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i have asperger syndrome, i want to know why i feel so terrible when making eye contact? | just a heads up for future reference, you'll tend to get better/more answers on askscience if you avoid phrasing your question from a personal standpoint, and make it more general. so for example "what causes a person with asperger's to feel uncomfortable when making eye contact?" anyway, unfortunately the short answer to your question is that we don't know exactly what causes it. we know it happens in people with asperger's (though not everyone), and we have some ideas why, but aren't totally sure. we also know that people with asperger's tend to avoid eye contact, though we don't think it's to *avoid * an uncomfortable feeling, but rather because there is difficulty understanding non-verbal social cues that are often communicated through eye-contact. numerous studies have shown neurobiological differences in several areas of the brain we understand to be involved with facial recognition and social cues. [here is a pretty good review article on the topic from 2009 that i think you'll find helpful.](_url_0_) perhaps it makes you feel uncomfortable because you recognize that others use eye contact to communicate but you have difficulty doing so. perhaps you find eye contact to be a show of dominance which makes you feel uncomfortable. regardless, the reaction you (and others with aspergers) describe is basically an anxiety reaction, and working with a therapist can be really beneficial in reducing the anxiety reaction someone experiences in this type of situation. the short answer is we don't know exactly. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763409000827"
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consider a blackbody in stp air (no wind). at what temperature does the dominant heat loss process change from convection to radiation? | let's assume we have a box that's perfectly insulated on 5 sides, while the top has an area a exposed. for energy loss by conduction, use a modified newton's law of cooling: dq/dt = h a dt where a is area, h is the heat transfer coefficient. for air it's going to be ~10-1000 w/m^2 k, with heavy dependence on wind speed and temperature difference. in this case, the power flux emitted by convection is (dq/dt)/a = h dt now in comparison, assuming a perfect blackbody, it will radiate a power p = a e σ t^4 where e is the emissivity (1 for a perfect bb), s is the stefan boltzmann constant. it's simple enough to divide by a and get power per area agian, and then equate our relations: h dt = σ t^4 recall that dt is just t_body - t_air, so: (h/σ) (t - t_air) = t^4 t^4 - c t + c t_air = 0 where c = (h/σ). this is a quartic polynomial, meaning that solutions [are a pain in the ass.](_url_0_) it would be in your best interest to just solve numerically. assuming an h of 100 w/m^2 k, we get c=100/5.67e-8 k^3 = 1.8e9 k^(3). at an air temp of 293 k, t^4 - 1.8e9 t + 5.3e11 = 0 i find real solutions at 298 k and 1095 k. i'll ignore the 298 k solution - i suspect it's an artifact of choosing the air temp at 293 k. so above 1095 k i suspect that the dominant heat transfer mode is black body, and below it is convection. honestly, i'm not at all confident in this answer. that quartic equation is going to be really dependent on what you chose for h - i did another test with h=10 w/m^2 k and i found no real solutions, meaning that black body always dominates. additionally, you'd want to include the temperature dependence in h, which is not an easy feat. if you had a thermocouple you could just do an experiment. heat a solid metal sphere with a blow torch or something and then get a cooling curve (as a function of time). at any given time the derivative tells you the cooling rate - find the point where that cooling rate double what you predict for black body radiation at that temperature. at that temperature the convection is dominating. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartic_function#General_formula_for_roots"
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|
i hav recently learned that there is no clear demarcation line between science and non-science (pseudoscience). is this the case? if so, on what basis is this distinction made in praxis? | to be considered science, it has to be possible to prove it wrong (intelligent design doesn't fit this criteria). and then pseudosciences such as homeopathy have been proven to not work. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
could you hang someone on the moon? | to death | yes, you can. there are several ways a hanging can be done, one of which is called the standard drop. _url_0_ the english developed a hanging procedure such that the condemned (wo)man falls a predetermined distance (based on the person's mass) before the rope tightens around his/her neck and breaks it, immediately making the person paralysed and unconscious.* according to the wikipedia article, the standard drop height is 1.2 to 1.8m. on the moon, the gravitational acceleration is less, so a greater height is required to achieve the same potential energy required to break the neck. the moon's gravitational acceleration is 1/6 times that of the earth, therefore the standard drop height on the moon would be six times that on earth (7.2 to 10.8m). however, another approach to hanging is to literally hang the victim without a drop. this causes death by choking the person. if you rely on weight alone to crush the trachea and strangle the victim, i do not know if the moon would exert enough force to make this work. i find the thought of getting crushed by a 15kg bar in the neck to be painful but not quite lethal. anyone can shed light on the force required to crimp the trachea? *too short a drop and the neck does not break, leaving the person choking and struggling for many minutes. too far a drop and the head gets completely detached from the body. edited for clarity following whambamthankyoumam's comment. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanging#Standard_drop"
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] |
simply put what causes color at an atomic lever? | i know that something is orange because it reflects orange and absorbs the rest but at an atomic lever what makes objects the colors they are. i've always been curious about this but no teacher or internet search has been of help. | say you have something that's red and just absorbs one frequency of green light (this is perfectly reasonable). generally, molecules absorb light and electron 'jump' up to a higher energy level & mdash;there needs to be an energy level at the right energy to match the light (compared to its energy before). when the electrons come back down, light of the same frequency is emitted (in the simplest case), but in a random direction. now what you need for something to have a colour is that the light it absorbs is in the visible range. there are two common mechanisms by which this occurs: (1) transition metal complexes. in transition metals, you get 5 d-orbitals. as ligands (atoms/molecules) arrange around them, they subject the metal to a 'ligand field' and the d-orbitals become different from each other in energy (because of symmetry). often the difference is in the range of energies that correspond to visible light, and therefore electrons can move to a higher lying d-orbital by absorbing visible light. (2) organic molecules. when you have large conjugated systems (this means single bonds and double bonds [between carbon atoms usually] alternate, this just happens to give you differences between the highest lying orbital with electrons in it (we call this homo, highest occupied molecular orbital) and the lowest lying one without electrons (we call that lumo, lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) have an energy difference that, again, corresponds to some colour in the visible range. in some molecules there will be other transitions between energy levels that give rise to colour, but that goes into some rather advanced rules of symmetry, and homo & rarr; lumo transitions serve as a decent enough example. there are some other things going on, but these are two very common ones that are fairly easy to explain. (for example, the question of why gold is golden requires special relativity to answer properly.) links: [transition metal complexes](_url_1_) (this one's from a fellow redditor!) [conjugation](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.chem.ucla.edu/harding/ec_tutorials/tutorial21.pdf",
"http://www.compoundchem.com/2014/03/05/colours-of-transition-metal-ions-in-aqueous-solution/"
] | [
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why are there only 8 gluons? | i have looked everywhere, but still cannot understand why there are only 8 gluons when there are 9 possible combinations. the whole n^2 -1 thing works out for su(n), with gluons being su(3), but i don't understand why that happens, or even what special unitary groups are, other than some type of fancy quantum matrix thing. (_url_0_) sorry if this has been posted before but with the reddit search function, i can't really get anywhere. edit:wierd reddit formatting for a first time poster | good question, this bugged me a lot when i was an undergrad. it is really hard to explain if you don't know much mathematics, because anything else doesn't really get to the essence of the problem. the first important thing to note is that the three colours don't really mean anything; it's an arbitrary choice of coordinates for an internal 3d space, like when we arbitrarily choose 3 directions to call **x**, **y** and **z** in physical space. the "colour" of a particle describe what direction it's pointing in this internal 3d space. just as we can point in an arbitrary direction in physical space, e.g. **x**+3**y**-**z**, so a quark can have an arbitrary mix of colours e.g. -**r**+2**g**+**b**. remember, although this looks strange, the "colours" are *really* just an arbitrary coordinate axis for the internal space. now, the "colour" quantum numbers associated to a gluon are kind of like a rule for "rotating" the quark in this internal colour space. for example, if a gluon was of the form 2**r**~~**b**~~+**g**~~**g**~~ (where i've used ~~this~~ to denote anti-colour), then this is like a rule which says to a quark: "if you're green then stay green, if you're blue then change to red and increase by a factor of 2". so, naively, there are 9 numbers you have to specify: for each of the three old colour directions, you have to say what the gluon "does" to them in terms of mapping them to the three new colour directions. but this is where the "-1" comes in: with 9 numbers you can rescale any quark to any arbitrary size in the colour space. but the laws of physics say that the size of the quark in colour space has to be constant. this means there's a *constraint*: you can't freely choose all 9 numbers. in fact, the constraint says that if the gluon is of the form #1**r**~~**r**~~+#2**g**~~**g**~~+#3**b**~~**b**~~+ (other combinations), then you need #1+#2+#3=0. anything else will rescale the quark in colour space, and that's not allowed. so if you specify 8 of the coefficients, then the 9th is automatically fixed by this constraint. there are 8 *degrees of freedom* needed to specify the colour structure of a gluon. i don't think it's helpful to think of it as there being 8 "types" of gluon, but rather, one type of gluon, which you need 8 numbers to completely specify. | 8 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_unitary_group"
] | [] | [
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how is my daily life affected by quantum mechanics? is it? | computers, microchips, transistors, lasers, solid-state harddrives, flash memory, dvd/cd/blu-ray players, led lights, led monitors, modern chemistry, nuclear power (and weapons), cancer radiation therapy, x-rays, mris, pet scans, etc. (and this is a real etc, i could keep listing all day) are quantum technologies. they are technologies that exist because we understand quantum mechanics and their operation is fundamentally quantum mechanical in nature. we call the 50s and 60s the "space age", but really it was the "quantum age". nearly every invention of the digital age is powered by quantum mechanics. | 24 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do roads lead to allopatric speciation? | i know that roads isolate populations in a lot of species. if that's true, will genetic drift eventually cause these separated populations to diverge into new species (assuming the separation is total)? | while it is almost certainly true that roads will act as isolating barriers and eventually drive the formation of new species, i know of no study that has actually shown that yet. there are certainly studies that show how animals interact with roads in interesting ways and road-avoidance is common (see the work of [dr. jesse barbar](_url_0_)). but actually showing that a road is the primary cause of speciation is a very difficult task especially since the large, heavily-traveled roads that would effectively isolate things are actually a relatively recent development. it takes a long time for species to form, normally on the order of millions of years and major roads have only been around for a couple hundred years if that. furthermore, it doesn't actually take a lot of migration to keep populations genetically connected (and thwart speciation), in fact a single migrant per generation who successfully breeds will often be enough. as such, the small, rarely-traveled dirt roads in the backcountry are unlikely to have a large effect, while 12-lane superhighways are likely more important. so, while theoretically it's *possible*, and i would argue that given enough time it may even be *likely*, we don't have any convincing examples of road-driven speciation at present. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://biology.boisestate.edu/faculty-and-staff/faculty/jesse-barber/"
] | [
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how far do you have to go beneath the ocean floor before the earth becomes dry again? | if you dig deep enough through the ocean floor, assuming no water backfills your hole, how far until you reach dry crust again? edit: clarification - how far down does the ocean saturate the earths crust. | based on op's clarification, nobody has answered the question yet. all the answers so far basically state, "there's water in the crust everywhere, so you'll never find crust without some sort of water." that answers the title's question, but op doesn't want to know where the crust is no longer wet. he or she appears to be asking where the ocean's influence ends downward from the ocean floor. right? | 6,848 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg23231014-700-deepest-water-found-1000km-down-a-third-of-way-to-earths-core/",
"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2003GL018412",
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00410-017-1418-1",
"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JB091ib10p10309",
"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JB086iB04p02737",
"https://www.astrobio.net/news-exclusive/scientists-detect-evidence-oceans-worth-water-earths-mantle/amp/"
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does carnot heat efficiency only apply to processes of turning heat into work? | i've seen solar panels that have been said to have over 40% efficiency. i know the carnot cycle applies to a heat engine, but can you generalize it to say that it's for all processes of turning heat into work? | solar panels are heat engines between the hot sun and the "cold" earth. their maximum carnot efficiency is about 86%: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_efficiency_limit"
] | [
