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how do animals that pant regulate their blood ph to prevent themselves from passing out? | a buffer solution is used • a buffer solution minimises ph changes on addition of an acid or base • buffer solutions are important for controlling ph in blood (so that enzymes are not denatured) but they are also used in shampoos (so that eyes do not sting and skin is not damaged) • the ph of blood is kept in the range 7.35-7.45 • this is achieved by dissolved carbon dioxide acting as a buffer solution • the relevant equations are: co2 + h2o < -- h2co3 < -- •when the blood ph is too acidic, the h^+ ion concentration is too high so must be decreased. we thus breath more co2 out and as a result, the equilibrium of the first equation shifts to the left because the co2 concentration has decreased. this then decreases the h2co3 concentration. the equilibrium of the second equation then shifts to the left as well to counter act the decrease in h2o3 concentration and hence the h^+ concentration decreases and the ph decreases. • when the ph is too high, above 7.45, the concentration of h+ must be increased to increase the acidity. less co2 is breathed out and hence the co2 concentration decreases. (without boring you with the full explanation) both equations then shift to the right and hence the h+ concentration increases. *[this is just a2 level understanding (united kingdom) so i'm not sure whether it is fully accurate but it may be what you're looking for]* | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does it mean that we are 70% water? | i guess i am curious as to where this water is located in our body and why does it make up so much of us? also, which animals are made up of the highest percentage of water and which ones are the lowest? then, why are humans 70% as opposed to other animals? i know this is technically more than one question but i'm really curious. | cytosols of cells, interstitial spaces, blood, etc. the water is literally everywhere in the body. it is the matter in which our important life-sustaining materials are dissolved. without the water, our enzymes, proteins, and sugars would have nowhere to exist. the would just be inactive solid matter. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what element has the most resistance against electricity? | like a one on the periodic table that has that doesn't conduct electricity well. | [_url_0_](_url_0_) judging by this table it looks like sulphur is the lowest conductivity element. note that most insulators used in normal electronics are compounds, glass, wood and ceramics are compounds of silicon, carbon, oxygen and various other elements. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.angstromsciences.com/elements-electrical-conductivity"
] | [
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say we were able to create a hole through the centre of the earth. | disregarding extreme heat.. what would happen if someone were to jump through this hole? would they shoot through the earth? or be pulled to the center by earths gravity? | the ndt/nova video posted by doctorfeelgood21 is good, but it doesn't say what would actually happen. during the first half of the jump, gravity would cause you to accelerate (although at a decreasing rate) up until reaching the halfway point. at the mid point you would feel no net effect of gravity, however you would have accumulated a great deal of linear momentum. this would cause you to continue to progress in the same direction through this stable point at the same speed you were traveling the instant before you reached the center. as you pass through the center gravity will begin to slow you down at an increasing rate up until the point that you reach zero velocity. during this entire journey you would experience drag from the air you are displacing. this drag will always decelerate you and make you go slower. likewise, any contact with the holes walls would also cause you to slow down. if there were no deceleration you would infact reach the other side, however this would never actually happen and you would begin 'falling' back towards the center before reaching your penpal across the world. you would fall back in the direction you came from, but again you would never make it. you would fall back and forth a seemingly infinite number of times until you finally rested at the center of the earth. so i guess to anser your initial question: yes to both. note, that this answer neglects the effects of angular momentum; they would not change the end result, however they would cause interesting dynamics throughout the fall. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much do documentaries such as the bbc's life/africa/etc: benefit research in areas such as zoology? | obviously they provide a great deal of interest to the watching public, but given how long these guys are spending in the field to acquire the footage and they must be exposed to vast volumes of data in terms of knowledge and experience around novel animal behaviour in addition to the presumably many hours of unused footage. are results from them published or discussed in academic settings? do they work in collaboration with academics? | good question. as a rule [public awareness directly affects funding and policy decisions](_url_0_) - undoubtedly documentaries have a direct affect on public concern and awareness, you've already touched on this though. most production companies producing documentaries will have a crew of cameramen, sound men, producers, directors, and other various people. when capturing the footage (particularly of exciting things like lion chases or whale breaches) there will be a reduced crew - often of very specialised cameramen who really know their stuff. there are a lot of camera people who work the savannah and know the systems very well - though its not always the case and more often than not a researcher will either be present or consulted beforehand to ensure the right timings,locations etc. so in effect research directly stimulates what is filmed, and how. a lot of documentaries these days will actually focus on new research being done or recently done and so researchers are definitely required. i've never heard of documentary makers providing spare footage for research and i've not heard of novel behaviours being recorded by solely film makers before scientists knew. actually thinking about it i think i remember a filmmaker being the first person to document dolphins chewing puffer fish for a "high." having said that i don't think it's been peer reviewed so i'm not sure it counts. i should note - i work in a research institute and though i've not done any consultation like this myself, my colleagues have frequently. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000632070900069X"
] | [
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what is the smallest detail we can see one light-year away? | if we were to look one light-year out into the milky way could we see just individual stars, planets, asteroids..? what is the smallest object we'd be able to identify at that distance? how about 10, 100, or even 1000 light-years away? | there's not anything to see one light year away. the very large telescope has an 8 meter lens and can see 300 nm wavelength, meaning we could see resolve 400,000 kilometers at that distance. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a man made material so thin that we can touch it but not see it? | also, is that even possible? to have something you can touch but not see? i was looking at a piece of hair today and wondered if something like that, but very very thin (and just as strong), could be made. | i'm assuming you mean a normally opaque material. [graphene](_url_0_) is the thinnest stuff we can make, and has a very interesting property; *"graphene's unique optical properties produce an unexpectedly high opacity for an atomic monolayer, with a startlingly simple value: it absorbs πα ≈ 2.3% of white light, where α is the [fine-structure constant](_url_1_)."* | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure_constant"
