and has the physical laws it does." | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.smbc-comics.com/?db=comics&id=2195#comic"
] | [] | [
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how do the voyager crafts phone home? | these crafts are now somewhere beyond pluto in deep space. how do they communicate information to home base, how long does that information take in transit, and is it possible to send anything back? | big-ass radio dishes. on the probes and on earth. the probes are powered by, iirc, a small nuclear reactor that provides electrical energy. radio signals travel at lightspeed. voyager 1 and voyager 2 are, respectively, about 16.5 and 13.5 light-hours from earth; so that's how long it takes to communicate with them. they both still work, though after 34 years various components are starting to fail, and their power supplies are running out. they send back data regularly, and they can also receive commands. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does cold have diminishing returns, e.g. does -40 degrees generally really feel that much colder than zero degrees? | i can tell you first hand from living in north dakota that base temp is not the end all be all of feeling cold. the air from these arctic high pressure systems that have had a strangle-hold on us this whole winter is typically very dry and *crisp* if that makes sense. it's a lot different than that damp, wet cold you get on the east coast in winter. this weekend it was sunny, calm, and -15f out. today, it's snowy, windy, and 3f out, and it feels much colder today than it was this weekend even though the base temp was about 20 degrees colder over the weekend. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how has industrialization and the industrial revolution affected natural selection? | i read about the moths in england but i was wondering how industrialization has affected natural selection either positively or negatively. | lots of animals have benefited by cities. the species that benefit tend to be omnivorous and generalists, meaning they have multiple ways of surviving and are not restricted to one habitat type or food type. some great examples: rats, mice, crows, racoons, pigeons, starlings, house sparrows, opossums, gulls, grey squirrels. these are mainly north american examples, in other places local species may find it easier to live in cities. these species thrive in urban settings, but it is not without risk. [more on urban wildlife](_url_0_) here is a case of animals changing their behaviour because they live in an urban setting: "a case is the urban great tits, which have been found to sing at a higher pitch than their rural relatives so that their songs stand out above the city noise, although this is probably a learned rather than evolved response." also, some cities artificially enhance the landscape. cities with many birder enthusiasts often also have lots of bird feeders / hummingbird feeders. this can artificially create bigger populations of song birds or create a means for these birds to over winter. some do not like the idea of artificially enhancing populations, others think it is good as it gives a mean for rare or threatened species a place to live. it also can artificially extend the habitat range of species. cities on the "edge" of a bird range may provide a source of refuge. of course, cities can also harm. first they remove suitable habitat displacing many sensitive species or species we consider "threats". wolves, cougars, large ungulates etc are often displaced, killed or relocated. birds also have one more major threat: [outdoor cats](_url_1_). outdoor cats account for many of the bird deaths in urban areas. in some places they can have a really negative impact on populations of animals like birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians. this is why it is important to have indoor cats, also indoor cats live longer then outdoor cats. cities also pollute and degrade surrounding ecosystems through use or mismanagement of waste. other species are just very sensitive to disturbances (like frogs) noise, degradation in air quality, waste etc. will drive these species away. these species are more vulnerable to population crashes. their populations have either become smaller or more fragmented which can effect their ability to survive within the local landscape possibly leading to extirpation or extinction. [more on urban ecology](_url_2_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_wildlife",
"http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/blogs/outdoor-cats-are-prolific-killers-study-finds",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_ecology"
] | [
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how do we know that the conditions created in the lhc are like those which existed at the birth of the universe? | reading a recent article about the lhc inching closer to finding the higgs boson, there was a plug about how the conditions created in the accelerator mimic the conditions "1 trillionth to 2 trillionths of a second after the big bang" and i thought to myself: "how exactly do we know that this is accurate?" pardon me if this is elementary, this is a question i believe can be answered accurately here. | well the exact time to the trillionth of second is like any physics calculation: it's based on a model with many simplifications and assumptions and data that has limited precision. but once you accept all that and do a calculation, you get a number. the big bang is basically just a theory of matter and radiation at very high energy densities. the closer to the bang you get, the hotter and more dense everything is. the lhc is capable of producing higher energy densities than any other particle accelerator, so in that sense it's closer to the 'conditions' of the universe near the big bang than any other experiment. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there research showing that learning something once makes relearning it easier? | that is, is relearning something a number of years after having first learned it easier than learning it the first time? (assuming that it's been long enough to essentially forget it.) | this may not be exactly what you're referring to, but in [classical (pavlovian) conditioning](_url_0_), this is referred to as *reacquisition*, and the answer to your question is yes, it is easier the second time. in the pavlov's dog example, you first pair the bell sound with the serving of food until eventually the dogs learn to associate the two and start salivating at the sound of the bell. then, you stop serving the food with the bell, and eventually the dogs will stop salivating at the sound (called *extinction*). finally, if you start pairing the bell and the food once more, the dogs will again learn to associate the two, but faster the second time. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning#Recovery_from_extinction"
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just watched "limitless." is there any sort of drug that "opens" your brain like that? | there are drugs like adderall and modaffinil that are effective at increasing wakefulness and concentration and are therefore used by people with adhd and narcolepsy respectively. because of this, some people also misuse the drugs for partying/studying/etc. however, in respect to the movie, the basic concepts are very flawed. firstly, we don't "only use 10% of our brain", that's a very old myth and our brain is far more complicated than we use x amount of it. additionally, if there were a drug that made more of our brain active, it would actually do a far better job of lower our productivity than raising it. **it is as important for your brain to inhibit signals as it is for it to send signals**. if you were in some way able to overdrive your brain it would become less effective. additionally, neurochemicals tend to impact on eachother (more dopamine = less serotonin etc.) so there would be very weird side effects. tl;dr no | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does the body have a standard unit of length it uses to determine how long to grow arms, ears, etc.? | the short answer is no. the long answer is [developmental biology](_url_0_). the growth of structures in an organism is controlled by the concentration of chemicals called [morphogens](_url_3_). most morphogens are rnas or proteins coded by the organism's genome and produced during specific parts of development - the [*hox* genes](_url_6_) are a good example. often morphogens are "stuck" in a certain part of the organism and/or inhibit each other so you can't develop two opposing structures in the same location ([here's](_url_4_) a detailed example of how inhibitory interactions and tethering control the development of the "head" and "tail" ends of a fruit fly). in general, putting a morphogen in the wrong location during development causes the formation of a structure that shouldn't be in that location ([here is an example](_url_2_) in which adding fibroblast growth factor, or fgf, to a chicken embryo in the region where limbs will arise caused it to grow an extra leg). when talking about appendage and facial feature development morphogens interact in very complex ways, and most of what governs the size of those structures has to do with how far the morphogens diffuse through the structure as it develops and how long those signals persist during development. limbs begin as [projections of cells](_url_1_) where most of the morphogens are produced in the very outer layer of cells - the [apical ectodermal ridge](_url_5_). one morphogen induced by the apcial ectodermal ridge is [sonic hedgehog](_url_7_) (aka *shh*, the coolest named protein ever). adding extra sonic hedgehog at specific points [causes elongation of the limb towards the location where it was added](_url_8_). essentially, if the production of sonic and other limb morphogens was unlimited, the limb would just keep getting longer and longer. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology",
"http://www.columbia.edu/itc/hs/medical/humandev/2007/HD15/HD15key.key/6.png",
"http://www.columbia.edu/itc/hs/medical/humandev/2007/HD15/HD15key.key/FGF%20bead%20comp%20copy.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphogen",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10039/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apical_ectodermal_ridge",
"http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/hox-genes-in-development-the-hox-code-41402",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shh",
"http://www.columbia.edu/itc/hs/medical/humandev/2007/HD15/HD15key.key/Shh%20Protein%20=%20ZPA.jpg"
] | [
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|
does the human body have a healing priority? | i know the body has a conservation priority, e.g. sacrificing blood to the extremities in extreme cold to keep the core and brain warm longer, but if multiple traumas are sustained, can the body dedicate resources to more important areas to heal faster? | not really. healing is an automatic process. it will start as soon as the trauma is over regardless of the condition of the rest of the body. however, healing is dependent on a couple of factor, one of which is blood flow. in that respect, your body will cut a flow to an area with a severe hemoragic trauma and try to increase blood flow to an area under ischemic stress (lack of oxygen). keep in mind that the control over blow flow is somewhat limited. your body won't stop you from bleeding out if a major artery is damaged, and it won't stop you from dying of a heart attack if one of your 3 coronary artery is absolutely clogged. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