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i'm not sure how to word this properly but... are there any fundamental "truths" to physics the way there are to mathematics? i will explain better inside.. also, godel... halp... | well, i was in in /r/debatereligion and this issue came up. i study mathematics but i know nothing of physics. in mathematics, when a theorem is prove true, it is true, it has been and always will be. it is unwaivering. somebody mentioned to me that religion and science can coexist because there aren't such fundamental truths in physics, biology, etc (actually he was not trying to convince me of religion because he's an atheist, he was just saying, this is how religious people understand it). i have also heard this a lot, that science is constantly changing and so we don't really know. also, i am confused about godels incompleteness theorem. i know that godel says we can't prove the consistency of a logical system. but does that mean i don't have that 100% assurance in mathematics that i've always thought i did? thanks! i really want to understand this. one thing i love about mathematics is the fact that i can prove things and get this satisfaction that i know something about the world and no matter what, that knowledge will always be valid. | 1. physics/science does not make claims to "truth" but to ever-improving (and useful) *explanations*. 2. mathematics derives "truths" *from a given set of assumptions*; **not** "universal truths" as often stated. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_arithmetic",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_of_the_Gaps"
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how can scientists determine a time frame of when something will occur? | you have a tub of water. there are 200 liters of water in said tub. the tub is leaking 2 liters/second. the tub will be empty in 100 seconds. like that, usually:) look at stuff happening, describe stuff happening, take whatever variables you know of that affect or will affect the process, extrapolate from there. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how can superconducting transformers transform steady dc voltage/current? | i found a nice understandable explanation [here](_url_0_), with which i agree: among the advantages of this is that it actually works dc, not just ac, unlike a standard transformer. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=2372"
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|
would "teleportation" break any of the laws of thermodynamics? | lets say we reach the point where we can control the outcome of entangled particles, and thus theoretically transmit huge amounts of information. wouldn't the breaking down and reconstructing of matter, another place in the universe defy one or more of the laws of thermodynamics? | entanglement cannot be used to transmit information instantaneously. i'm not immediately sure why you're suggesting such instantaneous transmission of information would break thermodynamics (though it may well do so), but it would definitely break relativity. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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for really advanced computing what techniques are used to maintain the precision of the calculations? | the field that studies this is called numerical analysis, and the algorithmic property of how an algorithm propagates rounding errors is called numeric stability. numerical analysis allows us to understand how susceptible an algorithm is to compounding rounding errors, and to select which algorithms we need based on the problem we're solving. in rare cases, a problem is inherently unstable, or can be unstable depending on certain inputs. in simple terms, the numeric stability is modeled by looking at how the output of a function changes when its input is changed by a slight amount. rounding a number x is the same as replacing it by the expression x+ɛ, where ɛ is some small value that represents the error introduced by rounding. you can then look at the value of a function f(x) and see how much it changes when you replace it with f(x+ɛ). by analyzing these relationships, you can figure out how precise you need your inputs and intermediary results to be, and you can make trade-offs between faster algorithms and more accurate ones. just as an example: sometimes you want to calculate the value of f(x) = 1-cos(x). the naive way of doing this is to compute cos(x), and then subtract that from 1. but for very small values of x this doesn't work so well. for example, [1-cos(0.01)=4.99996*10^(-6)](_url_0_). that result has 6 digits of accuracy. but if you want 6 digits of accuracy in your output, then you need to calculate cos(0.01)=0.9999500004 to *ten* digits of accuracy. this is because the first four digits cancel out with the 1. when cos(x) is close to 1, it's better to try to calculate f(x)=1-cos(x) directly, rather than calculating cos(x) as an intermediate result. you can do this with the taylor expansion: cos(x) = 1 - x^2 / 2 + x^4 / 24 - .... in this case, the 1s cancel and the taylor expansion of f(x) is x^2 / 2 - x^4 / 24 + .... and, it turns out, that just those two terms is enough to produce our [6 digits of accuracy](_url_1_), without needing more than 6 digits on any intermediary results. of course, this method only works for small x: for larger you're better off with the naive method, so it's important to understand the nature of your input. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=1-cos(.01\\)",
"https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%280.01%29%5E2+%2F+2+-+%280.01%29%5E4+%2F+24"
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|
why do stimulants act as diuretics? | as someone who has used mdma (once), adderall (a couple of times), and caffeine (all the time), i've noticed that i'm usually drinking lots more water and having to pee many many times. why is this? | some stimulants act as diuretics, but not all. it comes down to the chemistry of the particular substance and how an individual reacts to it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how is a human skin held on? is it sheer fit, “anchor points”, or otherwise? | there’s a whole system of proteins that anchor your skin layers together and adhere them to the underlying tissue. think of it like a system of molecular hooks. [wikipedia](_url_0_) does a good job with demonstrating the skin layers, so think about tiny anchors between all the layers holding them down one on top of the other. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin"
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|
can chimps pass down cooking? | hi, i was wondering if you could teach a whole generation of chimps to cook, and have it pass on down generation after generation to perpetuity. so let's say you give a whole tribe of chimps a sort of relatively safe reusable firestarter device, and a frying pan/stand setup. you teach the whole tribe to use them using cooked food as reward. i'd expect some chimps to reject the notion of cooking food (some humans reject it too) but the one's that do would lead healthier lives, survival of the fittest, etc. now as the children grow up, they are taught/observe how to cook food. is it possible for this continue forever as long as the devices last and they have a supply of cookable food? sort of like creating a culture of cooking? | i studied chimps for several years. one big issue with teaching them how to cook is you must first teach them how to make fire. making fire would likely prove a bigger obstacle than actually learning that cooked food is better than uncooked. chimpanzees have been demonstrated to have a capacity to understand cooking and even prefer cooked food to uncooked food: cognitive capacities for cooking in chimpanzees. warneken & rosati. chimpanzees have developed and use intricate toolsets to get to termites, honey, hunt galagos. unless provided with human technologies (ovens, stoves, etc.) chimps would be unlikely to learn how to make a fire but even if the skill was learned, the act of fire-making would be difficult if not impossible due to the morphology of their hands. (they have tiny thumbs) | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com",
"http://www.iflscience.com/plants-and-animals/innovative-female-chimps-may-have-pioneered-tool-use-hunting/"
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i don't totally understand a brownian ratchet, can you help me? | here's the wikipedia article i was reading: _url_0_ basically, i would have thought you could disprove this because when a molecule hits the ratchet, that molecule loses some energy, transferring it to the ratchet. so in reality it's not a perpetual motion machine, and instead its just making hot molecules into cold molecules while doing useful work. is this correct? | the basic idea is that you have two chambers; one with a ratchet and one with a paddle. in the ratchet chamber, like in a real ratchet, you have a pawl that locks to the gear of the ratchet. the pawl enables the gear to turn only in one direction. in the paddle chamber, molecules are constantly hitting each paddle on both sides. however, only by hitting the paddle on one side will the gear in the ratchet chamber move, since the pawl will prevent it moving in the other direction. so what you described is correct; you are turning heat into work, since the molecules cool down as they hit the paddle. however, *that still violates the 2nd law of thermodynamics*. you cannot turn heat into work; the most you can do is turn heat *flow* into work. feynman's counterargument was to note that the pawl is being bombarded with molecules, too; in this way, it is subject to slippage. it will occasionally slip off the gear and enable it to be turned the other way as molecules symmetrically bombard the paddle. no net motion will occur. the exception to this is if the temperature in the paddle chamber is higher. in that case, the rate at which the paddle gets bombarded will exceed the rate at which the pawl slips. of course, heat will be conducted from one chamber to the other until they equilibrate. in the end, it's just another way of turning heat flow into work. | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_ratchet"
] | [] | [
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what exactly is a gluon? | i know that they're smaller than protons and act as an adhesive that binds quarks but besides that i do not know much regarding how they act under certain conditions? | a gluon is essentially the strong force analogue of a photon. photons carry and transmit the electromagnetic force, and are generated by moving electric charge of which there are two types: positive and negative. gluons carry and transmit the strong force, except that it has six "color charges": red, green, blue, antired, antigreen, and antiblue. the names don't mean anything, its just a way to keep track of quantum variables. the rule with the electromagnetic force is opposite charges attract and like charges repel, causing a tendency to form neutral bulk material. similarly, the strong force has a tendency to be "white" that is either all three colors(or anticolors) together in a triple, or a color-anticolor pair. however, unlike photons, gluons have mass, and this makes them unable to travel long distances quickly, so although the strong force is much stronger than electromagnetism, it is only effective over extremely short distances--on the order of an atomic nucleus or smaller. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the snake digestive system work; do they have one stomach or is their whole body a stomach? | [deleted] | when i owned larger snakes, i fed them mice or rats. most the time the poop would be a little lump with fur. there is a flap near the end where they deficate from. you can also see the rat's body as it goes down the snake. the snake constricted to move it further down. here's more in to it. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Kid-Corner/Beyond-Beginners/Snake-Anatomy-Gastrointestinal/"
] | [
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why doesn't the vitreous humour refract light? | 99% of the vitreous humour is water, water refracts light, so why do you not have a, for example, fish eye vision? | it does refract light, the refraction index of the vitrous humor is 1.336, water's around 1.333 if i remember correctly. we don't have fish eye vision because your brain is the organ that 'sees' not your eyes. what you see is just your brain's interpretation of certain light signals, so yes the light is refracted, and that refraction causes your brain to see it as 'normal'. if you look through an lens that corrects this refraction, your brain will interpret it as a different image and your vision will be distorted. basically, your brain is used to light being refracted, so that's the basal image | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it more likely that a polar bear evolve to have gills, or that it would evolve to have flippers? which would be more useful? | flippers are vastly more likely. to get a flipper all you have to do is take a limb and sort of "smush" it during development. gills on the other hand are very complicated and as far as i know no vertebrate has ever re-evolved them. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does a heating coil work? why does it not electrocute you when you touch it? | okay, so i know that a heating coil (like on a stove) works by sending electricity to the coil. the coil itself is a resistor of some type... electrons collide instead of conduct and heat is released. so why do you not get a shock when you touch a heating coil? and then why do you get a shock if say dropped in water (like a hair dryer). | it's deceiving because a typical heating coil on, say, a stove top typically has three layers - the inner metal coil (to conduct electricity and generate heat), a layer of ceramic insulation around that (electrical insulation), and then a metal sheath around the insulation. so even though what you see is a metal coil on your stove top, it doesn't pose an electrical risk. interestingly enough, even if you were to touch a current-conducting coil, it wouldn't necessarily shock you. the reason for this is because the electrical resistance of the coil is much lower than your body, so electricity still prefers the metal wire to your hand. in order to short the current, it would have to go through your body, down through your rubber shoes and into the ground - a much higher resistance path than the metal wire. now if you were standing barefoot on a metal plate when you touched it, you might feel a shock... but then i would probably ask what you were doing barefoot with live electrical wire. edit - as a couple others have mentioned, there's a bit more to handling voltage sources that i've left out, such as how close you are to the hot (higher potential) end when you touch the wire. in a wall outlet, for example, the two connections are at 120 v and ground. if these are connected by a simple wire then the voltage is dropped evenly along the length of the wire. so if you touch the wire near the 120 v end, then 120 v is what your body will feel (which will hurt, a lot). if you touch the wire closer to the 0 v end then you likely won't feel anything. i should have been more clear in my initial explanation, i just didn't want to get too sidetracked talking about voltage sources. please don't handle exposed electrical parts unless you know what you're doing. | 45 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone help me understand two dimentional limits? | so i always had these question when doing 2 d limits in my math class. 1) well in 1 d limits, you ask what value does y approach as x approaches some value. i don't really understand the significance of the number you get when you find the 2 d limit. let's say lim(x,y)- > (0,0) for f(x,y)=1. well what does the 1 mean? its not saying as one variable approaches a number, the other variable approaches this number. i get that this can help us prove the limit, but i still don't see what the number means. 2) why is there no l'hospital rule for higher dimensions? the answer is probably over my head, so if you can explain it simply, bonus points. | 1.) the important thing in limits is that as "whatever you input into the function" approaches a point of interest, the output approaches some value. in 1d, you can only input a single number, (x), into your function and you can only approach a point of interest from either the positive or negative side. in 2d, your inputs are pairs of numbers (x,y). so even though you are putting in two numbers, your putting in one point. as this point gets closer to the point of interest, say (a,b), then the value of the output will approach the limit. you can approach this point in many different ways, but the important thing is the distance that you are from (a,b). don't think of it as two things approaching two separate things, think of it as single 2d thing approaching one other 2d point. 2.) [here](_url_0_) is a good discussion for limits of indeterminate forms in two variables. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://math.stackexchange.com/questions/177067/lhospital-rule-for-two-variable"
