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what would happen if someone swallowed super glue? | if already set: nothing serious; you'll likely poop it out like chewing gum. if fresh: nothing good, but very luck dependant. it will irritate mucous membranes as it polymerised rapidly in the moist environment. the worst case would be lodgement in the trachea, which could block up solid, leading to suffocation. the best case would be sliding down a well lubricated esophagus without much interaction, then landing in a stomach partially filled with food to bind with. this outcome would lead to large, difficult to pass bowel movements, perhaps serving as a reminder to not swallow superglue. the actual term, superglue, can refer to any mixture of a family of rapidly polymerizing monomers called cyanoacrylates. these vary in toxicity, however the most commonly used have very low toxicity, and mostly won't be able to reach the bloodstream via the scenario you described, as they cannot cross membranes in polymer form and there isn't a biological mechanism for breaking carbon-carbon single covalent bonds in the digestive tract. some cyanoacrylates are relatively volatile and can be absorbed in the respiratory system, where toxicity concerns become more relevant. | 97 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when i swallow water, does it just "rain" into my stomach, or does it slowly work its way down? | i'm not sure about water, but barium sulfate liquid (which is lot denser than water) sticks to the sides of the esophagus and the stomach, so i presume water would do the same. watch this at about 38s to 45s in: _url_0_ the black stuff is the barium liquid, so imagine that's water. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5QhBvXsJ53E"
] | [
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|
can someone please explain what is happening to our eyes and brain when we stare at this for a minute and then look away at other things which become distorted.. | _url_0_ | it is an effect of your brain, it gets accustomed to the motion, then when it goes away your brain is still trying to compensate for it. our senses are most effective when stimuli change from one state to another, if you see motion for a long time your brain tries to ignore/temper it, same as how new smells are quickly ignored, or how you ignore the sensation of your butt on the chair. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.skytopia.com/project/illusion/didgrow.html"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illusory_motion"
] | [
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are there any examples of ecological collapse caused only by the organisms in it? | such as them being too effective and eating all their food, then starving. problems that can't be traced back to humanity. | happens all the time. it's true that they don't _tend_ to happen unless something changes in the environment, but that change doesn't have to be due to humans. for example, when north and south america joined up there were extinctions on both continents as new predators and prey moved north and south, eating and competing with each other. on a small scale, in temporary ponds populations of small crustaceans and protists will bloom, eat all the food, make eggs or spores, then starve off. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what changes in someone's brain when they become a hoarder? | [deleted] | the dsm-v (latest edition of the manual used to classify and diagnosis mental illness) lists hoarding disorder as an obsessive-compulsive disorder. just like with any mental illness, there is no definitive smoking gun--which means that there is no formula that says if x person has y and z experience or holds these beliefs, this will be the result. with that said, if hoarding disorder is listed as an obsessive compulsive disorder, there may be similarities in brains of individuals who are hoarders and those who have other obsessive disorders. like i said though, i don’t know too much about it to give an answer, so it’s just speculation. there have been a few studies done to explain how/why individuals develop behaviors that lead to hoarding. more often than not, individuals have reported hoarding symptoms between 11-21 (around 70% according to the (tolin, meunier, frost, & steketee study cited below). the behaviors then escalate around the age of 40. a large number of individuals in the aforementioned study have reported a history of trauma, such as childhood physical, emotional, or sexual abuse. so trauma may be a risk factor associated with developing hoarding tendencies. as far as comorbidity, or having more than one mental illness at once: a lot of the studies i was looking at found high comorbidity rates for individuals with anxiety (no specific anxiety disorder) and major depressive disorders. individuals with a history of trauma have a higher incidence of abusing drugs and alcohol, but none of the studies i looked at paid it too much attention. nor was there any mention of higher incidences of violent behavior. frost, r. o., steketee, g., & tolin, d. f. (2011). comorbidity in hoarding disorder. depression and anxiety, 28(10), 876-884 tolin d. f, meunier s, frost r., skeeters g (2010). "course of compulsive hoarding and its relationship to life events". depression and anxiety 27: 829–838. doi:10.1002/da.20684. portero, a. k., durmaz, d. a., raines, a. m., short, n. a., & schmidt, n. b. (2015). cognitive processes in hoarding: the role of rumination. personality and individual differences, 86277-281. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.024 (edit for formatting) | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are black widows and brown recluses actually as deadly as they're made out to be? | i've tried looking it up but can never get a definitive answer. my husband told me once that he was bitten by a black widow in his sleep (he knew it was a black widow because he had also conveniently crushed it with his body) and that it just caused agonizing pain all over his back. so are these spiders really as a deadly as people say? i heard it's only really deadly if you happen to be allergic to the venom. | this *may* be true for some of the widow's cousins. the *steatoda* are the false widows and are usually said to be harmless, but [recent research](_url_0_) has found that they're more dangerous than we think and that the widow antivenom works when the false widow bite does require treatment. but others have suggested that it would only be a problem for some people, and not everyone. so in the false widows, it's not clear and may only be medically significant for vulnerable people. and i think that's probably what you're talking about here. black widow venom affects any person that is injected with it. it may affect some people more or less than others, but it's not an allergy kind of thing. it's pretty toxic. this is not implausible. some of the earliest symptoms of lactrodectism (black widow envenomation) would be pain and cramping in the (abdomen, chest and ) back. also the spiders can vary the amount of venom injected, so he could feasibly have gotten a low dose of venom and only showed the mildest symptoms. i don't really know much about the recluses, so i'll not comment on them. but i live in black widow land. it's just packed with them here. i get brown widows and false widows in my side yard and my back yard is full of black widows. so i've paid some attention to the research on these species. seems like the false widows may be more dangerous than we would expect. seems like the brown widows aren't very aggressive and they don't seem to pose much threat to people. black widows seem to have gotten a somewhat undeserved reputation. it's *very rare* for anyone to die from black widow bites. to a large extent people won't even be given the antivenom because you can only have it once. so unless you're actually in a life-threatening situation they will save it in case you get bitten again in the future. so it's less dangerous than people would think, but it's not something you want to try to handle. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24853919",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3200105/",
"http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002859.htm",
"http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/405814"
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does anticoagulant have any effect on existing blood clots in the body? | so i was watching a video that showed a blood clot trying to get through a heart valve and i got to thinking that my diet isn't the best so i could possibly have one/some trying to form. anyways i donate plasma so and during the procces my blood is mixed with anticoagulant (sodium citrate) and spun out to remove the plasma before being returned, so my question is: does the anticoagulant have any effect on clots that have already started forming in the body or does it only stop the coagulation process from starting? i only ask because i'm wondering if there is some sort of benifit to my body from having anticoagulant in my veins. edit: great answers everyone, i'm calling this solved. thanks to everyone that commented on this thread, you all are awesome and i appreciate your time | anticoagulants do not dissolve clot. however, clots are dynamic: they are in a constant state of formation and dissolution. at first the formation side is stronger, and then over time the dissolving side becomes stronger, so clots form quickly and then gradually dissolve--but at all times there is both clot formation and clot dissolution happening. anticoagulants impair the formation side, so they help to tip the balance towards the clot dissolving. the anticoagulant is not dissolving the clot, but it is helping to prevent new clot being made in place of the clot that is being dissolved. to answer your last question, there is no significant benefit to you to have some sodium citrate in your veins. citrate is a calcium chelator, which anticoagulates by blocking the calcium in the plasma (calcium is needed for clotting). the amount of citrate that goes back into your body is trivial compared to your total blood volume, and your total body calcium, and it has no significant effect on your clotting. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://almostadoctor.co.uk/encyclopedia/clotting-cascade"
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can the brain crave certain foods to correct a nutritional deficiency without a person having the requisite nutritional knowledge? | i have been told that sometimes when we crave foods, it is because we need a nutrient in them. for example, to correct an omega-3 deficiency, we would crave fish. first, is this true? and secondly, would this still occur if a person did not consciously know that fish contains omega-3 (but had eaten fish before). and if so, how does this possibly work? does the brain keep a nutritional "log" of anything we have ever consumed? | there is evidence for this being true for some nutrients, though there is also evidence that it can be easily overwhelmed or disrupted. no conscious thought of the content of food would be required, but exposure to the food would. so for instance if your body needed salt, you wouldn't crave peanuts if you had never had them, but you might think to yourself that chips sounded good. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will mount st. helens have a symmetrical peak again? | prior to the 1980 eruption the mountain looked like [this](_url_0_). will it ever return to a similar shape and, if so, roughly how long will that take? | barring another large eruption or a catastrophic eruption similar to that of the [one that formed crater lake](_url_0_), eventually. since 1980, [a lava dome](_url_1_) has been growing in the crater left by the eruption. in the 30 years since, it's filled about 10% of the crater. at this rate the volcano will probably start looking like a more traditional volcano within the next couple hundred years, barring a destructive eruption. | 36 | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Sthelens1.jpg/800px-Sthelens1.jpg"
] | [
"http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/fs092-02/",
"http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/st_helens/st_helens_geo_hist_103.html"
] | [
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what would be the genetically-optimal breeding program for a male and female to repopulate a post-apocalyptic earth? | i just finished reading [the metamorphosis of prime intellect](_url_0_), and its ending describes a male and female basically repopulating earth (sorry for the spoiler). to achieve greater genetic diversity, they indulge in incest with their children and grandchildren. putting aside the taboo on incest, that got me thinking about what would be the optimal way to go about such a task. in the trivial case of the parents having, say, 2 children only and not inter-breeding with them, my very limited understanding of genetics tells me about 75% of their genes will be transferred to their two children (since every chromosome has 50% (?) chance being passed from one of the parents to his child, and for two children there are 4 possibilities: both got the chromosome, both didn't get it, the first child got it, or the second got it, i.e. the chromosome survives in 3 out of 4 cases, x/y-chromosome complexities notwithstanding). obviously that wouldn't get them very far; there's only a 50% chance that their children would be a boy and a girl that could reproduce, and they'd only have 75% the genetic diversity of their parents. so what would be the optimal "breeding plan" if we assume a female can start reproducing at the age of 16 and bear a child every 2 years for 20 years (10 children total), while males can breed starting at 16 till they die, and a general life expectancy of 60 years (and the first couple being 16 years old) ? | the technical term for this is [minimum viable population](_url_0_) and there is much debate on the exact numbers, but there is a consensus that a single couple wouldn't work. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.kuro5hin.org/prime-intellect/"
] | [
"https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Minimum_viable_population"
] | [
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if you had a replica of the earth, the size of a football, could you feel mountains and oceans? | how big would these features be if scaled down to this size? | ergh, that's an annoying question that i suppose i know enough to answer. right, for easy math, lets say mount everest is 10,000 meters tall and the earth is 10,000,000 meters in diameter. so the bumps are a thousands of the diameter of the object. a football has a diameter of ~0.25 meters so out football earth has bumps of 0.25 millimeters or 250 micrometers. which yes, you can feel bumps of that size on an otherwise smooth surface. that's about human hair width. so, cut up human hair of a football. even if my estimates mean my maths is out by a factor of two, we're still easily in the feel-able size. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does biochar work and what are benefits for soil? | alright, i don't know how much research you've done, but i'll start at the very beginning just in case. biochar is essentially charcoal that has been created specifically as a soil amendment. it's created via pyrolysis (combustion in anoxic environments), a process analogous to cooking/grilling - ever get char on your steak? that's biochar. you can create biochar from almost any form of organic matter; chicken manure, cattle manure, switchgrass, hardwoods, softwoods, animal byproducts. the feedstock will have huge implications on biochar's nutrient content and surface area, which affect its usefulness as an amendment. temperature is also a factor in the quality of the biochar; the higher the temperature, the more crystalline the biochar becomes, which makes it more stable and less reactive in the soil. higher temperatures also affect the ph of the char, since most of the humic acids (and other organic compounds) tend to burn off around 500-600c. this can be either beneficial or detrimental to soil application; if you have an acidic soil (ph~4), applying a high ph biochar is a good thing because it makes nutrients already in the soil more available, if you have high ph soil (ph~8), increasing ph further can limit the availability of phosphorus, a key nutrient. plants need c, n, p, k and s in large quantities, any increase in any of these in soil is generally a good thing. biochar has been shown that soil organic carbon increased 44 and 58% with rates of 20 kg/ha and 40 kg/ha of biochar vs controls due to its c content, which increases the overall fertility of the soil. there have also been documented increases of total n from 0.6% to 6.9% with increasing rates of biochar ranging between 5 to 20 g/kg. biochar also increases the water holding capacity and the amount of exchangeable nutrients in the soil due to its high surface area and negative charge (most nutrients are positively charged or have h+ attached to them i.e. nh4, h2po4, k+) . increasing plant available water and available nutrients, biochar can greatly increase soil fertility and plant productivity. biochar also has a really high surface area which creates microsites for soil microbes to live (which dictate many soil nutrient reactions), and prevents nutrient leaching and loss from the soil via increased soil water tortuosity and negative charge. biochar is also a great carbon sink; by converting the feedstock to char you're locking away much of the carbon that would otherwise go into the atmosphere, in a very stable from for later slow release (in some cases up beyond 12,000 years). also, some biochar plants exist where they create energy from the biochar production process (via bio-oil and bio-gas) and pump it into the energy grid, so there are even further offsets. hope this helps some. ask more if you need! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does a baby in the womb feel the effects of gravity? | my wife is pregnant and in her 34th week. our baby was transverse (sideways in the womb) until a week or two. we're told he is now head down, or upside down - which is the correct position. the got me to thinking - does all that time upside down have an effect on the circulatory system? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do fully formed chicks not suffocate in their eggs? | [deleted] | the two membranes pull apart a little and create a small pocket or sack of air. as the developing bird grows, it breathes in oxygen from the air sack and exhales carbon dioxide. several thousand microscopic pores all over the surface of the egg allow the co2 to escape and fresh air to get in. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the marginal cost per pound of payload driven across the country? | suppose i am driving 3000 miles in a truck that gets 20 mpg, and gas is $4/gallon. so my base fuel cost is 3000 / 20 * 4 == $600 what is my incremental cost of fuel for each added pound of payload that i put in my truck? if the curb weight of my vehicle is 6000 lb, would it be roughly proportional to that, ie $0.10 / lb? | it depends on your driving style and the traffic you have to negotiate. in heavily congested areas where you need to make lots of accelerating and braking maneuvers, your engine's power is predominantly used to accelerate the vehicle (which is then dissipated by the brakes, repeat). in this condition, your fuel consumption will be proportional to the mass of your vehicle. on wide open highways where you can maintain a fixed speed, your engine's power is predominantly used to overcome friction caused by wind and moving parts in your car. at high speed, aerodynamic drag contributes to the majority of friction as the drag force is proportional to the square of velocity (f = 0.5* drag coefficient * frontal cross section area * air density * velocity ^2 ). in this condition, fuel consumption will not be strongly influenced by payload (although a heavier vehicle will have greater friction forces at the axles and more tyre deformation, but that's not your greatest of problems). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are we so sure that the strong force only operates in small distances? | for example, we have the force of gravity and electromagnetic force. even if we are maybe trillions of light years away from a source, you will still be never be 0, however infinitely close. but all i’ve ever heard was: “the strong force does not act on large distances” and i’ve been confused with that because for gravity and electricity, it still does at large and small distances. does the strong force not obey the inverse square law? is it some higher power than 2 so it diminishes quicker and we just just ignore it at a certain point? do we not have a precise enough formula or understanding of the nature of the strong force so we just simplify it to “just ignore it after this radius”? [kind of like how we kind of ignore quantum mechanics after a certain distance(planck) because our math does work out] thank you! | because the only place we observe the effects of the strong force are within subatomic particles, whose length scales are on the order of femtometers. we can do scattering experiments to get information about the range over which the forces act, and it's clear that the strong force only operates over very short distances. there are multiple different things that you could mean when you say "the strong force", but none of them obey an inverse square law. * the quark potential the potential that quarks feel when they interact with each other is of the form: v(r) = ar - b/r. the -b/r term looks exactly like coulomb's law or newton's law of gravity; it corresponds to a 1/r^(2) force between two monopoles. however there is also the linear term, which dominates at large distances. you might think that this is a long-ranged potential, however due to qcd confinement at low energies, quarks can only exist in bound states of neutral total color charge. the strength of the force sets the typical length scale over which these bound states form, and it's around 1 fm. so even though the this force would have infinite range, it's never observed to act over distances more than 1 fm or so. * the residual strong force quarks are confined to exist within bound hadrons, but even so, hadrons can still interact with each via the strong force if they are close together. this is the force that binds protons and neutrons to form atomic nuclei. this force is short-ranged. it can be modeled as an exchange force where the force carrier particles are virtual mesons. a theory with a single meson would give a potential of the yukawa form: v(r) = a\*exp[-mr]/r. m is a constant related to the mass of the one meson. so this is just like a coulomb potential as well, except it's modulated by the exponentially decaying factor. this is due to the fact that the force carrier particle has mass. in reality, the residual strong force is some complicated combination of multiple yukawa potentials, with various spin and isospin operators, three-body forces, etc. but all of the contributions to the potential are short-ranged. * the nuclear mean field within a nucleus, you have a nucleons, all interaction with each other via the residual strong force described above. that's a very complicated quantum many-body system, and it's very hard to study nuclei above the lowest mass numbers because of how complicated problems like this are to solve. so instead, you can use techniques like the nuclear shell model, where you just model a small number of valence nucleons (or holes) under the influence of some "mean field" potential due to all of the other nucleons. the choice of mean field is somewhat arbitrary, as whatever is left over is swept under the rug of "residual interactions", but a very common choice for the nuclear mean field is the woods-saxon potential (plus a spin-orbit potential). the woods-saxon potential has the form: v(r) = -v*_0_*/(1 + exp[(r - r)/a]). r is the "radius" of the potential, and a is the "diffuseness". if you plot this function, it very rapidly approaches zero in the vicinity of r = r. this means that the mean field potential felt by a nucleon within a nucleus goes to zero very quickly outside of the nucleus. this potential is very short-ranged as well, as nuclear radii tend to be on the order of ~ 1 - 10 fm. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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ways to image/detect tau proteins in neural cell cultures | hi! for a section of a multi-component research project at my university, i want to test the effects of dopamine quinone on neural cells in culture. the oxidation effects of quinone are known to promote tau polymerization and thus lead to neurodegeneration. how would i image/detect this process or the tau proteins themselves? thanks! | you can use immunohistochemistry/immunocytochemistry/flow cytometry like /u/baloo_the_bear says, but tau is present all the time, but you're looking for a specific pathological aggregation state of tau. it's not my specific area, but i believe that you're looking for the hyperphosphorylated tau state. you could ^32 p atp to see if you can radiolabel your phosphoryl moieties on the protein, or see if you can find a phospho-tau specific antibody. if you're satisfied with an ex cellular approach, and you can trigger tau polymerisation out of the cellular environment, then you can adsorb tau onto a silica membrane and use afm to image the fibril formation over time. i've done this with amylin, and to my understanding tau and amyloidal aggregates are very similar. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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after my demise, i'd like to have myself fossilized. would this work? | i'm thinking two big flat rocks, around a sand, gravel and me sandwich. then wrap the whole thing up in plastic (with water vent holes) and drop in to 30-40 feet of water... somewhere. i have no aspirations of ever being found and it is in no way a memorial. i just want to do it because it's different and i think that we don't have enough funerary options. please advise. also, irl i am broke and wouldn't even be provided a pauper's grave. | "natural" fossilization is a very hit-or-miss process, and i very much doubt that we could design a fossilizer like you describe with a high expectation that it would actually work. there's simply too much that could happen. might i suggest having your body encased in a large capsule of borosilicate instead? | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i am "grounded" electrically, and grounded referring to a connection the the earth, is grounding universal across the planet? | thus, will a grounded the item that is grounded, lets say in factory in china/asia. have the same charge, or lack there of, as a grounded item in north america or any other far away place? is grounding universally the same? | the word "ground" is used in two different ways in electrical engineering. so first, to clarify: the "ground" you are referring to is called "earth ground" or "safety ground" and it must be connected to the earth (eventually). if something goes bad with electrical equipment, it will hopefully shunt the electricity to the earth rather than through your heart. (earth grounding has some other benefits, such as helping to reduce unwanted electromagnetic emissions.) but every circuit has a "ground", too. that ground doesn't need to be connected to earth ground, although it can be. this ground is simply a reference voltage to compare all voltages in the circuit against. so we call one part of the circuit "ground"=0 volts. (a voltage is a relative value, so you have to have something to compare to.) it is very possible that you could have two electronic devices, and if you compared their ground voltages, you'd find that they weren't the same. this is actually quite common. this is also true of earth grounds. the potential across the planet is mostly the same, but you can have small local variation. some soils are not very conductive and so will take time to equalize their charge. the biggest source of such potential differences are when a fault exists at something like a power substation. this can lead to a localized ["earth potential rise"](_url_0_) that can be quite large. this can be so big that the potential difference between a person's feet can become hazardous. i believe that there are also some long-standing small potential differences caused by things like the earth's magnetic field, cosmic radiation, etc. (i'm not 100% certain of this.) but if so, the magnitudes of such differences will be quite small. in general, earth ground is earth ground. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_potential_rise"
] | [
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how does cold denaturation work? | in simplest terms? | just about every time a process has the opposite temperature dependence of what you usually expect, is because entropy (disorder if you like) is playing an unusual role. chemical reactions, phase changes, conformational changes and so on occur spontaneously when the gibbs free energy goes down in that reaction. the change in gibbs energy (δg) in turn depends on the change in enthalpy (δh) and entropy (δg), and the absolute temperature (t): δg = δh - tδs. if δg is negative, you have a spontaneous reaction. when you dissolve ammonium nitrate in water, its a reaction with a positive enthalpy; heat is absorbed and the water gets colder. the reason the reaction happens, the reason δg is negative, is because the increase in entropy by dissolving the solid is more than compensating for it. a dissolved substance almost always has a positive δs; a crystalline solid is more ordered than a dissolved salt. but most dissolving salts have a negative enthalpy and give off heat while dissolving, as well as having a positive δs. rubber shrinks when heated (moderately) because rubber molecules that have been pulled straight have lower entropy than randomly-coiled up ones. there is only one perfectly straight conformation, but an almost uncountable number of coiled-up ones. random thermal motion that comes with increased temperature makes the coiled-up states more energetically favored. increasing the temperature makes the lower-entropy, less-stretched state energetically favorable. δs is positive for shrinking rubber. for most substances it's the other way around, as the molecules move farther apart, they are more free to move about and the entropy is higher. when it comes to proteins, it's normally an entropic loss to fold them together, as the chains are less mobile. what keeps them held together, and the δg of folding negative, is the enthalpy of the intermolecular bonds formed in the folding. so δs for folding the protein is negative but δh is positive, relative the unfolded state. (and opposite signs for the opposite reaction) heating the protein makes the tδs term increase, the molecules have more and more kinetic energy and eventually overcome the enthalpy of the bonds holding them together. at sufficiently high temperature the unfolded, denaturated form becomes the one with the lower gibbs free energy. that's your ordinary heat-denaturating protein. in cold-denaturating proteins the opposite is true; they are _not_ being held together by enthalpy but by the _entropy._ so δh is negative and δs is positive for the folding reaction\*. if this seems strange it ought to - entropy usually strives to distribute energy and matter, to spread things out. intuitively, a neatly folded protein ought to have less entropy than an unfolded one; δs ought to be negative for folding it. and all else being equal, that'd be correct. but all else isn't equal because proteins don't live in a vacuum. they're typically surrounded by water molecules. what happens is that if you unfold the protein chain (increasing the entropy of the protein itself), the chain forms hydrogen bonds with the surrounding water molecules, binding them in a rigid coordination shell, as it's called. since there's a greater surface area and more water molecules coordinating to the unfolded protein chain, you can end up with a situation where the total entropy of the unfolded state is lower, because the disorder/entropy created by unfolding the protein is more than offset by the entropy lost by making the water molecules more organized. in total the entropy goes down when these proteins are folded together, so δs for folding is positive and δs for unfolding is negative; the opposite of the usual situation. so by folding that protein up, the surrounding water is more disorganized. δs for unfolding the protein is negative. but as you cool the system, the molecules move more slowly, the entropy is not as important; it no longer requires energy to keep the molecules in place. at some low-enough temperature the total δg = δh - tδs for unfolding becomes negative and you have cold denaturation. in short: cold-denaturating proteins are unusual in having a lower entropy in their unfolded state than in their folded one. this is because in that case, the water molecule strongly organize themselves around the unfolded chains. (\* it's all reactions to me. when it comes to chemical thermodynamics, there's no difference between an 'ordinary' chemical reaction, a conformational change, a phase change, and so on. even just moving a molecule with/against a concentration gradient) | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
do we know that the laws of physics we experience and measure on earth are the same throughout the universe? | we have direct evidence of this. when looking at distant stars and galaxies, we see the same spectral lines as we do on earth. these spectral lines depend on how the electromagnetic force works (both in forming the atoms and molecules that produce these lines, and in generating these lines). they also are sensitive to the masses of the electrons and, more sensitively, the nuclei which are made of protons and neutrons, so we have evidence that those are the same. and protons and neutrons form due to and get their mass from the strong force. we also see supernovae behaving the same way throughout space and time. type ia supernovae have very specific behavior, and this is repeated wherever we see them. in addition, we detected neutrinos from supernova 1987a (took place in the large magellanic cloud, around 170000 light years away), as expected, as was the total energy output. thus the complicated combination of effects -- gravitational. weak force, electromagnetic, and strong force are all involved -- are verified. we can also take the laws we have and see what they say for the very early universe. it turns out that they predict that, in the first few minutes after the big bang, nuclei will form, and the abundances computed agree with the abundances measured (basically, the ordinary matter in the universe is around 3/4 hydrogen and 1/4 helium -- only 2% is not hydrogen or helium). observation of distant stars and galaxies also tells us that the astrophysical and gravitational processes are the same wherever we look. so there is a lot of solid, concrete evidence that the same laws of physics apply throughout the universe. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullet_cluster",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether's_theorem"
] | [
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|
can we 'predict' twins or, as some tales would have us believe, 'cause' them? | in other words, is there any scientific evidence to support (or not) the idea that you are more likely to have twins if the mother's side of the family has had twins? similarly, for a woman who is trying to get pregnant, it is said that she can 'encourage' twins by breastfeeding at the same time, taking certain vitamins or foods, etc. is this supported scientifically at all? have we got any ideas at all as to how and why twins happen and whether there is an evolutionary significance to them? | yes, a tendency towards hyperovulation can be a genetic trait. in this way, fraternal twinning can be hereditary. a very cool article about the factors that influence dizygotic twinning can be found [here](_url_0_). other factors that can influence it are maternal age, parity, use of oral contraceptives and foods with phytoestrogens, body composition and size, estrogen-like maybe smoking, | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://humupd.oxfordjournals.org/content/14/1/37.full.pdf"
] | [
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] |
can vantablack be used as a catalyst to photochemical reactions? | using the process that produced the color of vantablack in the first place, can this be used as a catalyst or is it unviable? | vantablack is made of carbon nanotubes aligned on a surface, so it will have many of the same properties of other nanotube films. nanotubes and fullerenes have well-studied photochemical properties, and they can be used as photocatalyts. here's [one paper i found]( _url_0_). there's a big difference between light absorption and quantum yield, which is the ratio of reactions catalyzed to photons of light absorbed. i don't think carbon nanotubes, even in a vantablack array would have spectacularly high quantum yield. the only guarantee is that it will get hot a lot faster than something that has a less-intense color. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021979714007747"