ignoring the issues of perspective, is it possible for time to ever end? | relative to the universe alone, will time ever end or does its very nature not allow for that? | i imagine that answer is unknown. since universal end is unknown. i would imagine that as long as there is movement in space there will be movement in time. one could also argue that time would continue on since we don't know what lays outside the universe and there could be more...something for time to interact with. unless time is encompassed in our physical area alone. bah, yes. i think it is possible for time to continue on indefinitely and possible never had an actual start. only a measurable start since for humans time is a function of distance and rate. or i am way off because i havn't studied in a long time. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedmann%E2%80%93Lema%C3%AEtre%E2%80%93Robertson%E2%80%93Walker_metric",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Crunch",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedmann_equations#Density_parameter",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmological_principle"
] | [
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] |
is there a diagram that depicts all the known decay modes of every known particle? | i thought op was going to ask for a chart representing the half life of every unstable isotope, and what they decay into. that, i would love to see. seriously, if that does not exist, i used to be a graphic designer by trade. i'd volunteer my services to create it if someone pitched in the whole 'knowledge' aspect of it. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mesons",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_baryons"
] | [
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|
how is my hairdryer "ionic"? | to clarify as to why a hairdryer is "ionic" in the first place, wikipedia tells, an ionic hairdryer sends anions into your hair to reduce electrstatic charges from combing and brushing (manufacturer statement). but how does my hairdryer produce those ions and what anions are they exactly? | i'll take a stab: i think what happens is as the air is drawn into the hair dryer, there are a set of metal plates (not sure what kind) that are charged with an electric field. as air rushes past, it is possible for some molecules of o2 or n2 (the principle components of air) as well as co2 (a minor component) to pick up an extra electron, making it negatively charged. the most likely molecules for carrying a negative charge are most likely o2 and co2, though. here's the kicker though: those negatively charged molecules won't exist very long as negatively charged molecules. since the molecules aren't used to having that extra electron & they were just fine without it, they're going to expel it like a kid's stomach contents on his 21st birthday. that electron could make it all the way to your hair, or it could go in the complete opposite direction, or it could be absorbed by your body, or a litany of other possibilities. that's why some might dismiss this technology as a marketing scheme. tl;dr: charged electric plates generate an electric field which molecules of air pass through & pick up an extra electron. the anions are most likely n2- & o2-. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.linkedin.com/in/pjhoward",
"http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110001080304/en/",
"http://www.qsl.net/ng3p/haminfo/ham-tutor/simple_capacitor.jpg",
"http://www.webmd.com/balance/features/negative-ions-create-positive-vibes",
"http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRI/v4/i5/p375_1",
"http://api.viglink.com/api/click?format=go&key=6afc78eea2339e9c047ab6748b0d37e7&loc=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicsforums.com%2Fshowthread.php%3Ft%3D250642&v=1&libid=1357221408686&out=http%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FGMA%2FBeautySecrets%2Fstory%3Fid%3D125105%26page%3D1&ref=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F&title=Ionic%20hair%20dyers&txt=http%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FGMA%2FBeautySecr...%3D125105%26amp%3Bpage%3D1&jsonp=vglnk_jsonp_13572232816112"
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every place where the top 20 most recognizable scents are listed, a yale university study is cited, with no source. i can't find the source. can anyone help? | crayola themselves state that they do not have the full study, however they do post the list that yale allegedly gave them here: [1](_url_0_) some searching on google scholar and pubmed hasn't produced anything referencing this study explicitly and since yale has a fairly esteemed reputation for publications, i am inclined to believe it does not exist and may have been 'created' by crayola for publicity, or taken from an unofficial volunteer survey-type "study", which wasn't actually done with scientific controls or peer reviewed data publishing. if you are interested in learning about how the brain responds to scent and odour recognition, [this](_url_1_) article is a good place to start and makes for some interesting reading. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.crayola.com/faq/another-topic/do-you-have-a-complete-list-of-the-most-recognizable-smells-poll/",