] | [
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] |
are there any critical phenomena where the timescale and lengthscale diverge identically with temperature? | for example, many [critical phenomena](_url_0_) (phase transitions, etc.) have a diverging lengthscale that goes as ξ ∼ (t−tc)^α where tc is the critical temperature. the characteristic dynamics of this system will then scale as τ ∼ ξ^(z) ∼ (t−tc)^zα are there any systems where z=1 , meaning that the static and dynamic divergences scale to the same power α with respect to temperature? | this is actually fairly common with quantum phase transitions, where z=1 signals an onset of emergent relativistic invariance close to the critical point. famously, [fisher, weichman, grinstein and fisher](_url_0_) showed that a superfluid-insulator transition at constant density has this emergent relativistic invariance with z=1, which is a transition that is studied quite often in optical lattice experiments. a lot of systems which map onto a system of bosons at constant density will then have a similar phase transition (this includes a lot of magnetic and quantum hall transitions). there are other interesting quantum phase transitions with this emergent relativistic (and even conformal) symmetry at the critical point which i can go into more detail about (this is precisely my line of research). my understanding of classical phase transitions is that z=2 or z=4 are the most common dynamic critical exponents; i'm not really aware of an exception, but i would guess there could be a relativistic example at high energies. | 4 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_phenomena"
] | [
"http://journals.aps.org/prb/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevB.40.546"
] | [
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when a doctor gives you a specific percentage (like there’s a 10% possibility that you will be cured), what is that percentage based on? | when a doctor gives you a specific percentage (like there’s a 10% possibility that you will be cured), what is that percentage based on? is it based on anything or do they just kind of...guesstimate? | part of it is surely guesstimation, but more than anything, the doctor has access to data about the survival rates of a certain disease. something like this one: [_url_0_](_url_0_) in other words, hard numbers about how many people in the past have been cured and how many have not. of course, real doctors have access to medical journals with state-of-the-art studies, and thus, possibly more accurate data. more common diseases are likely to have much metastudies done about their survival rates and possibly there is enough data to determine the survival rate with respect to variables such as age, sex, etc. the estimate can then be improved by using what they know about you and using more specific statistics. (edit) that linked page actually has estimates with respect to ethnicity and sex, if you scroll a bit down. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/leuks.html"
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how is the inner energy of a system "not a function" of temperature? | hello people of science, i've been doing some thermodynamics lately and have a bit of a problem understanding the idea of inner energy (or i just don't get the expression "being a function of" correctly) in the book i'm currently using, an equation for the change of inner energy u is given as du = tds - pdv + μdn the way the author derived this equation is clear. but after that, he then concludes that u is a function of s, v, n. u = f(s, v, n) thats the part that doesn't really make sense to me, since i've always felt like "being a function of" basically means "depends on". and the way i understand the concept of inner energy, it surely must depend on temperature. t is even part of the equation. can someone help me with understanding the definition correctly? | the temperature dependence is buried in the entropy dependence. thermal energy entering the system that will increase the temperature increases the entropy. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do the vast majority of large creatures have parts in multiples of 2? | i'm talking organisms large enough for the naked eye to see and make out details on. it seems like every body part on an organism is either single without a counterpart (ex: head, tail), or a multiple of 2 (eyes, legs, arms, etc). why aren't there a bunch of 3 legged or 5 legged/armed animals? | it's called bilateral symmetry. that will help facilitate your searches on the topic. there are some theories out there but nothing very conclusive. nature thinks it's very important though. it could help facilitate movement, minimum number of eyes required for depth perception. efficient genetic coding. _url_0_ | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/evolution/what-is-the-evidence/morphology/bilateralism/"
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if i was deposited somewhere in the milky way, is there an easy way to figure out how to get back to earth? | assume i only have what i'm wearing, so no laptop with a galaxy map, no reference material, and no hitchhiker's guide. a lot of things that come to mind are based on perspective which isn't super helpful when the sky i would see and earth's are completely different. | get back to? you'd have to have one hell of a spaceship, and even if you could go at the speed of light, the trip might take a hundred thousand years if you're unlucky. and you have to be pretty unlucky if your light-speed spaceship has neither telescopes nor computers. there are some great difficulties in finding out where in the milky way you are by eye. you couldn't really use any of the individual stars you see when you look at the sky, because those are all very close to earth and probably completely invisible from wherever you are. the furthest star you can see with your naked eye is probably deneb, which at 1550 light years distance is probably around 1% of the diameter of the milky way away. if you're close enough to earth, you might recognize and be able to use the visible structure of the milky way, but that's not guaranteed in the least. at the very least, you should be able to tell if you're closer to the galactic center than you should be, or further out. that means we're probably limited to deep space objects. on earth, [there are four that we can see with the naked eye](_url_3_) in addition to the milky way: the andromeda galaxy, the large magellanic cloud, the small magellanic cloud, and the the triangulum galaxy. it's not guaranteed that you could see these from wherever you end up, so you might have to jump in your spaceship and take a small trip out of the galactic plane to get your bearings. you could probably memorize the appearance of these objects ahead of time, as well as their angles to the galactic center, like a big constellation. you could then fly around until what you observe roughly matches that, and, relatively speaking, you'd be pretty close to earth. i would then probably use [orion](_url_5_) to try to get to earth, because that's the constellation that's most familiar to me, has a good number of very bright stars... but the feature i'd look for first is the [orion nebula](_url_7_), which is visible with the naked eye from more than 1300 light years away. as you fly around it, find the most consistently brightest star "near" it: [alnilam](_url_8_), a blue supergiant, the central star in orion's belt. once we've got those two aligned and the nebula looks right (might take a bit of flying around), we might be able to see [betelgeuse](_url_12_), a red supergiant, and orion's shoulder. if we move to put that in its right place in the constellation, we should be near enough to earth that we can figure out which of the other stars in orion are which, and fine-tune our position till it looks right. at this point i would imagine that [sirius](_url_2_) is the brightst star in the sky, and it's conveniently close to the orion constellation from earth's point of view that when you've put it in line with orion's belt like it appears from earth, you're down to only a handful of possibilities. you could try them all or [memorize this map](_url_0_). then you're pretty much there. third planet out, avoid jupiter. **things to memorise:** on [this map](_url_6_), compared to the milky way centre and plane, the positions and appearances of: - lmc - [large magellanic cloud](_url_13_) - smc - [small magellanic cloud](_url_11_) - m31 - [the andromeda galaxy](_url_10_) - m33 - [the triangulum galaxy](_url_1_) on [this map](_url_5_#/media/file:orion_iau.svg): - overall appearance - m42 - [the orion nebula](_url_4_) - [alnilam](_url_8_), the central belt star - [betelgeuse](_url_12_), bright shoulder. - [sirius](_url_2_), the very bright star to the bottom left in canis major. [this map](_url_0_). | 96 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.space.com/18964-the-nearest-stars-to-earth-infographic.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulum_Galaxy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius",
"http://umich.edu/~lowbrows/guide/eye.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_Nebula",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_%28constellation%29",
"http://img62.imageshack.us/img62/1374/localgroup.png",
"http://oneminuteastronomer.com/2979/bucket-list-backyard-stargazers-2-great-orion-nebula/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alnilam",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_%28constellation%29#/media/File:Orion_IAU.svg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloud",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betelgeuse",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud"
] | [
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why coriolis effect also affects east/west movement? | i get the intuition of apparent deflection with north/south movements: the difference of linear velocity and whatnot. i just don't get how it could act in movement parallel to equator. | the north/south coriolis force that arises from east/west movement is actually the "extra" centrifugal force that comes from moving in a circle faster than the earth itself is rotating. if we're stationary on a spinning earth, we feel an apparent centrifugal force pushing away from earth's axis. but if we now start moving in the same direction as the earth is spinning (eastward), we add our velocity over the ground to the earth's rotational speed, and see a larger apparent force pushing away from earth's axis, that's equal to the usual centrifugal force for a stationary object, plus some extra force caused by the fact that we're going faster than the earth is. we call that extra force that depends on our speed the radial component of the coriolis force. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does breaking lightly for a long period of time use wear my break pads faster than breaking heavily for a short period of time? | when i pull up at a junction i like to slow down slowly- breaking lightly for a long period of time until i reach the lights. i was wondering whether the fact that the surface of the break pad is being abraded over a long period use up the break pads faster than breaking heavier over a shorter period of time? | if you are planning ahead far enough that you can brake very lightly to a halt then really you should look a little bit further ahead and ease up on the gas so you don't even need to brake at all. that way by the time you get to the obstacle you are either ready to accelerate again or to put the brakes on harder but only to scrub off a smaller amount of speed, so the energies involved are much smaller. remember that kinetic energy increases as the square of the speed, so if you use anticipation to slow the speed to half by the time you get there, your brakes only have a quarter of the energy to dump. long slow braking will wear out the system more, and also runs the risk of 'heat soak' where your brakes lose efficiency. they are designed to brake harder and absorb spikes of energy rather than to be heated over a long time. the disk and pad surface can 'glaze' if you only ever do long gentle braking runs, and your brakes then don't stop as well, even when you do need them to. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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an event happens with constant frequency f. i am uncertain about the exact value of f, as represented by the probability distribution p(f). i start observing at a random moment. after s seconds, the event occurs. what is my new subjective distribution of p(f)? | the number of times you can start watching it to see it after s seconds is proportional to f for f < 1/s (i.e. the frequency is less often than once every s seconds), and zero for f ≥ 1/s (i.e. the frequency is at least once every s seconds, which means it couldn't possibly have taken that long for you to see the event happen). for example, if f is once a year, it would only happen 1/365th as often as if it's once a day, so if you didn't wait a day to see it, it's 365 times more likely to happen once per day. so you'd have a posterior probability distribution function proportional to f\*p(f) for f < 1/s and 0 for f > 1/s. from there you need to [normalize](_url_0_) it by dividing by the integral of that probability distribution function. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalizing_constant",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_prior"
] | [
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|
how do i see if the his-tag on my protein is effecting it's interaction with another protein? | [deleted] | i can think of a number of options, but they basically boil down to "get rid of the his-tag and see if it still binds". you can isolate the proteins, cleave off the tag, and see if they still bind. you can generate a protein that has a different tag instead of his. etc. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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other than tracking gas milage, how can i determine drag/resistance a roof rack will generate, and, would it help to slope/foil the front (apx to the angle of the windshield), and, should air allow to pass under the rack, (assume less than 145km, boxes 45cm tall)? | trying to figure out hidden gas costs prior to purchase~ basically i'm shopping for top mounts vs. back mounts, mostly for bikes and related cargo~ and though the top is safer from fender benders and maintaining visibility, i suspect in the long run they're a gas suck. any thoughts, no matter how tangential, are greatly appreciated~ i've been thinking about this for a while. | i'm pretty certain a rear mount rack would have considerably less drag than a top mount, but in general i feel more secure driving with the roof mount. as for determining things, i'm guessing you don't have access to a wind tunnel for experimental testing or the cfd skills necessary to simulate it, so your options are pretty limited. besides tracking gas mileage, you could maybe try one of those in-car dynomometer things that measure speed, engine rpm, stuff like that (i have no idea how accurate they are on stuff like rpm.) with that you could compare the rpms your car is at to maintain a certain fixed speed on a flat stretch of road for different configurations - that would give you a proxy for estimating the effect on gas mileage. searching around in google scholar i'm seeing surprisingly few articles on this. a handful of mediocre student projects. [some descriptions of similar things here.](_url_0_) in that looks like they use a "coast-down test" where you basically get the car up to a certain speed, pop it in neutral, and measure how fast the deceleration is (by distance required to roll to a stop, or whatever. a smartphone gps could do this for you.) looks like people see something like 5-20% increase in drag from a bike rack on top (and something like 80% of fuel consumption at highway speeds is due to aerodynamic drag.) can't really answer that without some images of what we're talking about, and even then it'd just be an educated guess. really first and foremost your number one thing is the frontal area of whatever your mount is, e.g. something with a 1 m^2 frontal cross-section area is going to have more drag than something similar with 0.5 m^2 cross-section. really everything else is secondary to that, and you're really just talking about pretty small refinement. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://ijj.sagepub.com/content/27/1/71.full.pdf"