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what prevents a proteolytic pathway from recognizing growing polypeptides that contain exposed hydrophobic surfaces? | a polypeptide chain may still be in the process of folding properly, so how can proteasomes be prevented from erroneously destroying them? | a few reasons 1 is that they start at least forming secondary structures fairly quickly, 2 ubiquination (signal for proteases) doesn't happen immediately or terribly fast unless previously signaled, 3 at lot of folding is aided by something like chaperones where the protein is covered by another protein that functions to help it fold into the right conformation, this also prevents the protein from interacting or being interacted with prior to folding and posttranslational modification. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21750/"
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] |
what happens to electricity in a cable when it is cut? | [deleted] | a good way of thinking about electricity is 'movement'. if you envision a cable as a tunnel which cars are passing through, and you collapse the tunnel, the cars stop. the movement - the electricity - vanishes. there are still cars in the tunnel - meaning, still electrons in the wire. but they're not passing electrical current, the cars aren't moving. so, the current flowing through the cable isn't some physical entity, it's the actual fact that the cars are _moving_ in the tunnel. once the movement stops, the current disappears. doesn't matter how many cars there are, how heavy they are or how fast they went. if they're not moving, there is no current. | 28 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Ll4Y3LHtSw",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=electricity+water+analogy&tbm=isch"
] | [
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] |
how do not gates work? | i totally understand how or and and gates work in real life, but could someone explain the physical process involved in a not gate? i can only visualise a redstone torch on top of a powered block :d | the not function device is called an inverter. it can be as simple as a single transistor in [common emitter](_url_0_) (or common source) configuration. a logical high input turns on the transistor, causing the output to go low. a logical low input leaves the transistor off, causing the output to go high. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_emitter"
] | [
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is there proof that being cold will eventually give you a cold? | is there proof that being cold will eventually give you a cold? or does it simply make you more suseptable to disease? | there is evidence that extended physiological stress or duress can weaken the immune system, potentially making you more likely to catch a cold and develop symptoms. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the mechanism by which some cicadas emerge from the ground synchronously after 17 years? | i know that in a 17-year cicada, its life-cycle runs for about 17 years and most of it is spent underground as nymphs, and the amount of time spent as an adult is relatively short - less than a year. but i don't know much more. let's look it up. well, according to *an introduction to the study of insects* (4^th edition) there are at least 13 broods of the 17-year cicadas, emerging in different years and with different geographic ranges. apparently, a brood is "all periodical cicadas of the same life cycle type that emerge in a given year." and is also known as a "year-class." [^1](_url_1_) aha! "it appears that the particular night of emergence may be determined by the soil temperature; nymphs emerge when the soil temperature inside the exit tunnel (and therefore the body temperature of the nymph) exceeds approximately 64 degrees f. because emergence is temperature-dependent, periodical cicadas tend to emerge earlier in southern and lower-elevation locations." thank you again, [magicicada central](_url_0_)! this explains how they can all emerge overnight in one area. yet it doesn't explain why there are different broods, emerging at different years. well, from the [same website as before](_url_2_), "...geographic distributions hold the key to understanding life cycle change in magicicada. the temporal and biogeographic relationships of 17-year broods suggest a scheme in which geographically adjacent broods are more closely related than distant broods (alexander and moore 1962; marlatt 1923; young 1958) and in which broods gave rise to other broods via simple 1- or 4- year temporary life cycle accelerations (lloyd and dybas 1966; simon and lloyd 1982)." now correct me if i'm wrong, but i take this to mean that the emergence of broods at different years is due to differences in climate that sped up the life cycle of certain cicadas in certain areas, creating the different broods. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://hydrodictyon.eeb.uconn.edu/projects/cicada/magicicada_central/magicicada_central.php",
"http://magicicada.org/about/brood_pages/broods.php",
"http://magicicada.org/map_project/maps.php"
] | [
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|
is it possible to have a working newton's cradle device with any other shape besides spheres? | for example, what if you had cubes lined up precisely side by side so that the flat ends of each cube collided with each other instead of the single point of contact that collides when using spheres. what if the point of contact of the two outside cubes was at their points, not flat ends? would any other shape work the same? | [relevant](_url_0_), not that i would recommend using children. using spheres simply guarantees that when one ball hits the next, all that energy is delivered precisely on a line traversing all the balls. this ensures the maximum amount of energy is transferred to the ball at the opposing end. if we were to use random shapes, the impacts from one ball to the next would become erratic, and a lot of energy would be lost along the way by these shapes moving off in different directions. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/WRjUf"
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mechanical-potential energy mismatch! please discuss what i am misinterpreting. | i am analyzing the gravitational potential of a water droplet resting on a surface and comparing it to the total surface energy of the water. my hypothesis is that the total surface energy of the water, which causes the mass to sit above the 0-height position, will be equal to the (mass)x(gravity)x(centroid of mass), with respect to 0-height. the final numbers differ by more than 3 orders of magnitude and they are not whole number or pi multiples of each other. i have begun to think i am misinterpreting the meaning of surface tension. my variables are: avg radius of drop =1.4 mm surface tension, [energy] = 0.000072 n/mm, [j/mm²] g = 9810 mm/s² density of water 10^-6 kg/mm³ centroid of mass = 0.8 mm assumption: the droplet is apporximately spherical, with a missing portion of the sphere 0.7 mm underneath the surface. tl;dr: should the total surface energy of a fluid resting on a surface equal the energy required to lift its mass above the zero height? why/not? | no, it shouldn't (i think). let's look at a drop which is just tangential to the surface, there is gravity but we are only looking at the it the moment it was released. call this state a, the energy for state a is: e(a)=mgr+e_surface_a where r is the radius of the spherical drop. now the drop has been released , it moves and settles in some position. this is state b, at which the centroid has height h. so: e(b)=mgh+e_surface_b from energy equivalence you can get: mg(r-h)=e_surface_b - e_surface_a which is very different from what you got! hope this helps :) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's so special about water? | we drink it so we can continue living. many things do the same. many other things actually live in it, but it's just two hydrogen molecules (which i recently learned is just a proton and/or an electron) and one oxygen molecule. what's so special about it? why do we need it to live? | water is special for a number of reasons. it's: - abundant. hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, and oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth's crust. water is easily formed from these two in an exothermic reaction. - liquid at the average temperature of the earth. - a polar molecule, which makes it a good solvent for a lot of chemical substances. - transparent to many wavelengths of light, so aquatic plants can thrive. - has high surface tension because it can form a high number of hydrogen bonds, giving rise to strong capillary action. - has high electrical conductivity when doped with ions. - has high heat capacity, so it acts as a temperature buffer for earth's climate. - oleophobic, so fatty dipolar molecules tend to form micelles and bilayered membranes. - hydrolytic, so it can cleave a large number of biochemicals. hydrolysis of the terminal phosphate of atp powers a large number of biochemical processes. | 12 | [] | [] | [