"http://www.cajal.csic.es/actividades2011/smell-images.pdf",
"http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&dat=19940719&id=Za8fAAAAIBAJ&sjid=IdcEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4437,2597694"
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|
can compressed air cause an air embolism in the blood vessels? | i was helping my friend's dad move some things in his garage, and while cleaning using his air compressor, he warned me not to put my hand in front of the nozzle because it could cause an air bubble to form. having an undergrad degree in physiology, this immediately sounded like an old wives' tale. however, before laying it to rest, i'd like to know if anyone from this community can give a clear answer to these questions: 1) under high pressure (assume 125psi), can the skin become permeable enough to allow gasses through? edit: [the minimum pressure required to breach intact human skin is 100psi](_url_1_) 2) should the skin rupture, and gas were to spread into subcutaneous regions, can gas be absorbed into the venous system? edit: [yes](_url_0_) the wikipedia article for [air embolism](_url_2_) does state the air compressor mechanism, but of course, it is marked as [needs citation] along with many other points in the article. | from what literature i could find, you're more likely to suffer from local tissue damage, which is referred to as "high pressure injection injury", than an embolism. please note: some of the photos in the following article are graphic. _url_0_ according to a reference cited by the following article, it is possible for air bubbles to form in your circulatory system at the site of injury. search the article for the term 'embolism' and review reference #10 for more information. please note: some of the photos in the following article are graphic. _url_1_ the following article also says that air embolisms are a possible consequence of high pressure injection injuries. * reason for editing: ( forgot a link: _url_2_ ) | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2532970/",
"http://www.cmki.org/lmhs/chapters/13i-injection.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_embolism"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2291478/",
"http://www.cmki.org/lmhs/chapters/13i-injection.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2532970/"
] | [
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how do you take up more mass by exercising? | i know just about nothing about this, but want to know more. if you work out and lift weights and stuff you gain muscle mass, but matter can't be created/destroyed blah blah. this could be an incredibly stupid, but i just wanna know! | this question actually has nothing to do with the law of conservation of mass or energy. you don't take up more mass by exercising; in fact, you technically **lose** mass because you are sweating water and other substances out, as well as converting your food into heat and having this heat escape your body. it's just that when your muscle fibers are damaged through exercise, they "over-heal" (to put it very unsophisticated-sounding). the food you eat contributes to feeding these growing muscles, which adds more mass to your body. so you *lose* mass through exercising, but more than make up for it with a proper diet. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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simple question : can marijuanna really affect brain cells ? | simple and serious question : can marijuanna affect brain/memory cells ? post source if possible | some of marijuana's active ingredients, delta^9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (thc), cannabinol and cannabidiol, are structurally and functionally similar to a class of neurotransmitter signalling molecules in the brain called endocannabinoids. these molecules interact with cannabinoid receptors on the neurons in your brain. these receptors are common throughout the brain. the natural function of these molecules is, in the short term, to suppress the activity of the neurons. essentially, neurons use the cannabinoid signal to control how much input they receive. for example, imagine you are a neuron and reddit is another neuron. you are trying to submit links to reddit (analogous to one neuron signalling to another). at some point, reddit decides it has had enough signals from you, and sends back a message to you: "you have submitted too many links" and forces you to stop sending signals to reddit. this "stop" message is essentially what cannabinoids do in the brain. they act as a retrograde signal from post-synaptic neurons that decreases neurotransmitter release from the pre-synaptic neurons. so in short, yes, marijuana directly affects brain cells via the cannabinoid receptor pathway, and it acts to generally suppress activity, in the short term. however, the long term story is much more complicated. the cannabinoid receptors work by causing a cascade of signalling molecules in the cell, the long term effect of which is really unknown. over-activation of these pathways, which would occur in chronic, heavy marijuana usage, would be likely to have some sort of lasting effect, but the mechanism for this is not really known yet. the fact is that we don't really know enough about cannabinoid receptors or the signalling pathways they control to give a definitive answer about long term effects. however, a common theme in neuroscience is that when a certain pathway is overstimulated, the brain reacts by down-regulating that pathway. some studies have shown that supplying a lot of thc will actually cause the brain to remove cannabinoid receptors from neurons, thus making the natural endocannabinoids less effective. tl;dr, thc directly affects brain cells via a known pathway, but the long term effects have not yet been fully characterized or understood. sources: _url_2_ _url_0_ _url_1_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10582605",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16109430",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9667767"