] | [
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] |
a question on controlled lightning: can i use a large circle of solar-collecting blimps to flash flood protons in a path to seed lightning strikes to a sort of lightning collector? | 1. hydrogen blimps equipped with solar cells collect power to charge a few smaller drones that will flood protons into a path down into a collecting station. 2. blimps gather in a circle around the collector site and go into a sort of holding pattern on a sunny day, charging the drones for stage 3. 3. storm rolls in, some violent lightning expected; the blimps rise higher than the storm and direct the drones to seed paths for lighting to crash through. 4. with drones safely back aboard the larger blimp in anticipation of the violent lightning paths, the collecting station will be able to put the strikes into the grid to gain a sort of energy profit that can be then spent on adding additional drones or blimps, increasing the radius of the blimp circle or splitting into more circles to finance a new collecting site. as we steal lightning from the sky, we can use the profits from expected growth of this demand from the energy industry to finance additional lightning-collection sites. slap me with books :/ | there's a much easier way. you take a small rocket, attach a long metal wire, and launch it into the sky. _url_0_ but unfortunately, while there is a lot of energy transferred per unit time in a lightning bolt strike, they don't last long enough to give you enough energy to bother collecting. each lightning strike gives you about .5 kwh, so you'd need about 1200 of them to power a single home for a month. plus there is the issue of how exactly you store .5 kwh in a few just a few milliseconds. the is a commonly asked question and has been addressed many times. you can search google for 'harvest lightning' to find this question answered many times over. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VN4QRwHCOXQ"
] | [
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how is deep/machine learning different from a bunch of if-else statements? | the fundamental difference between if-else and ai is that if-else models are static deterministic environments and machine learning algorithms are probabilistic stochastic environments. deterministic systems can do well in clearly defined and well-bounded situations, but the primary magic of ml is the ability to generalize along multiple dimensions. the deterministic aspect of if-else statements is that it identifies one item from a set of inputs determined by the programmer and returns one of a pre-determined set of outputs. a machine learning takes any input and returns a list of outputs in order of confidence based on the training data. when implementing a machine learning algorithm, you provide enough training data to enable the algorithm to identify items it has not seen with high confidence (i.e., has not been trained to recognize), but not so much that it only learns what you teach it (overfitting). that being said, there are many different machine learning models. one of them being decision tree / random forest which creates a set of if-else statements that classify any new item based on these true/false queries. so in a way, this model is nothing more than "if-else statements". however, instead of having the programmer manually go through thousands of files and data-entries to find the best queries, this model uses clever mathematics to learn them by itself. deep learning is based on neural networks (nn). nns are in a way, extremely smart if-else statements. each neuron takes the weighted sum of its inputs and returns a value depending on its activation function. a widely used function is the rectified linear unit (relu). this activation function only fires if the weighted sum is greater than zero otherwise (else) it doesn't fire at all. stacking these layers of neurons allows the network to learn extremely abstract information from the training data. information that normal humans would probably never be able to think of (that is why neural networks and deep learning are often looked at as "black boxes". we don't know what's happening inside of them). the network will adjust each weight using backpropogration and get better and better at it's purpose. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
in double-blind studies measuring effectiveness of birth control, does the control group receiving the placebo have affected pregnancy rates? | affected compared to what? if compared to the general population than it would typically be different since the study participants aren't a perfect sampling of the population. if compared to the pregnancy rate of the participants prior to starting the trial than it would also typically be affected since the behaviour of participants is generally different when they are in a clinical trial than not. if you are asking whether taking a sugar pill can in itself affect pregnancy rates i don't believe there is any evidence of that and it seems theoretically rather unlikely. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is ybco used in superconducting wires instead of higher temperature superconductors like hgtlbacacuo or srffeas? | there are many higher temperature superconductors than ybco (graph [here](_url_0_) ) but why is ybco always used? the ones that require high pressures to exhibit superconductivity are the only ones that make sense because it would be much more expensive to decrease the temperature *and* increasing pressure. | industry. we can manufacture ybco wires on a large scale, but don't have the manufacturing processes set up to do so with other superconductors on the large scale. and the reason we don't have manufacturing set up is because ybco was the first which was discovered to have a high enough critical temperature to be feasible, so that was the focus for building wires. right now there isn't enough of an improvement in either tc or in ease of manufacture which economically justifies making a switch. | 8 | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Timeline_of_Superconductivity_from_1900_to_2015.svg"
] | [] | [
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many influential scientific findings have come from previously eccentric mathematics, like the use of non-euclidean geometry by einstein to explain relativity. what weird math do we have today that doesn't seem to be useful now, but would be awesome to utilize in the future? | [representation theory](_url_1_) will probably become the next standard stem-thing to learn from math. representation theory is, loosely, the use of linear algebra to study symmetry. it's already used all over the place in theoretical physics, but it is so powerful and already ubiquitous throughout math, that i would be surprised if it didn't leak out into the sciences. it had it's accidental break-through into the sciences in the 60s, when particle physicists were having trouble categorizing the different particles when a mathematician saw it and said "that looks a lot like representation theory, here's 100 years of work on the topic, hope it helps!" and it did. [cohomology](_url_0_) is probably one of the most powerful things in math, but has very limited applications. cohomology lets us study really complicated objects using really simple ones that we are already familiar with. if you have a geometric object, cohomology attaches to it a sequence of vector spaces that encode how it behaves in each dimension. if it has a really big cohomology in the first dimension, then it has a lot of loops. if it has a big cohomology in the second dimension, then it has lots of voids. how this sequence of vector spaces interacts with itself and others can tell us a lot about the object involved. much of modern geometry, number theory, algebra, you name it can be done in the context of cohomology. it's hard to describe exactly how amazing and powerful it is to laypeople (my next challenge perhaps, at a more reasonable hour), and there are even levels to it that i'm not very privy to, but it has very limited applications. the one application i can think of, [topological data analysis](_url_4_), uses a very basic form of cohomology (well, homology), but is already really powerful and really interesting. like representation theory, cohomology is all over the place in math and i wouldn't be surprised if cohomology became the new "linear algebra" in 100-150 years time, desperately required for everything and crazy to think that people 150 years ago thought it wasn't applicable. i long for the day when engineering majors complain about the spectral sequence exam. i anecdotally heard that alexander grothendieck, one of the greatest mathematicians of the last 100 years, said that "every good representation comes from cohomology", but i can't ever find it to verify. from a slightly alternate viewpoint, we have [p-adic numbers](_url_2_) and [p-adic analysis](_url_5_). most people take the real numbers for granted. but when you see how the real numbers are made, you might wonder if there are other number systems that we can make in a similar manner. in particular, to get the reals, you first order the rational numbers onto a line (ie: give it a geometry) and then fill in the holes. are there alternative ways to give the rational numbers a geometry and fill in the holes so that we get a different number system? the answer is yes. you can't meaningfully picture them, but for every prime number p, you can give the rational numbers a geometry that extenuates the properties of that prime, this geometry has holes in it that we can fill in, this gives us a brand new number system called the p-adic numbers. with p-adic numbers, you can talk about p-adic analysis (ie calculus) and p-adic extensions (akin to the complex numbers). generally, pretty much everything that you can do on the real line has some kind of p-adic analog. these analogs can be really powerful and useful, but so far only really useful in studying numbers and primes. there is [p-adic quantum mechanics](_url_3_) floating around, though. one thing that p-adics really help with is completing the picture. in a way, we restrict ourselves when only looking at the real line and p-adics can help illuminate missing information. along these lines, p-adics are very important in representation theory because they can open up new ways of looking at certain symmetries. this list could probably go on much longer, but these are the things i generally think of in this kind of context. | 28 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohomology",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-adic_number",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-adic_quantum_mechanics",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_data_analysis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-adic_analysis"
] | [
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|
is everyday the same rainy day globally? | in other words is the amount of rainfall more or less constant on a day to day level when taken globally for the whole planet? and is the amount of cloud cover more or less constant too? | i am not an expert, but [here's an animation of global rainfall with one-month resolution, over ~15 years.](_url_0_) you can see that while for the most part, it appears that the global rainfall is constant month-to-month, it seems monsoon season has a significant effect. | 55 | [] | [] | [
"http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/GlobalMaps/view.php?d1=TRMM_3B43M"
] | [
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] |
do fighter pilots face a higher risk of developing intracranial aneurysms? | i know that when pulling positive g maneuvers (pulling up), fighter pilots must wear inflating g-suits and use a technique which involves flexing the muscles in their lower body in order to maintain proper blood circulation to the brain. however, i was wondering about possible side-effects of negative g-forces, and it occurred to me that a sudden and dramatic increase of blood pressure in the cerebral blood vessels may put one at risk of either a vessel bursting suddenly, or developing an aneurysm over time from the repeated stresses of negative g flight. | yes, they are much more prone to blood vessels in their brain and eyes rupturing. the effect would be similar to bungy jumping. i am not allowed to do either because of a genetic condition that makes me prone to anuerysms. i should note that apparently you are much more likely to go blind than have a stroke from -g effects. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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desktop computer and liquid nitrogen | will a desktop computer operate submerged in a dewar of liquid nitrogen? and if so, would it's performance be enhanced? how much? | disclaimer: not a computer scientist or an electrical engineer. electronics are made to run in reasonable human temperatures, in the 20-40c range. liquid nitrogen is around -210c, which is noticeably out of this range. i'm too drunk to remember the equations from undergrad physics for the electricity, but there would definitely be problems with brittleness, not to mention the liquid nitrogen offgassing and suffocating anybody nearby without adequate ventilation. if you wanted to be cute, superconductors work at extremely low temperate, and are usually cooled by liquid helium (-260c ish). you could probably make a superconducting processor if you were willing to cool it. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do blood vessels that have burst heal stronger? | on multiple occasions, my skin has experienced rapid depressurization and red dots appear where small, weak, surface vessels have burst. i am wondering if there is any scientific evidence that blood vessels heal stronger after damage or if a torn vessel is simply more likely to burst again. | if a blood vessel was to get stronger one thing would have to happen. it would have to get thicker/add more cells, like bones and muscles do. what happens to a tube that carries a fluid if its diameter if reduced? the rate of flow decreases and the pressure increases dramatically. these are bad things to happen to your blood vessels as it would increase your chances of strokes, decrease your ability to transport oxygen and put your heart under a shitload of strain. if they tear, they heal normally like your skin does. your skin doesnt get thicker, or stronger even, it just goes back to how it was before it was torn. if you suffer great enough damage to the vessel, it may heal with scar tissue, limiting its effectiveness anyway. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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evolution of defensive poisons | how can a defensive poison (such as that of a poisonous frog) evolve if the selective pressure depends on its predator knowing it's poisonous? that is there no advantage to the individual to being poisonous if you die anyway. is that why poisonous animals are colourful, because only the distinctive ones are remembered by the poisoned predator as being poisonous? (that is only animals that evolve a poison and a distinctive colour simultaneously can pass on a benefit to their kin? | the selective pressure doesn't depend on the predator knowing it's poisonous. the poison kills the predator, regardless of whether it knows what it ate was good for it or bad for it - however, those predators that don't eat the poisonous prey will live, while those that don't will die. eventually, you select for the predators that avoid the poisonous animal - if it happens to have a distinct colouring, that's ok. the distinctive colouring would, by expectation, be secondary, as the predators have stopped eating the animal that isn't camouflaged so well any more. otherwise, if the fancy colour evolved before the toxin, the brightly coloured prey would be easier to see, and thus would have been depleted faster, favouring those that are better camoflaged. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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human growth hormone (hgh) and melatonin are released between the hours of 11pm and 1am? | is this the right place to ask about fact checking? i read an article online at _url_0_ but is it true what it says as i posted in the title? | pineal melatonin is released during your sleeping phase. it is not triggered just by being in the dark, as if you mess with rats sleep schedule, the release zero melatonin in the dark. i would not believe the 11pm to 1am story. in rodents, it looks like [this](_url_1_) [here](_url_0_) is your classical paper showing plasma growth hormone release during the beginning of sleep. finally [here](_url_2_) we see what happens if you get a random late night. so sleep on a regular schedule if you want to get swole! | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.articlesfactory.com/articles/weight-loss/how-to-get-rid-of-your-skinny-fat-syndrome.html"
] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/LXzMsFW.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/9byICKb.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/odvSMPL.png"
] | [
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do tv signals follow the inverse square law in space? | i've often heard it said that we're beaming television and radio signals into space for the universe to hear, in which case alpha centuri has probably just got to the shocking end of game of thrones series one. but isn't this electromagnetic radiation subject to the inverse square law? shouldn't it be so weak to be more like static by the time it gets all the way "out there?" | you're correct in thinking that in free space, all electromagnetic waves (radio, light, x-rays, etc.) obey the inverse-square law as is shown [here](_url_0_). but this depends on the origional tv transmitters which were basically giant metal poles on the tops of hills, transmitting in a massive radius as an antenna, which is not how we do things nowadays. now we more use directional beams from satellites to cover a small country or part of a continent, which have very little leakage into space, due to cost per transmission, and bandwidth, etc. or we use cables for tv. there's actually a really interesting debate going on right now since we have [seti](_url_1_) using giant dishes looking for this exact type of "leakage" of em signals from potential alien planets, yet already we use line of sight type transmissions on earth which hide us rather well. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_propagation#Free_space_propagation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_for_extraterrestrial_intelligence"
] | [
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can there be anything to non-invasive bodyfat removal? | a family member read about ultrasound fat-removal treatment (on groupon), and wants to spend the ~650 $ on it. there isn't anything to it, is it? as a layman, i think that even if cell death of white adipose tissue occurs [through any non-invasive method], the blood would simply be swamped with triglycerides. i assume, that in the 'best' case scenario, with slow release, the fat would circulate and find a new home in other wat (maybe in parts in liver and muscle first? i am not sure whether there is an pathway to glycerol), and in the worst case severe hyperlipodemia. there is simply no way for the fat to go except to get burned up and breathed out, right? am i too skektic, or is she too gullible? | which would be quite pathological. tags are not soluble in blood and are usually always transported on so called chylomicrons (special lipo-proteins that carry tags), which usually are transported by the lymph-system to the thoracic duct, which then slowly gives the chylomicrons into the blood-stream (in order to attenuate them; because too many at once will be just as bad as free tags). since the fat-cells would have no time to convert the tags into fatty acids (which are soluble in blood) and glycerol (if they're destroyed), you'd actually end up with real tags just floating around freely - which i simply can't imagine (worst case scenario would be a fat embolism). so bottom line: i don't know whether this works, but i simply can't imagine it (but again - i do not know) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is happening to this red hot ball of nickel? | _url_0_ it seems like a ball of steam forms around the ball but does not rise towards the surface until the metal cools enough at which point the bubble pops. what is happening exactly and what holds the heated gas around the metal? i'm familiar with the leidenfrost effect, does this play a part? | i'd say that this is the leidenfrost effect in action, as you guessed. the ball is initially hot enough to nearly instantly flash into steam any water that comes into contact with it, thus forming a layer of steam around itself. this steam bubble is at a higher pressure than the surrounding water, and thus keeps its form. at the top, some of it rises up due to the lower density than the surrounding water, being replaced with water which instantly flashes into steam again. as the nickel ball cools down, it at some point drops below the threshold temperature for the leidenfrost effect, which is ~200 °c. you might notice that soon after the bubbling starts, the boiling stops altogether, compared to the time it took for the leidenfrost effect to stop. this is because the nickel ball, judged by its colour, probably has a temperature in excess of 1000 °c, much hotter than is needed for the leidenfrost effect or for the boiling of water. in addition, heat transfer under film boiling (the "steam layer" phase) is much slower than with nucleate (or bubbling) boiling, since steam is a poor heat conductor compared to liquid water. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9qSEfcIfYbw"
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how do i know which definition applies to a given base? | i understand that there is a difference between the arrhenius and the brønsted–lowry definitions of bases. with the former definition a base donates oh^- ions, and with the latter it accepts h^+ ions. if i understand it correctly, neither of the definitions can be used exclusively for all bases. arrhenius cannot be used for nh3, and b-l cannot be used for naoh. is that correct? how can we know in which way a given base will act? | brønsted–lowry is a generalisation of arrhenius. brønsted–lowry states that alkalies (sources of oh-) aren't the only bases. under brønsted–lowry nh3 is a base as well as naoh. a further generalisation is the lewis definition which states that a base is a species that donates a pair of electrons to an acceptor. the acceptor itself is the acid. these generalisations help in understanding the similar chemistries between different species. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is it about high blood pressure that causes problems? | is it the case that past a certain point, something is likely to explode, and if you have higher bp in general, you're more likely to hit that point? or does having high bp weaken your vessels, making an explosion more likely during a spike? i am curious because i have good bp in general, but i think that i have huge spikes when i get very anxious. obviously not great for me, but i wonder if having low bp in general helps me. | high blood pressure increases the workload on your heart, requiring more force to pump blood through your arteries. this leads to a higher oxygen demand on your heart, increasing the likelihood of cardiac ischemia and heart attack. in addition, chronic hypertension causes both systemic changes in your blood vessels and problems inherent to high pressures, such as aneurysms (which can rupture) and aortic dissection (in which blood leaks into the aortic wall and causes it to separate). | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any place in the universe, or could we make a place, where em field doesn't exist ? are we able to purge an em-field ? | nope; at least not according to how most physicists interpret fields. it is typically understood that fields exist everywhere throughout all space, even if they have a value of zero somewhere. the field itself is still there, you just won't notice it until something imparts some energy to it. it is possible to zero out a field (at least to statistical limits imposed by quantum mechanics), but i think that you'd be hard pressed to find many physicists who would argue that an expectation value of zero is equivalent to the non-existence of the field. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
salt left in a cup of vinegar for a couple of days and salt appeared around the outside brim of the cup. why? | my mother says the salt that appeared are the bad vibes in her house being captured. please help me explain why that salt appeared. if done with water, will it have the same effects? | you can do this with a cup of plain saltwater too. as the water evaporates, salt crystals form along the sides of the cup where the air and water meet. sometimes these new crystals begin to wick up more salt water, which then evaporates to leave more salt crystals behind. they in turn wick up more saltwater, and this process repeats itself. eventually you will reach the top and the salt will appear outside the brim. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does "playing hard to get" make any psychological and biological sense? | sure. it can be regarded both as a way of signalling high value as a mate, and as a means of evaluating the true level of interest of a potential mate. of course, to the extent that it might discourage a potentially desirable mate, it is also a strategy with risks. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if f=m*a then how come when i turn on a flashlight or laser it doesn't shoot out of my hand? | the acceleration of light had to be near instantaneous, which would mean that there should be at least a little force to it, and more with a laser because it would be focused more. | 1. photons have no mass. 2. photons don't accelerate to the speed of light. rather, they travel at the speed of light the moment they begin to exist. that said, photons **do** have momentum. it's just very, very small. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is micro (μ) the only prefix which doesn't use a letter from the latin alphabet? | we already use mega (m) and mili (m). micro also starts with m, the easiest way to keep the m but avoid confusion is to go to a greek letter. if you do not have access to greek letters you can also abbreviate it as u e.g. us or um for microsecond and micrometer, respectively. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do you view a ball sitting on a table in terms of general relativity? | i have a basic working knowledge of gr (calculating trajectories of free-falling particles etc.) and understand that gravity is not really an attractive force but rather that objects move in geodesics in a curved spacetime and this gives the appearance of attraction. however i have a problem visualizing things when other forces are applied, like in the case of a ball sitting on a table. the ball is acted on by the electrostatic repulsion between its atoms and the table's. but if there's no 'real' gravitational force to balance this out then the ball must be accelerating in some way. how do you visualize this acceleration? i hope that question makes sense! | you can choose an inertial frame, where the ball _is_ accelerating due to the electrostatic repulsion, or choose an accelerating frame where the ball is at rest, where gravity is a fictitious force that cancels out the repulsion. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why do we use mercator projected maps? | most normally use maps such as these: _url_1_ ... but then we see articles with images like this: _url_0_ ... if they are true, why do we still use mercator projected maps for flat images? | each type of map projection has different pros and cons. the major properties maps must balance are: * size (equal-area projections) * shape (conformal projections) * direction * distance choose 1 or sometimes 2, but sacrifice the rest. you can't preserve them all. it's mathematically impossible to flatten a sphere perfectly. the mercator projection was popular for centuries throughout history for the simple reason that it was great for navigation. that's because it preserves direction, vastly simplifying the task of getting a boat from a to b while navigating with primitive instruments. so it has a ton of precedent. and since it's somewhat conformal (for not too large features at least), it's great for teaching children the shape of nations so they can recognize them on a globe. keep in mind, no map projection is wrong (not even the disgusting gall-peters). they all are just specialized for different situations. if you are worried about representing area accurately, just use an equal-area projection. edit: if you want to see what a map is preserving or sacrificing, display a tissot's indicatrix on it. | 12 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/mfEICoT.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercator_projection"
] | [] | [
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can someone explain linkage disequilibrium to me? | i am in grad school for bio-engineering. it's a long story, but out of curiosity i decided to take this obscenely intense genetics class. i'm trying to wrap my head around linkage disequilibrium, but can't really grasp the concept. | it's basically a measurement of the extent to which alleles at different loci associate with each other. if the two alleles do not associate in any way, the frequency of all the possible haplotypes should be based solely on the frequency of each allele (this is the expected distribution). if they do associate, however, (i.e. having one allele makes having another more likely), then there will be a deviation from the expected distribution, and this deviation is the linkage disequilibrium. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
could this type of erosion happen in real life? if so, how? | it's [this thing here](_url_0_) it's from magic the gathering, and they dream up all kinds of interesting landforms. here's [another one](_url_1_) (ignore the giant zendikon). | you can get formations like your first link just by having a shale (or carbonate) on a sandstone. much like [this](_url_0_). fun fact, you can tell sea level rises and drops from those formations. the second formation can be formed like what you see in the [needles](_url_1_) in southern utah. this is formed from having a more or less consistent lithology and a lot of wind and water erosion. | 10 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/FUbQol.jpg",
"https://www.wizards.com/mtg/images/daily/features/feature74_celestialColonnade.jpg"