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what's so great about water? | i understand that almost any living creature here on earth needs water to survive. without it, it would certainly mean death. so why is water the miracle substance? is there another substance that could potentially fill its role in other worlds where water in a liquid state is not as easily accessible? also, i asked this question a few days ago and it got no attention. google searches have also been unfruitful. | * it's very common in the universe * it's a very good solvent (which helps facilitate chemical reactions) * it is liquid at a fairly wide range of temperatures * it has a neutral ph * its solid phase is less dense than its liquid phase (ice floats) which helps circulation of the oceans and allows bodies of water to freeze over and remain liquid underneath rather than freezing solid from the bottom up, killing everything inside there may be a few other things, but this is what i can come up with off the top of my head. these things basically make it well suited for living things to use as a medium for their biological processes. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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need to be sleep-deprived to get an eeg? | my aunt is getting an eeg, and can't have more than three hours of sleep in the 24 hours before getting it, and can't have any caffeine in her system either. why is this? in case it matters, the reason she's getting it is to see if she's ever had a seizure, before they put her on ampyra(?), which could be problematic if she has. | not only seizures but what are called _interictal epileptiform discharges_ tend to occur more often during sleep. interictal epileptiform discharges are sharp-looking waves that occur without really having any effect; a person who shows them on eeg is much more likely to have seizures than if they don't. sleep deprivation can itself also provoke changes in the brain which make it more likely to detect changes which may predispose someone to having seizures. the reason one would want to do all this is because a routine 20-minute eeg can be quite insensitive. up to 50% of all people with epilepsy have a normal first eeg. in your aunt's case, i take it it's more of a screening tool before they start her on dalfampridine (ampyra). the study won't show if she's "ever had a seizure"; it can only show if she's more likely than normal to have seizures. that hinges on finding epileptiform abnormalities, and the best shot at that is...sleep-deprived eeg. caffeine has various effects that can skew eeg, including effects on slower waveforms during sleep. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
when there is a high load on an electrical grid, why can't we just let the frequency drop (eg 50 - > 45 hz) and then recover later, rather then requiring rolling blackouts / load shedding? | to slow the grid frequency, every generator on the entire grid would need to slow at the exact same rate, but since not ever generator has the same output power/overload capabilities this wouldn't be the case. if the generators are out of phase (which is guaranteed if they're at different speeds) large fault currents begin to flow between the generators to try and pull them back in sync and things start to trip and go offline. if they were all slowed in sync somehow, then every standard ac (induction) motor would also slow down to match, since line powered induction motors (pumps, tools, large fans, etc) rotate at about the same speed as the grid's generators. also, the impedance of all the transformers/power factor correction equipment/etc would change and it would alter how much power the grid could supply, losses at substations, and a few other details. edit: read some of the replies to this comment as well. some are quite insightful and clarify some hand waviness i included. | 2,269 | [] | [] | [
"http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/35271/InTech-Steam_turbines_under_abnormal_frequency_conditions_in_distributed_generation_systems.pdf",
"https://www.bmreports.com/bmrs/?q=demand/rollingsystemfreq",
"http://www.nyiso.com/public/webdocs/markets_operations/documents/Manuals_and_Guides/Manuals/Operations/em_op_mnl.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_blackout_of_1965"
] | [
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|
what is pwm and why is it used in driving an inductive load? | pulse width modulation is used because it is an efficient way of synthesizing a variable voltage to a load. pwm amplifier transistors act as switches, they are either 'on' or 'off'. when 'on' there is very little voltage across the switch and a lot of current through it. when 'off' there is a lot of voltage across the switch but very little current through it. the semiconductor 'switches' dissipate little power while the load is delivered a lot of voltage and current. pwm amplifier efficiency routinely exceeds 95%. high-power pwm amplifiers are usually 'h-bridges'. the letter 'h' has a horizontal bar with a vertical bar above and below at each end of the horizontal bar. the horizontal bar is the motor coil (mostly inductive with some resistance) and each vertical bar is a semiconductor 'switch'. the top two switches connect to a positive voltage, the bottom two switches connect to ground. that is 4 'on/off' switches. let's call them ul (upper left), ll (lower left), ur (upper right) and lr (lower right). the law of switching an h-bridge is "only 1 switch at a time can be 'on' at each end of load". now let's use the h-bridge. the simplest is turn ul and lr 'on' for a short while, then turn them 'off' and turn ur and ll 'on' for a short while. repeat the process. usually this is done 20,000 times a second. a 50% pwm duty cycle has each switch-pair 'on' for 25 microseconds and 'off' for 25 microseconds. if you did that and used 100v for the positive voltage, the coil would 'see' a 20khz squarewave voltage across it with an amplitude of +/-100 volts. the dc voltage component is zero at a 50% duty cycle and the current in an ideal inductance would have zero net change. changing the duty cycle changes the dc voltage component across the inductive load and that determines the rate and direction of current change. using feedback then allows controlling the magnitude of current in an inductance (motor) as well. now you have all the components necessary to make motor current proportional to a command input. i am a ee and i design servomotor and microstepping drives for a living. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does wolfram alpha graph random image curves? | this is the original [post](_url_0_). if you look through the comments people just graph a lot of random images (pokemon, scooby doo, maps, nicholas cage, etc...) but there is no answers to how it's done. anybody know how this is done? do they have interns deriving equations for weeks at a time? is there some kind of software program that can make curves from looking at an image outline? is it actually simpler than it looks even though the equations are like 300 lines? | most of the magic (or maybe trickery) is in all of the θs in each function, which is wolfram alpha's abbreviation for the [heaviside function](_url_1_). basically, that acts like a toggle. instead of finding a single curve which precisely draws a shape, they can split up the shape into all of its pieces. then they find a curve to draw each part - horizontal line, kinda curvy line, vertical line, circle - and use the heaviside function to switch each one on and off. for example, say they want a line at a 45 degree angle from x=0 to x=2. they would start with y=x, which goes to + and - infinity. to bound it between 0 and 2, they would use: [(heavisidetheta[x] - heavisidetheta[x - 2]) * x](_url_0_[x]+-+heavisidetheta[x+-+2]+%29+x+from+x%3d-5+to+5+and+y%3d-5+to+5) if you start combining dozens or hundreds of these functions, you can draw some very complicated shapes. i'm sure they have an algorithm which does this - breaks an image into small pieces, finds a function for each piece, then combines the pieces into one big function. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/funny/comments/1dfkdz/thatll_do_wolframalpha_thatll_do/"
] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28+HeavisideTheta",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaviside_function"
] | [
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"the disgusting body part of a disgusting animal is more hygienic than your relatively clean body part" | i see this a lot. how do we actually measure 'hygiene'? i'd guess that the festering wound of a horse contains less diseases to humans than the face of a human, because the diseases spread to humans. would that be the right way to look at it? or is it all just nonsense in the first place? | was gonna start another thread for this question, but this looks like a good one to ask it in. do animals have a sense of disgust? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is reality/our existence discrete or continuous? | although our experience of said reality seems to be continuous, is there any evidence pointing to either position as the truth? i've read a bit about planck length and time, and even that they do not imply that there is a smallest unit, so i'm wondering if they come into play? | continuous. there's no evidence to suggest spacetime should be quantised, and if you try to model it as such you run into problems. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does using anti-perspirant have an adverse affect on performance? | so the body sweats to keep cool. anti-perspirant is meant to affect the sweat glands to reduce sweating. does using an anti-perspirant not interact with this cooling meaning that muscles can't lose heat as quickly as they might otherwise, and therefor having an negative on sports performance? or would this be too minimal to really detect? | this is only a guess, so hopefully someone more knowledgeable on the subject can chime in, but..... if we're talking underarm anti-perspirants, they're only affecting a small area - you still will sweat throughout the rest of your body. if however, you were to cover your entire body with anti-perspirant, it may play a role in preventing the body from cooling off via evaporative cooling. so, for typical usages (underarm), i think it would have very little, if any, measurable effect on an athlete's performance. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does one's "biological clock" work? and is it possible to "reset" it? | every cell in the human body has a circadian rhythm, which influences what genes are transcribed when, thus controlling a lot of biological functions. there's also a master clock in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which is in the hypothalamus in the brain, right above the optic chiasm (hence the name). as far as "resetting" the biological clock, there's no *fast* way to shift it. this is because of a feedback loop within the cell, within which trhe gene sik1 is critical. basically, as gene transcription works to shift the circadian clock within the cell, the proteins produced trigger a process that stops the gene transcription. this is why your body can only shift about an hour/day when traveling across timezones. you can keep whatever schedule you want, but it'll take that many days for your body to catch up. what you can do, though, to shift or stabilize your circadian rhythm is to make judicious use of sun light exposure. other ideas have been floated about how to reset/shift the circadian clock, like fasting for half a day or more, then eating when you want your new morning to be. none of these has surpassed light as a way to shift your rhythm. timing is critical - light at the wrong time can push your rhythm the wrong direction or not at all. timing is relative to your circadian clock, irrespective of local time. specifically, light exposure just before or just after the nadir of your circadian rhythm will produce the largest delay/advance of your clock. the nadir typically occurs about 2 hours before your habitual wake up time - when your body wants to wake up, not your alarm clock. [see this phase response curve to visualize the relationship between time of light exposure and shift of circadian clock.](_url_0_) in the case of someone wanting to shift their rhythm 4 hours earlier, bright light right when waking up can be bad - it'll be in the phase delay zone, so the exact opposite of that's desired. in that case, bright light should be avoided during the first two hours of wakefulness, assuming the person immediately changes their wake time 4 hours earlier. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.dialogues-cns.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/DialoguesClinNeurosci-14-448-g001.jpg"
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|
natural selection and human future | natural selection means that individuals with traits which allowed them to be better adapted to the environment survived and passed these genes to their offspring. however, with the current state of human society this process appears to be obsolete. what does it mean for humanity? e.g.: toes on our feet were once resembled those of monkeys but they lost their purpose and have been degenerating since individuals with smaller toes survived more consistently. no such selection exists nowadays, so does it mean that in say 100 000 years the genetic pool of humanity will be incredibly diverse? thanks | sure it does, the selection pressures are just very different from what they used to be. selection pressures could be generally weaker and they may not be selecting for things that we consider "better", but as long as there is any correlation whatsoever between a person's genes and the odds of them producing viable offspring, there will still be some form of selection pressure for the genes that give the best odds. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the human body ever grow new blood vessels in our circulatory system? | i was curious if the body ever creates new veins in our circulatory system as we age, or to meet new demands for oxygen by our muscles? | yes it does. [vegf](_url_0_) is responsible for this. as we grow, our body must supply the new cells with oxygen, nutrients, and waste removal. this also plays a role with cancer as tumors increase the production of vegf to feed themselves. if we can block this growth factor, see: [avastin](_url_1_), we can inhibit tumor growth. my research happens to be based in how this plays out in rat liver so i can go into more depth if desired. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_endothelial_growth_factor",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bevacizumab",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiogenesis#Chemical_stimulation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angiogenesis"
] | [
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a question about light. | my main question is; can we see a star in the night sky whose light has been bent by gravitational pull? [[diagram](_url_1_)] if that does happen, would it be possible to see the same star twice? [[2nd diagram](_url_0_)] | yes, but it's not as extreme as your diagrams suggest. a search on "gravitational lensing" turns up a bunch of [pictures](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/cGZKj.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/LqJy5.png"
] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Einstein_cross.jpg/621px-Einstein_cross.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Cross",
"http://physics.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/Notes_www/img229.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_ring",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_lens"
] | [