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does loop quantum cosmology require an ether, and if so, wasn't this ruled out experimentally in the early 20th century? | loop quantum gravity models spacetime itself as being made up of quanta, explaining matter as wrinkles in the medium. isn't this similar to explaining electromagnetism as waves in the ether? | no it does not require an ether. it is fully compatible with general relativity for all experiments until quite recently. it does, however, predict different speeds of light for different wavelengths, which has been ruled out experimentally. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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resistance between two points in an infinite volume | lets say you have a volume of infinite size of some material with uniform resistivity, like a cube of infinite side length. now place two points some distance, d, inside the cube (shouldn't matter where should it? since the cube is infinite). given the resistivity of the material, how would you determine the resistance between the two points? | i'm not sure about your question specifically but there is a lot of information out there about [resistance between two nodes in an infinite grid of resistors](_url_0_). i'm thinking you could probably take the limit of the three-dimensional case as the length and resistivity of each edge becomes zero? | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~doyle/docs/net/net.pdf",
"http://www.eng.fsu.edu/~dommelen/pdes/style_a/pninf.html"
] | [
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how different is the back end of a 3g network, and a corporate wifi network that uses access points? | i'm a dunce and an it junior. just interested if anyone knows about both and could therefore give a lament description. the use of hand-puppets in the description will get upvotes. | wifi is usually a short hop onto an ip-based network. cell sites actually use ip nowadays, too, but it has more to it than your usual ethernet network in order to handle the other features involved. _url_1_ _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switching_subsystem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPRS_core_network"
] | [
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are exogenic fulgurites a real thing, and if so did i find some? | so i found this while hiking through the desert in far northeastern california. it's a very rural area, and to the best of my knowledge no sort of industrial work that would produce slag had gone on nearby. my first thought when a piece just slightly caught my eye was obsidian, so i picked it up out of interest because it wasn't an area where we've ever seen obsidian. the iridescent/metallic sheen made me take a second look and then i realized that the pieces seemed scattered in a circular "blast pattern" around a central area. whatever it is, it's very pretty, so i marked it on the gps and came back out a few weeks later to collect a bit. my family (generations of rockhounds) seemed generally inclined to think that it was some sort of lightning formation/fulgurite, but it looked nothing like pictures i'd seen of fulgurites. i did dig down a bit at what seemed to be the epicenter, hoping to find an actual tube-shaped fulgurite, but unfortunately there was an immense anthill that this disturbed and it just wasn't worth the pain after about 10 bites. [this website](_url_0_) is one of only a few places i've seen with pictures of the same stuff i have. although mine aren't quite as big they look exactly the same. they call theirs "exogenic fulgurites" but for obvious reasons i'm not taking them as an authority. furthermore, i can't find anything reputable online about exogenic fulgurites - the only sources seem to be sellers, so i'm wondering if they just found a catchy name for something else (r/rockhounds thinks it's glass slag, but i have doubts over the location it was found and the spatter pattern.) here are some pictures of mine: [imgur album](_url_1_). these aren't my best or prettiest specimens, but they are the ones i had at hand and i feel like they show a couple different shapes the whatever-it-is takes. unfortunately these pictures don't show the extreme mirror-like glassy/metallic iridescent shine to the pieces (bad lighting) but i think you can see from the website how they really look. if needed, i can dig up some of the other stuff and share some more photos - i have others that are more droplet shaped and such. | while i've never heard of those before, i used to fight fire and a couple times we came across rocks like this while mopping up. i can't say that i ever connected it to only lightening strikes but most of the fires i went on certainly were lightning starts. i realize this may not be helpful but perhaps you'll find some comfort in knowing that i am a fellow human who's encountered this mystery in the woods and wondered at it? i saw things like what you found, not like what they show on the site you linked. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.tektitesource.com/Exogenic%20Fulgurites.htm",
"http://imgur.com/a/iswuW"
] | [] | [