] | [
"http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Qbonm3yEZgk/TVsyN93onWI/AAAAAAAAAOQ/e3sHYUXf_UQ/s1600/balanced_rocks_4x.jpg",
"http://www.allmoab.com/images/content/9975_3394_Canyonlands_Utah_Needles_md.jpg",
"http://static.environmentalgraffiti.com/sites/default/files/images/hoodoos.img_assist_custom-600x400.jp",
"http://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large/those-hoodoos-bryce-canyon-john-rav.jpg"
] | [
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3 science questions from tesla (arising from his essay on the front page of til) | the til was focused on the eugenics issue, but i was interested in the science addressed in it. _url_0_ can you explain terrestrial resonance? is that simply earth's magnetism? what was the supposed scientific basis for tesla coils, and why didn't they work as anticipated? what was the scientific basis for his "wall of power" defensive weapon described at the end? | terrestrial resonance appears to refer to an effect where radio wave can be reflected/transmitted by the ionosphere, although lower frequencies may be transmitted along the surface of the earth. i'm not aware of any major issues with his theoretical understanding of tesla coils. electromagnetic induction was understood, although some of the peculiarities of ionized plasmas weren't. pure speculation, but the "wall of power" thing appears to be describing a rail gun, or something conceptually similar. tesla was a fascinating character, and the promise of his inventions still excites our imaginations. sadly, this makes it rather difficult to determine what is real, what is fantasy, and what is merely wish fulfillment. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/1935-02-00.htm"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schumann_resonances",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telluric_current"
] | [
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why do lasers follow the flow of water like this .gif? | _url_0_ yeah, im up for physics exam and saw this gif and wondered about the exact physics in this. | a principle called total internal reflection. if the light encounters a boundary between two materials with different optical densities it is refracted (the angle changes). if it hits at a very shallow angle the light will be reflected off of the boundary instead of passing through it. [refraction and total internal reflection diagram](_url_0_) [example for laser in water stream](_url_1_) | 13 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/3f8m3Eb"
] | [
"http://macao.communications.museum/images/exhibits/2_8_4_2_eng.png",
"http://physicsed.buffalostate.edu/pubs/StudentIndepStudy/EURP09/TIR/stream.jpg"
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what are the efficiencies of different window coverings? | i have large windows facing south west which during the summer heat up my apartment dramatically. after spending way too much time deciding which window covering to get i ended up going for white blinds with 2" slates. they help greatly but i am curious which type of window covering would have been more efficient and how various types compare to others. does anyone understand the science behind window coverings for reflecting solar heat? | if you want just a quick advice: stickytaping aluminium foil on the inside of at least half of the window works quite well (by experience of many students with west-facing windows in our dorm). i tried to find a solution to similar problem before: given an isomat with aluminium foil on one side and black foam on the other, which side would be better to sit on to isolate your butt from cold ground. it turns out, that the problem isn't so easy to solve... the isolating properties should be different due to different thermal conductivity and thermal capacity of the materials, but at least using the first approximation calculation (the foam is absolutely black body and aluminium foil is absorbing nothing and reflecting 99% of heat) it doesn't seam to matter which side you sit on. using the same approach to model the window and cover: window reflects ~80% (r_w ) of heat and the rest goes through. the cover _behind window_ reflects 90% (r_c) of heat back, absorbs remaining 10% and radiates it to both sides equally. hot air in between the cover and the window and the heat absorbed by the window glass are neglected... reflecting the heat there and back between the cover and the window in this setup reflects r_w + (1-r_w)*[r_c*(1-r_w) + (1-r_w)*0.5*(1-r_c)] + (1-r_w)*{r_w*[...]} + (1-r_w)*{r_w^2*[...]} + ... of the incoming heat back outside. for given numbers, 99% of the incoming heat is reflected back outside by the window and the cover. the above expression depends on reflective properties of the cover lineary with constant term for properties of the window. **this is just a complicated way of saying that the more reflecting and less-heat absorbing cover you have (behind the window), the better** (hence, alufoil with no space for the neglected air). it also says, that the properties of the window have much bigger impact on your heat comfort than the covers. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i've heard "heat" described two different ways. why do both methods of description product the same feeling? | the feeling of something being "hot" can come from both infrared radiation and the vibration of particles or molecules. why do both of these cause the same perceptual effect? why does infrared radiation increase the temperature of an object while other colors of light do not? what is different about it's wavelength and interaction with normal matter that causes that effect? is the feeling that someone perceives the result of atomic motion created by the effect of infrared radiation or does infrared radiation directly stimulate nerve endings? | because both result in increased vibration of your own molecules. simply because there is not enough of the "other colors". in other words, all wavelengths of light carry energy (and can heat you up). ir carries less per photon than visible light, but there is more of it around you than visible light. in fact a large part of heating up coming from the sun **is** because of the visible light. ir heats up your atoms/molecules. your nerve endings are made of a lot of molecules. i'd say typically your nerve endings are not exposed enough to actually get any ir. essentially there is no *or* in your last question. both things can occur. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how fast is 162173 ryugu moving through space? | to get a speed you have to define a reference. if we used the sun, then at a glance i can see that it has an orbit slightly outside earth's meaning its average orbital speed should be somewhat below earth's of 30 kilometers per second. but it also has an eccentric orbit, so the speed will deviate from that average, moving faster when it's closer to the sun. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
question about how hypothyroidism can make a person gain weight if they are dieting | i was talking to some people about hypothyroidism and that it can make it hard to lose weight or make you gain weight, my question is thus: if you are expending more calories than you take in don't you lose weight regardless? i don't understand what could keep that from happening. | if "you are expending more calories than you take in" you will loose weight. yes. the question is if you will in fact actually do that. the body can reduce it's metabolism very very low. hypothyroidism essentially causes the body to run on very low power. people with the condition feel cold, weak and tired all the time. so you would need to eat even less food to loose weight as a result - but doing that can convince the body it's starving and it will reduce its metabolism even lower. it's a loosing game - the less food you eat, the less energy the body uses until you have to eat so little the person is half dead. (this is why even for normal people loosing weight is not as simple as "eat less".) | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does a sewing needle become magnetized when pushed/pulled through fabric for a lengthy period of time? | i tried a google search, but almost everything i could find related to how to magnetize a needle to make a home-made compass. i think it has something to do with the friction making the electrons move in different patterns, but that could be way off. just curious about something i noticed. | i'd never heard of this effect. does it actually happen? have you ever seen it? our current model for magnetism in ferrous materials is that there are microscopic regions ("domains") in a piece of ferrous metal. when you apply a magnetic field, some of them become aligned with it. as the number of aligned domains increases, the piece of ferrous material becomes more magnetised. the proportion of domain that align depends on a number of factors including: * crystal structure of the material * temperature * strength of applied magnetic field so: it could be: * there is no such effect (always have a null hypothesis) * while sewing, needles spend most of their time pointing the same way, so acquire ambient magnetic alignment (maybe with the earth's field, but, damn that's small) * do people sewing ever use magnets as pincushions? so: never heard of it before, not implausible, and we could easily do some experiments. anyone got a kid who needs a science fair project? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens during evolution that causes animals to blend in with their surroundings? | lots of species adapt to their environment in many ways. but what about the species that are camouflaged in their surroundings because their colors match the grass or dirt or whatever? | it's pretty simple. the animals that are obviously visible get eaten, or don't get to eat others, preferentially leaving the animals that blend in better. repeat for a few thousand generations, and you end up with animals that all blend in with their environment really well. it just needs to be true that 1) on average, camouflaged animals leave more babies and 2) being camouflaged is heritable. if those things are true, then the population will gradually move towards being more camouflaged. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a question regarding recent genetic research. | there have been many scientific discoveries lately identifying genes that cause specific problems and/or specific traits. my question is, is there a way to utilize these discoveries? for example, let's say that a gene that causes obesity is identified. can we correct aberrations in those with abnormal occurrences of that gene? if we can do this, how? would it be something as simple as an injection? would it work for an adult or would it have to be something done to an unborn child during development? (i don't have a background in biology so please forgive my ignorance) | [here is the wiki article on gene therapy to get you started](_url_0_). the answer to your question is yes, we can utilize knowledge of problematic genetic mutations to attempt to repair the defect -- but we are still trying to learn how to do it reliably, effectively and safely. the area of research that tries to correct defects permanently is called gene therapeutics, but other research areas can try to address the same problem (using a drug to treat rather than outright repair genetic defects, for example). right now, the gene therapy approach is typically limited to diseases that are caused by defects in one gene. these diseases tend to be rare because most diseases are complex situations resulting for multiple biological problems. examples of primarily single gene linked diseases include "bubble boy" disease (properly known as scid) and cystic fibrosis. how do we try to do this? well, without getting too technical, the challenge is getting the new gene into cells that need it. this involves getting new dna into cells and making sure it is expressed so it can make the normally functioning protein it encodes. there are many ways to do this, but the most popular avenue of research has been into using viruses as a delivery system. viruses have naturally evolved to be able to insert their genes into our genomes. hiv, for example, can do this -- many other viruses as well. so we can take one such virus, remove its ability to harm us by playing with its genes and then put the gene we want into the virus shell so that it becomes a (hopefully) harmless delivery system. in theory, the virus can be injected and will go on to infect cells and deliver a working copy of the gene. there are other ways, such as removing cells from people and inserting the gene into those cells when they are in a petri dish and then putting the cells back into someone, knowing they will multiply and eventually correct the problem. these approaches work for adults or children. there are problems, of course, but these techniques have had successes in people! it's a very promising avenue of therapy, though perhaps we now realize the challenges where as earlier, near the completion of the human genome project, we had higher hopes. real breakthroughs are happening though, and more and more clinical trials are popping up for various diseases. with our knowledge of the genome and things like viruses and stem cells, we get better and better at it. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy"
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why are the racks for test tubes 6x12 and 6x6 | i find this highly illogical in impractical and it seems no one can provide me with an answer as to why this is. | don't underestimate the power of "it's always been that way". before metric was adopted, a "dozen" was often used as a unit. eggs still come in dozens in many places, for instance. test tubes have been around for a long time, and after a university has invested in racks that hold them, of a specific size, and then all of the autoclaves hold them in those units, and they fit nicely on the shelves..... you get the idea. buying a bunch of 5x10 units would just not stack nicely. this is in the same department of why people use qwerty keyboards, why americans can't figure out metric and why newspapers still circulate - better ways might exist, but we're just used to the one we already have. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do electric fields and current density tend to concentrate at areas of high curvature and in narrow channels? | i am working on a comsol model for my research, and i've noticed that i have some pretty non-uniform fields, and i can't seem to explain why i have such high gradients. any help would be appreciated! | electric fields are strongest at sharp points because locally at a point on a charged object, the region of space occupied by the object is minimized, allowing the potential to drop off faster. because e=-∇ v, this means the strongest fields are concentrated about this point. consider a simple example. say you have a charged needle. if you are very close to the side of the needle (imagine standing on the midpoint of it), it approximates a long line of charge, so the potential falls off as log(1/r) and the field scales with 1/r. if you are standing on the very tip of the needle though, the local potential is best approximated by a point charge, so the potential falls off with 1/r and the field scales with 1/r^2 , resulting in a stronger field when close to the needle. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if there was a sheet of ultra clear glass, would our eyes be able to focus on it? | yes. in fact, you can adjust your focus ([accommodation](_url_0_ of your lens) voluntarily without needing any particular object to focus on. here is a little experiment you can do to practice this. hold an index finger out between your nose and the computer monitor and focus on the tip. now switch focus to the monitor. you will notice that the change in focus isn't instantaneous -- that's because the muscles controlling the shape of the lens are changing gradually / continuously. you can control this process. take your finger away and focus on your monitor. cross your eyes as slowly as you can. you are changing your focus as you do so! you can make this easier by moving your index finger between the monitor and your nose while keeping your eyes focused on the tip. then put your finger away and just imagine it moving closer and farther away. you should be able to *feel* your eyes turning inwards as you focus on points in space (where there is no object!) closer and closer to you. pretty cool. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accommodation_\\(eye)"
