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how effective is propaganda on changing peoples thought patterns? | [deleted] | incredibly effective. instead of the usual nazi germany example how about the age old association of cigarettes with badassery or diamond rings. all people had to do to sell cigarettes was have people smoke in westerns. then you associate smoking with masculinity and toughness and so pick up the habit, despite cigarettes being useless. i've heard it is nice after a meal but there is no high so most people wouldn't see the point in smoking unless they were celebrating. hollywood made it mainstream and poor people started smoking a pack a day diamonds are literally so numerous that if all were released to market they'd be almost worthless. they were only for the rich but seeking profit diamond companies started having them appear in movies and tv for every proposal. "diamonds are forever" and nowadays people pay tens of thousands for rocks that are a dime a dozen in south africa because a couple of guys in a room easily changed western culture as we know it. scary huh? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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using our world's laws as a template, would it even be possible geographically to come up with a landscape like that of middle earth? | yes, there is a somewhat reasonable set of tectonic actions that could create the terrain of middle earth. some things don't make a huge amount of sense, but if you apply standard tectonic methods to it you can make sense of what had to have happened and in what order. there's no reason you can't have complex mountain ranges like around mordor; you just need to have a series of microplates that accreted. mirkwood being rainy doesn't make much sense with w-e weather systems, but which direction is e and w?? you can also get rain moving around mountain systems; depends on how high they are. after all, iowa is due east of the rockies but gets plenty of moisture. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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from a quantum mechanical standpoint what happens to random physical objects when unobserved? | let's say i have sealed off my bedroom from any outside interference (no radio waves, etc.). i leave my room and turn off the light so there is absolutely no observation/photon involvment. every object in my bedroom is has become in the scientific sense of the word, "unobserved." if such a controlled environment could exist what exactly would be going on inside my bedroom? would the physical objects in the room still exist in the same sense as i think of them existing or would they be taking on an additional form as well as existing in the sense i know? second part: let's say i enter the room and turn the light off behind me. no photon bombardment of any sort. would my mere presence be considered an observation? i guess what i'm wondering is this: could i somehow experience the dual nature of subatomic particles or is that inherently impossible? | firstly, it would be impossible to seal yourself of like that at a macroscopic level. you still have thermal blackbody radiation being emitted from everything in your room. as well as thermal and acoustic vibrations being transmitted through the objects and the air. secondly, observation refers to more than just sight/light. it refers to any measurement of a system. so any interaction with your environment would count, as well as the interaction of the environment with any of your other senses. if you are experiencing the room in any way, that is an observation (in this context). if you want to see the effects of quantum mechanics, that is much easier. just set up one of many standard experiments, like the double-slit experiment. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the technologies and inventions that are likely to see the least improvement over time? | my area of expertise is cameras and i would say that while it's a very hard problem there is huge theoretical room for improvement in the camera lenses, and i expect to see improvements in the future. digital camera sensors in terms of light sensitivity, not so much. a lot of sensors are already above 50% efficiency at converting light into signal, so the room for improving snr without changing the pixel size, lens f-number or the integration time (i.e. the exposure time) is very close to the limit set by something called "shot noise". shot noise, is, in layman's terms, the uncertainty of how many photons you got because their number is finite and they arrive at the sensor randomly. the uncertainty depends on the number of photons you expect on average, less photons means higher uncertainty. for example, lets take an extreme and assume you expect 1 photon per pixel per second (very dark scene) - well then if you expose for a second on a 100% efficient sensor, sometimes you'll see 0, sometimes 1, sometimes 2 or more photons. for the small pixels that are typically used in something like a cellphone camera, shot noise becomes a fairly rigid and close limit on how low noise the image can get without making some part of the camera bigger physically (either bigger pixels or bigger f-number on the lens). tl;dr you cannot make an iphone camera with an order of magnitude better low light performance without reducing resolution or increasing physical size. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is using yourself in a human trial during your own research considered a bias that would nullify your results found from said trials? | i know biases in science are looked down upon for obvious reasons. i just cannot remember if using yourself for a human trial in your research is considered a bias as you are the researcher and the subject. it would be awful to use yourself as a subject only to find out what you have discovered is not accepted in the scientific community. especially with the lack of human volunteers for certain aspects of scientific research i could see this becoming a possible (although extreme) happening whereby you're the only one willing to be the source of human data trials. | not necessarily. science is all about repeatability and falsifiability. if the researcher dutifully catalogs the steps and the results then someone else could replicate the experiment and determine if it works as stated. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do left handed people die sooner? | i've seen in a few places that left handed people die sooner than right handed people and i was wondering if there is any truth to this. can anyone help a lefty out? | well, there might be some truth in it, the cause being a higher rate of accidents happening in daily usage of things that are designed to be operated with the right hand (e.g. knives, scissors, etc). here are some scientific studies that treat this subject: _url_0_ and _url_1_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2006231",
"http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/35320/35323/1419241.html?d=dmtHMSContent",
"http://skeptoid.com/episodes/4310"
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] |
is the farmer's almanac really useful and accurate? if so, why? or if not, why isn't it? | every year i hear people discussing the farmer's almanac predictions of how bad the winter will be and i've always just assumed it was bullshit really. someone please explain how people might be able to predict the severity of winters years or decades in advance. | it's complete bs. you'd have better accuracy flipping a coin. all you have to do is go back and check their predictions _url_0_ _url_1_ (scroll down to the farmer's almanac links) occasionally they'll get something right, but even a broken clock is right twice a day. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://opensnow.com/news/post/should-we-trust-the-farmer-s-almanac",
"http://ggweather.com/links.html"
] | [
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how important are genetics in sports? | approximately 17% of people are born without the ability to create fast-twitch muscle fibers. they have nonsense genes in place of the gene that allows the creation of fast twitch muscles. [one study](_url_0_) showed that elite sprinters and power athletes are much less likely to have the nonsense allele, and [another study](_url_1_) showed that elite bodybuilders and strength athletes are much less likely to have the nonsense allele. in other words, elite athletes are unlikely to have this worthless gene. however, approximately 7% of them do. in other-words, in a few people hard work seems to be able to compensate for poor genes, but it's easier if you have good genes. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1180686/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2668151/"
] | [
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|
how does the energy required to enrich fissile material compare to the energy released in reactors and bombs? | during ww2 the clinton engineer works in oak ridge, tn were "consuming one-seventh of all the power being produced in the nation." ([pdf](_url_0_) page 21) that seems like a lot(!) of energy, especially spread over months. i'm curious what the energy in / energy out balance actually was both for bombs and for reactors today. the fat man and little boy yielded 151 tj of energy. do we know how much energy it took to make them? do we have a similar calculation for modern reactors? | enrichment activity is in weird units called "swu" (separative work units). there's a bunch of useful info here: _url_0_ the example at the end is especially helpful. it says that to enrich enough uranium to power eight 1300 mw power plants, you need an enrichment plant with a capacity of about 1 million swu per year. also from that article: that adds up to 50-60 gigawatt-hours for the enrichment plant. the eight reactors would produce roughly 100,000 gigawatt-hours of electricity. so you end up with about 2,000 times as much energy out as you put in. a huge win. what about world war 2 fission bombs? oak ridge used a different enrichment technology, gaseous diffusion rather than centrifuges, which are at least 50 times less efficient. that, plus the extra work required to enrich uranium to bomb levels, might account for the huge use of electricity for the manhattan project. | 12 | [] | [
"https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/edg/media/The_Manhattan_Project_2010.pdf"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separative_work_units"
] | [
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] |
why is the common decent model accepted and the multi-ancestor model not? | or, what is the major flaw in multi-ancestor? it seems the basis for common decent is largely genetic. i think i understand this. my question is how do we know that every incidence of life will be different enough to not look alike? why could multiple lifeforms not follow extremely similar paths because that is the inherent way all life works? i feel like i am missing something trivial in my understanding. | basically, only because our models say it is more likely to have one root than multiple to the tree of life. here's more info on the [last universal ancestor](_url_0_) if interested. however, you could still be right for reasons that the models do not take into account. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_universal_ancestor"
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why are children especially vulnerable to measles? | is it because of a general lack of antibodies, or perhaps because the immune system isn't as well-developed? | in the modern world, almost all adults have been immunized against measles. in the old days, everyone caught measles as a child and either died from it or became immune, so they didn't get it as adults. in populations where adults aren't immune (like native americans just after columbus), adults died from measles like crazy. | 31 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would a pogo-stick work on the moon and, if so, would it require more skill to use? | i've googled this and found no definitive answers on the few places it was asked, a lot of people just pick a side and don't explain *why* or *how* they got their answer. | yes to both. it would work. in fact it has been proposed for robotic missions to asteroids because hopping is one of the only two locomotion methods that would work on very low gravity (the other being thrusters). examples include the russian phobos 2 (which failed bc they lost contact). a drawback for the pogo on the moon is that it would need a larger base area to prevent it from sinking in a dusty ground. it would require more skill to use because it would take a long time to hit the ground during your jump. you would have plenty of time to rotate so you could fall on your side. robotic missions may use attitude control systems similar to those of spacecrafts (e.g. reaction wheels) to avoid this problem. as you were complaining about people who don't justify their answers, you may appreciate a source: genta, giancarlo: *introduction to the mechanics of space robotics*, isbn 978-94-007-1795-4, published by springer dordrecht heidelberg london new york. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how, and when, did the universe "choose" the cmb-isotropic reference frame? | in cosmology, there is a reference frame that we can say "breaks" lorentz symmetry (in the same sense that the higgs field's nonzero vacuum expectation value "breaks" the electroweak symmetry, it is only an apparent violation), and it is the one in which the cosmic microwave background radiation looks isotropic. we can define comoving coordinates in that frame to measure, for example, cosmological time (the age of the universe) or peculiar velocities. i know there had to be one reference frame, but i want to know how was the process of choosing that one in particular among every possibility, and when did it occur. was it a purely stochastic/random process? i mean, if the big bang was repeated, would the chosen frame be the same? (i know that there would be no way of distinguishing whether it was the same or not. but, for example, imagine that there were multiple "universe bubbles" created by a single inflaton field, would each bubble be at rest with respect to the others, or could two of them eventually collide due to them having different relative "velocities"?) i have looked for an answer on internet before, but i am not very satisfied with the answers. most comments are only reiterating that the frame is not privileged because the physical laws work the same in every other reference frame, something that i already know and seems to miss the point. i found [this question](_url_0_) in askscience, but it has no answers. i found [this](_url_1_), where it says that the cmb's photons were created around the first minute after the big bang, but it is not made clear whether the reference frame was set in that moment or before, since the radiation comes from pair annihilation of matter particles, for which the same question can be asked. i think that inflation might have been involved somehow, but i'm not sure. after all, it is caused by scalar field as far as i know, like the higgs mechanism, so there might be a spontaneous symmetry breaking involved which created the preferred reference frame. (sorry if this question doesn't make any sense, i'm still pretty new in cosmology and i'm just curious since i haven't found a satisfying answer anywhere. also sorry in advance for any possible mistakes, english is not my first language and this is my first post). | what you are discussing is a preferred *slicing* of spacetime into space and time. that also locally determines the preferred timelike direction for an observer at some point. you are correct that it's related to inflation it turns out that during inflation, the universe is isotropized. you may have to take a cosmology course to see why this is, but essentially, spatial gradients of the inflaton field are smoothed out extremely rapidly. this chooses an isotropic frame. the amount of anisotropy that remains has to do with spatially varying (quantum) fluctuations in the inflaton, which directly translates into spatial variation of when inflation ended (relative to the average in our universe). to understand that, too, you'll probably have to take a cosmology class, but it's not too hard—it's just linear perturbation theory. we say that inflation ends when "slow roll" ends. then there is the assumption that from the end of inflation there is a constant amount of time for (p)reheating to occur, which populates the universe with regular old matter and thermalizes it. the isotropic frame turns out to also be the average rest frame for the thermal plasma which filled the universe at this very early time. i do not have a good explanation for why this should be, other than it was due to symmetry. there was already a preferred slicing. the frame in which the average cmb temperature is isotropic (i.e. no dipole to the cmb) coincides with the thermal frame above. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1awrol/the_cosmic_microwave_background_defines_an/",