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a question about light. | probably a "duh" question but, if i were to tint a mirror would the reflected light appear darker as opposed to the same shade of tint on a window due to it (the light) being filtered twice? | i'm going to assume that the reflectivity of the "tint" product is much smaller than that of the mirror itself. you might see some reflection from the tint product but mostly the light that is filtered twice. so, a tint product that has color will distort the true colors in the mirror. given that the tint product must be transparent, the color you see will be altered by the tint color; e.g., a blue tint will block out red light (is this why cops have red and blue flashing lights?). i would go with a grey tint which is neutral w.r.t colors. then it would be simply darker and the colors would be preserved. i don't see why the windows would be any different apart (as you noted) that, for the same thickness of the product, the overall "shade" would be brighter for the windows. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how was the gravitational slingshot first tested? | how were gravity assists first tested, and how were scientists certain about the calculations? you hear about gravity assists all the time but i'd like to know how they were first tested and more specifically, how the scientists knew it would work especially considering the cost of space missions. i can only imagine how difficult the calculations for a maneuver billions of miles away would be. | it is elementary newtonian mechanics. what is there to test, apart from course corrections to get the trajectory right? [mariner 10](_url_0_) was the first to use a fly-by to reach another destination. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_10"
] | [
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is a person who sleeps only on one side of his body more prone to bladder cancer/gastric ulcers? | uric acid is not actually associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer. things that increased uric acid levels are correlated with include kidney stones (due to acidification of the urine), and gout, where urate crystals precipitate into joints due to the high blood concentration. uric acid can also crystallize inside the renal tubules and cause acute renal failure or chronic urate nephropathy. urate's blood levels are dependent on production and excretion. most people with high blood uric acid are underexcretors and a small percent (10-15%) are overproducers (uric acid is a dna breakdown byproduct). on to the meat of your question. as far as lying on one side contributing to cancer risk / pathology risk, i know of no research or evidence that would indicate that would be so. i performed a cursory literature search this morning, and found no results, but a more thorough search may be indicated. the quality of evidence from such a study (if one exists) might be suspect as well. what you describe would like involve a cohort study, following a group of people with similar risks for a number of years, controlling for other risk factors (good luck on that), and relying on quality of self-reporting to ensure patients consistently slept on one side as opposed to the opposite or the back. even then, these hollow organs are distensible - transitional cell epithelium in the bladder and the rugae of the stomach ensure contraction and distension to match the volume of material contained therein, so sleeping on one side or another wouldn't change the amount of contact of the wall of the organ with its contents by too terribly much. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how did naval ballistics work in world war i? | not sure if this is better suited for another sub, but here goes: there weren't many significant naval engagements in wwi, but in those that did happen many of the vessels were miles apart, moving at 20-30 knots in rough seas/weather, with no assistance from radar. if you're 10 miles apart, the curvature of the earth plays a roll, you're swaying up and down, and both vessels are moving quickly. seems a darn near impossible task. how would gunners have calculated shell trajectories? | just for reference, before we start, here's a [block diagram](_url_0_) of a naval fire control system, circa 1950. the smaller images in the dialog bubbles are meant to show earlier methods of solving the component problems. in world war i, as you point out, naval engagement ranges were significantly greater than they had been in the age of cannon, and calculating trajectories was much greater than it had been. brought into prominence by the naval arms race of the time (leading to the development of ['dreadnoughts'](_url_2_)), this led to the development of centralized fire control on the larger ships, rather than individual aiming at each gun or gun mount. at the heart of the fire control system, british naval units in wwi relied on the somewhat flaky [dreyer fire control table](_url_3_), a mechanical computer. (in the previous diagram, this would be the rangekeeper.) parameters which would affect shell trajectories were entered - mostly manually - and the dreyer would output a set of targeting points. gunners would manually adjust the naval guns to the correct angles. a number of parameters could not be measured easily - wind speed at varying altitudes, for example - and this led to some empirical deviation from the calculated parameters. estimates from the [battle of jutland](_url_1_) are that the shells fired by the royal navy were accurate only 3% of the time. edit: the development of ballistics tables continued to be important for decades. if you read some of his books, richard feynman mentions spending part of 1941 developing high altitude ballistics tables for the u.s. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/8ovx4n7.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Jutland",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreadnought",
"http://dreadnoughtproject.org/tfs/index.php/Dreyer_Fire_Control_Table"
] | [
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is the weakening of the arctic jet steam and collapsing of the arctic vortex early signals of a impending ice age? | no. _url_0_ the opposite, if anything. a warming planet disrupts or weakens the jet stream, so cold air will blow down from time to time. but it's part of an overall warming trend, not an ice age. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/jan/30/polar-vortex-2019-usa-what-is-it-temperatures-cold-weather-climate-change-explained",
"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2004GC000891",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles",
"http://science.sciencemag.org/content/297/5585/1287"
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|
how often to transposons actually 'move'? | i was wondering if they excise themselves and move every cell-cycle, every week, every year, etc. i am interested in both class i and class ii. also, since they make up a large fraction of the genome, i am assuming humans do encode for reverse transcriptases? last question is about erv's. how do they accelerate evolution? also how often do they 'move'? | genomes have been at war with transposons and retroviruses since nearly the dawn of the genomic era. and to be frank, it has been a bloody affair. mammalian genomes, for instance, are littered with the scars of this war: more than 45% of the genomic content of the human genome is comprised of the remnants of truncated and inactivated transposons. and hidden away withing these 'dead' transposons, are a few survivors which continue to replicate, often causing havoc for their host genomes. as you might imagine for elements that 'move' around the genome, they are inherently mutagenic and have been implicated in multiple diseases, notable cancer and neurodegeneration. to get to your questions -- i would preface this by saying like most wars, there aren't too many easy answers. for example, the activity of transposons varies enormously from organism to organism, different transposons are more or less active in different species, and the activity of individual transposable elements isn't even constant throughout a single organism's lifetime. the answer to your question will vary subtely depending on which transposable element you are interested in. i'll give some input on l1 retrotransposons, because (i) i think they are cool and (ii) they are the most active transposon in humans and have been implicated in multiple diseases. here are some things, that we are pretty comfortable saying about l1 retrotransposons: the individual activity of any one l1 element tends to be fairly low. for example, [there are reporter assays where a l1 retrotransposon is cloned to a gfp gene in such a way that the cell only becomes gfp+ if a full 'retrotransposiion event' occurs](_url_1_). when cells are transfected with these types of reporters, typically very few cells become gfp+ (typically between 0.01-15%, depending on the cell type). it is worth noting, however, that this begs the question of how do we define activity. even if individual l1s infrequently