] | [
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we often hear that water is the only type of matter found in all three basic states on earth. that seems really unlikely to me, is it actually true? | i can think of, for instance, plenty of compounds that might be found naturally in all three states in and around volcano's. normally solid, but melted by geothermal activity and even possibly boiled off to gas. even some low melting point metals like lead might fit that bill. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what do gravitational waves propegate through? what is the medum? | there is no traditional medium. much like electromagnetic waves, gravitational waves propagate as oscillations on a field. the tricky part is that while em waves propagate on an electromagnetic field which fills all space, gravitational waves propagate on space itself. whether you wish to call this "aether" is up to you, [einstein did albeit with a modified definition](_url_0_), but most physicists just drop that language and talk about fields instead as old-aether ideas historically imply several things we know to be wrong today. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Einstein_ether.html"
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|
[sponsored content] how does my body gain energy from eating a fast food burger with special sauce? | also please explain why hfcs is especially good for the mind body and soul. | the special sauce acts as a blood buffer and carries the calories 1 by 1, down a calorific gradient into the gallbladder via the krebs cycle. the calories then vibrate with each other really fast to create thermal potential energy which in turn causes the body to heat up. | 90 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much force would it take to shatter an average lp if it's standing upright with the force applied from the top edge? | you'd be surprised how useless it is to google, "stress required to break an album". | i don't have anything to do the math right now. but i can walk you through the basic modeling of this system step one find the ultimate strength of vinyl, i don't know what vinyl is or its properties but i assume its similar to vinyl siding [this](_url_0_) website said that vinyl siding is actually pvc, and pvc's ultimate strength (in bending) is listed[ here] (_url_2_) as 72 mega pascals please note i'm assuming that this will be the equivalent of a cantalever beam in bending for easy math, while your force is straight down, the end result will be in the disk bowing out and snapping near the middle. my assumption means easier math and we get to use this [equation](_url_1_). or sigma= my/i sigma is the 72 mpa i is the moment of [inertia of a disk](_url_3_) i am ashamed to say i do not know either the mass or the radius of an lp (use the one divided by 4) y is the distance from the neutral axis (half of whatever the thickness of an lp is) you are solving for m which is the moment. divide m by the diameter of the disk and you will have your answer. remember to keep your units in si until the end basically lots of assumptions for a "kinda" answer | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.vinylsiding.org/aboutsiding/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bending#Euler-Bernoulli_bending_theory",
"http://www.pvc.org/en/p/pvc-strength",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_moments_of_inertia"
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do any other type of energy waves break like ocean waves do? | yes lots of types of waves break. it is a big source of the dissipation of wave energy in a fluid or gas system. an example would be tidal effects can excite waves that propagate towards the core of a star. once there they break depositing their energy (transferring from the orbiting body into the star). there are many many more examples. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do longitudinal and transverse waves in a metal spring influence each other? | i learned that waves propagating through a medium pass through each other without influencing each other. (wave superposition) i saw an experiment in which two transverse waves, started from opposing ends of a long metal spring (slinky spiral) with opposing amplitudes passed through each other seemingly unaffected. however, when the experiment was modified by sending one longitudinal and one transverse wave through the spiral "something seemed to happen" when the two waves met. i got the impression that the propagation of the longitudinal wave was slowed down. which would seem to violate the principle of wave superposition. & #x200b; my questions: is the principle of wave superposition true in all cases, even when longitudinal and transverse waves meet? if no, does the elongation of the spring (different tension) by one wave affect the wave velocity of the other wave? or was my impression just a result of friction between floor and spring? are there any other interesting cases of waves interacting with each other? & #x200b; thank you very much for any answers and input! | usually superposition is a good approximation for small amplitudes that breaks down if you increase the amplitude too much. what "too much" is depends on the situation. typically the place where things stop being linear. [rogue waves](_url_0_) [two-photon physics](_url_1_) [acousto-optic modulators](_url_2_) (these are linear) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue_wave",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-photon_physics",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acousto-optic_modulator"
] | [
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is the shape of an atomic nucleus actually a lumpy clump like in science textbooks? | i think this question is related to the one " do electrons actually orbit the nucleus?" that people ask because they see the classical pictures. in reality, it is hard to visualize. this realm is dominated by quantum mechanics so classically picturing it would be difficult. best explanation is you have a bunch of nucleons ( protons and neutrons) that are not only orbiting each other, but are jiggling around. in addition, many nuclei are rotating and can be very deformed along one axis. we have many models to try to describe it, but people don't realize that our knowledge of nuclear physics is surprisingly limited even though it has been around for 100 years. in a lot of physics people have high precision measurements that go to 10 decimal places. if you measured a cross section to an uncertainty of less than 10% you did a great measurement. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would a perfectly round object still experience the magnus effect? | perfectly round as in even rounder than the [roundest thing on earth](_url_0_) | yes. the magnus effect is ultimately an effect of viscosity, not the shape of the object. if an object is set to rotate in a viscous fluid it experiences lift. the direction of the lift is determined by the direction of rotation and the direction of the mean flow. | 7 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMByI4s-D-Y"
] | [] | [
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what problems has the dwave actually been applied to? | [dwave recently announced a 1000-qubit chip](_url_1_). that's huge! 2^1000 possibilities per cycle, absolutely staggering. [nature blog](_url_0_) shows at least that it's been applied to protein folding. great! what else? i believe i remember reading that nasa bought a dwave or two. does anybody know what projects they're being used for? dwave's website shows a lot of potential application areas, but i wonder what else, if anything, it has been successful at? | it's highly unlikely you'll get an answer here, until nasa & google actually publish details of their work with d-wave hardware. | 3 | [] | [
"http://blogs.nature.com/news/2012/08/d-wave-quantum-computer-solves-protein-folding-problem.html",
"http://www.dwavesys.com/press-releases/d-wave-systems-breaks-1000-qubit-quantum-computing-barrier"
] | [] | [
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what is the bare minimum number of atoms that would have to be in one place in order to be seen by the human eye? | under ideal conditions (black background, highly reflective surface, bright incident light) you should be able to see a 30 micron square monolayer of gold. gold has a relatively huge intramolecular spacing of about 0.26 nanometers, so a 30 micron square monolayer would be about 10-15 billion gold atoms. 18 grams of water is a mole, or 6x10^23 water molecules. it takes up half a teaspoon, or 1/6 tablespoon. a mole of tablespoons of water would have the same mass as the moon. 10^22 kg, or about 1/7 of the moon's mass | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if the ocean were to remain perfectly still, would it form a muniscus? | and if so, how high above sea level would the peak of it be? | the size and shape of a meniscus is based upon the liquid and the surface that the edge of the liquid is interacting with; or more specifically it is the wetting angle between the two. water wets glass, this is what causes it to seem to reach up at the edges and form a meniscus. what is at the edges of the ocean generally breaks up the edge of the liquid and even if it didn't, e.g. if the entire ocean was surrounded with a ptfe liner then you wouldn't see a massive meniscus. what you'd see at most would be a rounded edge where the ocean met the liner. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any evidence, or anything that points in the direction of the existence of a "soul" ? | i was having a debate with a friend, and he claimed that some studies proved that there were unexplainable but detectable differences between dead and living organisms, but couldn't remember the exact experiments. obviously, after a few inconclusive google search, i hauled my skeptical posterior here, looking for informed and insightful answers. | [macdougall](_url_0_)'s finding that the soul weighs 21 grams has never been replicated. it's almost certain that it was an error of measurement in the original experiment. beyond that, no, there's no evidence for the existence of a "soul" - by which i mean some kind of *thing* which doesn't exist physically, yet is responsible for at least some of our mental life. one could claim that because we don't know exactly how consciousness works yet, there is room for a "soul of the gaps"; that's a fairly terrible argument, of course. crick's book, recommended by another poster, says the same thing; the eponymous "astonishing hypothesis" is > '...that "you", your joys and your sorrows, your memories and your ambitions, your sense of personal identity and free will, are in fact no more than the behaviour of a vast assembly of nerve cells and their associated molecules.' | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan_MacDougall_%28doctor%29"
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what current theories/concepts are there for a human 'soul'? | the mainstream scientific position is that nothing happens in the human body that is not a direct and purely physical result of the many chemical reactions and interactions taking place within it. there is no scientific support for the idea of a separate soul, or any kind of chi energy. it depends on the theory. but again, there aren't any with mainstream support because there's no evidence for any nor reason to need one. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if you had no sense of touch, would you still be able to sense acceleration/deceleration? | is the feeling you get when you start to quickly accel/decelerate due to your sense of touch? or some combination of senses? think a train, or airplane right at takeoff/landing. if someone had no sense of touch, and couldn't see the outside to judge speed, could they still feel acceleration/deceleration? | humans do not only have 5 senses. that is a silly thing that for some reason they still teach. there are many senses that could tell one if they were accelerating: your sense of balance would be thrown off, the kinesthetic sense could let you know your limbs are being pushed back (relative to your body), and so on. source: _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semicircular_canal"
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what's the origin and meaning of the name given to scheddi? | for example, deneb alguedi is an arabic name, meaning the tail of the goat. δ capricorni is a scientific designation for such star, and means that it's the fourth star in the constellation of capricorni in means of brightness. | this is an interesting one. from my copy of *star names, their lore and meaning* by allen, 1963: "**delta**: deneb algedi is the transcription by ulug beg's translator of al dhanab al jady, the tail of the goat; changed to scheddi in some lists, - a name also found for gamma." looking up the relevant excerpt for gamma capriconi, which is directly next to delta in the sky: "**gamma**: nashira is from al sa'd al nashirah, the fortunate one, or the bringer of good tidings, which the early arabs applied to this when taken with delta. smyth gave it as sa'dubnashirah; and the *standard dictionary* repeats this as saib' nasch-ru-ah! bayer had the later deneb algedi, the tail of the goat, that is more proper for delta; the *alfonsine tables* of 1521, denebalchedi, which has degenerated to scheddi;" so, the etymology here appears to be that the name started as deneb algedi (arabic) used ambiguously for both gamma and delta. it then was transcribed to denebalchedi in the alfonsine tables (castilian spanish), and then shortened to just the last two syllables as scheddi. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it so common for people to injure a hamstring yet so uncommon for people to injure quadriceps? (similarly for biceps and triceps, i have heard of athletes tearing biceps but never injuring triceps). | is it simply because of the push/pull anatomy? if there are common soft tissue "push" injuries, in what form does the injury take place (ligament, tendon, etc.)? | you're pretty much halfway there with the push/pull explanation. typically, for a myotendinous injury to occur, there has to be a forceful muscle contraction against a strong force with the muscle in an extended position. the vast majority of televised sports (at least in the usa) involve running +/- collisions. hamstring injuries are much more common in running as the injury occurs when the hamstring contracts to bend the knee while the foot is planted. because the foot is in a fixed position against the ground, there is great potential for injury at the time of hamstring flexion. however, the foot is hanging out in the air when the quadriceps contract to straighten the knee, making quadriceps tears uncommon in running. that being said, quadriceps injuries are fairly common in weightlifting, where powerful contractions of the quadriceps are required against a flexed knee (typically squats and the olympic lifts). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is lambda calculus and why is it fundamental to information theory? | i'm a software development student, and i am trying to become literate in the information theory world. while google is my friend, i am having trouble wrapping my head around the concept of lambda calculus. help! | i guess that you know the definition of lambda calculus, the different types of lambda calculi and even its history, and your problem is "getting" it. what helped me was the realization that "in lambda calculus, everything is a function" is the most important concept. after all, lambda calculus was created with the explicit purpose of using the minimum number of concepts possible. say for example, that you want to make a formal definition of boolean algebra. you need a set with two values, true and false, and some basic operators (functions) over these values. so, you need two concepts, values and functions. what's more, you need functions with one argument, with two, three... and so on. the genial realization behind lambda calculus is that you need only one concept: one-argument functions. do you need a value? you can represent it with a function. two-argument functions? using currying, you just define a one-argument function that returns a one-argument function. so, going back to boolean calculus, how do you define the values true and false? λfalse.λtrue.false // the false value is a two-argument functions that returns its first one λfalse.λtrue.true // the true value is a two-argument functions that returns its second one notice that the variables are just placeholders without any meaning. the important is the structure. that's why i think sometimes it's better to use the nameless representation: λ.λ.#0 // false, still a two argument functions that returns its first one (the 0) λ.λ.#1 // true. same thing, it returns its second argument. so, that's lambda calculus: only one concept: a function that takes only one argument and that can return that argument or a function. with that, you build values and multi-argument functions. the rest is to figure out the best way to represent any concept with it: booleans, integers, recursion, tuples, list, and so on. edit: implicit above is the concept of binding, but the main idea remains. lambda calculus is the most economic (in term of concepts) mechanism for defining functions. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do people sometimes have "lines" on their skin? | [here](_url_0_) is a picture. you can see the line going horizontally across the lower part of the forearm. other people have noticed these "lines" on their bodies as well, which are also usually on their arms somewhere. what are these and what might cause them? edit: removed first person | when you flex your wrist, the skin in that area either needs to stretch or fold. constant repetition of the same movement causes those creases to stay indefinitely. if you hunch over you should see a crease develop somewhere on your stomach. stay in that position long enough and even when you stand up straight you'll see a crease in your skin for some period of time. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/GOweR.jpg"
] | [] | [