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/25928/is-the-cmb-rest-frame-special-where-does-it-come-from"
] | [
"https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/how-did-the-cmb-lorentz-frame-get-chosen.680655/",
"https://www.physicsforums.com/threads/cmb-and-prefered-lorentz-frames.115989/",
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/65688/group-theory-in-general-relativity",
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/48672/question-on-inflation/49816#49816",
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/105835/local-lorentz-invariance-or-local-poincar%C3%A9-invariance",
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/25928/is-the-cmb-rest-frame-special-where-does-it-come-from",
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/128198/do-the-standard-cosmology-models-spontaneously-break-lorentz-symmetry"
] | [
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do lightning rods and faraday cages operate using the same principle? | basically what the title says. i may have a simplified understanding of how both function, but i'm just wondering if a faraday cage is functional due to the same principle/effect/law/etc. as a lightning rod. it seems somewhat similar to a radio antenna, as well, so if you could answer that too, it would be appreciated. | while they have a similar effect they operate a little differently a lightning rod is connected to ground with a thick enough conductor, this makes the rod the preferred target of any lightning strikes within an area of the rod. the area protected is often indicated by an umbrella like shape. the principle here is path of least resistance. a faraday cage (with no protruding spikes) however does not require a ground. it works because once the charge hits one side (inside or outside) of the cage it just continues to flow around that side of the cage, never penetrating to the other side. what actually happens is the field on the outside induces an opposite field in the conductor of the cage, the net result is the opposite side of the cage (inside or outside) to the charge the field is cancelled to 0. the principle at work here is electrostatic induction. some examples of common faraday cages you might have seen - your microwave, the room an mri is in, meshed shielding on electrical cables (like coax), or a plane when struck with lightning. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a correlation between skin cancer in people's arms and on which side of the road they drive? | for example, is there a higher rate of skin cancer in the left arm of right-side drivers? conversely, is there a higher rate of skin cancer in the right arm of left-side drivers? i think about this after taking long trips in the car. my left arm is always slightly darker than my right. there is a man at my church who had melanoma in his left arm after driving a lance delivery truck for 35 years, but his right arm was fine. | ooh! oooh! i'm a random idiot undergrad with no qualifications whatsoever but i know something tangentially related to this! specifically, [here is a case study](_url_0_) of a truck driver with unilateral skin damage due to sun exposure through his window. according to the study, > ultraviolet a (uva) rays transmit through window glass, penetrating the epidermis and upper layers of dermis. chronic uva exposure can result in thickening of the epidermis and stratum corneum, as well as destruction of elastic fibers. this photoaging effect of uva is contrasted with photocarcinogenesis. although exposure to ultraviolet b (uvb) rays is linked to a higher rate of photocarcinogenesis, uva has also been shown to induce substantial dna mutations and direct toxicity, leading to the formation of skin cancer. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMicm1104059",
"http://i.huffpost.com/gen/634768/thumbs/o-BILL-MCELLIGOTT-SUN-DAMAGE-570.jpg?4"
] | [
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why is it that the medial branches of the dorsal rami innervate the cutaneous tissue of the upper back, but the lateral branches of the dorsal rami innervate the cutaneous tissue of the lower back? | [deleted] | medial branch runs from the spine along the outside your rib. (see footnote though.) lateral branch runs on the inside of your rib to its tip, then doubles back and runs along the outside of the rib. [see diagram here](_url_0_) as a result, where you have ribs that connect all the way to the sternum, your back is innervated by the medial branch; on the other hand, where you have false ribs (floating or not), medial innervation doesn't go as for towards the front, and lateral innervation starts closer to the spine — and with shorter ribs, it starts all the way at the spine. footnote: medial branch doesn't *actually* start on the outside of the rib, but it divides into two branches, one of which goes almost all the way back to the spine, and the other of which goes most of the way to the front end of the rib. (see the digram above.) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_ramus_of_spinal_nerve"
] | [
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why do we have cuticles? | what is their purpose? and what causes them to become damaged so easily? despite taking care of my nails, mine seem to break at the edges and become painful. | humans have cuticles to protect the nail bed from bacteria. if the nail bed were to continuously grow bacteria due to a lack of protection, the nail would not grow properly. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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orbital 'dirty' bomb | in a thread about the north korea rocket launch i read a comment about a barrel of sand being detonated in space to cause havoc. i have several questions relating to this. first of all, how dangerous would this barrel of sand be? i am aware that debris is a very real risk, but how would it compare to something like the chinese anti-satellite missile event? could it trigger the kessler syndrome? how long would this danger remain? would this, or similar devices be plausible tactics for causing mayhem, if a malicious entity so desired? | well, a barrel of sand and a dirty bomb would be two different things unless the barrel is full of radioactive sand. i can't speak to the rest of the question but i suspect that the chances of this causing some sort of doomsday scenario for all of our orbiting satellites is slim to none. you'd need a hell of a lot of debris moving really fast to get it inserted in all the different stable orbits we've got satellites in. i'm not even sure you *could* use an explosion to scatter sand into all these orbits without destroying the shrapnel itself. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can you tell someone was about to say something? | if you are about to say something, but decide to remain quiet, how is it clear that the person was about to start speaking? sometimes the facial expression is so subtle, yet we can guess either from that or some other physical cue that a person kept their mouth shut at the last second. | the most common cues are going to be a heightened interest in the conversation, the subject will probably sit up straight or lean forward, will start trying to catch the gaze of whoever is currently doing the speaking, and may begin moving their mouth or making hand gestures to indicate a desire to speak. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a time-varying electric field & displacement current within a supercapacitor? | since a supercapacitor combines both electrostatic double-layer capacitance and electrochemical pseudocapacitance methods, i'm curious if it behaves similar to a classical simple capacitor, producing a time varying electric field, and displacement currents when being charged/discharged. | supercapacitors will have a time-varying electric field because all electric circuits have a time-varying electric field. the supercapacitor will also have non-zero displacement current as a result. however, the displacement current will be a small contribution to the overall supercapacitor current. this is because most supercapacitors use lithium-ion migration to transport charge within the capacitor. note this does not allow direct current to flow. the migration of the lithium ions merely corresponds to the buildup of charge on the positive and negative plates. in this way, the lithium ions behave in a similar manner to the dielectric in dielectic capacitors ([_url_0_](_url_0_)). however, instead of dipoles realigning the supercapacitors have a normal current, with charged particles flowing. the only difference from typical current in electrical circuits is that these particles are typically positively charged lithium ions instead of negatively charged electrons. in summary, supercaps have a time-varying field and a displacement current, but the displacement current is small relative to the normal, charged particle-flow current due to the motion of ions in the supercap. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/dielec.html"
] | [
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why are dipole liquids (such as water) affected by electrical fields? | as you know, you can bend water streams from the tap with an electrically charged rod. this happens because they are dipoles, but why does that mean you can attract them with electricity? thanks :) | in water the total charge of the molecule is partially split. the hydrogen atoms carry more positive charge and the oxygen carries more negative. this is what a dipole means: two opposite charges separated by a certain distance. lets say the rod has a positive charge. the water molecules will line up so that the negative oxygen is closer to the rod. because the force gets larger as you get closer to the rod the attractive force on the oxygen will be larger than the repulsive force on the hydrogen. this means there is a net force which pulls the water towards the rod. if the rod had a negative charge the water would line up in the opposite direction but there would still be a net force pulling the water towards the rod. this means that water will always be attracted to a charge whether its positive or negative even though it has no net charge itself. in a material that can't rearrange itself so the dipoles line up (e.g. ice) this wouldn't happen. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is taking an aspirin a day good for you? | this question arose after watching the febuary 12th edition of [the dailyshow](_url_0_). the guest was david agus a professor of medicine and engineering. agus is a cancer doctor, and during the interview he mentioned that taking an aspirin a day stops inflammation and would drastically reduce the risk of cancer and heart attack. he even posed the question as to why we don't mandate this. i'm not sure how much of a generalization this is, but given his credentials should i start taking an aspirin a day? what are some potential negative effects of this? | it depends on your age and health. there is good evidence that in people with cardiovascular disease, taking an aspirin a day does reduce the risk of heart attacks and strokes. however, if you don't have cardiovascular disease, then [this analysis]( _url_0_) suggests that the risks of bleeding outweigh any benefits. the other note of caution would be your age. i doubt any long term follow up studies have been done on people in their 20's or 30's who start taking daily aspirin. thats a very long time of drug exposure, in people who are at low risk for developing these sorts of conditions. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.thedailyshow.com/full-episodes/thu-february-2-2012-david-agus"
] | [
"http://archinte.ama-assn.org.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/cgi/content/abstract/archinternmed.2011.628v1"
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how did a ball of ice named comet lovejoy survive a pass through the sun's atmosphere? | _url_0_ cmon reddit... you are better than these "we don't know" nasa and navy guys, aren't you? | well those nasa guys do know: the comet was big enough. the sun's atmossphere is nothing as dense as earths atmosphere. in fact it is about a billion times less dense. on the other hand, it is also so hot that the atmossphere is a plasma (and much hotter than required for that condition). so an easy comparison with everyday experience is hard. for an easy comparison imagine a block of ice being pulled through a large hot pool. the iceblock will melt quite fast. if the original iceblock is large enough, however, you can slowly pull it through the pool and still have a sizeable chunk left over. this is kind of what happened with the comet. nasa was just surprised how big the ice-core apparently was. | 10 | [] | [
"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/16dec_cometlovejoy/"
] | [] | [
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what are bell states and what do they have to do with quantum teleportation? | a bell state is a state that describes a system of two q(uantum)-bits with the following properties: *each q-bit itself has gives you completely random results for any kind of measurement you make on it. *whenever you have measured one q-bit of the pair, you can immediately predict with certainty what the other bit will give you for the same kind of measurement. how does this relate to quantum teleportation? quantum teleportation works like this: you have a q-bit, you want to send it to your friend bob, but you don't have the means to send it physically and you can't extract the information encoded in it because measuring it would change the state of the q-bit and so you cannot extract the full information with a direct measurement. but you happen to share a bell pair with bob and you can compare your q-bit with your half of the bell pair without directly measuring the state of the q-bit you want to send. you just measure the relation between the q-bit you want to send and your half of the q-bit. even though there is an infinite amount of possible q-bit states, you can get only four different results, because the two q-bits will collapse upon measurement into one of four possible relations. once you have found out which you call bob and tell him. but since you know exactly how your half of the bell pair relates to bobs half and you just measured the relation between the q-bit to send and your half, bob can tell from the information you gave him how his half relates to the q-bit you wanted to send. so he can his transform his half (by 'rotating' it without looking) into the q-bit you wanted to send, so you've 'teleported' your q-bit to bob. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how ubiquitous are drugs in the ambient atmosphere? | so i've read that researchers detected drugs from caffeine to cocaine in the ambient atmosphere in some major cities like rome. i want to know: how far can they spread? if i live in the suburbs, am i technically consuming a few molecules of caffeine or nicotine every time i breath? what about out in the country? do drugs in the air end up in rain water? | generally, it's really easy to infer a lot from chemical testing that might not truly be the case. hypersensitive testing of city air is the chemical equivalent of trying to separate well mixed play-doh. if you have ever consumed caffeine in any capacity then it's more than likely there's a molecule of it somewhere in your body. it's all a matter of concentration. it's the same case for the grand scale metropolitan petri dish. any molecule that can be aerosolized or caught up in any sort of dust can be present in city air, meaning everyone's business and byproduct is floating in some concentration in the atmosphere, though likely to such a small concentration that you'd never distinguish it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how can the pendulum system that is in the insight seismometer can be so precise (in theory should it be able to detect ground motions smaller than a diameter of the hydrogen atom)? how does it work? | the pendulum has a built in electrode. there is another electrode on the fixed frame. the dcs measures the difference in capacitance between the pendulum and the fixed part. of course the manufacturing for the whole instrument had to be extremely precise to reduce noise and uncertainty. it is all described here: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.seis-insight.eu/en/public-2/seis-instrument/vbb-sensors"
] | [
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|
why 192 lasers? why doesn't the nif just use 4 lasers? | i'm thinking 1 to 3 lasers is not enough, and 5 or more is more than enough and thus inefficient and wasteful. i am thinking of a design similar to _url_0_ for the nif. | more lasers carry more total power. they also offer better containment. pushing something hard from 2 or 3 angles, it might jump around a little. hold something gently from all around and it's pretty kaput | 5 | [] | [
"http://google.com/patents/US5825836"
] | [] | [