complete a new retrotransposition event, multiple studies have indicated that they are transcriptionally active throughout the lifetime of the organism. moreover, there repetitive nature makes host genomes more susceptible to deleterious recombination events. so even if they are not 'transpositionally active', they may still be presenting the cell with a challenge. indeed, given the amount of resources the cell expends in silencing these elements, this seems very likely. in terms of when l1s are most active, [the answer appears to be embryogenesis](_url_0_). in somatic tissues, l1s are considerably less active, although an exciting trend in the field has been the [recognition that during the process of aging, l1s somehow escape this silencing process and may be contributing to age-related pathologies](_url_2_). as for when in the cell cycle l1s are most active, [some studies](_url_3_) have indicated that l1s are only active in actively dividing cells, but why this would be, and whether it is universally true is not fully understood. as for how l1s, drive evolution: as hinted at earlier, their repetitive nature favors crossing-over events and other types of recombination. in germ cells, this certainly contributes to diversity. several people have also pointed to more direct examples. for instance, some have speculated that telomerase, the enzyme essential for maintaining chromosome length, is closely related to the reverse transcriptase of lines and may have evolved from it. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2701581/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2763987/",
"http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2014/140923/ncomms6011/full/ncomms6011.html",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1800731/"
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what is the part of the brain, and how does it function, that allows us to process and repeat units of time (like in a beat)? | basically the title. & #x200b; i (and everyone else) can move my hand back and forth, and repeat that motion forever, with the same unit of time elapsing between each movement. that was a really wierd way of describing the motion of a conductor, with the time elapsing between the two peaks of the swing of their arm being the same. the same can be done by vocalizing, or merely in my head. at first i assumed it had something to do with counting (and it still might idk), but i don't have to assign any unit value (like a second) to it. i can arbitrarily choose a length of time, without even knowing what it would be in seconds, yet i can swing my hand to that exact unit of time over and over again. i can do it for any length, and can alternate it (1 second then 3 seconds then 1 second continuing). again this can also be spoken or merely thought. & #x200b; what is the part of the brain that allows me to determine a period of time, recognize it as such, and maintain a repeating pattern where i am aware when each period of that time elapses? i first assumed it had something to do with like a base time, but i can choose or be shown any length of time and can repeat it in my head rhythmically. where in the brain is this process? how does it work - is there a neuron that holds and releases charge to that period of time, like a circuitboard? how can i identify a unit of time, memorize it, and consistently recognize when it elapses? how does that function? | i can’t answer your question, and you might already know this, but conducting or keeping time are not easy things to do. rushing and dragging are ultra common, and it takes a highly skilled and well practiced conductor to combat. keeping time, just like playing an instrument, is a skill that you learn and practice makes you better. that being said maybe it’s the same part of your brain as other skills like instrument learning. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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robot neurologist problem: a fmri analogy? (xpost from r/philosophy) | **(actually xpost from r/neurophilosophy)** i may have made the story over complicated but here is the main idea: *someone makes a robot but then dies. a robot neurologist wants to know if the robot sees color. he looks into the robot control center and finds three nodes(1, 2, and 3) each with two conditions: (on or off). the neurologist decides to test the robot in order to find out if it knows color:* **test 1:** *(show robot picture of shape with color; then record condition of nodes): results:* *shape in picture (n1: n2: n3) 1. white square (off: off: off) 2. black square (on: on: off) 3. white triangle (off: off: on) 4. black triangle (on: on: on) 5. white circle (on: off: on) 6. black circle (off: on: off) *test 1 results seem to indicate that:* node 2 in the off condition represents white node 2 in the on condition represents black *unconvinced by his first test the neurologist decides to conduct a second.* **test 2:** *(show robot picture; then ask robot what color he sees and record answer; then record nodes): results:* *shape in picture "robot answer" (n1: n2: n3) 1. white half-circle "white" (off: on: on) 2. black half-circle "black" (on: off: off) *question(s): does the robot know color? is the robot lying?* is this an accurate(albeit simplified) analogy of real-life experiments that use fmri (or electrophysiological recordings) to "mind read" or see mental images? has anyone else made a thought experiment similar to this (besides the [chinese room experiment](_url_0_))? have there been any scientific experiments that would exclude the possible results of test 2? **can anyone offer some insight into this apparent contradiction?** | first of all, in optical terms, color and brightness are two different things. brightness is a measure of the total amount of light, while color is a measurement of the comparative magnitudes of different wavelengths of light. so your thought experiment measures whether a robot can see brightness, not color. pedantic, yes, but i want to be accurate. secondly, there is a large difference between how computers code and manipulate signals and how the brain codes and manipulates signals. specifically, computers process serially, while brains process in parallel. so your "node" example does not carry over from computers to brains, because each node is interacting with each other node to crate a unique pattern of activity. so from a neuroscience perspective, *there is no contradiction*. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_room"
] | [] | [
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how do i find an exact point on the globe, on land, that is an equal distance between myself and my friend? | this worked out to be harder than i thought. can anybody help? the points are edmonton, alberta, canada and sydney, new south wales, australia where do we meet in the middle? (besides the north pacific ocean...) i've been messing around with some maths, google maps and this website, but still can't find the exact point. so far, i think it would be a place in chile, south america. i don't even know what formula i'm working out because exactly half way around the globe for us is in the middle of the ocean. actually, i have no idea what i'm doing at all. _url_0_ | the first step is to find the middle point directly in between both locations. it seems you've already managed that and found it was a rather inconvenient location to meet. now, on a flat surface, the line that contains all the points that are equidistant from both locations can be found by drawing a line perpendicular to the line connecting the two locations and crossing the midpoint. on a sphere such as earth (approximately anyway), the procedure is similar: draw a line between the two locations over a greatcircle (a greatcircle is a circle with a center that coincides with the center of the earth), find the midpoint between the two locations. then draw a line through the midpoint perpendicular to the connecting line, such that the new line also follows a greatcircle. this should give you a greatcircle running all the way around the globe of points that are equally far from both locations. putting this into practice is a bit complicated, but the easiest way to do so is to grab a [gnomonic projection](_url_0_) of the earth and draw your lines on it. this projection may look strange, but it has the benefit that all greatcircles are mapped to straight lines. so for this purpose, you can consider the earth as flat surface while using this projection, which allows you to find locations using just a ruler and a pencil. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.daftlogic.com/projects-google-maps-distance-calculator.htm"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnomonic_projection",