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what happens if all atoms became netural? | i have recently started learning about chemistry, and this has been the biggest question mark in my head this whole time. as we all may know, one of the basic properties about an atom is that it wants to become neutral by giving out or taking in electrons. at the same time, atoms are constantsly distrubed from forces outside that knock off the electrons off orbit and thus the cycle begins again. my question is what will the world be like if all the existing atoms on planet earth became neutralized, and remain stable? | where did you hear this? that's not right. a sodium ion with a net +1 charge is quite stable and quite delicious. a neutral sodium atom is bad news, and i would not recommend sprinkling it on your pasta. polyatomics/molecules have the same behavior: acetate exists merrily with a net -1 charge, but neutral acetate (being a radical) would not be well-behaved. you may hear instead that atoms tend to lose or acquire electrons in order to fill a valence octet or other desirable electron count. this is *more* true, but the atoms alone are not necessarily fully stable just because they have a good number of electrons. the electrostatic attraction alone will draw some of them together, and then their orbitals (roughly speaking...) will mix into a more stable combination that neutralizes the atoms' charges a little and also keeps the atoms together. you might also wonder why, once atoms are configured into a stable form, they would ever leave that configuration. changing an atomic configuration requires an input of energy, and that energy comes *generally* from light or thermal excitation (heat, shock, etc.). the atoms will move around a bit with the energy they've acquired, and eventually that energy will be lost again, generally by heat or light. a bond may also be broken in the process, and the fragments will fly off to engage in other reactions. when the energy is lost, the system settles into a low-energy (stable) configuration again, which will not necessarily be the original configuration, nor must it be more stable than the original configuration. i do not know what the most stable configuration of all atoms in the planet would be. i'm not sure anyone does. we might start with using up all of the oxygen to fully oxidize every metal and most of the main-group elements. but, whatever the "best" form is, the amount of energy that would be required to rearrange the entire planet to that form is mind-boggling. given the above, if you were god and had the power to miraculously and instantaneously rearrange all the electrons in the planet in the way you have described, you would have no more than a few picoseconds to appreciate the change in color and appearance of the scenery before the atoms recombined into their original, more-stable molecular forms, releasing a *titanic* amount of energy in the form of heat, light, and explosions in the process. conservatively, i would predict the extinction of all life, the vaporization of all the oceans, and a homogenization of earth's geography and topography. you monster. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Born-haber_cycle_LiF.svg"
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is there a rigorous definition of “information”? | is there a rigorous definition in physics of what constitutes information? is there a difference between a hydrogen atom and a collected works of william shakespeare outside of pure physical composition? how does that difference relate to the black hole information paradox? | yes! (there are a lot of definitions...) this depends on what type of information you are talking about, however. for classical information (measured in bits), the most common definition is that the amount of information contained in a system is equal to the log of the number of distinguishable states in the system. so a string of n 0's or 1's has 2^n states and communicates log_2(2^n)=n bits. yes! quantum systems are described by [quantum information](_url_0_), which is fundamentally more complex and more powerful than classical information. to write out all of the information contained in a maximally-entangled system of n qubits requires writing down 2^n complex values, but when you measure the system of n qubits, you only get n classical bits as outputs, destroying the quantum information in the process. excluding measurement effects, quantum physics obeys unitary evolution, which has the result that if you know a the state of some quantum system at some time, you know the state at all future and past times. black holes can potentially "destroy" this information by allowing multiple states to evolve into the same physical state (a sort of inverse of the [no-cloning theorem](_url_2_)), which presents serious mathematical and philosophical problems for quantum physics. there are a number of [proposed solutions](_url_1_) to this problem, the most popular of which (i think) is that the information is scrambled and re-radiated from the black hole in the form of hawking radiation. if you're curious to learn more, here's [a good layman's video](_url_3_) about the black hole information paradox by kurzgesagt. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_information",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_information_paradox#Postulated_solutions",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-cloning_theorem",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yWO-cvGETRQ"
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[chemistry] what is the current best computational chemistry software? | [removed] | computational chemistry is a lot harder than asking a program to tell you the product(s) of a reaction. in fact, that's considered extremely difficult. computations are good a predicting energies, and if you perform calculations on every possible product of a reaction, you might get an idea of the most stable one. there isn't one best computational package, and which one you use comes down to what scale you want information about. some go down to the atomic level, and are called electronic structure packages. others, molecular mechanics/dynamics packages, can operate at the macromolecular level. free packages exist at every level. for electronic structure, i like orca. the easiest to use are probably gaussian and spartan through their well made uis, but neither of those are free. if you attend a university, there might be a site license that would allow you to get a copy of the software. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the new non-zero neutrino theta(sub(13)) measurement imply cp violation? | in reading this article: _url_0_ at the end it says: > the fact that θ13 is not zero suggests that neutrino physics will be rich in the next decade or so. for example, it implies that there could be a slight ... cp violation what about that measurement implies this? does this mixing angle pertain to going between neutrinos and anti-neutrinos rather than the three flavors of "regular" neutrinos? | in order to have cp violation in the neutrino sector, it is required that all three of the neutrino mixing angles are nonzero. it's further required that there be a phase angle that describes the amount of cp violation- however that parameter hasn't been measured (in the neutrino case). the situation is much like that with the quarks and the ckm matrix. | 2 | [] | [
"http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/03/physicists-in-china-nail-a-key.html"
] | [] | [
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scientifically, is it methodologically sound to consider a determined absence of evidence to be evidence of absence? | though i'm not educated enough on the matter to know whether it's relevant, perhaps a good example might be the higg's boson. we've yet to measure any evidence of its effects, so we're forced to, for the time being, consider that to be evidence of its absence. this isn't to say that a similar particle couldn't exist, but given the description of the particle, and its supposed effects, if we measure the reactions in which it's supposed to have an effect, and find that such an effect doesn't happen (detected energy states?), we can assume that the proposed particle doesn't exist. similarly, if one makes a claim of some supernatural phenomena, and we investigate, looking for evidence of that phenomena given its supposed effects, and we discover that those effects are non-existent, then we can perhaps also positively claim that, based upon the description, that phenomena is absent from reality. tl;dr: is it true that "absence of evidence is not evidence of absence"? | _url_0_ > evidence of absence is evidence of any kind that suggests (via certain types of inference or deduction) the non-existence or non-presence of something. a simple example of evidence of absence: checking one's pocket for spare change and finding nothing but being confident that one would have found it if it were there. this is an example of modus tollens, a type of logical argument. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_of_absence"
] | [
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] |
serious computer question - running multiple virtual machines on one physical machine | i'm a pc gamer/enthusiast. i work at a small machine shop. there are multiple archaic (several intel pii's and piii's) computers still working overtime to help get our work done. all these machines do is surf the internet, send emails, edit spreadsheets, print labels, and run small inventory programs. i was wondering why it isn't commonplace to have a more powerful machine run several simultaneous virtual machines instead of individual workstations that are rarely used to their full potential. my idea involves a powerful workstation with (for example) a quad core intel i7 920 with 12gb of memory. why would it be impractical to have three users, each with 3gb of memory and a single processor core dedicated to their tasks, attached to this computer? i'm talking about having one computer with three monitors, three keyboards, and three mice attached with three different people logged into three different user accounts. the remaining unused core and unused 3gb of ram could be used for system tasks. some motherboards have multiple network adapters that could be attached to two different ports on a router to improve bandwidth. why don't developers develop an os with this capability? the hardware would appear to be able to support such a thing, so what makes it so impractical? i brought this idea up to another computer gamer/enthusiast friend and he didn't have an answer for me. any thoughts? tl;dr why can't one modern computer running one operating system support three different workstations with three different users at the same time? | such operating systems do exist, the capability is called [multiseat](_url_0_). doing it on windows is pretty tricky because of license considerations, doing it on unix variants is relatively straightforward. it isn't especially common because hardware is quite cheap and deploying it on a large scale within a business means it has to do a lot of work they likely aren't too familiar with. it isn't a question of technical capability but of configuration and continuing support. e: i didn't consider the virtual machine aspect. it really doesn't add much because you require a multiseat-capable os to make the multiple keyboards and monitors work for distinct users anyway, so you're basically taking a standard multiseat setup and only allowing each user to run the vm program and interact with the vm inside it. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiseat_configuration"
] | [
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what is the science behind the gauss rifle? | im learning about magnetic accelerators and a topic came up about their uses in the military and new-era tech. i understand how it works and builds but, what is the science behind such a design? | a gauss rifle is also known as a coil gun, since it uses electromagnetic forces from a coil of wire to push or pull projectiles. there are two types, ferromagnetic and electrodynamic. in a ferromagnetic coil gun, the coils pull on the projectile. a ferromagnetic circuit wants to minimize air gaps when there is a current flow, so the projectile experiences a force to be inside the coil. when the projectile is in the center of the coil, the coil is turned off and the projectile momentum carries it forward. the projectile must be made of a ferromagnetic material, like iron. in an electrodynamic coil gun pushes a conductive projectile using the skin effect. rapidly changing currents must slowly soak in to any conductor, which is why ac transmission lines cannot be arbitrarily thick and contain many parallel conductors. if a conductor is near a coil that has a rapidly changing current flow, it will be repelled. in this type of coil gun, the coil is located slightly behind the projectile, and pushes it away. the projectile must be conductive, and is commonly aluminum or copper. both types can contain multiple stages, where the projectile location in the barrel is measured, and the coils are fired in a useful sequence. | 43 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone please explain to me how a gauss gun works, who invented it and is it used or just a pruduct that exists in theory and since the last ldc in battlefield4? | my knowledge about the gauss gun is close to zero, i once heard that it has something to do with magnets, but i'd like to know more. :-) ps: i apologize if ther're any mistakes i made. greetings from germany! | basically, a coil of wire with electricity flowing through it creates a magnetic field inside the coil. a gauss gun uses this magnetic field to propel a magnetic projectile through the tube, letting it build up speed. you can make these pretty easily (here's a random video _url_0_) except to get them powerful enough to do serious damage would require a huge electrical current. i don't know whom invented it but it's named after carl friedrich gauss. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWeJsaCiGQ0"
] | [
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] |
building a project, question about lasers | i'm working on a project which includes blueray lasers and i am curious as to if i was to take maybe six-eight lasers and reflect all the beams into one focused beam would the final beam be 6-8 times more powerful? | if you managed to focus all the lasers on the same point, then yes, the average power would be 6-8 times more powerful. i'm not sure if you mean you want to make all the lasers into a single coherent beam, this would be more difficult and would require you to phase match all the lasers as to avoid deconstructive interferance. additionally, if the lasers are pulses as opposed to continuous wave you'll want to consider the difference between the average power as opposed to the peak power- i'm not sure what the pulse length of the lasers you are using is, but if its picosecond or less, differences in the path length will mean that the pulses may arrive at slightly different times. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a scientific definition for what is and isn't a drug? | so i was arguing with my friend who is currently in pharmacy school, who said that caffeine wasn't a drug, and that the definition of what is or is not a drug is controlled by the government. this doesn't make sense to me, since caffeine affects the physical and mental functions of your body, just like ritalin, heroin, or viagra. then again couldn't you say glucose is a drug, because it affects your body by causing it to not cannibalize itself, and according to some articles i read a while ago, directly effects one's ability to concentrate. so what's up with this? | you're just arguing past each other. almost anything you can put into your body will have some biological effect at some dose. that makes it a drug (and a toxin, alternately considered) in the sense you mean. that said, of all the prominently biologically active substances in the world, the government defines a certain subset whose manufacture, sale, and use are tightly regulated. in some cases proscribed entirely. (note that the reasons one substance or another is on this list can be seemingly arbitrary, or at least nonsensical.) those are the drugs your friend is talking about. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/drug"
] | [
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when conducting an electrical current, are the mechanical properties of a metal affected? | they certainly can be. the best example of such an effect is the [piezoelectric effect](_url_0_), which couples a mechanical stress in a material to its electric field. as a result, when you apply a stress on a chunk of a piezoelectric material you create an electric field. likewise in the converse effect, when you create an electric field (e.g. by hooking the material up to an emf source), you can create a mechanical deformation. in fact, this effect is far from an abstract curiosity. piezoelectric stages and controllers are widely used in instruments like atomic force microscopes (afms) or scanning tunneling microscopes (stms). | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectricity#Mechanism"
] | [
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|