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do brain neurotransmitter levels eventually adapt, due to medication, like a muscle adapts to stress provided by a heavy workout? | take a drug like abilify (aripriprazole): this drug is a partial agonist of several dopamine and serotonin receptors. i know when i've taken it, i at times feel similar to when i am coming down from mdma- like my neurotransmitters are exhausted. my question is, do increased levels of neurotransmitters in the brain, or else increased reuptake of said transmitters, eventually produce an adaptation in the brain, wherein the stress provided by medication leads to a new higher baseline level? when you lift heavy weights, your muscle adapts and reaches a new homeostasis, making you stronger. do brain chemicals work in the same way? | an adaptation does occur, but not in the way you're thinking usage of an agonist like aripriprazole (or any agonist) causes an increased amount of the corresponding receptor activity-serotonin and dopamine receptors, in this case. continued use actually causes downregulation of the receptors: your neurons actually remove some serotonin and dopamine receptors from their dendrites, as they've been receiving inappropriate stimulation. this is why you never abruptly stop taking medication like this-if you did, you'd have the same number of endogenous neurotransmitters as you did before you started taking the drug, without as many receptors: you would be worse off than when you started. it's also why you need to up medications every so often. removing the drug from your system slowly by gradually reducing dosage allows your central nervous system to adapt by replacing receptors. also, i know this isn't the question you asked-but muscle works in a different way: when you work out, you're actually damaging your mucle and causing microtears along the fiber fibers. the reason you get a swell is an influx of inflammatory mediators trying to heal the wound. the healing process in muscle is hypertrophy-or gain in cell size (not a gain in cell number): this is adaptive homeostasis. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are 5 independent slip systems needed for arbitrary deformation? | so the von mises criterion says we need 5 active slip systems, but why are 3 not enough for a 3 dimensional object?? | the original paper is in german unfortunately, but hirth and lothe give a very straightforward explanation in *theory of dislocations*, which is a fantastic reference text. fortunately, it's also the only book i have with me at the moment. their explanation is on pages 293-295 in the second edition, or just look for "compatibility" in the index. their explanation starts with an infinitesimal strain along a specific slip system. i'll walk through it briefly just to be thorough - i'm basically pulling this right off the pages of the book, so some of it is word for word. they consider a glide plane with unit normal **n** parallel to coordinate x2' and a glide direction **b** parallel to x1'. so you have a simple shear tanα ≈ α along the glide plane: ε_ij' = 1/2 [ 0 α 0 α 0 0 0 0 0 ] the coordinate axes are transformed to a new set x1, x2, and x3 by a transformation matrix t_ij: t_ij = [ b_1 n_1 p_1 b_2 n_2 p_2 b_3 n_3 p_3 ] where b_i and n_i are the components of **b** and **n**, respectively. your rotated ε_ij ends up being symmetrical in **n** and **b** - carry out the rotation **ε = tε**'**t**^t by hand if you want to see this, it's a bit bulky to write in a comment. the strain produced by unit slip in direction **b** on plane **n** is identical to the strain produced by unit slip in the direction **n** on plane **b**. a general state of infinitesimal plastic deformation involves slip on *k* systems with strains ε_ij^\(*k*\), and summing over these systems gives the total strains ε_ij^\(*t*\). at this point you have 6 strains ε_ij^\(*t*\) . there's one constraint that needs to be added, and that's the "condition of constancy of volume." since we're talking about infinitesimal strains, that looks like this: ε_11^\(*t*\) + ε_22^\(*t*\) + ε_33^\(*t*\) = 0 so now you have six strains ε_ij^\(*t*\) and one constraint, meaning you have five independent strains. you need five independent slip systems producing strains *α_k* with k = 1,2,3,4,5 in order to determine these five strains. if you're wondering why they do this for infinitesimal strains, hirth and lothe make the argument that a finite strain can be expressed by summing a bunch of infinitesimal strains. **tl;dr**: arbitrary deformation involves six strains. assuming volume stays constant, you have to add a constraint which reduces your number of independent strains to five. you need five slip systems in order to determine these five strains. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would you see if you traveled outside of our galaxy? | may seem like a dumb question, but i am just curious. like would you just see a bunch of galaxies or what? also, would this even be possible? at least with technology that we have today? (disregarding the huge amount of time it would take to travel so far) | if you were to travel outside the galaxy, it would be much like staring up at the night sky. the difference is that it would be much clearer and you could see much farther because of the absence of man-made light. however, our galaxy, the milky way is hundreds of thousands of light-years across, so it would not be physically possible for us to leave our galaxy with our current technology. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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determining the path c(t) of a particles using it's starting position+velocity? | this has been bothering me for some time now: say you have a particle in a (static-)field (e.g. an electron in an electric field, or a small asteroid near the sun) if you know it's starting position and it's velocity wouldn't that be enough to analytically determine the path c(t) of the vector as the classical laws/mathematics are deterministic? [i.e. let p(t) be the location of an abstract particle at time 't', given a starting position p(0) and a starting velocity p'(0) as well as a vector-field e(p) and the fact that p''(t) = e( p(t) ) is it possible to determine p(t) analytically?] i tried to solve it/find the answer myself but so far i haven't gotten any further then a handful of very specific 1-d cases. most people i've asked (undergraduates like myself and 1 or 2 professors) seem to think it's unsolvable, is it? can it be shown mathematically? edit: i proof-read it twice, but not the title, particle* and its* ... | you're asking if differential equations have solutions? they do, as long as the function e is not too pathological. see [the picard–lindelöf theorem](_url_0_). you're asking if we can write those solutions as "nice" expressions? that can't even be done for integrals. see [liouville's theorem](_url_1_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picard%E2%80%93Lindel%C3%B6f_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liouville%27s_theorem_%28differential_algebra%29"
] | [
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how does the maths for fission/fusion and binding energies work out? | i've never quite been able to work out how the binding energies for fission and fusion make sense. i know the graph for [binding energy per nucleon](_url_1_), and i understand it has something to do with that, but i can't help but find that the mass defect equations don't make sense. as an example for what i'm trying to understand, i'll use the classic deuterium-tritium fusion equation: h^2 + h^3 - > he^4 + n + 17.6mev total number of neutrons remains constant, so there's no mass difference there, and total number of protons is the same, so same total mass either way. but for binding energy: 2.224573mev + 8.481821mev - > 28.295674mev so as a result, the total mass-energy in the equation increases by 17.58928mev. since the total energy has to remain constant, doesn't this mean that the system absorbed that 17.6mev? i'm certain that this line of thinking is wrong somewhere. i used [this website](_url_0_) for the numbers, and i'm not concerned about the actual numbers. i just don't understand how the system both apparently increases in mass-energy and releases mass-energy. shouldn't the original equation be: h^2 + h^3 + 17.6mev - > he^4 + n once again, i know this is wrong. i'm just not sure how. | i think what you're missing is that binding energy is negative. for example, m*_tritium_*c^2 = m*_proton_*c^2 + 2m*_neutron_*c^2 - u*_binding_* m*_tritium_*c^2 = 938.3 mev + 2(939.6 mev) - 8.48 mev = 2809.2 mev so when you add up the energy on the left side, you get the mass energies of two protons and three neutrons _minus_ 10.7 mev of binding energy, for a total of 4684.5 mev. on the right, you have the mass energies of two protons and three neutrons minus 28.3 mev of binding energy, for a total of 4666.9 mev. the difference, 17.6 mev, has gone into kinetic energy. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/BEbonds.htm",
"http://staff.orecity.k12.or.us/les.sitton/Nuclear/313_files/nfg005.gif"
] | [] | [
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does wave-curling (like on a beach in hawaii) occur naturally in any other form (i.e not just in water)? | kelvin helmholtz waves look quite similar, although they aren't exactly the same in underlying mechanics. other types of waves also form in clouds, although they don't usually have the same curling crest _url_1_ _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://fox41blogs.typepad.com/wdrb_weather/2012/08/crazy-clouds-the-wave.html",
"http://earthsky.org/earth/kelvin-helmholzt-clouds",
"http://hurricanescience.org/images/hss/WaveRunupSetupFigureforStormSurge_PSheng.png"
] | [
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|
what happens to a metal lattice as an em wave hits it? | so anything you got from em to quantum would be nice. what is permeability and permittivity according to perturbation theory? what "losses" occur in a metal lattice and how do you characterize them? what happens to the states of bonds as the wave function changes about them? anything and everything helps, thanks! | when you drive a piece of metal with an electromagnetic wave, the free electrons in the metal oscillate around in response to the external field. if you start with maxwell's equations, assume ohmic response in the material, and assume the frequency of the external field is small, you find that the magnetic induction (h) field approximately obeys a heat equation inside the material. the heat equation is a partial differential equation which is first-order in time and second-order in space. more on that [here](_url_1_). this is just classical electrodynamics. if you crack up the frequency of the external field, it starts to behave more like a [wave equation](_url_0_) than a heat equation, because the second-order time derivatives become non-negligible. at *very* high frequencies, when the wavelength of the incident light becomes comparable with atomic length scales, quantum effects become important. of course in reality everything is more complicated than can be summed up in a reddit comment; you can take entire courses on electrodynamics in matter. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_equation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_equation"
] | [
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cake day balloon physics help | assuming a standard helium filled birthday balloon using the normal ribbon as string. if the balloon is released how long of a string would be needed to weigh the balloon down before it stopped going up? the idea being the balloon would float at approximately the same height counterbalanced by the string, what is that height? | i'd need to know the rough size of the helium balloon. i'm going to guess it's probably something like a sphere with 0.15 m diameter giving it a volume of 0.014 m^3. the density of helium is 0.178 g/l = kg/m^3. the density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m^3. so we get a buoyant force upwards of vol * (rho_air - rho_hel) * g. this needs to be counterbalanced by a force of (weight of balloon * weight of ribbon) * g. so we see that to match the forces the combined weights must be equivalent to 0.014 * (1.2 - 0.178) = 0.014 kg. assuming the balloon weighs a couple grams, you need a ribbon to weigh at least 0.012 kg. then the balloon will rise until the total weight of the string above the ground is that amount. larger balloons will of course need more string, but you should be able to do the calculation yourself now given the actual balloon volume and the actual weight of the balloon. also, if you are significantly above sea level, or the temperature of air is more or less than about 20 degrees celsius, there is some variation in the density of air. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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this piece of paper compressed in a hydraulic press makes a small explosion and changes form. what exactly is happening here? | [removed] | it looks like what is happening there is that trapped air in the pockets of the paper get compressed, heat up, and eventually explode outward. in the process, all of the gases leave the paper, the fibre network collapses, and any water adsorbed onto the surface of the paper also evaporates (paper can hold onto quite a bit of water - think of writing on a humid summer day). this dehydration and de-gassing that comes with the compression of the paper might be enough to explain the changes he shows in that video. it's possible theres's some additional chemical changes, but structural and physical changes explain most of it. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do jellyfish have memories? | according to [this wikipedia article](_url_0_), box jellyfish have short memories and a limited ability to learn. is this true of all jellyfish? some? is there any way to definitively know? thank you, science! | this depends on your definition of memory. there is memory internal to each cell, memory between cells, and memory in a network of cells. the hunting behavior of box jellies is stored by changing the strength between neurons in a network. to my knowledge they are the only species of jelly that exhibits hunting behavior and is capable of learning at that level of complexity. box jellies can learn to navigate a simple maze for instance. but most jellies are capable of memory between two neurons as defined by their ability to modify synaptic strength (see difference between potentiation and plasticity). within each cell, any type containing genetic information, there is always memory. a yeast cell that is repeatedly placed in a salty environment will get faster at adapting to salt (and even other stresses that it has never encountered.) this is due to changes in relative gene product resulting in sensitization of stress response mechanisms. this is a form of memory. something i find very cool is that yeast cells [and some of the mammalian ones i've checked] can pass these memories down through three rounds of cell division. that's right, yeast have memories from past lives. the definitive test comes through electrophysiology and behavioral tests. in the latter yu see if the jelly can learn a simple maze, or that one area of its tank causes pain, etc. that is indicative of some changes in neural networks. the definitive test would be to restrain the animal and patch clamp [a method of electrically and chemically probing a cell] both the pre and post synaptic neurons and checking for changes in strength after firing is induced. there are other less invasive tests and also ones that require cloning that may be done to make a conclusive conclusion. | 7 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_jellyfish"
] | [] | [
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if i practice exerting the exact same amount of force, can i train myself to control the outcome of a coin flip? | or if i can't do it myself, can i make a machine that exerts a precise amount of force on the coin to flip it in a predictable way? | an easier method of rigging a coin toss is to loss it and flip it on the back of your hand (edit: actually you dont need to flip it on the back of your hand, you can flip it in the same hand with your thumb) in between catching it and placing it on the back of your hand, run your thumbnail over the surface of the coin and feel the texture. one side usually the tail side has a more detailed texture and thus feels more 'lumpy' than the other. if you practice this enough and get used to the feeling you can win a coin toss 100% of the time. you toss a coin, your friend calls heads. toss - catch - thumb: if thumbnail feels tails, flip the coin in your hand placing headside down showing tail else thumb feels head, place head on back of hand showing tail you win. a quick search on youtube gives me [this](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z3DMhoZZSiQ"
] | [