"http://williams.best.vwh.net/gccalc.htm"
] | [
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] |
i recently saw a link about super-moons and i have some questions... | i saw (_url_0_)[this article] on another reddit post and it says that 'scientists are baffled as to why this happens'. how can we predict it if we don't know how/why it happens? | because it's psychological, and not physical. if you actually measured the angular diameter of the moon, then it definitely is not bigger when it's closer to the horizon. edit: this is different to "supermoons" which are just when the moon is closer to the earth than normal because of its elliptical orbit. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.space.com/15545-moon-illusion-horizon-supermoon.html?utm_source=Marleybonez-via-twitter"
] | [
"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2012/02may_supermoon/"
] | [
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[statistical mechanics] why is there a factor of 1/2 in the law of equipartition of energy? | [this (link)](_url_0_) is what i'm asking about. it says that the mean energy is 1/2 kt per degree freedom. is it just a artifact of how k is defined? if so why is it defined that way? or is it because energy is split between two directions for each independent motion? if so i'm having a hard time wrapping my head around exactly why. | the factor of 2 comes from the dependence of kinetic energy on the square of velocity. the equipartition theorem states that for every degree of freedom with a *quadratic energy dependence*, your mean energy is 1/2 kt. if there were an energy dependence on any variable to any even power n, then you can show that that you would have a factor of 1/n kt instead. to understand for yourself, i suggest looking at this proof, which is exactly how i learned it in my stat mech course. _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equipartition_of_energy"
] | [
"http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/sm1/lectures/node67.html"
] | [
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?sticking a key in an electric outlet! | there's a post in /r/parenting about a child preparing to stick a key into a power outlet. by my understanding, nothing would happen unless there were another connection to the other terminal as well, as a circuit wouldn't be formed. is this correct (assume 120vac, 60hz)? is there a point where a positive (or negative) potential is so great (relative to ground) that completion of a circuit is no longer relevant (does arcing require a terminal of opposite potential; it seems lightning is arcing to ground). can you give rough order of voltage required if this is possible? | first off: the rough order of needed voltage to cause arcing in air is dependant on distance, pressure and how moist the air is. given normal pressure levels at average altitude the 'formula' is roughly like: ~27kv / cm. so for homogenic electric fields you need to be closer than about a cm to an object with a voltage of 27kv to cause arcing. the geometry of both objects plays an important role! for example if you have a very pointy structure (e.g. a needle) the required voltage will be lower because the electrical field (and thus the difference in voltage from point to point) is way more dense! this picture describes the behaviour of electrical fields on different geometry quite well in my opinion: _url_0_ the closer the lines of the field are to each other, the higher the energy density and the potential voltage difference is! to answer your question about the child: it depends. if you hit the live wire that runs the oscillating voltage the circuit is most likely going to be completed with your feet. if you hit n or pe you should be fine though. 120vac can still cause serious harm. especially because usually the fuse in the fusebox will only react on higher currents than those that flow through your body! they're not made to protect the human but the house installation. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://figures.boundless.com/16524/full/figure-19-07-07a.jpe",
"http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_3/8.html"
] | [
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do those foam mats people stand on in stationary jobs actually do anything to help foot pain? | it seems like they wouldn't once they're fully compressed. you'd need braces or bigger feet to lessen stress on your feet. | having worked as a full-time cashier, i can tell you that every bit of compressible material between your foot and the concrete makes a difference. yes, the mats wear out, but even a worn out mat is still better than standing on bare concrete for several hours. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happened to this person's spine? an accident? | [picture](_url_0_) | i can't be positive, but my conjecture would be a very severe, untreated case of scoliosis. source: experience (thank goodness, not my own). | 6 | [] | [
"http://28.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_m2hyzqMX3A1r4bihwo1_500.png"
] | [] | [
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is this an example of the mcgurk effect? | please don't consider this a joke, i am genuinely interested if [this](_url_0_) is a complex example of [this](_url_1_). | no, if anything, it's sort of the opposite. if they had the same audio as the original, but a different video, and it led people to hear and understand what he was saying differently, that'd be the mcgurk effect. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uE5xZKszXMQ",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGurk_effect"
] | [] | [
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electromechanics: is it possible to harness electric potential energy? | would it be possible to harness electric potential energy? maybe extract energy from the atmosphere using electric potential difference? is this idea correctly stated? or theoretically possible? | we do it all the time -- it's called [electricity](_url_0_). lightning. of course, you have to put the energy into the atmosphere to take it out. the sun does that, resulting in weather, and the formation of storms, but unless you plan to control the weather or derive energy from what the sun produces naturally (by attracting lightning, or using wind turbines, though that isn't electric potential difference it's due to pressure difference) the only way you're getting something useful out of the atmosphere is by putting something in to it, and you can never get out what you put in to it. it happens all the time, in nature and civilization. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_energy"
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can you really pull out pupil or cornea with your contact? | i have daily contacts and i have an appointment tomorrow. i am saving my last pair for then, and because of my prescription ran out i have a little less to make it. i am wearing my daily contacts for two days in a row. i heard a myth that if you do this, you can pull out your pupil or cornea with your contact. is this true or a myth? | you cannot pull out your pupil-the pupil is simply a hole in the iris which allows light to pass through. and no, you would not be able to pull out your iris. there is a risk of damage to your cornea depending on what type of contact lenses you have and the enviroment you are in-if its dry enough and your eyes dry out then the contact lenses can "stick" to the cornea which is pretty delicate and sensitive to tearing. on the plus side in the event of damage although very painful it shouldn't make you go blind as the cornea can repair itself. edited to add that chronic corneal irritation/damage will cause blindness. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are there diamond patterns on the beach? | i was at the ocean shores beach and noticed some diamond patterns in the sand. _url_0_ . what's the deal? | that occurs when you have wave energy coming in from two different directions. typically, these two directions are when waves wash up onto the beach at an angle, and then wash back into the ocean. [see this as another example](_url_0_) | 17 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/112iHDo.jpg"