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|
[biology] how does jet lag work? | your body has an internal clock, which is set based upon the light/dark cycle that your eyes see. when you change time zones, you throw off that clock because now its still daytime whenbyour body thinks its night time. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://jap.physiology.org/content/jap/92/2/852/F1.large.jpg?width=800&height=600",
"http://jap.physiology.org/content/92/2/852"
] | [
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|
do astronauts get jet lag? | normally i am the expert on these things, but i have since lost contact with all the astronauts i know and i thought reddit may give me an answer faster. i am aware that jet lag is due to the change in time of which you experience, in which disrupts the circadian rhythm. so i have two questions, do astronauts get jet lag? specifically one in which has orbited the earth for a significant amount of time (like in the iss). also, if/when we can develop aircraft/spacecraft of which can obtain speeds that allow its passengers to progress in time significantly slower than the rest of us on earth(time travel: say the earth advances 10 times faster than the time traveler), will they experience intensified jet lag on there return to earth? | jet lag is just the result of your internal clock being different from what time everyone else's. it has nothing to do with crossing timezones; they're arbitrary lines we've drawn on the map. shift them all 100 miles west, and nothing would change but what the clock says if it you happened to live within 100 miles of the timezone border. think of it like this. i take off in new york at 9:00, and fly to seattle. there's a fuck of a tail wind and i make it there in 3 hours. in new york, it's 12:00, and it feels like 12:00 to me because i've been living in new york, but it's still only 9:00 in seattle. if you were to take a rocket up into leo, orbit 37 times, and land in the same time zone you took off from, you would experience no jet lag provided you had maintained your regular sleeping schedule. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the probability (if it's calculable) that, when i throw a baseball at a pane of glass, the molecules will line up perfectly, allowing the ball to pass through the glass without damaging anything? | the classic example is, if you had a room of a thousand people bouncing a ball every second from now until the end of the universe, you will likely never see a ball pass through the floor. the chance is literally so insanely low that the percent is negligible. it can happen, mind you, but so immensely, incalculably unlikely that no one human now, or ever, is likely to see such an event occur. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does the electricity in my house work? if i turn on something that uses a lot of watts, does it pull it through the wire or is all that power already there? | in other words, does turning something on cause the little current going through the line turn into a larger current? if so, how? | the easiest analogy for this is a water pipe, where the voltage on the wire is analogous to water pressure. voltage is essentially a measurement of how badly the electrons want to get away from each other, so if you cram a bunch of electrons into a small space it makes a high voltage. much like water pressure. a high pressure water pipe just sitting there with no water moving out of it certainly has potential energy ready to be released as soon as you open a spigot, just like a high voltage electric line has potential energy ready to be released as soon as you flip a switch and give the electrons a pathway out of the wire and into the ground. you can extend this analogy by saying current is the rate of flow of water out of the pipe, and of course a big pipe can carry more current than a small pipe so this is analogous to a 30 amp circuit versus a 15 amp circuit. electrical power (watts) is equal to voltage times current so this is like saying the power of water is equal to the water pressure times the size of a leak. a very high pressure but small leak can be just as deadly and carry as much power as a low pressure but huge volume of water. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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oumuamua was spinning end on end. it is possible the acceleration observed as it rounded the sun was due to some form of boomerang effect? | space is very nearly a perfect vacuum, better than most artificial vacuums on earth and often measured in atoms per cubic centimeter. the aerodynamics that make a boomerang work don't apply here. light pressure is much stronger - and still incredibly weak. it's not often that a paper makes my hair stand up but [this did.](_url_0_) that's going to bother me in the back of my mind until i'm sure it's wrong. the object moved like it was being subjected to light pressure, but it allegedly moved too fast to be rock and probably wouldn't have survived if it were being pushed by comet outgassing. lightsail is a bad guess given the flight characteristics. for the mass it might be sheet metal. the only other information available is that it's red, not traveling that fast for an interstellar object, longer than it is wide, and slowly tumbling end over end. the gods must be crazy and we've found a giant empty can of coca cola. or somebody's dropped fuel tank. that's a bit concerning - aliens should exist, but finding such an object really should be unlikely. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1810.11490v2"
] | [
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] |
|
what is the physical/chemical origin of metal nobility? | i haven't been able to find a good explanation as to what causes the differences between the metals in the galvanic series. most places just states that the series is at it is and [wikipedia](_url_0_) appears to be more focused on the electrolyte and not the electrodes. | hi desch86, metals are ordered in the electrochemical series. here, redoxpotentials of different metals show different oxidation or reduction potentials vs. a defined standard potential (like the hydrogen / platinum electrode). a noble metal has a higher redox-potential than a non noble metal. in simple: the more energy you need to generate an oxide from your metal, the more "nobility" do you have. | 2 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrode_potential#Origin_and_interpretation"
] | [] | [
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how much force would a school of fish have to generate by "swimming down" to have the effect it did in finding nemo? | serious question. assuming the fishes in a net could communicate and organize in some way, would it be possible to resist the force of being pulled in by a fisherman's boat? is it at all possible? would it take a huge amount of fish in comparison to the weight/size of the boat to accomplish this? | complete fiction. think about it, each fish that was not on the top was being forced down and compacted together, completely ruining their ability to swim and provide down force. | 40 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you go about culturing a previously unknown organism? | from what i know, most organisms nowadays that have yet to be cultured are found using metagenomics where you take an environmental sample and determine the multiple different microbial genomes present in the environment. if a new genome belonging to a previously uncultured organism is present and you would like to grow this organism, one either orders or makes culture plates with a similar nutrient and chemical composition as this environmental sample (including air temp. and humidity). from here you can plate the sample and tweek the plate formula until you find the best growing conditions for the organism of interest often using simple trial and error. you can try to remove undesired organisms with dilution or selective conditions such as antibiotics. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what makes fast people, well.....fast? | really, i don't get it. is it just a matter of fast twitch muscle fiber? is it bone structure? oxygen capacity? or a complex of factors? | i'm only passingly familiar with some of the literature here but i do know about sprinting; stride length is the principle deciding factor for sprinting speed. to an important but slightly lesser degree minimising foot contact time with the ground also affects running speed. stride length is a function of the force exerted on the ground at each step and contact time is a function of both force and good technique. force exerted is a result of good bone and muscle structure and correct appropriate strength training. the interesting upshot of these observations is that the rate at which fast sprinters move their legs is about the same as your typically competent runner. this study goes in to this _url_1_ and is excellently summarised by _url_0_ obviously speed in other sports may come down to other factors. oxygen capacity may be much more important for endurance sports. fast/trained reflexes will be significant for things like tennis. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://sciencebasedrunning.com/2011/07/dave/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11053354"
] | [
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is there a mathematical theorem for determining the likelihood of an object landing in a particular orientation? | i've always wondered if there's a mathematical way to determine the bias of a dice if it isn't a platonic solid. i understand that if you find center of mass of at object, that point must lie between the points supporting the object (that is to say, the projection of the centroid onto a horizontal plane must be contained by the projection of the three points providing lift). how does that relate to the position the object lands in when it's coming to rest? in the same line of thought, is there a dimension for the length/radius ratio of a cylinder (of uniform density) such that the cylinder is equally likely to land on either face or side? think of a coin that lands one third of the time heads, one third tails, and one third on it's edge. | for not-obvious shapes you have to use computer simulations to figure it out, and it gets real complicated real fast. for example, [here](_url_0_) they have phase diagrams of the outcomes (each colour is a different side landing up) as a function of the initial rolling speed. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/Users/Staniczenko/Phillip_Staniczenko_Website/MPhys_-_Cuboid.html"
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are extroverts naturally happy? | i'm pretty introvert (as is much of reddit) and have friends who i would classify as extremely extroverted. they're always smiling when i see them and it makes me question myself a lot. are they just putting on a front or are they really happy just to be around someone? | found this: "differences in brain structures are also associated with extraversion, and such differences may have diverse implications for psychopathology, learning, and behavior. mri studies have shown that neo-pi-r extraversion is positively correlated with gray matter in the left amygdala (omura, constable, & canli, 2005); as reductions in amygdalar gray matter predict depression, this nding may suggest that extraversion is a protective factor against depression (omura et al., 2005" - _url_0_ so perhaps, or at least those more extroverted are less likely to get depressed. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://personality-project.org/revelle/publications/wr.ext.rev2.pdf"
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how does tv affect us? (mood, academics, whatever else) | i wanted to include computers too, but i don't think they've been around long enough. tv on the other hand has been around for what, 90 something years? i feel like by now we should have studies on things like how much it affects things like our lives, maybe studies comparing how much tv a person watches vs. their mood or their grades, or any other studies relating tv watching to our lives. | hi, you're correct in assuming that there hasn't been extensive or comprehensive studies regarding computers as compared to television. i will respond to your question in the domain that i am most familiar with, which is educational tv. the bottom line is that television programs that were specifically designed to educate children, do just that. in fact, exposure to educational programs (i.e. sesame street, blue's clues) in the preschool years has been highly correlated and is a strong predictor of long-term academic achievement. a study conducted by anderson, huston, schmitt, kunebarger, and wright (2001) found that exposure to sesame street to preschoolers significantly predicted their high school grades in math, science, english, and amount of leisure book reading. i'm going to go back to the point i touched upon earlier in regards to educational vs. non-educational television. linebarger and walker (2005) examined the effects of different television programs and their impact on language development of toddlers. the research showed that educational programs such as dora the explorer and blue's clues were positively associated with expressive language and vocabulary development whereas shows like the teletubbies were negatively associated with said measures. children as young as two are cognitively active while watching tv and are selective in what they watch. preschool children have been shown to pay less attention to television programs that they find incomprehensible or unrelatable (i.e. teletubbies) than programs that they can comprehend. in fact, children pay more attention to television programs that they comprehend than they do to tv commercials, even though the commercials have greater density of 'attractive' formal features (i.e. loud noises, rapid movement, vivid colors). this is all to say that young children are not passive and 'brainless' consumers of television, they are cognitively active while watching shows (think out aloud about what will happen next, making comments). i must conclude by saying that tv viewing should be done in moderation. using the tv as the sole source of education for a child is obviously not going to work. furthermore, co-viewing with a parent or adult has shown to yield the greatest benefits of watching educational programs (as compared to watching it alone). parents who ask their children questions about the shows during the shows have shown to greatly increase comprehension in their children. i apologize for not touching upon the other points that were in your question, those are outside my area of competence. hopefully someone else can talk about tv effect on mood and other aspects of development. here are some excellent readings regarding this topic: anderson, d. r., huston, a. c., schmitt, k. l., linebarger, d. l., & wright, j. c. (2001). early childhood television viewing and adolescent behavior. *monographs of the society for research in child development*, 68(1, serial no. 264), 1–143. linebarger, d. l., & walker, d. (2005). infants’ and toddlers’ television viewing and language outcomes. *american behavioral scientist*, 48, 624–5. kirkorian, h.l. & anderson, d.r. (2011). learning from educational media. in s.l. & b.j. wilson (eds.), *the handbook of children, media, and development*, pp.188-213, chicester, uk: wiley-blackwell. subrahmanyam, k. & greenfield, p. (2012). digital media and youth: games, internet, and development. in d.g. singer & j.l. singer (eds.), *handbook of children and the media* (2nd ed.), (pp.75-96). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why am i really bad at counting two separate things at the same time? | example: taking my own pulse. i'm perfectly capable of counting seconds or beats, but i cannot do them both at the same time. is my brain broken, or is this normal? and if it's normal, why? | this is normal. when splitting your attention, how good you are at each depends on two factors; automaticity and similarity. automaticity refers to how automatic the action is. consider driving a car. if you've been driving for years you'll know that it takes far less concentration than it once did and you're probably more comfortable having a conversation than you were on your first drive. similarity refers to how similar the two focuses are. this is important (and what's relevant to your question) because the more overlap there is, the harder it will be to do both at the same time. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what type of effect do events like july 4th or thunder over louisville have on the atmosphere? | does it help contribute to global warming? do fireworks produce as much as air waste as factories at times? and if it is damaging the environment, why are we still doing it while we attack companies that openly pollute? | it doesn't come close to industrial emissions, and the pollution from fireworks is more heavily tilted toward heavy metals and [perchlorate](_url_0_) than greenhouse gases. the impact is observed in standing water, rather than the atmosphere. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perchlorate"