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how are heterochromias formed? are they just a mistake or carried through your dna? | i have several sectoral heterochromia and i'm curious about how they form. is it a marker in my genes that causes this or simply a mutation or mistake when my eye was being formed? is it something i could pass on to my children? thanks! [my eyes as example] (_url_0_) | there are cases indicating that sectoral heterochromia like yours was transmitted from a parent to child, which suggests that it's germ-line genetic, and not simply mistakes that arise during iris formation. melanocytes in the iris are of neural crest origin, so it might suggest that you have something wonky going on with your neural crest cells. not bad per se, but unusual. do you have any other unusual features? uneven pigmentation on the rest of your skin when you tan or white patches in your hair? you're very pale so the uneven skin pigmentation might not be noticeable. deafness? you would typically have these features from birth, so don't worry that you're suddenly going to develop them. there are several genetic disorders affecting neural crest that can cause this kind of heterochromia, like hirschprung's disease and waardenburg syndrome. the genetics of these syndromes aren't straightforward in all cases, they can be multifactorial, so it's hard to say what the likelihood of transmission is. it's likely to be genetic, but could be either dominant or recessive (or just plain complicated). | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/fWJ00"
] | [] | [
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what do we know about dinosaur agility? | were they quick and as mobile as their featherless representations in the jurassic park movies or slow and sedentary like modern reptiles? does this have to do with the question of whether or not they were warm blooded? | it's hard to give concrete estimates of speed from just fossils - certainly much harder than just measuring a living animal. usually, some component of muscle reconstruction, range of motion analysis, and other facets of biomechanics go into estimates of speed. different estimates have different advantages and disadvantages, and don't necessarily work on all animals. certainly, some dinosaurs were built more cursorially than others. the derived ornithomimids, with very elongate lower legs, were probably among the fastest non-avian dinosaurs; thulborn 1982, for instance, places the top speeds of *gallimimus* at about 56 km/h, while christiansen 1998 found 51 km/h. the abelisaur *carnotaurus* was also very long-legged, and had hypertrophied thigh musculature after persons & currie 2011 - however, no estimates of its speed exist, and, while it was fast, it would probably not have been very good at turning. although the dromaeosaur *deinonychus* was not particularly cursorial among its relatives, it could still clock up to 42 km/h according to thulborn 1982. even some of the not particularly cursorial-looking dinosaurs may have been capable of surprising speeds. preuschoft *et al.* 2011 suggested that the largest macronarian sauropods could have achieved speeds of 9 km/h alone on account of their size, although there have been contrary suggestions that they could not have exceeded 5 km/h. hadrosaurs like *edmontosaurus*, running quadrupedally, may have reached up to 57 km/h after sellers *et al.*, 2009. christiansen & paul 2001 furthermore hypothesized that the largest ceratopsians, like *triceratops*, could have trotted along fairly comfortably at 35 km/h. that being said, there are still instances in the jurassic park franchise where the dinosaurs are depicted as being *too* flexible. the dromaeosaurs, for instance, are depicted as having fairly prehensile hands, which would have been prohibited in life by the presence of large, pennaceous wings, as well as the shape of the carpal bones. likewise, their tails were vertically stiffened by highly extended vertebral processes, which means that some of the floppiness of dromaeosaur tails as depicted in jp is probably unwarranted. | 5 | [] | [] | [
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question about calories | when a chocolate bar says it has 200 calories, does that mean and average person will extract 200 calories worth of energy from it or is that the total calories possible from the chocolate bar? and how do they come up with the number of calories? | you ask a good question, one i wondered and researched. first, let me say that this is a hard question to find answers on. but, i will share with you what i found. today, the way it is found out is by referencing look up tables. different "ingredients" are known to have certain calories (by ingredients, i mean things broken down to categories like fat and protein, etc). so, you know your food has a certain amount of fat, protein, sugar, etc and then you reference the table. but the question remains, how was that table made to begin with? people will say that the calories of a food can be determined by burning the food in a calorimeter and measuring the amount of calories is released in that burning process. however, while this is partially true, it isn't the entire story. for instance, cellulose is completely indigestible, thus is zero calories; however, it will burn and release heat. so, how did they work this out? in the grossest way possible. they burned some food, measured the calories. then, they fed the exact same food to a person, collected his feces, then burnt his poop. the difference in the heat (calories) is how many calories your body absorbed. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when frostbite occurs, how does the blood "re-route" itself so that certain extremities die off, but blood can continue to flow back to the heart? | if frostbite occurs on say someone's foot, and it gets so bad that the whole foot dies, why doesn't all of the blood just back up in the foot? how does the flow of blood adjust itself in the event of frostbite? | instead of thinking of your hand as a circuit where everything gets pushed to the periphery and then everything cycles back to the core, think of it more like a highway network, where you have your major freeways running in two directions, but numerous exits leading to large highways. those highways in turn have exits leading to smaller side streets, and those side streets lead to driveways. because of the high volume of traffic on the freeway it's useful to classify the freeway as northbound or southbound (vein or artery), but that doesn't mean that every commuter has to go all the way south before it turns around and heads north again. many get off at smaller intersections along the way. then all they have to do it find another smaller intersection that leads back to the freeway. the smallest roads lead to driveways and parking lots called capillary beds. they are so small that it really ins't useful to describe them as northbound or southbound. they are just the point where you are entering or leaving the highway network. the parking lots are full of northbound and southbound traffic, and you can't tell just by looking which is which until they get back onto the road. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any way to convert feces and urine into energy? | methane is combustible right? i read (after a google search) that a prison used dried feces as fuel, but i'm guessing it isn't efficient, or else we would be using it. is it possible to add something to feces to make it more combustible, while still having it practical for use? i bet everything would smell like shit though. how about a dam, where the current of our human excrement can be used to generate electricity. (of course the feces has to be watered down (with urine?) to be less viscous. just had my morning poop, and was curious. | people in the developing world burn dung as a fuel source quite a bit. human urine is used as fertilizer (as are feces), so that's a sort of indirect way to convert it into energy. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do the respiratory, circulatory and digestive systems work together to support life on a cellular level? | this is what i have so far: the most important part is the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to where they are needed by diffusion. without oxygen and nutrients, cells would not be able to survive and without cells you would not be able to survive. to get oxygen to the cells, the lungs take in oxygen, then the oxygen makes its way to the capillaries where the oxygen is absorbed into vacuoles. the blood in the vacuoles becomes oxygenated and sends oxygen off to where your body is in need of it, after passing the blood through the heart. in the digestive system, nutrients make their way to the small intestine where nutrients from the food are absorbed into the bloodstream and brought to where they are needed. if anyone could recommend some information to add that would be great. thanks a lot! | pretty close, blood does not go into vacuoles/cells it stays in the blood stream. things leave the blood and diffuse through the walls into cells. also vacuoles are not as common as they are in plant cells. oxygen enters the body through the mouth and goes down the trachea where it branches off into the lungs. at the end of the branches are alveoli sacks which are about 1 cell thick. oxygen diffuses from the high concentration in the lungs into these sacks which have veins/arteries running through them. the free floating oxygen then binds to iron in hemoglobin on red blood cells. now the newly oxygenated red blood cells head back to the heart via the pulmonary veins. the heart then pumps this new oxygenated blood around the body through arteries. the oxygen then diffuses out of the blood stream at capillary beds and co2 now binds to the red blood cells. once the blood passes through the capillary bed it is now in a vein. the vein uses a system of one way valves (because blood pressure is lower in veins) to push the blood back to the heart. once back it is then pushed through the pulmonary arteries back to the lungs and then the cycle starts again. nutrients are absorbed by via the small intestine and stomach. food is eaten, chewed and then swallowed. it goes down the esophagus into the stomach where some nutrients diffuse across the stomach walls. the rest of the food is then broken down by the gastric acids which is composed of hydrochloric acid and other things. the food then passes through pyloric sphincter which goes to the small intestine. by the use of ducts which pour things into the small intestine the body makes many different things (such as bile) to aid in the digestion and absorption of things in the small intestine. the liver and gallbladder are two organs that assist in digestion by depositing things into the small intestine. once the food is broken down the nutrients are absorbed through the walls (by diffusion again) of the small intestine and get into the blood stream. where they are then spread around the body by the pumping of the heart. excess nutrients can be picked up by the kidneys in the blood stream and removed via urine. the left over stuff in the small intestine is pushed to the colon/large intestine to be removed via defecation. so recap time. the lungs act by taking in oxygen and removing co2. the stomach then helps break down food before being broken down more and absorbed by the small intestine. the circulatory system helps connect these two and help move everything around, supplying oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the small intestine to the cells to allow cells to do their jobs. edit: i simplified a lot of this to hopefully make it understandable. i can add more info or expand on something if you have any questions. note these are not the only things the systems do. lungs absorb and remove other things, circulatory system moves more things than just nutrients, etc. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[math] [psychology] are there any studies about our intuitions of math? | i'm wondering in particular about the differences in these phrases: > increased by 50% vs 50% more > increased by 150% vs 150% more > increased to 150% vs 150% of > decreased by 50% vs decreased to 50% vs decreased by 150% > 5x faster vs 5x as fast i've just noticed that i tend to have to clarify with most people what precisely they mean mathematically when they use these terms. | yes, absolutely. you want to be looking either at behavioral economics or decision making. although there is also plenty of work on mathematical thinking as well. i don't know of a paper looking at your particular example, but there is plenty of work comparing how people make decisions when outcomes are phrased in terms of gains vs losses (e.g. a treatment has a 20% mortality rate vs. an 80% success rate). see, for example, [classic work by tversky and kahneman](_url_0_). | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.sciencemag.org/content/211/4481/453"
] | [
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what is a bounded system in physics? what is an unbounded system? | are there any real life examples of bounded and unbounded systems? | in classical mechanics, a bounded system is one where the motion of all the objects in the system is restricted to some finite region of space. an unbounded system is a system that is not bounded. take an object moving in a newtonian gravitational potential v(r) = -gm/r. the motion of this object is bounded if it has negative total energy. in this case, the object will move in a closed orbit in the shape of an ellipse. you can draw an imaginary box of finite size that completely encloses the orbital ellipse of the object. on the other hand, if the total energy is positive, the object will move along a hyperbolic escape trajectory, and there does not exist any finite-sized imaginary box that can contain the whole trajectory. in this case, the motion is unbounded. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do we recognize things when we see them from a new angle? | i'm mainly asking about people, like how you can know who someone is from pretty much any angle even if you've only seen them a couple times, but this applies to pretty much anything else you see as well. | it sounds like you're referring to something like "mirror invariance", where we can quickly recognize that an object (including a face) is the "same" as its mirror image. most objects and their mirror images elicit the same activity in image processing regions of the brain, at least at the resolution we have to measure human brain activity. in other words, parts of our brains don't distinguish between objects and their reflections. from an evolutionary perspective, this has likely evolved because it's an efficient use of neural resources. there's no need to evolve additional neurons to recognize a different orientation of the same thing if the thing ends up affecting us the same way, regardless of its orientation. [(source for mirror invariance in the brain)](_url_2_)[(source finding mirror invariance for faces using a behavioral measure)](_url_1_) there is a really cool exception to this mirror invariance phenomenon: letters and their mirror images aren't the same (b vs d, p vs q), and we have to learn that. stan dehaene thinks this is why little kids write letters backwards at first: their brains literally "see" b and d as being interchangeable before they learn otherwise. source: [no mirror invariance for letters in adults](_url_0_), [mirror invariance for letters in japanese readers who don't know letters](_url_3_), and [mirror invariance in illiterate adults](_url_1_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.unicog.org/publications/1-s2.0-S1053811910015211-main.pdf",
"http://www.unicog.org/publications/2013-20594-001.pdf",
"http://www.jneurosci.org/content/31/31/11305.short",
"http://www.unicog.org/publications/NIMG-09-986.pdf"