how do different people's brains handle the same problem? | [deleted] | basically as we experience things new pathways are built, and pathways we use more often work faster than ones that we don't use often. so someone who practices math equations and studies will have more established pathways and the response will be faster than someone who doesn't do any thing with math equations. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can a power supply have too much voltage, but not too much amperage? | if i'm putting together a computer, the power supply has to provide all the correct voltages, and if it's rated to too low of an amperage/wattage, it won't be able to power everything. obviously there's no problem with too high of an amperage, because you could use a 2000w power supply even if you don't need it. so what's really happening to the extra amps? i kind of get the analogy that voltage is like the speed of water flowing through a pipe, and amperage is like the diameter. so why can you have "a really wide pipe" flowing into a "really narrow pipe", but you can't have a really fast pipe flowing into a really slow pipe? | pipe width is not a good analogy for current ("amperage"), but rather for conductivity (the inverse of resistance). the analog for current is the rate of flow, in liters/s for example. the current rating on a power supply is the maximum current that it can supply while maintaining the rated voltage. so it is like the maximum water flow rate that a plumbing system can provide before the pressure drops. the "extra amps" don't have to "go" anywhere. they don't exist unless you demand them, just like the water capacity of your plumbing system doesn't have to go anywhere if you don't open your faucet. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much longer does a second last for someone on earth compared to someone floating in outer space? | if i understand it correctly, the fastest you travel through space the slower you travel through time, and time also goes more slowly as the gravitational force acting on you increases. so is it possible to calculate the amount of time dilatation we are undergoing on earth? | the time dilation factor between an observer on earth and one in deep space who is stationary with respect to the sun is tiny. there are three contributing effects: 1. gravitational time dilation due to the sun's gravity at earth's orbit 2. gravitational time dilation due to the earth's gravity at the earth's surface 3. special relativistic time dilation due to the earth's motion about the sun the relativistic time dilation factor is 1+1.55x10^(-8). the difference in the passage of time due to this factor is almost negligible - **for 1 second of earth time there will be 1 second + 15 nanoseconds in the deep space frame.** [as a fun example on a longer timescale, einstein's theory of general relativity turned 100 years old last year. for exactly 100 years of earth time there will be 100 years and 25.5 seconds of time passed in the distant frame e.](_url_0_) | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://quarksandcoffee.com/index.php/2015/11/28/einsteins-theory-of-relativity-turns-100-years-old-this-week-due-to-time-dilation-how-much-time-has-passed-elsewhere-in-the-solar-system/"
] | [
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is there some correlation between having cold feet and being able to sleep? | for some reason i can't seem to fall asleep if my feet are cold. once they warm up, i find myself being able to sleep or at least more tired than i was before. | normally, there is vasodilation in the extremities at night, which is associated with warmer hands and feet. meanwhile, core body temperature decreases. [the temperature gradient between the core and the extremities is indeed a sleep-promoting factor](_url_2_). manipulating this gradient is therefore an effective way of promoting or delaying sleep onset. for example, studies have found that: * [warming the feet promotes sleep onset](_url_1_) * [cooling the extremities delays sleep onset and increasing core temperature slightly improves performance on a task measuring alertness](_url_0_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2225580/",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v401/n6748/abs/401036a0.html",
"http://ajpregu.physiology.org/content/278/3/R741"
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] |
are the nerves in my body piezoelectric? | this is probably a retarded question to ask, but i was just thinking about it, and this was the only mechanism i could think of that could explain the sense of feel. i touch something, the structure in my nerves is strained, electric signal is generated and sent to the brain. of course i'm an inorganic scientist, and the ways of biology and organic science confuse and frighten me, so i could easily be looking a much more logical explanation. | _url_2_ "in each case, the general principle of activation is similar; the stimulus causes depolarisation of the nerve ending and then an action potential is initiated. this action potential then (usually) travels inward towards the spinal cord." depolarization in the cell: _url_0_ nerves work like this: _url_1_ i believe piezoelectricity is more based on deformation in solids / crystals | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depolarisation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron#Mechanisms_for_propagating_action_potentials",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatosensory_system#Physiology"
] | [
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which observer is correct? | so if a man bounces a ball on a moving platform, to him it looks like the ball is just going up and down and returning to the same place. but to someone on the ground, it will look like the ball has traveled distance on the x-axis and is a different place from where it started. in this case you may say both are correct. but what about in the case of the earth and the sun? how can we say that the point of view from the sun is correct, but the point of view from the earth is incorrect? how do we decide who is the correct observer? | simply put, they're both correct. from the point of view of someone on the moving platform the ball is moving straight up and down. form the point of view of an observer the ball is moving horizontally as well. and from the point of view of a bug on the ball, the ball is stationary and the whole rest of the world is moving. as for your question involving the earth and sun, are you asking about the earth centered vs sun-centered models? if so then its not really fair to say that the earth centered model is 'wrong'. the earth is a perfectly valid reference point. but considering that all the planets orbit the sun it makes the most sense to use it as the point of reference when we're talking about the solar system. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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ancient caucasian found in pacific northwest (kennewick man), is there any truth to this? mis identification, bad dating or something else? | for years i have been reading claims that an ancient caucasian skeleton was found in the pacific northwest in 1996. the problem is most of the sites are like [this one](_url_0_) that claim the entire thing is part of some massive government or "scientific establishment" cover up. have legitimate anthropologists studied this? if so what are the opinions on it? | anthropologist here, but archaeology is my focus, not biological anthropology, and not early north american archaeology either. so i only know things in very general terms. basically, the people who claim that he is caucasian don't understand how things work. he had some caucasian-like features, sure, but skeletal features are hardly definitive proof of ancestry, since all humans look relatively the same, and there's a lot of variation in skeletal features. modern *homo sapiens* is only about 150,000 years old, and there is some evidence that there was a [population bottleneck](_url_1_) about [70,000 years ago](_url_0_) where there may have been as few as 10,000 people who then moved out of africa and replaces other hominid species the old world over, so it's not surprising that we are all extremely similar. the traits that have evolved in various places around the world are all really superficial and are a relatively quick adaptation to local environments, so while there are differences (both to our skeletons and our full bodies), they are relatively minor, and there's a lot of variation and overlap. so if you looked at the skeletons of 100 modern asians and 100 modern europeans, you could probably generally tell them apart, but there would be some skeletons that were inconclusive, that could be either. kennewick man is probably one of those. he has some features that *could* be caucasian, but these are not at all conclusive. part of the problem is that we have very few skeletons for the earliest humans in the new world, so we don't have a good idea of what they looked like. but archaeological evidence, what skeletal evidence we do have, and genetic evidence all overwhelmingly support an asian ancestry for the peopling of the new world. kennewick man was quickly reburied because of [nagpra](_url_2_), and that stirred some controversy that anthropologists and native people were trying to hide something, but native americans are very concerned about reburying their ancestors, even very distant ones, and anthropologists largely respect that, so that is why he was reburied quickly. tl;dr: kennewick man may have had some caucasian-like features, but to infer that he was european because of certain skeletal features is a failure to understand human skeletal variation. but hopefully someone who's more of a specialist in this area can chip in. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/hive/Kenn-Man/Kennewic.htm"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toba_catastrophe_theory",
"http://news.discovery.com/human/human-diversity-bottlenecks.html",
"http://www.nps.gov/nagpra/"
] | [
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how do you sew in kevlar cloth? | same as any other cloth; there are gaps between the fibers that the needle and thread can fit through. kevlar thread's tensile strength is very high, so that the force of an impact is spread out, but the cloth itself is fairly typical in construction. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do you create muons? | i searched the internet but i didn't find the answer i was looking for. what i found: muons are created when protons collide with nuclei. more specific the collision creates pions which decay in muons (and other stuff). what i want to know: what pions are created and in which ratio? i know there are π° , π+ and π- . since i am only interested in negatively charged muons, i am also only interested in π- (as far as i know). is there an other way of creating muons? | there are cosmic muons passing through your body right now. but if you wanted to make a beam of muons for an experiment or something, the approach of using nuclear collisions to generate pions would work as well. depending on the reactions occurring and the beam energy, you’ll get all three types of pions in various fractions. the charged pions will decay into muons or antimuons, then you can just filrer out the particles you’re interested in using magnetic fields. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there a "physical" link between the heat equation and brownian motion or is it just a lucky coincidence? | i learned many ways of solving the heat equation: * solving it stupidly on a simple geometry with green theorem ( let's say "simple" calculus ) * solving it generally by convolution of a solution with a kernel ( distribution theory, theory of sobolev spaces ) * fourrier transform * and the last one : by stochastic calculus. i'm interested in the last one. we can prove that: $$ \frac{\partial d \psi}{\partial t} (t,x) = l \psi (t,x) $$ has a unique c^2_b solution such as $$\psi (0,x) = f(x)$$ where l is the generator of the ito diffusion x_t with volatility σ, drift b and origin x. then the solution is $$ \psi (t,x) = \mathbb{e} [ f(x_t (x) ] $$ we can clearly see here the link between the solution and brownian motion, now i know that heated particles also follow a brownian motion and was wondering if there is any link or it's just yet another fun way of solving the equation with no real link with the brownian property of particles. | there is a very clear link. brownian motion is a [random walk](_url_1_) and if you write out a discrete heat equation it turns out to also be a random walk. in fact brownian motion is often modeled using a diffusion equation and the heat equation is really just a special case of that. this can be visualized by breaking your heated volume down into equal sized chunks and visualizing temperature as discrete particles that are transferred between those chunks. this is a way for computers to numerically solve heat equation problems by the way. check this out for the math behind it: _url_0_ _url_2_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.math.uchicago.edu/~lawler/reu.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_walk",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_equation#Brownian_motion"
] | [
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can you please explain blueshift again please? | i browsed askscience and google and other sources and still don't fully get it. my confusion is this. object a emits a wave with a frequency fo towards object b. let's say distance is 1 light-year. object b receives the wave with a frequency fo. ok. no let's say object a starts moving towards object b. object a emits exactly same wave at source at same frequency of fo. now, because this wave travels at speed of light object a should receive the same wave as in the first example. so at this point people start talking about doppler effect. but doppler effect happens with sound, where the object moving towards you overlays a second wave on the previous wave that still hasn't reached you and that naturally increased the number of peaks (thus increasing frequency). with light though no matter how fast object a moves towards object b the second wave will never catch up to the first wave and thus will never "overlay" the first wave to increase its frequency and shift it to blue. does my question make sense? am i missing something? one thing i may be missing is the fact that i imagine wave as a finite "thingy" that has beginning and end. but could it be that object a's wave is actually "connected" to object b and as object a moves closer the wave has to increase in frequency (kinda like a spring coil contracts)? but then it makes no sense if we moved objects a to b closer and then stopped. please help, i'm so confused, thank you! | the doppler effect--even with sound--is not due to interference (waves overlaying). it's entirely due to the relative motion of the source and observer. if a source moves away from you at 1 m/s and emits wave peaks towards you every second that travel at 2 m/s, you only receive wave peaks every 1.5 seconds (1 second between peaks from the source and 0.5 seconds for the peak to 'make up' for the motion of the source during the 1 second between peaks). so you receive those peaks less frequently than the source sent them. that's all there is to the doppler shift. for sound waves and nonrelativistic speeds, that's all there is to it. for light and relativistic motion there is also the effect of time dilation and the constancy of the speed of light, but the only difference is a tweak in the formula rather than a fundamental change in the process. the [wiki article](_url_0_) has a nice little animation of a car and also some nice animations a little lower on the page that may help clear things up. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_effect"
] | [
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where does the extra energy come from in blueshift? | i’m currently doing a level physics where we are learning about special relativity and i was wondering, if an object is moving towards a stationary spectator at high speed (close to the speed of light) and the light from it appears to have a higher frequency (due to the doppler effect) and higher frequency light waves have more energy, where does the extra energy come from. from the objects frame of reference, the light has less energy than it does from the frame of reference of the stationary spectator but would this not break the first law of thermodynamics? | the energy doesn't come from anywhere because the light ray hasn't gained any energy. the difference between the energy of an object in two different reference frames is a meaningless quantity. energy is conserved in a given reference frame. but there is no reason that the energy must be the same across different reference frames. in fact, it's not. energy is a frame-dependent quantity. so you may see a light ray with some energy, but someone moving relative to you will see it with a different energy. this is not unique to light either. driving in your car, you observe your car to have zero kinetic energy. but someone on the ground will observe your car to have some non-zero kinetic energy. again, energy is conserved, but it is not invariant between frames. | 46 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when transmitting electricity, why is joule heating proportional only to the current? | computer engineer here. this has bothered me for awhile, and i've never found a description that satisfactorily explains *why*. only statements that it is the case (which it obviously is). i understand that when transmitting electricity long distances, high voltages are used to minimize the flowing current and thus the losses due to joule heating. i do *not*, however, understand *why* there is not a corresponding loss due to the usage of high voltages. both cases (high voltage/low current; low voltage/high current) represent the same movement of *power*. > p = i^2 * r; p = v^2 / r perhaps explaining the mental model i developed during my education will shed light on my mental block and confusion. it's a simple one, but it has gotten me this far -- so it has got that going for it. i typically envision currents moving through resistive impedance as small balls bouncing through a [pinko board](_url_0_). the number of balls moving from one end of the board to the other is my flowing current, and the energy that each ball posses is my voltage. collisions between balls and plinko pegs transfer energy from the current into the resistive impedance, thus heating it up. so far so good. minimizing the current will minimize collisions and finally minimize the losses to heat. **however**, when i up the voltage, despite having fewer balls bouncing down my pinko board, they are each caring more energy. fewer collisions take place, but these impacts *must* be more energetic. the drift velocity (and therefore kinetic energy) of these balls is directly related to the applied voltage, so why is joule heating only related to the current? i feel that i am perhaps missing something deeper about ohm's law here. what am i missing/misunderstanding? | joule heating is related to both current and potential difference in similar ways. the reason that high voltage transmission is more efficient is because it allows us to make the resistance of the transmission lines small compared to the resistance of the thing we actually want to power. that means we spend more of the energy on the things we want to do: instead of a fixed resistance, let's consider a device that consumes a fixed amount of power (or attempts to). we'll call this a load. now, let's say we have a circuit with a power supply, a fixed resistance, and a load all in series. though this can be generalized easily, let's say that the resistance is 1 ohm, and the load consumes 1 watt. let's say we want to drive this circuit with 1 amp. the effective resistance of a 1 watt load at 1 amp is 1 ohm, so the total resistance is 2 ohms, and we'd need a two volt, 1 amp power supply. the power consumption is 2 watts. if we drive the circuit with 100 amps, then the effective resistance of a 1 watt load is .01 ohms, the total resistance is 1.01 ohms so we'd need a 1.01 volt 100 amp power supply. the power consumption is 101 watts. and if we drive the circuit with 0.01 amps, then the effective resistance of a 1 watt load is 100 ohms, the total resistance is 101 ohms, and we'd need a 101 volt 0.01 amp power supply. the power consumtion is 1.01 watts. | 4 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/c8IoXjC"