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the sparkling "things" in the air | i have always noticed some type of sparkling "matter" in the air when i look off into the sky. what is this? is it an illusion that our eyes create or is there something more to it? | these are in fact the white blood cells flowing through the capillaries on your retina. red blood cells are much more abundant and your brain "filters" them out of your vision as they are good at absorbing blue light (such as light from the blue sky!), white blood cells are bigger, rarer and less red than red blood cells and so your brain has a harder time editing them out. it's called the blue field entoptic phenomenon because it happens most when looking at blue objects. _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_field_entoptic_phenomenon"
] | [
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can human energy consumption be measured directly from measuring respiration? | does the amount of co2 and water vapour we exhale correlate and source directly from the amount of glucose we are converting to energy? are these quantities accurate measurements of energy production? | actually yes! at least for aerobic, oxygen using activity (which is a large deal, but not all). experimentally speaking, what we can do is measure the volume rate of *inhaled* o2 and the *exhaled* co2 via a spiroergometer (this is done by measuring the contents of o2 and co2 in the room and then in the exhaled air and then calculating their difference), construe their quotient (the respiratory quotient rq = vco2 / vo2) and deduce the "efficiency" of energy release per used oxygen volume, the caloric oxygen equivalent (unit: joules per volume of oxygen) since they are proportional to each other (pretty much just use a standardised chart). general rule of thumb is that rq values close to 0.7 mean more burning of fat and are a little less efficient, and values closer to 1 means glucose burning (which is way more efficient). the rq may go over 1 in the case of lactate acidosis because of the way the blood buffering system works (via release of additional co2 from hydrogencarbonate in the blood stream). for example, the caloric oxygen equivalent is about 20 kj/l oxygen when the metabolism is balanced at an rq of 0.75. from there on we can multiply the vo2 (volume rate of oxygen inhalation, volume/time like l/min or similar) with the caloric oxygen equivalent and get the overall internal power p of the metabolic activity within the body (energy per time), and then only need to multiply the time the person is doing the activity to get the physical work w ("converted energy") of course. vo2 directly correlates with the degree of metabolical activity (and may even be described as the so called metabolic equivalent met, which is an important variable in sports physiology; 1 met = 3.5 ml oxygen per minute per kg body weight), so this is something we want. (note: does not apply when the activity is high enough to be physiologically exhausting and using up more oxygen than the body can deliver, in which case vo2 caps at vo2max while the acidity of the body increases due to anaerobic metabolism, consequenty raising the co2 exhalation rate vco2 and rq). the power of a resting, physically inactive individual is about 80 watts. (by the way as a side note, the volume rate of oxygen inhalation, vo2, correlates with the volume of pumped blood in circulation over time, the cardiac output, and the difference between the oxygen contents in arteries and veins (or the practical depletion of oxygen in the capillaries), the arteriovenose oxygen difference - this is basically a variation on the fick principle) please note that the power of the metabolic activity is not 100% efficient - parts of the energy gets converted into heat (which you may notice as overall overheating during activities). to get the efficiency of your musculature, we need to measure the external muscle power via an ergometer, then just calculate the quotient between external / internal power. physiologically your musculature is about 25% efficient. for the efficiency in internal organs or during no activity we're out of luck with easily accessable arithmetics, but i believe that was measured to be 50%. i don't know how though. forget about the water vapor, however. too many processes within the body produce and deduce water to be able to claim that contents of water exhalation may strictly correlate with metabolic activity, also the exhalation rate depends on the outside water pressure i presume. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in x-ray crystallography, how are difference patterson maps and their harker sections used to solve "the phase problem" with heavy atom replacement? | i'm currently taking an x-ray diffraction course, and not having the strongest physics background, i've been having some problems seeing the forest through the trees. my current understanding is you grow a crystal (in my case, protein), which gives you diffraction patterns at each angle. then, if you solve by heavy atom replacement and difference patterson map, you gather another set of diffraction patterns with the heavy atoms, and use difference patterson maps to assign interatomic vectors (with n peaks at the origin and (n2 - n) peaks elsewhere, where n=the number of atoms) and determine phase based on intensities (ie structure factors). here is where it gets shaky for me...you develop a patterson map, and then use symmetry operators based on the (u,v,w) coordinates and the space group of the protein, and the goal is to perform an operation (ie subtract two coordinates) that ends up giving one of the dimensions a constant (ie 