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what base are the roman numbers? | it seems to me that they have no base. they have 7 symbols (i,v,x,l,c,m) but it isn't a base 7? | the roman numerals are a number system that is not given by a base representation. the issue is to write down numbers. fourteen is the number of bars: ||||||||||||||, and this is a fine way to write down numbers but writing them like this is laborious and it's easy to get lost and it is even harder to do arithmetic operations on not tiny numbers. what we want is a way to write down numbers that is compact, ie we can write down large numbers on a small line, and where it is relatively easy to do arithmetic. roman numerals kind of do this. letting i,ii,iii represent one, two and three is find, but doing more than this is not advantageous. if we let v represent iiiii, then we can compactify our writing. we also let iv represent iiii, because it's shorter. so instead of writing fourteen as iiiiiiiiiiiiii, we could write it as vviv. but we'll encounter similar issues when we look at larger numbers, so we let x=vv, l=xxxxx, xl=xxxx, c=ll and so on. using this, we can write large numbers using only a few strokes. this is similar to data compression. if we have a file that we want to compress that has the word "howdy" in it all the time, then we can just say that x="howdy" and just use x to represent this entire word, reducing the number of symbols to write the whole word. this system is a great technological advancement from counting the number of lines on a stick (which is how we did it in the early days). and it addition is actually pretty easy in it: if i have xliv things and then i get xxii more, how many do i have? if i move the ii in xxii to xliv, then this is the same as adding xx to xlvi. adding one of the xs in xx gives lvi and adding the last one gives lxvi. i actually prefer this addition to digit based addition because it's funner and forces you to think about the numbers rather than doing mindless operations. this way of doing things can be transferred to digit addition through the means of "making 10s", which is a much better way to add. but multiplication and division using roman numerals is not easy. what is xiv times xcii? i'm not going to do it, it would be too complicated. this sentiment was shared by the people using roman numerals, and so it took a lot of training and a lot of tables and tools to do multiplication and even more to do division. counters in shops are called "counters" because they would literally be tools to do multiplication (i have a reference for this in a book at home, but i'm not at home so i'll edit it when i get back). this was a huge problem for pre-renaissance europe and was kinda what held them back from advancing math. luckily, the arabic nations were more clever. this idea to use different symbols to represent different numbers is a good idea, but maybe there is a way to do this that makes arithmetic easy. enter base representations. if b is any positive integer bigger than 1, and we assign a different symbol to represent the numbers from zero to b-1, then we can represent all numbers in a much more sophisticated way. for instance, let's say that b=seven and say that 0=zero, 1=one, 2=two, 3=three, 4=four, 5=five, 6=six, these are just arbitrary pictures used to represent the quantities _,i, ii, iii,iiii,iiiii,iiiiii. with this, we can represent seven as b, eight as b+1, nine as b+2, fifty-nine as b^(2)+b+3 and so on. in fact, any positive integer can be represented as a sum like this. writing numbers like this gives us a really easy way to do addition, multiplication and division. for any base b, we can do addition as long as we know how to add all the numbers less than b, and we can do multiplication as long as we know how to multiply all the numbers less than b. for instance, in base seven, 3x3=b+2, 3x2=6 and 2x2=4 so we can use the distributive property to multiply (3b+2)(2b+3) = (3x2)b^(2)+(3x3+2x2)b+(2x3) = 6b^(2) + (b+2+4)b +6 = 6b^(2)+b^(2) + 6b+6 = b^(3)+0b^(2)+6b+6 but carrying around all the baggage of these sums and powers of b gets heavy. we want to compactify how we write numbers, and writing 4b^(4)+2b^(3)+5b^(2)+b+6 can get laborious. so instead of writing these sums of powers, we can just concatenate all the coefficients so that 42,516 becomes shorthand for 4b^(4)+2b^(3)+5b^(2)+b+6. our multiplication above then becomes 32x23 = 1066. in fact, if we use base ten, then 53 is just shorthand for 5x10+3 and 292 is shorthand for 2x10^(2)+9x10+2 and to multiply them, we can just distribute (5x10+3)(2x10^(2)+9x10+2) and simplify. in fact, if you do the traditional, elementary school multiplication algorithm, you'll find that it is *exactly the same* as doing this distribution. to multiply any two numbers written in base ten, all you need to do is know how to multiply all the numbers 0-9 together and then know how to used distribution. this is why you need to know your times tables (why you need to know them up to 12 is beyond me, i guess convenience). let's take a moment to appreciate the technological marvel that is base representations of numbers. it's genius. before base representations, it took special training and tools to do multiplication, but using bases to represent numbers is so sophisticated that it uses natural properties of numbers, eg distribution, to simplify multiplication so much that a child can do it in crayon on your wall. let's also take a moment to recognize that we can learn very little about numbers using base representations. we cannot tell if a number is prime or not by looking at it's base representation. in base five, 12 is prime, but in base ten it is not. base representations are just an ingeniously clever way to write down numbers that makes computations extremely convenient. the only reason to use base representations is it's computational convenience. for instance: the digits of pi mean next to nothing, the only important property of pi is that it is the ratio of the circumference to diameter of a circle. it is important to know that base representations are shorthand for these special kinds of sums, and it is important to know how our addition and multiplication algorithms are natural consequences of the distributive property when applied to these special sums. i didn't talk about addition with base representations, but perhaps you can figure out how the elementary school algorithm for addition is a consequence of the distributive property and this way of writing numbers. it's one thing to be able to use these algorithms to do multiplication, but that's so simple a computer can do it, it's another thing to know why these algorithms work. understanding multiplication is *not* being able to do it, but being able to know "why". in a similar vein, if we know how division and addition work, then we are not constrained to the algorithms we learn in school and can use reason and logic (such as "making 10s" for addition and ["partial products"](_url_0_) for division) to work with numbers rather than blindly following the rules. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ^this ^got ^to ^be ^longer ^than ^i ^expected, ^but ^i ^feel ^that ^people ^are ^largely ^in ^the ^dark ^about ^how ^numbers ^really ^work ^and ^that ^this ^causes ^a ^lot ^of ^confusion. ^knowing ^the ^difference ^between ^how ^roman ^numerals ^work ^and ^how ^base ^representations ^work ^can ^teach ^us ^a ^lot ^about ^numbers. | 381 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRYAJxaCDGA",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite-state_machine"
] | [
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how often do opportunities for mars-to-earth hohmann transfers happen? | are they more frequent than earth-to-mars transfers? or less? | a hohmann transfer is technically between two circular orbits, which isn't entirely appropriate for earth and mars which both have elliptical orbits around the sun. if we approximate the earth and mars' orbits with circular ones, it should be clear that the number of transfer windows is the same because there has to be one transfer window in each direction for each extra orbit that earth makes relative to mars. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why would a mate efflux protein be down-regulated in arabidopsis overexpressing an ethylene response transcription factor? | so...i'm looking at microarray data for arabidopsis overexpressing erf96, an ethylene responsive transcription factor that confers increased resistance to necrotrophic fungi. genes encoding chitinase and lcr77 plant defensin are highly upregulated, but one of the genes for a mate efflux protein is only at 0.11 fold normal expression compared to col-0 arabidopsis. as a disclaimer, this did come up while i was doing coursework, but i decided to write about a different gene. at this point it's more for my own personal curiosity. | background: i did some very preliminary work looking at gene expression in grapes resistant to powdery mildew. the way that powdery mildew penetrates the cell is through the breaking down of the cell wall and insertion of the infection peg (_url_1_) normally, you would think that the cell would need the efflux protein (mate) to transport the antifungal (lcr77 _url_0_) to the surface. with the infection peg within the cell, the fungi would already be exposed to lcr77. also consider the data you are working with, especially with a small number of replicates | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://phytamp.pfba-lab-tun.org/PHYT00045",
"https://www.apsnet.org/publications/phytopathology/backissues/Documents/1973Articles/Phyto63n08_1049.pdf"
] | [
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which conic section is the strongest? | i've always heard that arches were the best sort of support for a structure, but exactly which one? is a circular arch better than an elliptical one? how do the conic sections compare when used to hold up a weight? | from a mathematical standpoint, there's no universal definition of strength. if you want to build a structure, you'll always have to take other things into consideration, particularly material properties and outside forces. for instance, a semicircular bridge built out of aluminum might be very stable unless you wanted to drive over it. in that case, you'd probably want something flatter and heavier. you also have to consider where you're placing the weight: is it going to be equal everywhere or focused in one particular spot? yet another thing to take into consideration is that not all curves are conic sections. many arches, such as the st. louis arch, are catenaries, which are derived a different way. some arches aren't even technically curves. this might seem like a non-answer, but keep in mind that if there were one curve that always worked best in every scenario, architects wouldn't have such a hard job designing buildings. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is a headrush, and why do you temporarily lose your vision during one? | as in when you stand up too quickly and get dizzy and lose your vision for a few seconds. what exactly is happening? | inadequate blood pressure in your brain, leading to a lack of oxygen supply to the neurons. your circulatory system corrects for the reduced pressure quickly, which is why you don't become totally unconscious (usually). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when a fetus is developing inside a mother's belly, where do the atoms come from, like the elements and compounds? | and when we grow for that matter. i know the cells divide by mitosis...but where do the elements come from? they say we come from atoms that could have been across the galaxy a couple billion years ago...but how do our cells get those to grow? | she eats food, the food gets digested, the nutrients end up in her bloodstream, her bloodstream is connected to the baby's through the placenta and umbilical cord. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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blood circulation | probably a simple answer but was just wondering. are veins the only way your body moves blood? if so why do we bleed when getting cuts if no vein is hit? if veins aren't the only way blood moves through your body how does it? why are veins needed if blood flows different ways? | in short, no. your blood moves through blood vessels, not just veins but arteries and capillaries. veins carry blood back to the heart and arteries carry blood away from the heart. capillaries are microscopic blood vessels which are found all over the body. a minor cut will slice through hundreds of these capillaries and blood will leak out. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will an astronaut experience a phonecall with a person on earth to be shorter than the person on earth? | i recently learned that a person in space, moving constantly will elapse longer than a person on earth. so for example, if the time was elapsing 0.5x the speed of earth, a person who lives 30 years on earth with only have lived 15 years in space. now for my question, will an astronaut in a phone call with an earthling experience the call to be shorter than the earthling's view? | they'd both experience the call as taking the same amount of their time. (so if they both texted each other the number of seconds they thought elapsed during the conversation when they were done, they'd both send the same number to the other person.) but, for both of them, that amount of time would be *longer* than it would if they had the same conversation with someone who was moving along side them at the same speed. (because each of them would hear the other person talking more slowly than "normal".) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when a phase change occurs because of pressure change (e.g. flashing of water), does the temp. remain the same? | i was reading about the effects on the human body when exposed to near vacuum conditions (such as in space). when nasa testing this, their test subject reported the last thing he remembered before he began to lose consciousness was the water on his tongue beginning to boil. i assume this is because of the pressure of the water was below 1 atm and was beginning to change phase to a liquid? would that be that be correct to assume? i imagine if, while the water was beginning to boil due to pressure, that if the temperature also changed it would probably be pretty painful. | you are correct, the water on his tongue boiled because the pressure was so low. the [phase diagram](_url_1_) of water shows the thermodynamically preferred state of water for a given combination of pressure and temperature. assuming the test subject was in a near vacuum the boiling temperature of water in his conditions would have been about -60c. this doesn't mean the temperature on his tongue would have plummeted to -60c however, it does mean that the water on his tongue would continue to boil as long as the temperature was above that. since boiling is an endothermic process his tongue would get colder as heat was absorbed by the boiling water. but i'm guessing his tongue would dry out before any painful amount of temp change occurred (assuming he was conscious...). using low pressure to boil a liquid is actually frequently used to reach very low temperature, check[ this video](_url_0_) out. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9FudzqfpLLs",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_water.svg"
] | [
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can you have a c-shaped copper coil with a magnet on a arm travel through the gap in the circle and still generate electricity? | [removed] | i'm not going to run through your exact example, but to answer your question in general: yes, absolutely. any length of metal in a changing magnetic field will experience a voltage across it, connect this to a circuit and it can provide current. the voltage is proportional to, among other things, the length of the cable, so loops of cable are often used (note this isn't a closed circle so to speak, it's one wire looped around to form a coil) to maximize the length in the field. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a commentator on the scottish independence debate has just said that a higher voter turnout increases their margin of error. why is that? | i would have thought that, with a larger percentage of people voting, the pre-vote poles would be more accurate. what is the statistics behind this? | that does seem counter-intuitive, doesn't it? here's a possible answer (bear in mind i know nothing about scottish law/polling practices/voting etc.) the pre-vote polls might have been created under the assumption of a small number of voters. therefore, areas containing constituents most likely to vote may have been preferentially selected for sampling during the polls. when unexpected new voters turn up, they haven't necessarily been represented properly, and so the margin for error in poll predictions must increase to account for this (though it's not clear to me how one would come up with a number for how *much* to modify the margins) please correct me if i'm wrong. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do the electrons in organic mechanisms actually move as shown or do they equilibrate from start to product? | the movement of electrons as shown by reaction mechanisms really just indicates overall changes in electron position, and even then whether reactions really proceed via the stepwise process proposed by various sources is not clear either. it can be quite difficult to nail down the exact reaction mechanism, because the intermediate steps are so fleeting. what is really going on is significantly more complicated and you need to understand and appreciate quantum chemistry and molecular orbital theory. i'll try and give an explanation, however clunky. imagine the reaction a + b - * orbital overlap between a and b creates intermediate x*_1_* * changes in the molecular orbitals creates x*_2_* * the intermediate x*_2_* will be constantly evolving at this point to x*_n_*, the molecular orbitals are now in flux * finally c and d move away from each other, orbital overlap ends i'm simplifying things quite a bit here, but you should get the idea. the result though is that electron density **does** move, just how you choose to interpret that movement depends on how closely you need to follow the pathway. excited state chemistry, especially of reaction intermediates, is very difficult (plenty of organic chemists don't believe computational chemists, and vice versa). pushing electrons is just an easy way to visualise *possible* structures, and to keep track of your charges. i hope that helps! source: phd in chemistry. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do birds that swallow an entire fish in one gulp avoid getting cut by the fins? | most birds eat fish head first. if the fish went down tail first, then it would be extremely easy for the fins to fan out and do damage. however, going in head first the fins are forced down for the dorsal and forced against the fish's body for the pectoral. since the fulcrum of the dorsal and pectoral fins are closer to the front of the fish, it is like placing an umbrella in a cardboard tube and trying to open it. | 99 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/a30L5m0.jpg"