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deeeep space question | is our universe not infinite? every time something tries to teach me about space they are talking about limits and i don't like it. _url_0_ _url_1_ | our present data strongly suggest that the universe is infinite in space. particularly, our measurements correspond to a universe with non-positive curvature (within experimental errors) which would imply an infinite universe. edit : with regard to your second picture, if the universe was finite, it must be at least 251 times the radius of the observable universe, before it wraps back around on itself. | 7 | [] | [
"http://images.4channel.org/f/src/589217_scale_of_universe_enhanced.swf",
"http://i.imgur.com/fPhZN.png"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_measures_\\(cosmology\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Weeks_(mathematician)",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/08/science/08CND-COSMOS.html"
] | [
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why is radar received strength inverse proportional to (r^2)^2 instead of (2r)^2 ? | radar received strength is inverse proportional to r^4, and it's explained that the reason is the signal must bounce back. the way i picture is that after the signal reaches the target it degrades and then that degraded signal is again degraded on its way back. however i also could picture it as just a regular signal going twice the distance. what am i missing and where am i wrong? | i'm only familiar with radar in the context of weather radar, and for that the equation for signal return strength is [quite a bit more complicated](_url_1_), due to the fact that there are millions of targets reflecting simultaneously. however, from some google-fu i came across [this page](_url_0_), which shows the return power is indeed inversely proportional to the radius to the 4th power. to me the reason is obvious: for a single target (an airplane, for instance), it's not the same as a regular signal going twice the distance ((2r)^(2)) because the single target will scatter the beam in *all directions*, not just back to the radar, so it will act like another source. so a signal proportional to 1/r^2 will reach the target, which will then reflect back that 1/r^2 signal which decays at 1/r^2 again. let me put it a different way: say the initial amplitude is 1. the signal which reaches the reflector is 1/r^2, let's call this "a". the reflector returns a signal (a) in all directions, so it returns to the radar dish with the power a/r^(2): since a was 1/r^(2) to begin with, the signal returning to the radar is 1/r^(2) * 1/r^(2) = 1/r^(4). this is obviously a way-oversimplification, you can read more in depth [here](_url_2_). | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/remote/lecture_notes/radar/conventional/re_distributed.html",
"http://www.everythingweather.com/weather-radar/principles.shtml",
"http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/remote/lecture_notes/radar/conventional/"
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the 26s proteasome is composed of two 19s complexes and one 20s proteasome. why is it not the 58s proteasome? | as in 19 + 20 + 19 = 58s | the s ([svedberg units](_url_0_)) refers to the sedimentation rate in a centrifuge, it isn't a unit of mass, per se. larger s values represent faster sedimentation. sedimentation is affected by mass, density, and shape, the average cross section area, and it is a nonlinear function. so, those three complexes fit together in a configuration that gives it a cross sectional area that results in only a slightly higher sedimentation rate than the 20s component. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svedberg"
] | [
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can you make a electronic-signal gyroscope similar to a fiber-optic gyroscope? | i think i understand the principle of a fog. two light beams travelling in opposite directions around a loop of fiber, and when the loop is rotating, one direction is slightly shorter than the other direction. the resulting exit beams are combined, and the fact of the two beams being slightly out of phase with each other causes interference. measuring the amount of interference gives the rate of rotation. so far, so good (i think -- please correct me if i'm wrong). so given that, i was curious if the same trick could be done with electronic signals, and if not, why not? if you had a loop of wire and ran two signals down the wire (or if you can only go one direction at a time, perhaps oppositely down a pair of wires), could you measure the phase difference and calculate the rate of rotation? given how expensive good fogs are, it seems like a copper / electronic version could possibly be less expensive. | the first problem is that you'd have to change the detection system because now you're detecting a voltage instead of optical power. i would envision splitting a voltage pulse so that it travels in opposite directions through a coil of wire. the sagnac effect is a pure temporal delay, so it doesn't care what's traveling around the loop (whether it's an electric field, voltage etc.), so you could then try to detect the time lag between the pulses at the output. the problem is that the effect is *tiny*, so the time lag is *extremely* small, on the scale of an optical cycle (femtoseconds). this is why you need an optical wave to detect it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is stochastic atmospheric forcing? | i know that the pacific decadel oscillation is caused by a "reddening" of the el niño-southern oscillation (enso) combined with stochastic atmospheric forcing. but what exactly is the latter? | atmospheric forcing is more frequently referred to as [radiative forcing](_url_0_) which is essentially the difference between radiant energy received by the earth and energy radiated back to space, or the *net energy* absorbed by the earth. "stocastic" means it is a probabilistic function, which means the variable is predictable, but has a quasi-random behavior to it. you could typically quantify such a variable with an average and a standard deviation, or perhaps a distrabution of values with associated probabilities (think something like a gaussian bell curve, if it were normally distributed). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcing"
] | [
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how do pet fish get so much energy from the tiny flakes we feed them? is that what they're supposed to eat? | part of the reason is that fish are ectothermic (cold blooded). they don't actually need very much energy to survive, so they don't need to eat a lot of food. a mouse the size of a goldfish would need to consume a substantial amount of food, while the goldfish (if outdoors and in a cold climate) might not eat a thing all winter long. in the wild, most aquarium fish eat small aquatic insects and crustaceans, and many eat some algae too. these are usually included in flake diets along with lots of other things. flakes are usually a pretty good food for the average aquarium fish, but they will love getting live food if you can acquire it! | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
earth balling of trees: does it actually work? | there is this big issue in our country right now and would like to know what r/askscience thinks about tree-balling. for the interested: [basically, mall wants to do an expansion of its property/infrastructure and wants to convert area into a parking lot.](_url_0_) | all plants will suffer some degree of transplant shock if you severe their roots. very small trees with smaller root system can be transplanted fairly easily as they are likely to have few if any roots damged int he transplant process. as a tree grows larger, its root system becomes too large to realisitically transplant and will therefor suffer greater degrees of transplant shock. in this case, the trees sound like they are effectively fully mature, so they will have very low survival rates if transplanted. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/254454/news/regions/court-halts-cutting-of-trees-for-sm-baguio-expansion"
] | [] | [
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] |
why is the counterweight arm of a trebuchet always shorter than the sling/launching arm? | in trebuchet designs, the sling arm is always longer than the counterweight arm, but i don't understand why. it seems like having the counterweight arm being the same length or even longer would give you more mechanical advantage. you would have to build a taller a-frame to fit it, but even that could be a benefit because now you can raise the counterweight higher and store more potential energy. what am i misunderstanding? | the counterweight will never accelerate faster than 9.8 m/s^(2). if you have the counterweight arm longer than the launcher, then it will throw it even slower, and it will move a very short distance. if they want it to go far, they need a long arm so a 9.8 m/s^2 fall of the counterweight will correspond to a much faster acceleration of the projectile. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/ApMech_p013.shtml",
"http://www.real-world-physics-problems.com/trebuchet-physics.html"
] | [
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if inflammation promotes healing, why do we take anti-inflammatories? | especially in the case of sinusitis or bronchitis, people always recommend taking nsaids to cope with the pain. but i read that for sports injuries, most people do not recommend nsaids anymore because they can slow down recovery. why are we encouraged to take anti-inflammatories for things like sinusitis but not for sports injuries? | nsaids do and don't delay healing in some kinds of sports injuries. *short term* use is usually beneficial. it stems the initial (often overzealous) inflammatory response which often does more harm than good. our immune system evolved pre-antibiotics. many injuries are accompanied by a break in the skin and therefore the risk of infection. a robust inflammatory response after injury is helpful at blasting any potential infectious organisms, but carries the cost of causing further tissue damage. back in the day, this balance worked in favor of fighting potential infection. if grog the caveman gets a little more of a limp from his sprained ankle, it's not really that big of a deal, especially compared to the consequences of bob the bacterium getting a foothold (pillus-hold?) in grog. but that's not as big of a deal nowadays. risk of infection is a lot lower, and if you get an infection you'll get some antibiotic cream and have a gross looking cut. if grog got a bacterial infection, his life is in danger. so, we have an overzealous initial inflammatory response. and although the infection risk isn't really there anymore, the cost is; we still get that extra damage from that overzealous inflammatory response. if you take an nsaid right after injury, you can stem that overzealous inflammatory response & reduce overall damage. however, long term use of nsaids to manage the pain can be detrimental in some kinds of injury. this is because once the initial inflammatory response heads in and does not encounter bacteria, it goes into clean up & repair mode. it's no longer overzealous; it's measured and controlled. you don't need to control it with nsaids, it controls itself with il10 (etc). this goes to the old adage of "ice for the first 24h, then heat." ice for 24h will stem that inflammatory response by reducing bloodflow. but you don't use ice past 24h. the best evidence for the detrimental effects of long-term nsaid use is in muscle injury. there isn't any good evidence that long term nsaid use has any big impact on tendon injury that i know of, though. afaik the jury is still out on joint injury. bottom line: nsaids are possibly somewhat helpful at the time of injury. they are palliative for chronic injury and have the *potential* to be harmful in some kinds of injury. | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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relativistic doppler effects and conservation of energy | we had a question in our modern physics class today that our prof answered extremely poorly and i was hoping someone here could clarify it. if we take have an observer moving away from a source at a constant velocity it will be red shifted due to the relativistic doppler effect. say the source's rest frame it emitted a blue photon but from the observer's frame he sees a red photon. so here is the question, the energy of a photon is related to it's wavelength e=hc/(lambda) so in the rest frame of the source the photon would have more energy than in the observer's inertial frame, how does this agree with conservation of energy? edit: i don't believe in proof reading | if a ball is flying at 10 m/s relative the ground, it has that corresponding kinetic energy. relative someone moving alongside it at the same speed, it's stationary and thus has zero kinetic energy. energy is something that always depends on your frame of reference. you should not think of a photon's energy as belonging to the photon, but something that's defined in terms of the relative motion of the emitting and absorbing objects. so this shift is necessary to _satisfy_ conservation of energy, since a photon's velocity is the same in all reference frames, something else has to change - namely the frequency. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it so hard to say the color and so easy to say the word? | looking at [this image] (_url_0_), why is the impulse to pronounce the word so overwhelming when you try to say the color? | you are describing the [stroop effect](_url_0_) which was noticed by stroop early last century. whilst we are still trying to work out exactly what is going on, the general gist is that the word reading response is more strongly learned than the colour naming response. so think about how often you read words, verses how often you name colours. because the word reading response is so well learned, it is almost automatic. so when you have to name the colour, there is "competition" between the automatic response, and the more difficult colour naming response. performance of the stroop task is thought to involve the frontal lobes of your brain. this is the brain area involved in inhibiting inappropriate responses and controlling your behaviour. so when you are asked to name the colour your frontal lobes have to actively engage in inhibiting the automatic response, and make sure the goal directed response gets out first. we know that people who have problems with impulsive behaviour such as individuals with substance use problems and adhd perform worse on the task than "normal" people. people who have damage to their frontal lobes also have problems with the stroop task. the stroop task is perhaps the most well known cognitive test ever and it is still used all the time research studies. post back if you have any other questions. | 8 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/U4B5J"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroop_effect"
] | [