2x, 2y-3, 0.5 for u,v,w), which is referred to as a harker section. how is this useful, and how does this magically solve the phase problem? also, is this the same as "anomalous scattering"? are heavy atoms only used because more electrons give them a higher structure factor/intensity, and then only the heavy atoms are mapped on the patterson map? if i could get a clear explanation of this process, i would be extremely grateful, thank you! | this is a lot to unpack, so i'll try to take on your question in pieces. i'll start with the basis for the theory and why its useful for us. yes, they will dominate the patterson map and they stand out to the point that you can back track *where* they are located in real space. here is where its probably getting confusing to you, you don't *need* the harker section, its just a way of chopping up the patterson map to make it easy for our brains which aren't used to thinking of difference space. modern programs don't really use them too much, but they are an informative teaching tool (and were used early on and often still are to fix the problems software can't handle). a patterson map is extremely complicated, because its a representation of every, single interaction between pairs of atoms. we need a way to simplify it, which is where heavy atoms come in. they are so large they stand way out on a patterson map. harker sections help us narrow in on places where we can find these peaks. the interesting thing about a harker section is that you pick the harker you need based on the space group, i.e. a two fold with a 2 sub 1 screw axis means that you should have a ton of interatomic vectors at the 0.5 harker in that direction. you know thats where you need to look. that harker section will be dominated by your heavy atom and you can then use it to find what your other coordinates and really to rationalize the position of your heavy atom in real space. **this is the whole goal of the ordeal, to find where the heavy atom is in real space**. so how does this magically solve the phase problem? in reality it often doesn't, and you often have to phase off of multiple different heavy atoms or different wavelengths, though it is possible. your whole purpose of doing the patterson, chopping it into harkers, and piecing together its clues was to find where that heavy atom is in x,y,z. from that, now you know in your real diffraction pattern what effect that heavy metal had on the diffraction from all the other atoms in the protein because you know all the factors that define that * you know what the metal is * you know the wavelength you collect at * you know how the metal must behave * and you figured out its xyz position from earlier. a comparison to your original diffraction pattern gives you the phase component for each reflection (you've probably seen this when you use the arrow to shift the argand diagram of your diffraction spot and find where the new circle intersects your old one, i can clarify if you need.) this phase can then be used to calculate a map, and you build your model. no, but its similar. instead of soaking in a new heavy atom and compare different data sets, we just have one in there and change our wavelength so that we "see" its extra contribution from anomalous scattering, or don't. then the process is very similar. anomalous scattering is simply scattering that occurs from inner shell electrons that become promoted to a higher orbital and fall back down, releasing a photon that is phase shifted by 90 degrees. this is called compton scattering, and is something that can be useful crystallographically because diffraction spots that are normally equivalent (so called friedel mates or pairs) *aren't* with anamolous scattering. * so though heavy atoms do scatter more strongly, we are interested in their anomalous scattering properties as well in a mad experiment, and often the two effects are combined. so the anamolous scattering component can be used to calculate a patterson map or you can use every atom, but you can imagine that every atom is really, really complicated (though its often used for mr). \* this is because for each reflecting condition, you have an equal but opposite one once you rotate the reflecting plane 180 degrees. in the case of anomalous scattering, this isn't equivalent ( and technically its not just heavy atoms that will do this, but c, n, and o will too, but its incredibly weak.) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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creating a new absence policy for my college writing class. i need help writing a math expression for 2^n, but want to replace n with a symbol or expression that says n=0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. | i'm tired of having to fail students who miss class 5 times, which is too, too many times in a class that meets 20 times. i want to take responsibility for their own actions and see that it's not arbitrary, their failing. hence, i want to have a policy where the first absence is 1 point off their essay grade, 2 for the second, 4 for the third, 8 for the fourth, and 16 for the fifth, so that a total of 5 absences means 31 points deducted from their final grade. that way they can know i'm completely fine with them being absent all they want. because i am. thanks! edit: is it as simple as "2^n, where n = number of times absent"? or 2^n-1? edit edit: no, that won't work because it leave out the addition part. | 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ... = 2^0 + 2^1 + 2^2 + 2^3 + ... + 2^k = 2^(k+1) - 1. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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