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|
what is the 'excited' state of an atom or a particle and how does it occur? | atoms, nuclei, and generally any quantum system consisting of some number of particles in an attractive potential well can have discrete bound states and/or quasi-discrete resonant states. the state of lowest possible energy is the "ground state", and bound or resonant states with greater energies are called "excited states". if the system is in the ground state, and you put some energy into it (for example, an atom absorbing a photon), it will transition into an excited state. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is "e8" in physics in simple terms? | simple terms. simple.... ok, i'll try. imagine a sphere. you know how you can take a sphere and, say, squeeze it in some way? and the rest of the sphere responds? like, say, you take a sphere and push down on its 'poles' and it becomes more oblate. now imagine a more complex, multi-dimensional object (the multiple dimensions should not necessarily be considered 'spatial' but rather in terms of 'degrees of freedom') that also has a defined shape that reacts to manipulation. that's a way of thinking about group theory. e8 is a type of group in group theory. in group theory, a unit circle is represented by the u(1) group. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmy_Noether"
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i tried to explain relativity in a thread about interstellar, did i get it right? | this is my comment, copy/pasted: > special relativity is a very confusing subject; i don't 100% understand it myself, so i'm not surprised you don't either xd > the reason the planet was so heavily affected by time dilation due to relativity was because it was so close to a black hole. special relativity describes how when you are travelling fast, as in a significant fraction of the speed of light, that time passes at a different rate. that's why it's called relativity, because it states that time is relative. time dilation is caused not only by high speeds, but by intense gravitational fields as well, like you would find around a black hole. > a simplification of how relativity works is: imagine you are riding on a train. you take a ball and bounce it off the floor of your train car, and it bounces back up to your hand. to you, it looks like the ball is just going down and then up again. but, someone outside the train looking in through the window sees something else, he sees the ball moving in a zigzag pattern. he sees this because the train is moving forwards, and the bouncing ball is moving forwards with it. you saw yourself that the ball bounced down and up again, so it traveled a certain distance; the distance from your hand to the floor and then back to your hand again. the person outside saw it moving in a zigzag going forwards, which means that he saw it travel farther than you did, he saw it going both up and down and forwards as well. this can't be possible, because it took the same amount of time to travel both distances! a ball can't take a certain amount of time to move a certain distance, but then take the same amount of time to move even farther while moving at the same speed! the answer is time dilation. the ball moved the different distances at the same speed, but time itself didn't pass at the same speed! time slowed down for you on the train. > now, how does gravity do that as well? the answer is: more complicated stuff! i'm not entirely sure, but this is how i think it happens based on my limited knowledge: gravity moves things, right? that's why it's called a force, because forces move things, and gravity moves things, so gravity must be a force! but, how? the source of a gravitational field doesn't physically touch what it's moving; that's weird because forces are transmitted by physically touching something, like crashing into it. so, is gravity a force in the traditional sense? no. newton's (third?) law states that an object will travel in a straight line unless a force acts on it. so, if gravity is a force, then how does it make things move? because gravity bends space! an object travels in a straight line, but since gravity is bending space, that straight line becomes a curve. > (this is where my knowledge gets especially fuzzy and i'm pretty much just speculating) > a curved path is longer than a straight path, so we get that "same speed, same time, different distances" issue that we had on the train. again, just like on the train, relativity comes in and says that time will pass slower now. > damn, that's a long wall of text attempting to explain relativity. i think i'll submit this to /r/askscience and ask them if i got it right! so, my question is: did i at least get the general idea correct? /r/askscience, or /r/shittyaskscience? | for special relativity, you got it almost exactly right, but let's be very clear about what's going on. if i replace the ball with a pulse of light and some mirrors at the end of an evacuated tube, then the example you gave is complete right. the light follows a longer path for the observer off the train than it does for the observer on the train, both observers measure the light travelling at the same speed, so the answer is that the rate at which a second happens is different. fun complication: imagine both observers have one of our light-in-a-jar clocks. so long as neither observer accelerates, each observer will perceive the other observer as having a slower rate of time. whichever observer accelerates first is the one who ends up having had less net time pass. now onto gr. i'm by no means an expert on gr. i've had a professor who is an expert on gr for a non-gr class, and it spooked me. that said, here is what i think i know about gr. gr points out 2 things: being in a gravitational field reference frame is the same as being in an accelerating reference frame, and gravity can be explained on the basis of the geometry of space. we're used to thinking that the geometry of space is fixed: parallel lines never intersect or diverge, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180^(o). gr says that near a mass, spacetime gets bent, and those rules no longer apply in quite the same way. think of it like being on the surface of the earth: locally it seems flat, but if we follow two lines of longitude, which are parallel at the equator, we eventually would find the lines intersect. in gr, one consequence of this bent spacetime is that clocks move slower the deeper into a gravitational field we go. as for the local curvature of spacetime causing some sort of argument similar to the sr case, i can't tell you if the logic works. it seems kind of sketchy, but on the right track. the big difference between sr and gr is the concept of accelerating reference frames. the "relativity" part of "relativity" comes from the prediction that in inertial (non-accelerating) reference frames, the same rules of physics always hold. which inertial frame i pick is inconsequential. that's great for things like spaceships moving at 0.5*c* or a train moving at constant velocity. general relativity extends the ideas we build up about inertial reference frames to accelerating reference frames, like speeding up a spaceship, being in gravity, or being on a curving train. tl;dr: mostly right, but here is a little more technical discussion of the points i'm familiar with. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
can anyone please explain what appears to be a boundary layer over the wing from my flight last night? | i was a passenger last night in an a320 at 34,000 ft when i looked out at the wing only to see a weird, light-bending boundary layer (i think). _url_0_ i had to blink a few times to make sure i wasn't just seeing things. this thin strand (sometimes three closely-spaced strands) bounced back and forth with turbulence. i leaned back to look out the window behind me and i couldn't see it. it could only be seen from dead on. it persisted for tens of minutes. i can only guess it was a layer between air masses of differing pressure? i've flown jets for a few years now but no one has ever mentioned being able to see such phenomena. thank you for your help! | you're seeing a local shock wave - even though the plane is not traveling faster than the speed of sound, at certain spots over the top of the wing, the local airspeed is faster than the speed of sound. a shock boundary is a local 'jump' or discontinuity in pressure and density, which refracts the light differently than the surrounding air. see here: _url_3_ see here for some pics of this effect over the fuselage of an f-18. note, the f-18 is not supersonic: _url_1_ this one in particular: _url_2_ edit: actually, this one is the coolest (tails, fuselage, cockpit bubble): _url_0_ i don't know how to add my technical skill 'label', but i am an aero engineer. | 17 | [] | [
"http://vimeo.com/39934449"
] | [
"http://home.comcast.net/%7Ebzee1b/Fleetwk08/Blues_F18/DSZ_2346.jpg",
"http://home.comcast.net/~bzee1b/Fleetwk08/Blues_F18/Blues_F18.html",
"http://home.comcast.net/~bzee1b/Fleetwk08/Blues_F18/DSZ_2345.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_airfoil",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Cloud_over_A340_wing.JPG"
] | [
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can you see evidence of the boundary layer on an airplane wing? | i was recently flying and i noticed (although not entirely clear) that the air on the top of the wing seemed distorted, like light going through a prism. is the difference in density in the boundary layer and surrounding air great enough to refract the air so that the naked eye can see it? or was i just seeing an optical illusion? | good observation. first, yes, you can see evidence of air density changes on an airliner wing, and really just like a prism. [schlieren imaging](_url_0_) is used in experiments to visualize fluid flow based on the principle that different density regions will refract light differently. part of what you're seeing is probably more due to water condensation in the air, but that effect is a function of pressure, which itself is partially a function of density variations. at the transonic speeds that airliners fly at, there is considerable density variation over the surface of a wing, and this is what you're seeing. second, to clarify, what you're seeing is not what is called the "boundary layer." the boundary layer (as normally defined) for something like an airliner is on the order of *a few millimeters thick*. i'm guessing the scale of what you saw was [closer to this.](_url_1_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlieren_photography",
"http://uca.edu/callisto/files/2012/09/TransonicShock.png"
] | [
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my digital clock counts time too slow. how is this possible? | i have an ihome digital clock, docking station etc., and no matter how many times i correct the time or even set it ahead it somehow ends up behind again. i thought that this would be impossible for a digital clock. what's happening? | it could be any number of things - an issue in the circuitry / electronics is quite possible. without actually studying the clock, it's not possible to say - it's certainly possible for the clock to be slow, even if it is digital. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2007960/Power-grid-change-make-clocks-run-fast-mess-stop-lights-starting-month.html"
] | [
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is it possible to add two or three vectors having different magnitudes and yield zero resultant? | thanks! | two? no. if a+b=0, then |a|=|b|. three? sure. you don't even need to go further than one dimension either. 1+2+(-3)=0, and all three vectors have different lengths. | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you determine the phase of a wireless signal? | let's say you're sending a digital signal that has equal amounts of 0 and 1, using binary phase shift keying. won't the phase of the signals received change according to the location in space of the transmitter/receiver? how do you know if a signal is 0 or 180 degrees out of phase at the receiver if you don't have a reference? | to perform coherent bpsk demodulation you must first have complete carrier phase information. the channel will apply some random phase offset to your signal which is unknown at the receiver. in order to demodulate the signal you will need to know this phase offset and this is typically acquired using a phase locked loop. there is a modulation scheme called dpsk which allows you to have a non-coherent receiver. in dpsk the phase of the current symbol is used as the reference for the phase of the next symbol. you don't care about any phase offset, just that the phase has changed from the previous symbol. in the simplest case, dbpsk, if your receiver sees a phase jump from the previous symbol it detects a 1, if there is no phase jump it detects a zero. dpsk receivers have an advantage over coherent psk receivers in that their architecture is usually much simpler and cheaper to implement, however this comes at the expense of worse ber performance for the same eb/no. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could i fly a quadcopter in a pool of mineral oil? | assuming the oil did not interfere with the rc controls. what would i have to do to make this possible? | yeah, you probably could. you might have issues with stressing the motors due to the extra viscosity, but you could fix that by swapping out the propellers. because mineral oil is non-conductive, you won't break any of the electronics. you might not be able to sink in the oil without flipping the quadcopter, because they generally don't have a reverse on the motors (usually they are thrusting down all the time to hold the quadcopter up). you could always get a cheap one or a model helicopter to test it out. it's also possible the radio waves from the controller may not penetrate the oil (i know water is a good shield for radio waves), but i haven't personally tested that. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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g-force, pushing vs. pulling? can you tell? | hi! i just listened to a podcast discussing cars, and i couldn't quite grasp their statement, which was: some people prefer engines in the back (porsche f. ex.) instead of the front (most normal cars) not just because of the driving physics (weight distribution, traction etc.), but because they enjoy the feeling of being pushed rather than being pulled. made me think - is there any noticable difference? is it possible in a blind test to determine if you are being pushed or pulled? for experimental purposes, let's eliminate factors such as rear wheel drive vs. front wheel drive vs. four wheel drive, suspension, etc. every voice in my head says there is no way to tell the difference, but it would be nice to hear your thoughts. | any rear-wheel drive car is still _pushing_ you, regardless of where the engine is. to flip it on its head, if a rear-engine car were front wheel drive, would it still be pushing you? it's not a question of where the engine is converting chemical energy into kinetic energy, it's where this kinetic energy is being applied to the road. even so, the reason rear-wheel-drive layouts tend to 'feel better' is that as the car 'squats' back due to inertia, it puts weight over the driven axle, whereas in a front wheel drive car, it unloads the driven axle. things like that, and the ensuing understeer/oversteer behavior bias of fwd and rwd makes rwd the more 'fun' or 'preferable' configuration for the type of people you describe. where the engine is, however, doesn't change whether the driven wheels are pushing or pulling you. that doesn't make any sense. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it that natural remedies occur so often in plants, but rarely if ever in animals? | consider the chief difference between plants and animals. animals can move, plants can't. if an animal needs to defend itself, it needs to move faster, or have more muscles, or have teeth and claws and so on. how does a plant defend itself? it can't run away from a predator. it can't bite or claw at an enemy. so how does a plant protect itself? aside from maybe some thorns, they use chemicals. there is much more pressure for a plant to synthesize new chemicals that can be used to defend itself, making for a vast array of chemical compounds that may potentially have use in human medicine. there is not the same pressure in the animal kingdom to synthesize unique chemical compounds. consider the smell of cut grass. why does it smell that way? it's the smell of trauma. the grass is basically sending out a distress signal, a category of compounds called "green leaf volatiles". one effect these compounds can have is to lure bugs that eat caterpillars, which like to eat grass. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if you had an object the size of a grapefruit but with the same gravitational pull of the surface of the moon, what would happen if you tried to grasp it? | assuming that this ball does not turn into a black hole due to its density, it would probably feel (like you said) like doing a handstand on the moon. if it had the gravity of a moon, you would probably still be able to hold it at arms lenght. if it had gravity comparable to earth, you would have to be a gymnast to do the same. it would not harm you (unless its a black hole) more than falling onto ground would, since your acceleration due to gravity would be proportional to that of earth or the moon. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