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what really is nasa's current ability to launch a short notice rescue mission? | so movies (no prizes for guessing gravity in this case) will sometimes refer to nasa sending a rescue mission in the case of an event like a space shuttle being rendered inoperable and astronauts becoming stranded. it doesn't seem likely to me that nasa (or any other world space agency) has rockets ready to go at a moments notice... given the ticking clock on stranded astronauts is it feasible for any new mission to be launched in time (even if the astronauts have significant oxygen reserves)? is their only chance to rendezvous with the iss, either via retrieval by sous or spacewalk to the station? and if the disaster involved the iss itself (by destroying its re-entry vehicles), would they simply be stranded? | a good example of nasa's (in)ability to launch a rescue mission is sts-107, the last, doomed mission of columbia. it's very well known that no rescue mission was launched and all seven astronauts died. that said, the columbia accident investigation board did look into the possibility of rescue. there was only one chance for rescue of the crew: the planned launch of space shuttle atlantis could have been moved up by almost a month, numerous safety requirements would have been waived, and the weather would have had to oblige, but a skeleton crew of four could *possibly* have reached columbia and rescued her crew. that was the only viable scenario and it was a huge stretch. nasa would have had to make a decision by columbia's flight day 4 (january 19, 2003) to power down the orbiter. the crew would have had to essentially go into hibernation - little activity, conserving food and not releasing much carbon dioxide for the expected month long stay in space (columbia was actually the best orbiter for a rescue, though, as she was equipped with the extended duration orbiter kit, which could provide oxygen and power for an extended time; other orbiters were not outfitted with this kit. it turned out that carbon dioxide scrubbing was the limiting factor for this hypothetical rescue). water actually wouldn't be a problem, as it's a waste product of the fuel cells on the orbiter. the biggest problem was that thousands of corners would have to be cut on the launch of atlantis to reach columbia before the drop-dead date of february 15 (the biggest corner being the lack of knowledge about the root cause of the foam liberation that doomed columbia). caib determined that atlantis could have launched by february 10, but only if launch processing went off without a hitch (interestingly, the weather from february 10th through the 15th would have permitted a launch). that, and four astronauts would have to volunteer for a potential suicide mission. they probably would have had dozens of volunteers. transferring to the space station was out of the question due to the dramatically different orbits the two spacecraft were in. neither could reach the other. as a result of the columbia accident, early return-to-flight missions had another shuttle all but ready for launch to facilitate a quick return of the crew of a damaged shuttle (the potential rescue mission was designated sts-300). it wasn't critical to return them within the 30 days that columbia had, however, because almost all post-sts-107 missions flew to the space station, and therefore had a refuge available. only one post-sts-107 mission, sts-125, didn't go to the station, and that mission went to repair hubble. again, transferring to the space station would have been impossible (a lesson george clooney and sandra bullock didn't seem to learn) due to the dramatically different orbits. so, for sts-125, a second shuttle was rolled to a second pad, and was ready for launch within a couple of weeks of the launch of sts-125, just in case. the last shuttle mission to launch, sts-135, was originally not on the schedule. originally, space shuttle atlantis was to go into semi-retirement after sts-132. the solid rocket boosters and external tanks were produced, however, for one final mission to serve as a rescue mission for endeavour's sts-134 (the rescue mission was designated sts-335). however, since the boosters and tank were already produced, nasa received funding from congress for one final mission. since no rescue shuttle would be available to take astronauts back from the station, they opted for a smaller crew of 4, compared to the usual crew of 7. in the event of a disaster, the crew of atlantis' sts-135 would be brought back on soyuz capsules that would be launched short-staffed over the next few months. so, yes, there sort of were launchers available for rescue missions during the waning years of shuttle flights. but that was not the case for nearly three decades of shuttle flights, and today, there are no rescue missions available for the station (though the iss does have enough "life boat" soyuz spacecraft docked to bring back the entire crew in case of an emergency). it's very unlikely that in the future, when nasa send humans to asteroids, the moon and mars, there would be rescue missions available. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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did you see the /r/mildlyinteresting post about the salt covered glass? how did that happen? | that effect can also be seen with salt water aquariums, where it's called salt creep. salt in solution at the meniscus of the water crystallizes from evaporation/agitation, which moves the meniscus, where more salt crystallizes out. don't rinse but repeat, and you'll see this happen. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is durability and why are some substances more durable than others? | [deleted] | durability is an amalgam of a few factors. hardness yet the ability to bend are the first that come to mind. take a knife, for instance. stainless steel does not rust, but because it is harder than regular steel, it will never reach the same level of sharpness, and is very hard to resharpen. a high carbon steel on the other hand can bend and still retain its shape, allowing for a fine edge that can get very sharp. however, due to extremely high temperatures when metal bends, the knife's edge can be damaged more easily. they are more easily dinged up, more easily bent out of shape (like the tip when someone stabs a door or something equally as foolish). in my opinion, an objects ability to take a blow and retain its shape is slightly more important than just being hard. diamonds, widely known as the hardest substance, can shatter amazingly easily when hit with a hammer in the right way. eggs are amazingly durable, such as a chicken egg. when squeezed a certain way, they are nearly unbreakable. this is due to the shape that distributes the force. this is how bridges work. weight, or force, is distributed equally throughout the structure. however, with a tapered point, an egg is easily broken. same theory applies to a glass bottle. they can take one hell of a beating. and a full liquor bottle is more likely to break a man's skull than it is to break itself against a man's skull. a hollow, empty bottle, is much more likely to break. this is due to the distribution of force, along with vibration. picture the opera singer breaking glass with only her voice. water helps to muffle the vibrations in the glass, as where air does that to a much smaller degree. however a bottle that falls and hits just a corner, or if it hits a point instead, is much more likely to break. i've seen glass withstand insane drops, only to shatter from the slightest fall, all due to the angle it was struck at. wood is extremely durable against the grain, and usually very easy to split when working with the grain. rock can be broken the same way : ancient quarrymen used metal poles and chisels and mallets to make a series of holes along a natural faultline. then they'd pound poles into the holes a little deeper until rocks were easily cleaved in train - giant pieces of rock can be separated into neat squares or rectangles, all based on natural "grain" in the rock, and the expertise of a lone quarrymen. water is durable because of the way it can move around anything. it has almost no hardness, but it's ability to bend does it all. the same can be said for a man. you can be the toughest guy in the world, but being able to roll with the punches, or adapt to new situations, can determine your success. being "hard" means, to me, you are easily shattered. hope this helped a little. ps - trees and their flexibility is important too. young trees with less weight and much more springiness are less likely to break in a storm, compared to massive old trees. they have stronger roots, and are very large and thick, but wind can keep pushing. being able to bend in the wind is very important to most trees. in fact, most old trees die from breaking rather than old age. interesting fact - trees have been found to keep old, broken stumps alive by attaching their own roots, in order to give the now-broken tree vital nutrients usually only derived through photosynthesis. i think, not only is it amazing that trees can do that; it's amazing that trees do do that. that stump of a tree appears as though it would only be a burden. but trees obviously have a good reason for keeping their elderly neighbors alive. which brings me to the question - just how incapable of thought are trees? sure, they don't have a brain, but perhaps plants can think without such an organ. to me, it surely seems as though they make a conscious decision when they allow their roots to feed an older, soon-to-be-dead tree. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how widespread is the acceptance of dunbar's number? | [dunbar's number is a suggested cognitive limit to the number of people with whom one can maintain stable social relationships.](_url_0_) he put the number at 150, while others have listed only in the 300 range. is this accepted as the reality of human relationships in the science world? what does this mean for larger cities and their design? should we develop smaller communities? i can't imagine how this spreading would be better for our ecosystem, but i guess that is outside the scope of the number. | i haven't seen it referenced in developmental/educational psychology, but i would imagine it would be much more popular in the fields that are specifically interested in correlations between biology and social behavior. but what the hell is a "stable relationship" anyway? real friends, or simply identified group membership? [national identity has no numerical bound, since it's an abstract concept](_url_0_), but that could still be seen as a stable relationship. when talking about peer groups and "stable relationships," i've seen much more emphasis on smaller networks, about 5 to 8 members of a clique. social crowds, which are larger stereotypes (preppies, stoners, theatre kids, etc.), have a lot more members (20 to 100, ballpark), but it's hard to determine what makes a relationship. there are issues of symmetry, as in: "i think i'm part of a group, but no one in that group agrees" or "i *don't* think i'm part of a group, but everyone else thinks that i am." so, does that really constitute a stable relationship or social network? but of course, that's in a field (educational psychology) that is much more focused on interpersonal dynamics rather than biological limits. whatever the limit might be, what those relationships *mean* to the individual is more important. and social belongingness is really, *really* important. the sense of community and belonging (regardless of the size) is what benefits the person. so, as far as the spread of dunbar's number, it's not really a big deal in social constructivist perspectives. once you interpret a social network as an abstract construct, there is no limit. if a person feels that they are part of the human community, or even the universe as a whole, it's not prohibited because the size of their brain. sources: brown and dietz, informal peer groups in middle childhood and adolescence, in the [handbook of peer interaction, relationships, and groups.](_url_1_) [thurlow, 2001](_url_2_) [baumeister and leary, 1995](_url_3_) | 3 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunbar's_number"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagined_community",
"http://www.guilford.com/books/Handbook-of-Peer-Interactions-Relationships-and-Groups/Rubin-Bukowski-Laursen/9781609182229/contents",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13676260120075437?journalCode=cjys20",
"http://persweb.wabash.edu/facstaff/hortonr/articles%20for%20class/baumeister%20and%20leary.pdf"
] | [
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could southern hemisphere countries get something similar to the polar vortex from antarctica? | is it a specific situation in the arctic circle? or could south america/africa/australia also face this situation? | good question! short answer, yes. tasmania and south america get hammered by antarctic storms sometimes. but it doesn't happen as often or as easily. the antarctic polar front, the big circle of winds around antarctica at approximately 55 degrees south latitude, acts like a wall, limiting the exchange of weather systems between antarctica and parts farther north. this atmospheric 'front' is a natural effect of the earth's rotation and the energy differences between the cold southern latitude air (which sinks) and the warmer air to the north (which rises). the same thing happens around the north pole. a big difference is that the southern polar front doesn't have any topographical barriers -- no mountains or land masses -- to disrupt the flow of air or change the energy balance. the wind chases itself in a big, continuous circle around the southern ocean without hitting anything. in contrast, the northern polar front gets disrupted by land and mountains and different air masses, scrambling the flow. so the northern hemispheres sees a lot more breakup of the polar front simply because of geography. | 31 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if stranded at sea, could a salt water enema be used to hydrate oneself? | saw this on man vs wild. very curious if this would work. | it would not be a good idea to put a salty solution into the colon. osmosis (when water moves across a semipermeable membrane to make an equal ratio of a solute to solvent) is going to pull water out of the intestinal lining and into the area with more salt, effectively dehydrating the colon. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you stretched a fiber optic cable around circumference of the earth and sent a signal through it, does it appear simultaneously at the other end? | no, the light would travel at a finite speed of (299,792,458 m/s)/n where n is the refractive index of the optical fiber. there would also have to be several repeaters in place to prevent the signal being completely absorbed by the fiber, and these repeaters require a non-zero amount of time to function. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can our brain overload and crash? | this has been bothering me for a while. can our brain get too much information, overload and then "crash"? | no our brains cannot overload in that sense. there isn't a limited amount of "space" in the brain as with computers and the like, rather our brain forges new neuronal connections between and within the areas where memories are stored, such as the hippocampus and neocortex. these connections are made with each new memory that is formed and are strengthened each time you retrieve it. so in that sense, the brain has an unlimited capacity for storage. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how many g's does a figure skater experience when they spin, and how would that compare to say what a fighter pilot experiences? | so there was an ad on recently (in canada) that has a figure skater claiming things like when they fall they hit the ice harder than being thrown from a bull and when they spin they experience more g's than a jet fighter pilot. i can believe that they hit the ice harder than someone being thrown from a bull but i have a hard time believing they pull more g's than a fighter pilot. it doesn't even seem like it's a comparable force, because wouldn't a fighter pilot experience g's in a downward/upward direction mainly where as a figure skater would experience them in an outward direction from their axis? i dont have the necessary physics skills to figure this one out so i was wondering if someone could explain the math's behind this. i'm thinking that they experience it differently because a fighter pilot can pass out due to lack of blood flow to the brain where as a figure skater would only experience the force pulling their limbs outwards which makes sense. but are there any other issues that a figure skater would have to deal with, like say the lack of blood flow that a fighter pilot has to deal with. | if a figure skater is spinning 3 times per second, and their head is 10 cm from their axis of rotation, that puts the acceleration about 3.5 g. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how was millikan able to calculate the charge of an electron so precisely? | i can't wrap my head around how he was able to calculate a value for charge in the neighborhood of 10^-19 using such a crude measurement system. anything could have impacted the measurements, from his own fatigue in eyeballing the oil drop motion and size, to slight variations in the content of the air in the system, to the vibrations of the apparatus, to his electrical measurements being imprecise due to effects like resistive heating or voltage fluctuations. i suppose all these could be made to be less impactful by measuring more drops, or by the charge amount on each drop being a relatively small integer, but i'm having trouble wrapping my head around the precision he was able to achieve with his experiment. (i realize he was off by something like 2%, that still doesn't change the fact that we're talking about quantities in the 10^-19 range) i must be looking at this the wrong way, can anyone help me? | the fact that we are talking about 1e-19 range is largely irrelevant. he had 4 significant figures in his result (the result he reported in his nobel lecture was 4.774(5)e-10 statc). since he was off by 2%, that tells you that he really only had 2 significant figures. you are right about what all could have affected his measurements, but if you consider that he had 2 significant figures, this comes down to "how was he able to measure his parameters down to 2 significant figures", and to answer that, you need to consider what his parameters were: * density of oil: not a big deal to measure to 2 significant figures macroscopically * density of air: likewise * gravitational acceleration: likewise * droplet radius: doable with microscopes of the time; also, because droplets are spherical at that scale, not affected by droplet movement or observer movement. * droplet speed: you measure transit time across a known distance in the field of view of the microscope, so you need a ruler that's good to 2 significant figures on the scale of the microscope he was using, and the ability to measure time to 2 decimal places. the ruler was doable with his technology, and time measurements were not an issue because his droplets were moving slowly * voltage between the plates: no problem measuring that to 2 decimal places in kilovolt range (which is what he was using) with technology of the time edit: most of the 19 decimal points in his result come from droplet volume, so from cubing the radius of a droplet. if you can measure radius to ±1e-6m, you can measure volume to ±1e-18m^3 . measuring down to a micron was well within the microscope technology of the time. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a limit to how strong an electromagnet can be? | also, there is the [permeability](_url_0_) of the material used as the core- too much current, and the core saturates. the strength of the field still increases with more current, but at a much reduced rate- so not a hard limit, but efficiency drops dramatically beyond that point. at least that's my (layman) understanding of it. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permeability_%28electromagnetism%29"
] | [
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|
how strong is an electromagnet when it's not on? | i work with a 3t magnet. it still has some magnetic field present even when there's no current turned on, right? how strong is that field? | it really depends on the magnet. from the sounds of it, you have a magnetic core wrapped in wire? in that case the iron core still has a magnetic field. is it an mri magnet? is that case it should probably never be turned off | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do tower fans work? | i am talking about [these](_url_0_) looking at it i envision it blowing out in all directions, but mine sucks from one side and blows out the other. wikipedia's discussion of impeller blades went over my head. | this is called a "crossflow" fan, and the housing is part of the principle of [how it works](_url_0_). the key is a rib feature of the housing interior that skims near the blades, sort of peeling off the air, creating a pressure differential between one part of the rotor and the other. crossflow fans have mediocre pressure capability, nothing like the pressure that a centrifugal blower can produce, despite their visible similarity. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.thegreenhead.com/imgs/honeywell-digital-tower-fan-1.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PyBTW0zppHQ"