] | [
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let's say that in x videogame, i have a 10% chance of finding an item in a chest. what are the chances that i will actually get one, and only one item every 10 chests? | [removed] | see the binomial distribution. with a success chance of 1/n, the chance of exactly one success in *n* trials is (1-1/n)^(n-1). for n = 10, that gives 38.7%. as n gets large, the chance is actually bounded below and approaches 1/e = 36.8%. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can somebody please give me an intuitive explanation as to why the principle of equal a priori probabilities is true for a many particle system so i can take the faith out of stat mech? | in short, it's an assumption. this assumption is made because it would be very confusing if it weren't true and it seems to work. _url_0_ sorry i can't help more than that. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanics#Fundamental_postulate"
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|
how exactly was the idea of an "ether" dismissed? it seems to make more sense than to suggest that light waves are self-manifesting. | i've read a lot books that briefly touch on the subject, but don't go into a tremendous amount of detail about how exactly the idea of an "ether" was dismissed. anyone care to shed some light on the subject? | check out the wiki page on the subject :_url_0_ basically michelson morley disproved a stationary aether. other observations contradicted an aether-drag theories. basically, any theory including an aether was in contradiction to the observations.... | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminiferous_aether"
] | [
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how plausible is a cure for cystic fibrosis? | i'm not an expert on the condition myself, but compared to other ailment and illnesses, the processes and the condition itself seem relatively simple and to be honest, it seems like the kind of condition i'd expect to have been sorted. just how plausible is a cure for cf? that's a pretty broad question, so is one likely to be relatively soon, or is there a particular reason why it is unlikely? | [very plausible.](_url_1_) that drug works for 4% of cf sufferers, but the same rational drug design approach could feasibly come up for a treatment for others. the trouble is that it's a fairly rare disease, so not a lot of research money goes into it. the [cystic fibrosis foundation](_url_0_) fills that gap, and worked with vertex to develop kalydeco. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cff.org/",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/01/business/fda-approves-cystic-fibrosis-drug.html"
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do all animals fart? | i just saw this video _url_0_ it is a karl pilkington video, in the video a snake farts. do most animals fart? fish? birds? butterflies? | all animals have digestive systems. all digestive systems produce gases. all noxious digestive gases must be expelled from the body. there are many ways by which animals expel gases from their bodies. some do it by the anus, some do it by the mouth, some do it by their skin. the word 'fart' is not well defined but it can be thought of as a sound that is made when gas is expelled from the anus. therefore, not all animals fart. | 35 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BD2StXY1qKg&feature=share"
] | [
"http://m.youtube.com/watch?v=-eqVjdKtD44",
"http://www.city-data.com/forum/attachments/atlanta/46421d1249335784-what-animal-pooping-my-garage-poop1.jpg",
"http://www.wildlife-removal.com/images/snakepoop.jpg"
] | [
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] |
is there any evidence that a large scale, traumatic event (like the bombs dropped on hiroshima and nagasaki) can have a long lasting effect on the overall psyche of a culture? | i've heard theories that one of the reasons the japanese are so "strange" as a culture is because the atomic bombs had some profound effect on their culture psychologically that's managed to persist even generations later. is there any merit to this theory? | [effects of the devastation.](_url_1_). i don't know that anything as specifically been done to identify cultural ptsd but that devastation certainly effected millions of individuals. the traumatic event is not limited to the atomic bombs however but the devastation caused by all of wwii. the atomic bombs wrecked only 2 cities. firebombing and conventional bombing [64 others](_url_0_). destruction of infrastructure, losses of men and equipment (value the country could have used elsewhere) overseas caused even more problems. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.phoenixbonsai.com/bigpicture/PostWarJapan.html",
"http://jsc-worldwar2.weebly.com/the-devastation-of-europe-and-japan.html"
] | [
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[medicine] is ultrasound therapy a legitimate means to treat calcification in the achilles tendon (or similar conditions)? | yes. speaking as an occupational therapy student who has studied the effects of using ultrasound as a modality i have seen the positive results. the settings of the ultrasound should be on continuous to penetrate the tissue and create a deep heat. this promotes tissue healing by increasing the blood flow to the area. in a condition like calcification of a tendon it is important to promote healing to the area after significant stretching. i have used it to treat frozen shoulders and have seen positive results in the quality of the tissue. ask your pt to explain more about the ultrasound, it is a very interesting thing. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does a diels-alder reaction occur? | specifically, what prevents the diene from reacting in the *trans* conformer rather than *cis*. | if you look at the mechanism for the diels-alder reaction, it involves making a 6-member ring in a single step. if the diene is in the trans- conformer, the molecule doesn't have the right shape to complete the ring formation all at once. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the advantage of the earth plug in some electrical systems such as the uk's? | why do uk plugs have an earth plug in addition to the live and neutral? as far as i was aware, neutral is also connected to earth so why can't the casing of an appliance be connected to neutral? | the earth pin is a safety feature that prevents dangerous shock conditions in the case of certain kinds of failures within the device. typically you tie earth ground to the metal outside of a device and this eliminates the risk that some wire frays within and energizes the exterior to mains potential. neutral *is* tied to earth ground at a single point but that doesn't mean they are the same. you still have currents flowing through the neutral that you definitely don't want diverted through your body in the event of contact and shorting to ground via your feet or other extremity. in a perfect world neutral should be "safe" but the world isn't perfect and a single wiring problem could easily kill you if you aren't careful. tl;dr: you don't ever rely on the neutral being zero volts w.r.t. you or the environment | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does commercial air travel have a significant physiological effect on the body? is it common to feel exhausted after a long plane flight, and if so is there a known reason this is so? | i fly (as a passenger on commercial airlines, flight times upward of 2 hours or so) rather frequently, and so i've noticed that i normally feel very worn out and exhausted after a plane flight, regardless of my physical or mental condition going into the flight. i have heard from several people that they experience this tiredness as well, which leads me to believe this may be a universal experience. i was wondering if there are some specific factors introduced in a long plane flight that explain this psychological and physical tiredness. there are a few things i can think of right off the bat: the dry atmosphere of the passenger cabin (which leaves people feeling desiccated), the constant and loud engine noise and vibration of the plane, the extreme restriction of movement in the seats and the effects of maintaining an unmoving sitting position for a long period of time. i fly economy class, as do all of the people i have spoken to, and so i do not know if this tiredness occurs for people who fly first class or otherwise have more room and better conditions generally (for example, air force one or something of that sort). i do not believe that the tiredness can be attributed to jet lag, since i and the people i have talked to only experience a time difference of at most three hours. | ignore the downvotes, yes it does have a physiological affect in certain circumstances. cabins are typically pressurized to the equivalent of anywhere between 5000-8000 ft. as a result the partial pressure of oxygen in your lung alveoli drops from around 110 to anywhere between 85-68, with a similar drop in your arterial oxygen partial pressure. most people wont be too effected by this drop, but some are more sensitive than others and can experience symptoms of mild hypoxemia: fatigue, drowsiness, apathy. this is especially the case if you have a predisposing lung disease such as a form of copd (emphysema, chronic bronchitis etc). in those patients, due to obstruction in the lungs, their partial pressures of oxygen have an already low baseline at sea level which is further reduced on flights. many patients w/ severe copd require oxygen on extended plane flights for this very reason. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do radar (or ultrasound / lidar) beams get back to their source instead of bouncing in all kinds of different directions, never to return? | if a radar beam is aimed at an object 100m away, why how is the radar receiver able to pick up the echo instead of that beam bouncing off in some other direction? what if it hits a curved surface? is it because the reflection is some kind of giant 3d wave? and bonus.. if the radar source is continuously sending out beams, how does it differentiate the reflections from a beam sent out a millisecond ago vs one sent out 2 milliseconds ago, or the reflection from someone else's radar device? am trying to make sense of this technology and what is probably an extremely basic concept.. thanks! | the signals are indeed bounced in all kinds of different directions never to return. but _some_ is reflected back to the receiver. this returned signal is very weak in comparison to emitted though and often has to be amplified at the receiving end. stealth craft work by trying to absorb as much as possible and reflect (scatter) as much as possible to drastically decrease the amount of signal reflected directly back to the receiver. lidar is very similar but since you're usually scanning a local area much more of the signal is returned. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a height at which your blood would literally boil? | i know that you can boil water at ~70 c on top of everest due to a drop in pressure, so is there a point within the atmosphere (or not) at which your blood could actually boil? or would it be impossible to physically boil? what would happen if you did? edit: as a corollary, is there a point where your blood or fluids would become solid? again, what may happen if this is the case. | yes, as pressure drops, the boiling point goes down, and so at some point it will boil at 37 c. called the [armstrong limit](_url_0_), it happens at a pressure of 0.06 atmospheres, or an altitude of about 19 kilometers. edit: blood itself would not actually boil, because the circulatory system keeps it under pressure, but saliva would boil at that altitude. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armstrong_limit"
] | [
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why did trilobites go extinct? | trilobites were plentiful in the earth's oceans for over 200 million years, and seem to have had a very simple formula for existing, similar to insects - armored swarms that have many offspring over their lifetimes. however, they completely disappeared, in spite of their diversity and simplicity. how did conditions change so that even the trilobites couldn't survive? | they disappeared at the p/t extinction, which killed 96% of all marine species. now, they survived previous extinction, so why did this one kill them ? well, a [2011 study](_url_0_) pinpointed the eruption of the siberian super-volcano as one of the cause of the p/t extinction. the event was particularly catastrophic for arthropods, because of the acidification of the oceans that followed. arthropods rely on a calcified exoskeleton, which dissolve in acid waters. note that no one knows for sure, but it does make a lot of sense. plus, as /u/lyft_promo_mn123 said, they had been in decline since the devonian. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v4/n2/abs/ngeo1069.html"
] | [
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] |
claim: it takes the energy of 50 leaves to make 1 apple. -- two questions in extended. | i first saw this factoid playing fruit ninja. i researched it a bit a can only find the factoid respammed in many different places (most notably [here](_url_0_)). however, i'd like to know a) is it true? and b) how would one go about even measuring that? | it's generally true, in that it takes a lot of photosynthetic energy to produce that apple, but obviously it varies a ton. as for measuring something like this the first step would be to measure the dry weight of the apple to figure out how much assimilated carbon is in the fruit. then you would need to determine how much co2 is being fixed by each leaf which is a function of chlorophyll content, (which can be measured by light transmittance), temperature, and light interception. basically saying it takes 50 leaves to produce one apple is a major oversimplification that doesn't take into account a lot of variables but it is useful for getting across the point that it takes a lot of energy to make an apple. | 6 | [] | [
"http://urbanext.illinois.edu/apples/facts.cfm"
] | [] | [
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-0.07647402584552765,
2.156672477722168,
0.6160792112350464
] |
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