could the bird actually be helping the dog on purpose, suggesting a symbiotic relationship, or is it a coincidence and we're just projecting it? | a gif on the front page here, _url_0_ in which a bird takes a piece of food out of a pan and appears to give it to a dog, where the dog couldn't have reached the food otherwise. i have very limited knowledge of animal psychology, but i would've assumed a bird wouldn't care about a dog. | birds, especially psittacenes, display-feed as a method of social bonding. if it regards the dog as a companion or member of its "flock", this might explain the behaviour; note it's actually letting the dog take the food from its mouth, rather than just dropping it on the floor. on the other hand, maybe it's just having fun and enjoying the movement. i had a cockatiel that loved to roll a marble off my desk over and over, just for the entertainment value of watching me bend down, pick it up, and replace it. | 65 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/gallery/mAZNP"
] | [
"http://www.flixxy.com/cat-and-crow-become-friends.htm"
] | [
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aren't we playing with evolutionary processes by protecting 'bad' species that should not have survived in the first place? | there's no "genes that should have died". there's no rules that make a survival fair or desireable. there's nobody up there who cares where the evolutionary process goes. it just goes. if a species is smart enough to overcome its own ailments, this species can survive because that intelligence is enough of a surviving factor. if this turns out for the worst and our species goes extinct because we preserved too much "bad" genes, it means intelligence was not a surviving factor after all, and other species that weren't smart enough to cure themselves will happily fill the void that we left. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
given enough magnets and a big enough copper tube, could you float down the tube on eddy currents? | inspired by this video from r/videos, _url_0_ | i don't see why not - eddy current brakes are used to slow down passenger locomotives, so a single person's weight shouldn't be much of a problem. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=G7ysnXH53Wo"
] | [] | [
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] |
is it true that if you are insane, you do not know it? | i've heard from different sources (research papers/documentaries/etc.) that if you are indeed insane, you do not realize it and you think yourself perfectly normal. is this true? | this is not true. plenty of people with mental illnesses are aware of it. if you search reddit amas, you will find a couple from people who have schizophrenia and are completely aware that they way they experience the world is not the way others experience it. there are, of course, some people who are extremely mentally ill and do lack insight into their condition, but many others are able to understand when they are experiencing delusions and hallucinations (usually with the help of therapy and medications). | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anosognosia"
] | [
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why don't we have freely available black metal yet? | from this article: _url_0_ it says they could make the surface of any metal pure black with just the power of a wall socket, and predicts the techique replacing black paint on cars. the article is 6 years old so why hasn't that happened? | the article actually discusses the answer. it's a painfully slow process that is not ready to be used in manufacturing. they essentially focused a laser in as tiny an area as possible and altered the structure of the metal there. this was verified by electron microscopy (and the black dot itself may be too tiny to see with the naked eye). it takes half an hour to blacken a piece the size of your pinky according to the article. compare this to the size of a useful photovoltaic panel. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.rochester.edu/news/show.php?id=2701"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_path_method"
] | [
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a question about radar for electrical engineers. | the details of radar fascinate me. i understand the principle, but have trouble with implementation. to image something one mile away, the radar needs to be able to receive the return impulse in about 1/100000 of a second. there are megawatt radar installations. how can they overcome induction to allow a system handle such wattage in such a short period needed, particularly since antennas typically need an induction coil? and what kind of switching circuitry can handle such power? tl;dr how are the short, high wattage waveforms made? | a quick answer to this: modern radar systems employ signal processing and analysis that no longer require megawatt radar installations. in fact, what you are thinking of are active radars that require sounding. these are not such a good idea for military purposes as they scream "i'm here!" at the enemy. furthermore, for a basic radar system, you don't need very good imaging - a *dot* will be more than sufficient. passive radars now exist whereby reflections of background radiation (from radio communications, for example) are picked up. these are more sophisticated and stealthy, and gives you an example of how high power systems are no longer necessary. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to ionize air to create a 'invisible wall' of sorts? | if so, how much voltage/current would it take to ionize enough air for like a 1' by 1' "surface" of air particles? i have been trying to research this but have not had much luck besides finding an article about a 3m factory. | you could in theory, induce ambient air into a plasma which you could see. this wouldn't have significantly different density or act as a physical "wall" but you probably wouldn't want to walk through it (a nitrogen plamsa is ~10 000 k) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is rabies able to jump from species to species so easily? | pretty much the title, why is it that rabies can jump to pretty much any species of mammal? most diseases seem to be isolated to one species, with the occasional jump to another species because of a lucky mutation but rabies seems to be able to jump with no problem whatsoever. as a side question, what prevents diseases from normally infecting individuals outside of the species they normally inhabit? | the route of infection changes from pathogen to pathogen, and pathogens that infect by docking at highly conserved receptors are able to infect a broader array of animals. the glycoproteins on rabies appear to dock at the nicotinic receptors, but as animals all the way down to insects have these receptors, it's not really known why it infects some but not others. in general, genetic variation, even down to a single amino acid in a protein, can change protein structure substantially, and with a different 3d shape, different substances can dock there. this accounts for most of the variation in viral infections. bacteria tend to be a little less specific in terms of which animals will work as hosts, as they can live/thrive on a variety of substrates, and have no need to parasitize. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://jvi.asm.org/content/72/9/7181"
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why does my camera need to know beforehand that i want to shoot a timelapse video? | why isn't my cellphone able to transform any video into a timelapse? i imagine, that if i tell my phone i am going to shoot a timelapse, it will record at a lower framerate to save storage. but is there another reason or am i wrong? | when shooting a time lapse it is common that the clip will take longer to shoot than a regular video. you can speed up a standard video into a timelapse, but the lower frame rate used in timelapse mode is meant to save storage and prevent the camera from overheating. leaving the sensor exposed for too long is also likely a concern. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
askscience ama series- iama geochemistry phd student who studies the early earth | i have undergraduate degrees in both physics and mathematics. during my undergraduate i spent my time working in one of the larger accelerator mass spectrometers (our lab did things like cosmic ray exposure date meteorites, determine burial ages for early human studies, and carbon dating). now i am pursuing a phd in geochemistry and my research is focusing on figuring out what went on during the first 500 million years or so of earth's existence. most of this information is gathered from doing mass spectrometry on tiny (think 20-100 microns in length) accessory minerals (mostly zircons). i will be happy to answer any questions from instrument questions (i worked with an 8 million volt accelerator for many years) to questions about the moon forming impact, the late heavy bombardment (a really hot topic in my field), how life may have formed (and when it started), to most anything else. | what sort of things do you look for in accessory minerals in order to make an inference about the early earth? | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YwbK9jkQHJM&feature=player_embedded"
] | [
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how do women handle menstruation on iss? | hi, reddit, i've found out that women participate in half-year expeditions to the iss, e.g. sunita williams from xxxiii expedition was there at the age of 42 that means that she had to has normal women cycles. but menstruation liquid requires gravity to go out otherwise it becomes dangerous for the body. do astronauts have some specific devices or use hormones to prevent menstruation? | although anticipated as a potential problem, there have been no reported cases of retrograde menstruation, which is what i believe you are referring to. this is probably due in part to uterine contractions being capable of expelling menses to the vagina and the capillary action of sanitary products taking it from there. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2827/how-do-female-astronauts-menstruate-in-space"
] | [
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how do grb's work? | if nothing can escape a black hole, including light, how do they emit radiation? do gamma ray bursts travel faster than light for a moment? | grb and black holes are not particularly related. leaving aside hawking radiation (discussed below), radiation that is emitted "from" a black hole" in most pop-sci articles, are usually referring to something produced in the black holes accretion disc, rather than anything to do with the black hole itself. this is thought to be not dissimilar to the processes that cause pulsars, although when dealing with smbh the scale can be many times larger. no ones quite nailed down what causes grbs. some grb sources have been identified, certain types of supernovae for example, neutron star mergers. when it results from a supernova that forms a black hole, huge amounts of the stars mass is lost in the supernova and the black hole that forms doesn't have any stronger gravity than the mass which formed it. it's not some cosmic vacuum cleaner. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does tipping a pallet up to vertical by lifting one edge require half as much force as lifting it in the middle? | this is about lifting requirements at my job. it seems to me that picking up one edge of a pallet creates a class 2 lever with the fulcrum at the other edge and the load force at the center of mass of the skid. once the skid is near vertical no real effort is required, i'd guess because most of the motion is horizontal. could i have a rule of thumb for how much effort it takes to lift a 50 kg pallet that is 2 meters wide when it is flat, and when it starts at a 45 degree angle? (we could achieve this angle by using a forklift for the first part of the lift.) | the ratio of the force needed to lift the pallet at angle a to the force needed to lift it from flat on the ground is cosine(a). i made [this diagram](_url_0_) to explain why that is the case. because you are using leverage, all that matters is the *component of the weight perpendicular to the pallet*. when the pallet is flat, all of the weight is perpendicular. when the pallet is raised at angle a, a fraction cosine(a) of the weight is perpendicular (note also that the other component of the weight, sine(a), is horizontal and must be compensated by friction at the point the pallet meets the floor - to prevent it from sliding out from under itself). for your specific question of a = 45 degrees, cosine(a) = 0.707... . so only 71% as much force is required to finish the job (i.e. if you needed 100 pounds of force before, now you need only 71 pounds of force). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/hCHxQ6I.jpg"
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what is a healthy amount of time for a normal bowel movement to take? (i.e. how long is too long to sit on the toilet?) | seems pretty normal to me. sit down, poop, wipe. i think the answer is in the question: if you decide to go and read, the main goal (i.e. the bowel movement) is forgotten. (not to mention, sitting in that position for too long is definitely not recommended.) other possible causes: - caffeine abuse. if you routinely ingest lots of caffeine, it won't prevent you from sleeping (since your body is used to it), but it will make bowel movements more difficult. - lack of water. if you don't drink enough water, your body takes some water from your feces, causing them to be hard and thus, hard to pass. (also, there's a meme on some subreddits, where the main use of an ipad/iphone is in the toilets or something. not too sure how much this is connected to reality.) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how were 3d graphs drawn before the invention of electronic computers? | this image, a 3d graph of the gamma function, appeared in a 1909 book called "tables of higher functions" by jahnke and emde: _url_0_ how did they produce this graph by hand so precisely? | [isometric drawing like this](_url_0_) isn't a skill often taught anymore, but it was commonplace before computers out of necessity. as a starting point for that drawing, you lay out the base axes (looks like y-z there). specific values for your function then are purely vertical distances from that orthogonal base. you can do this for many points, and then just connect the dots. i would guess since this is a contour plot that they solved for particular contour levels for (y,z) pairs to construct it in the same manner. beautiful graph, though. | 3 | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Jahnke_gamma_function.png"
] | [
"http://www.neshaminy.org/site/handlers/filedownload.ashx?moduleinstanceid=8242&dataid=20892&FileName=Chapter%206%20Isometric%20Drawing.pdf",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=drafting+templates&client=firefox-a&hs=8IG&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&channel=sb&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=45UeU8WfGNCfkAewxICYAg&ved=0CAoQ_AUoAg&biw=1266&bih=1321",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_computer"
] | [
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what causes this strange swirling effect i noticed in a fluorescent light tube today? | video i took with my phone: _url_0_ today at my subway stop i noticed some strange patterns in the fluorescent lights. a couple were blinking and pulsing, and this one had an awesome swirling streak of light whipping around it. is it from an irregular electrical current? magnetic field? something else? | [magnetohydrodynamics](_url_1_) the electrons flowing through the tube ionize the argon gas [similar to the franck-hertz effect](_url_0_) in a plasma that's electrically neutral overall, electrons move much faster than ions, so the electrons try to move away, but are pulled back by the ions. this is a plasma oscillation, but it occurs at very fast (radio) frequencies. in addition, there is localized heating that causes atoms to move away from eachother, as well as the magnetic fields due to the currents. all of these taken together, fluid dynamics and plasma dynamics, can produce these instabilities. also consider that the current driving this is running at 60 hz. not sure if this completely satisfies your curiosity, but i hope nothing ever does and you continue to ask and learn forever. | 5 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/iA3hdDS1NzM"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franck-Hertz_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics"