] | [
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do prey rely on predators in animal communities? | i was in a semi-heated biology debate about this topic. i am fairly certain that prey need predators, do they not? without predators, prey become overpopulated and eventually die of starvation. i'd say one killed deer because of a wolf, is better than an entire population **dying** because of no food and many deer. pretty much quit the debate because the chick was irrational, but am i right or not? ~~i'm seriously doubting myself now. | you are absolutely correct. where i live, they hire private sharp-shooters and allow paraplegics to hunt deer on some of the islands of lake winnipesaukee to prevent the deer from starving in the winter, as they outstrip the food supply. there used to be a total ban on island deer hunting, and the results were rather sad. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is food moved through the digestive system in space? | if there is no gravity in space what stops food from just floating around in the stomach? how is it pushed into the stomach then pushed into the intestines and through the rest of the system. i realize once it is in the intestines it is probably muscle that moves it through. but what stops it from just sitting in the stomach and floating around? | the digestive system isn't governed by gravity, though being upright helps a bit. there are muscles which move food around throughout the entire system, not just the intestines. as far as "floating around", i think there's a common misconception about what the inside of a stomach looks like. a lot of kids shows depict it as being air on top and liquid + chunks on the bottom. thus one would think that in microgravity the liquid + chunks would float around in the stomach. but there's normally little or no air/gas inside the stomach at all. it expands to accommodate food, and contracts to move food on to the next section of the digestive tract. when you do get gas in there, you'll instinctively burp to let that gas out. in short, being in microgravity doesn't affect how food moves through the digestive tract much. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what the most practical way to estimate the size of the transgender population? | considering that transgender individuals have to seek treatment in a hostile environment (though less so that in the past), what method would give an accurate estimate of population? | a [fermi approximation] (_url_0_) might give you a pretty good approximation. it'd be something like this: 1. there are 3.88 million people in los angeles. 2. there are 15 bars that specifically cater to transgender people in la 3. approximately half the people that go to a transgender bar are transgender 4. a bar requires an average of 1000 patrons per month to stay in business. 5. we make the assumption that bar patrons only go to one bar 6. therefore we can assumed: 500 transgenders x 15 bars = 7,500 transgender people in la the [official estimate](_url_1_) is 700,000 across the usa. that's .2% of the population. the assumptions above give us a .19% of the population is transgender in la. i guessed at how many transgender bars there were and how many patrons are required to keep a bar open, but these were actually fairly thought out: a bar requires about $10,000 per month to stay in business - $10 per patron if there are 1000 patrons a month. i imagine that only half the people would actually be transgender as some non-tg's would like to meet tgs or have friends that are and just want to hang out in an accepting place. this is known a fermi approximation and with just 'decent' (i.e. not perfect) assumptions you can usually get pretty close to the actual solution. edit: the facts can be as specific as possible (an internet search could provide number of transgender bars), or just generalizations. the idea is that well thought out assumptions, even if wrong, will mostly balance out and provide a good approximation. if you don't use the approximation, you might be able to get it from census data (which isn't really that great) or from self-identifying surveys. you might also be able to determine frequencies of certain surgeries or medical operations to men/women that would be desired by a transgender man or woman. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_problem",
"http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/why-we-dont-know-the-size-of-the-transgender-population/"
] | [
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questions about life on a hypervelocity planet. | after reading this article _url_0_ wouldn't it be possible for life to (with the right conditions) exist on such a planet? say moving yet even faster than 3-4% the speed of light. would they see the universe differently? would they have a larger red-shift when they look out at the cosmos? would they also experience time-dilation? to what degree? depending on how fast your planet/star system is moving, would itchange your perception of things? what if the earth was moving at relativistic speeds, would we notice any major differences in our observations of the cosmos? | the centre of the galaxy is too hostile for life as we know it to survive (due to radiation and more impacts in the denser galactic core), but after the star slingshots around the black hole life could develop on its planets. remember that as far as the planet is concerned it is still orbiting its star in a normal way, since the star's gravitational pull would still dominate the black hole's gravitational pull on individual planets. as for travelling at relativistic speeds, this is only for the centre-of-mass of the system (mostly the star) relative to the rest of the galaxy. in the reference frame of the planet's system it still orbits its star in a normal way. an alien astronomer would look back at the galaxy and see the galaxy as more redshifted than we would, but otherwise life would be the same. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.scienceworldreport.com/articles/2166/20120322/runaway-planets-zoom-fraction-light-speed.htm"
] | [] | [
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can t-cells be created in a petri dish? | i watched this video: _url_0_... it got me thinking, if using donor t-cells causes complications.... why can the dna in a host not be isolated for t-cell dna, which is then used to create a large number of t-cells in a lab which (i'm assuming) will not be foreign to the host and effectively be used to treat cancers? i apologize if this seems like a stupid question and/or hard to read. | [it's being done](_url_1_). this (freely accessible) article is just one example of somewhat recent work in the area. there are many labs working to harness cultured t cells for cancer therapy. [here's a free article i found in a quick search.](_url_0_) i have quite a few others, but they are behind a paywall and i don't wanna get in trouble for academic copyright infringement (even though i hate how i can't share papers with curious members the general public). | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgJKaP0Sj5U"
] | [
"http://jem.rupress.org/content/207/3/651.long",
"http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/content/115/2/230.long"
] | [
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magnetic moment mu~ ia | it's simple to understand the magnetic moment of a dipole (2qa) but why for a current loop or an electron sweeping out an area a is the moment = ia? is there a nice way of understanding this? why is the area and not the circumference of the loop? | firstly, just based on a dimensionality argument, magnetic moments have units of a m^2, which is a current times an area, rather than a circumference. warning: math: let's do the calculation for an arbitrary current loop (of any shape). we have that magnetic moment is defined as m = i/2* int(r x d^3 r) = 1/2* int(r x j dv), where int is an integral and j is the current density, and r is the vector from the current to the point we are calculating the moment at. assuming that the current is confined to a planar loop, we have that z=0, and r = r' (for some r') gives us an infinitely high j, and everywhere else we get 0 current. hence j = i delta(z) delta(r - r'), where delta is the dirac delta function. let us denote the angle between r and r' by t. hence, we have that, after some integration: m = i/2 hat(z)*int(r' sin(t) dr'). we have that sin(t) dr' = ds, since this is exactly the arclength of a segment ds of the loop. hence, we have that m = i* hat(z)*int(1/2 r' ds) = ia. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is going on at a molecular level that eliminates phase transitions in supercritical fluids? | i think it's almost harder to grasp why you _do_ have discrete phase transitions, but maybe that's just me. but if you start by considering that, think of a half-full bottle of water. at the surface, the water molecules are not as tightly bonded to their neighboring molecules, since they only have neighboring molecules on one side. (thus, they'd lose energy by moving to the middle of the fluid, giving rise to the force we know as surface tension) anyway, statistically, some of these molecules will have enough energy now and then to break away and go flying off into the huge vacuum that exists between gas molecules. and now and then, a gas molecule will be moving slowly enough to not be able to escape the attractive intermolecular forces at the surface, and it'll 'stick'. so you have condensation and evaporation occurring at the same time. if the vapor pressure is sufficiently high (=saturated), those things occur at the same rate. what you _don't_ have, though, is bubbles. the molecules in the bulk are more tightly bonded to each other, and have nowhere to go. unless, of course, they push away some water molecules and form a cavity for themselves (a bubble). but that requires an additional amount of energy, that they don't get back until the bubble grows to a certain size ([graph](_url_0_)) - this is _nucleation_, and the difficulty of starting a bubble is how things can sometimes become [superheated](_url_2_) - go above the boiling point without actually boiling. it's often easiest for bubbles to nucleate on surfaces, which you've no doubt seen. (there's also [bubbles](_url_3_) in _the wire_, which people should also see) anyway, below the boiling point you don't have enough energy to form stable bubbles. the vapor pressure (one way of expressing this) is lower than the atmospheric pressure. so no bubbles. until you heat it to the boiling point, which is the point when bubbles are able to form and leave the liquid (gravity and surface tension see to that). doing so, they take heat with them, since the gaseous water molecules are hotter than the average water molecule. so as you transfer heat to the water, it starts forming steam bubbles, and the heat being removed from the liquid maintains the water at the boiling point -until either all the water's boiled off, or the pressure above the water (if it's a closed container) has raised the boiling point enough for it to stop. as the pressure increases, the boiling point increases. but what else is happening? the molecules in the gas are getting closer together. the gas becomes more liquid-like. and as the temperature is rising, the molecules in the liquid are moving more violently, making the water less dense and more gas-like. the surface tension drops, as the water molecules are less strongly bonded, like people trying to dance on a busy disco floor, other molecules are cutting in and they're getting jostled about and nobody's really getting intimate with anybody. (water's a bit promiscuous though, typically bonding with around 3 partners at a time. but less when it gets hot) so at some point, the [critical point](_url_1_) - the phase difference simply vanishes. in simplified terms, you could say that the temperature is so high all the molecules can move independently of each other, like in a gas, but the pressure is also so high that they nevertheless have to stay as close together as they'd be in a liquid. not that difficult, is it? give the supercritical fluid molecules more space to move (decrease the pressure) and they'll just fly apart; there's more than enough heat for that, so there's no point where it suddenly becomes a 'gas'. it's just a more or less 'gassy' gas. similar thing happens if you cool the fluid but keep the pressure. the molecules stay as dense as they are, but lose energy and 'calm down' a bit, and they become more and more bonded to each other and it becomes more and more viscous and you eventually have a liquid. again, though, there's no definite point when it becomes a liquid, it just segues into a more 'liquidy' liquid. so really, phase boundaries, boiling, nucleation, surface tension and all that is really more complicated. superfluids are a bit more like how a theorist would like molecules to behave, like rubber balls or something, rather than the 'sticky' rubber balls that intermolecular forces make them. (not attracted to each other at long range, attracted at short range, and strongly repulsive at really short range) | 25 | [] | [] | [
"http://homes.esat.kuleuven.be/~igemwiki/images/thermodynamics/thermo_fig2.jpg",
"https://stevengoddard.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/water-phase-diagram1.jpg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1_OXM4mr_i0",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/73/The_Wire_Bubbles.jpg"
] | [
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|
if i go to europe and into the mediterranean sea, just how much of the water is the same from ancient times? | how much of the actual particles of the water in the mediterranean sea is still there from those historic events in human history the region is well known for? is it possible for the actual water particles to still be there or by now have those molecules traveled across the planet and such from the evaporation process? | this is a variant on a common question. probably the water in your sweat is as likely to have been in the sea a few thousand years ago as the water that's there now. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain to me the "missing link" in evolution? | i love all the dialogue that the ham and nye debate has sparked. as a christian who now leans toward theistic evolution but was raised in a "defend creationism at all costs" setting, i was reminiscing on the arguments made against evolution growing up. i remembered that one of the go-to arguments was the idea of a lack of a "missing link." i remember textbooks with examples of supposed ones that they had claimed to debunk. can you fill me in on the history up to the present of "the missing link"? | it's not really a serious science question. life started about 3-4 billion years ago and evolved into you and all life you see around you. life changed bit by bit for each of those millions, if not billions, of generations. eyes, wings, legs, etc. tiny step by tiny step. picture the evolution from a tiny bacteria to you or some other living thing as a movie. each frame in that movie is the next generation. there are millions of frames in that movie. most of those frames are forever lost because things perish. however, we have remarkably found fossils that gives us a few frames of that movie. essentially ever fossil ever found fit exactly into that movie as we would expect. but we can never expect to find every single frame. imagine just finding fossils of your last 50 ancestors. that's absolutely absurd. that's the missing link. we don't have every single frame in that movie. the fact we have so many frames is actually extremely impressive. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do scientists believe that phobos and deimos are captured asteroids from the belt? how does this happen? | it's not that i don't believe it, it's that i'm not quite sure how it's possible. i was reading an [article](_url_0_) that stated scientists believe that mars' two moons are captured asteroids from the belt. how does a planet just capture an asteroid? if this was possible, wouldn't all the asteroids that come near earth be moons if this was a thing? perhaps i'm in the wrong subreddit. maybe it should be in /r/explainlikeimfive but i suppose it's still relevant here. edit: how can they rule out the fact that something could have hit mars, something big, and caused chunks of it to go into space (similar to earth's moon forming theory). | "they" don't. the dominant hypothesis about phobos and demos right now is that they are ejected debris from a heavy impact on mars. this is the dominant origin hypothesis for two reasons. both are made of the same stuff in the same ratios as each other and mars's crust. and because they have these dotted patterns on them, thought to be made as the satellites recollect other debris from the same impact. capture hasn't been suspected for either of them for years. but it's still suspected in neptune's dominant moon triton, which is big, tectonic, alone, compositionally similar to other kbo's, and orbiting retrograde. all those clues point to capture. | 6 | [] | [
"https://mars.nasa.gov/all-about-mars/moons/summary/"
] | [
"https://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/SSPO/FactSheets/ACAP%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf"
] | [
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what stops the precision of a gyrocompass when it finds north? | i understand that there is no longer torque on it when it aligns with earth's axis, but where does it's kinetic energy go? why doesn't it end up swinging from north east to north west and back like a pendulum? also the title should say precession, not precision. | i believe you mean precession, not precision. spthirtythree's answer is correct that friction damps out the precession, but in a gyrocompass friction is actually even more fundamentally important to its north-seeking ability than that would imply. in a frictionless environment not only would it precess indefinitely, it wouldn't even precess around true north. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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