] | [
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forward motion and balance | i sometimes notice while riding a bicycle, or trying to balance on a narrow platform, that increased speed makes it easier to maintain stability. on the other end, slowing down on a bicycle or trying to stand still on a narrow platform make it difficult to balance. what kind of physics are involved in these instances, or is this just in my mind? | when your bike tilts, a torque must act on the wheels in order to change the direction of their angular momentum. when riding faster, the wheels are rotating faster which means that the magnitude of angular momentum (a vector quantity) is greater. because it is greater, the torque required to tilt it is greater as well. you can try this if you have a removable bike wheel. after spinning the wheel, trying to tilt it is noticeably harder than when it was not spinning. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does aposematism come about by evolution when it makes organisms so conspicuous? | [deleted] | it it dies from being eaten then the animal that ate will avoid its offspring because it would associate those markings with something bad....now in birds with high social structure like crows it would be beneficial for the entire species if it sacrificed itself because crows have the ability to learn from observation,so if one crow eats and gets sick the rest of them learn to avoid those markings in the future | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can you describe kinetic energy of an atom or molecule using quantum mechanics, given that this is governed by mass ( mostly contained in the nucleus) and velocity ( described by the wave equation for electrons)? | i know different properties like position or momentum of an atom are uncertain and the probability of it having a certain property is governed by the wave equation. i'm curious how the kinetic energy of a particle ( e=p^2/2m or 1/2mv^2) could be described using quantum mechanics and if it is quantized, given that the nucleus contains most of the mass of an atom and i'm pretty sure the nucleus can't be described simply by the wave equation. the momentum of the nucleus must make up a substantial part of the kinetic energy. | basically, all particles can be described by it's wavefunction. the wavefunction of the nucleus would consist of the wavefunctions of all the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. the wavefunction of an atom would consist of the wavefunction of both the nucleus and the electrons surrounding it. knowing this you could calculate energies and interactions for the entire atom. but because this very quickly gets massively complicated, even for computers, we simplify and find models that give us answers that are good enough for a lot of applications. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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at what ppm are common vocs flammable? | i work in a chemical plant where i inspect valves for leaks with a tva(toxic vapor analyzer). the epa has a leak limit of 500 ppm and my machine turns off at 500,000 ppm. i monitor lines such as propylene, ethylene, hexane, "monomer solvent", and diene and a few others.....is there a general range that one could assume vocs are flammable? like a leak of 10,000 is bad but not high enough in concentration to be ignitable, but at 50,000 there's an imminent risk of fire. | organic chemist here. you are looking for the explosion range in a gas mixture for vocs, a general answer encompassing all voc is not really doable. this is due to the fact of the broad definition of vocs, explicitly encompassing all organic compounds with a boiling point below 250 deg celsius. this encompasses way too many compounds to make any useful statements. best advice i have for you is look up the vocs you are working with and look up their explosive range. it should be in the msds sheets. sorry if this is a slightly unsatisfactory answer. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i take a sip from a stranger's water bottle. which disease am i most likely to contract? | my money is on herpes (if we exclude the common cold which i probably already have). i'd also like to know specifically about hepatitis and tetanus, which are always mentioned in this context. | i'd lean toward mono, if you don't already have it. herpes is also very possible. both hsv-1 and hsv-2 can infect the mouth (or genitals). actually you could get any of the herpes simplex viruses from a stranger's drink. it's highly unlikely you'd get hepatitis from sharing a drink. hepatitis a is feco-oral, meaning there would need to be feces contaminated with the virus in the drink for you to contract it. in that case, both you and the stranger will get sick, you're not catching it from them. hepatitis b and c are blood and bodily fluid borne, so unless you've got some cuts in your mouth it's also not likely. in that case hep c is more probably, since you need a much smaller initial inoculum of the virus to become infected. tetanus, caused by the bacteria *clostridium tetani*, has endospores pretty much everywhere, but they require a low-oxygen environment to grow since the bacteria is an obligate anaerobe. unless the drink somehow harbors a very low oxygen tension and has sat around long enough for a sizable tetanus inoculum to grow, it's likely not going to happen. this is just from what i remember, i'm sure someone who knows something about id can help. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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lookin in the past of universe ? | i do have a question that i cannot find an explanation: if in the beginning of the universe (let say 13.4 bilion year ago ) the earth was still to be formed and i assume that the earth itself was part of the gas in the small universe after the beginning of the big bang. now the question is: how can we receive the ligth of object that travelsed 13 bilion year if the earth was there (in the gas) 13 bilions years ago? . let make a sample: i sit in the same place of an event ; how can be that the ligth of that event is reaching me after 13 bilions year (from that event ) if i was sit in the same place were that event occured ??? the answer is maybe that the space is streching so much faster than light that i now sitting 13 bilions years away from that event before the light have reached me? | well in the very early beginning of the universe there was there era of inflation. during that time the universe expanded increadibly fast. the expansion eventually started to slow down and later atoms etc. were formed. at that point the universe was already very big. so the light, that we see now from 13 billion years ago, originated from long after the inflation period where things in space were already far appart from each other. so it didn't come from the same place we are "coming from". | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is it called when you put others down for something you like that may be a little weird? | so, what i'm wanting to know is what is it called when you feel weird for liking something, so when you hear someone openly say they like it you almost uncontrollably start treating them as less and almost make fun of them? | this is a phenomenon known as projection. [here is the wikipedia page](_url_0_) if you want a quick overview. projection is one of several defense mechanisms that freud hypothesized were intended to keep the ego intact. we now know that freud's model of the psyche was incorrect, but his defense mechanisms have stood the test of time (and empirical research!). essentially, projection occurs when someone is ashamed, embarrassed, or afraid of some attribute about them. in order to make themselves feel more confident and less ashamed, they will *project* that attribute onto someone else, where it can then be safely ridiculed. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection"
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where do i find hazard and precaution sentences? | [deleted] | for general use, the material safety data sheets (msds, although sometimes now abbreviated just sds for reasons that escape me) is the place to go. most chemical supply companies will put them in easy-to-find places. for example, if you head to [sigma aldrich](_url_2_) and search for sodium, you can pull up the sds for sodium metal. the sheets are very information-dense, but have lots of useful warnings. for example, top of the list for sodium is: *h260: in contact with water releases flammable gases which may ignite spontaneously.* this is true! [here's a video!](_url_1_) a lot of the information on these is 'boilerplate', such as don't induce vomiting if swallowed - contact a physician. they sometimes contain ld50 doses (how much a person would need to consume in order to have a ~50% chance of dying, typically given in mg or ml per kg of body mass). beyond that, they can often have really useful physical information like melting points, boiling points, and (often very useful from a safety standpoint) flash points, as well as density and vapor pressure. edit: i suck at hyperlinks. edit 2: for those wondering why this thread is hanging around in /r/askscience - understanding the hazards and precautions for working with substances in a laboratory is a critical part of doing good science, and it's a perfectly valid question to ask how one might obtain that information and how to digest it. it's even good for home use - take [drano](_url_0_) for example. one of the main ingredients is naoh (sodium hydroxide) a highly-caustic base. someone wondering whether they should bother wearing gloves or cleaning very thoroughly after using drano in a food-prep area could check out the sds and find all the details! | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drano",
"https://youtu.be/NTFBXJ3Zd_4",
"http://www.sigmaaldrich.com"
] | [
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do we know how much your mental or physical condition at conception effects the outcome of a fetus? | say the woman is an alcoholic at the time of conception, or the man is on a week long lsd trip, or either are in the throes of a clinical depression at the moment, would the fetus be more predisposed to addiction or mental health issues as opposed to if they had been conceived prior to these events? or if this makes more sense, would a baby born to teenage parents who have never smoked, drank, done drugs, or experienced any major life problems or mental illness yet have a better genetic predisposition than a baby born to the same couple 20 years later after heavy drinking and drug use had occurred and the development of a mental health issue or two? i'd imagine it would be hard if not impossible to research, but if i, the least knowledgeable (of science) person i know, am wondering about it; there must be someone out there who's thought about the same sort of thing and found the answer, right? any and all answers are welcome. thank you in advance!!! | so the parents' past experience or current condition won't generally affect the *genes* the offspring inherits, but it can affect the individual's traits/phenotype. the most important factor is going to be the mother's state during pregnancy, as she provides the developmental environment, which, for example, [accounts for on the order of 60-75% of the variation in birth weight](_url_1_). there are a lot of other things you could want to measure besides birth weight, and i don't have references for them off the top of my head, but i would suspect a lot of other traits measured at birth would show relatively strong contributions from the fetal environment. as for working out what specifically the causes are, that's a little more difficult (and not really my area). one example is currently/recently on the front page of /r/science: [antidepressant use in pregnancy linked to anxiety in offspring](_url_0_) [[journal article]](_url_3_) another example would be [fetal alcohol syndrome](_url_7_). [and google scholar has lot's more](_url_4_) the other main way i can think of would be via [epigenetic effects](_url_5_). basically this refers to any piece of information which is inherited but is not transmitted via the dna sequence, and whereas the fetal environment can only have effects up until birth, the impact of epigenetic factors can continue afterwards, as they can effect the way that genes are expressed throughout development in the offspring. this epigenetic information is usually inherited in the form of [methylation marks on the dna](_url_6_). in some cases, the parental experience/condition can impact which epigenetic marks the offspring inherits, such as [as may have occurred in a few known cases in humans](_url_2_) (yeah, i'm citing io9, but epstein knows his stuff). exactly how important these effects are is not entirely known. there's only a handful of concrete examples at this point, and prevailing evidence probably points toward their being not insignificant, but probably less important than genetic and external environmental effects. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.psychiatryadvisor.com/antidepressant-use-in-pregnancy-linked-to-anxiety-in-offspring/article/409383/",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2000.tb13234.x/full",
"http://io9.com/how-an-1836-famine-altered-the-genes-of-children-born-d-1200001177",
"http://ije.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2015/04/14/ije.dyv030.full",
"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%28fetal+environment%29+OR+%28heritability+of+fetal+traits%29&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_methylation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_syndrome"
] | [
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why is the ocean basic? | ocean ph is something like 8.1, and it's moving down to be more acidic as we pump co2 into the air. why is ocean ph basic to begin with, though? i'm thinking about rocks, salts, weak acids and conjugate bases and so on. presumably it's not an organic acid, so i'm assuming it's got to do with lots of conjugate bases of mineral acids in rocks, slowly dissolving into the ocean, but why wouldn't this be just as much the case with the conjugate acids of mineral bases that are present in those same rocks? like, say, calcium carbonate- it's got the conjugate base of carbonic acid, and the conjugate acid of calcium hydroxide- why is it, on the net, "basic," and why does it seem that most of the rocks in the ocean are making it "basic"? | calcium ions aren't the conjugate acid of calcium hydroxide. it's more of a spectator ion. however, it _does_ form a [basic oxide](_url_2_). in a proper combination of conjugate acid/base, such as [ammonium acetate](_url_1_), the final ph is decided by the respective pka and pkb of the acids and bases. in this case, the pka of ammonium ions are near 9.25, and pkb of acetate is near 9.2, so the resultant solution would be _slightly_ basic. if we examine something like [ammonium sulfate](_url_0_), you'll find that the solution will be acidic. that's because the first pkb of sulfate ions are about 12.01. so you really need to examine the actual constituents of your salt to see the net effect on ph. may i ask what your chemistry background is? as a biochemist, i'd have thought this should be fairly basic (no pun intended) stuff. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_sulphate",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_acetate",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_oxide"
] | [
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i have a square metal plate with a circular hole cut in it. i heat up the plate. does the hole get bigger, smaller, or stay the same? why? | bonus points: i have a square plate with a five pointed star shape cut into it. i heat up the plate. what happens to the shape? | hole gets bigger. the entire plate gets bigger, i.e., the atoms of the plate move farther apart from each other. the innermost atoms of the circle describing the hole move farther apart from each other, hence the circumference of the hole increases. same thing for the star. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the leidenfrost effect still apply to extreme temperatures that are too extreme? | for example: being near the point of lasers' focus at the national ignition facility in usa or near the temperature created by the large hardron collider. just did a little reading and that stuff outputs insane amount of energy. lhc: 5.5 trillion k and nif ~3 mil k | temperatures above the leidenfrost point would still result in film boiling which results in less convection than nucleate/transition boiling. however, the leidenfrost point is a local minimum. as you continue to increase the temperature difference beyond the leidenfrost point, [heat flux will begin to increase again](_url_0_) due to other methods of heat transfer. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leidenfrost_effect#/media/File:Heat_transfer_leading_to_Leidenfrost_effect_for_water_at_1_atm.png"
] | [
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