] | [
"http://geology.about.com/od/geotours_ca/ig/stinson_beach/diamondripples.htm"
] | [
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what does the 3rd law of motion really mean? | say if a truck and a sedan crash into each other, will the force from the truck to the sedan be equal to the force from the sedan to the truck.if so, how does this work with the equation force = mass * acceleration? | it's related to conservation of momentum. if two objects collide and the momentum of each changes, the total momentum will still be conserved. that means the change in momentum that one experiences plus the change of momentum the other experiences will add up to zero. a force is just the change in momentum over time. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why are the laws of motion second order? | that is, why do forces act to accelerate objects (f = ma) instead of causing a fixed velocity (f = mv) or a third order derivative to position? is there even a way for physicists to try to answer this question? | this was precisely the great breakthrough of people like newton and galileo. the key idea here is that there is no physical difference between a moving reference frame and a resting one. if you're on a train or a plane and you drop something, it will appear to you that it drops vertically. since there is no preferred velocity forces cannot cause a fixed velocity. note that this is only strictly true in a vacuum, friction forces have a preferred velocity. the preferred velocity of your car is that of the ground it is driving on, and the preferred velocity of a plane or ship is that of the surrounding air or water. acceleration is simply the lowest derivative of a trajectory that can be influenced by physical forces (in a vacuum). any dependence on higher (or lower in the case of friction) derivatives can be encoded in the specific form of the force. edit: friction is obviously not the only example with a preferred velocity, also a ball on a spring prefers to move at the velocity of the spring, even if there is no friction but only the restoring force of the spring. however, generally, only velocities of one object *with respect to another object* are physical quantities. the combined system does not move at a preferred velocity. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlocal_Lagrangian",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogradsky_instability"
] | [
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death by taurine | due to final exams, i have been running on monster energy drinks for the past week solid. it got me wondering: where is the line drawn between safe and unsafe amounts of that stuff to have in your system. i know that there are other obvious health implications from things like sleep deprivation. my question is solely related the the ingredients in the drinks. drinking monster lo carb. _url_1_ - ingredients _url_0_ - nutrition. | it highly depends on exactly which drink. many energy drinks also have high amounts of caffeine and dramatically high amounts of various vitamins (who's effects on maintaining alertness are less than established). there has been at least one case of hospitalization due to overdosing on those 'inactive' additional ingredients rather than the principal taurine and caffeine. if you'd like a proper thorough response i'd recommend editing your post to specify the exact products you are consuming so the ingredients list can be checked. otherwise the only advise i can tender off the top of my head is consume a lot of water! | 2 | [] | [
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if we reversed all charges would the world be the same? | like if all negatively charged particles become positive and all positively charged particles became negative. surely everything would be the same? | no, not at all. the electromagnetic interaction would look the same, but other forces (namely the complete electroweak interaction) won't. by changing all charges into their opposite sign, neutrinos would also become anti-neutrinos. but this does not change their chirality, meaning that a left-handed neutrino would now be a left-handed anti-neutrino. but those do not exist in our universe, or at least do not interact with anything. so the universe would actually behave differently. to counteract this, you would assume you also need to mirror the entire universe, so that a left-handed neutrino becomes a right-handed antineutrino. unfortunately, this still won't result in the exact same universe, as the weak force will also behave differently now. this is called cp violation. to truly get back to the same universe, you would also need to reverse the flow of time, in what's called a cpt transformation (charge, parity, time). | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how does our body know how far to throw something? | an example can be when playing catch. | [already answered here.](_url_0_) essentially, it comes down to experience. you know from past experience that to throw an object this heavy that far requires this action with that amount of force. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/16rrh4/how_does_my_body_automatically_know_how_to_throw/"
] | [
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what makes hela cells special to ordinary cells like my own? | well hopefully your cells are not aggressive ovarian cancer cells. hela was just an aggressive cancer cell line that was particularly susceptible to growth in medium and became the first commercially viable human cell line as far as i know. it's only special in that whatever genotype it possessed didn't require the level of environmental structuring that we were too naive to provide it with in order to survive | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does the "doppler effect" work for an accelerating source? | i came across [this figure](_url_0_) and am trying to imagine what it would look like for an accelerating object, like a jet. how would the shock front of an object with a constant and/or non-constant acceleration behave? | a stationary source, like a radio sitting on a table, will sound normal. a radio moving toward you will have its sound waves appear closer to one another, like in the gif you linked to. this sound wave compression gives the radio music a higher frequency, which we percieve as a higher pitch. if you mounted a radio on a car which is initially standing still, it will sound normal to you. if you gradually accelerate the car to a sufficient speed going toward you, you'll hear the music gradually getting a higher and higher pitch. similarly, if you accelerate the car away from you, the radio gets a lower and lower pitch because the sound waves appear stretched out (like on the left side of your gif). basically, an accelerating sound source will sound similar to a car honking its horn as it passes by you. the pitch of the sound will change as the sound source accelerates toward and away from you. in fact, this is exactly what happens when a car passes by. when the car is moving toward you, it sounds high pitched because its sound waves are compressed. when it's next to you, the car is neither moving toward or away from you, making it sound normal. when it has passed you and is moving away from you, its pitch is lower. all the points in between cause a gradual change in the pitch of the car. | 4 | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Dopplereffectsourcemovingrightatmach1.4.gif"
] | [] | [
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what kind of power would a regular generator made out of antimatter make? | say you have antimatter diesel and an antimatter diesel generator and you turn it on (assuming we ignore all the pesky explosiveness) what kind of electricity comes out? positrons? negative energy? | it would just be like a regular generator, with matter replaced by antimatter. that means the current produced would involve the flow of positrons rather than electrons. the energy of the positrons would still be positive as they move. by the way, the antimatter generator would not spontaneously explode; it would only do so if it came into contact with ordinary matter. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does having ph ≈ pka make a good buffer? | how does this relate to the henderson-hasselbalch equation**?** | when ph = pka, you have equal concentrations of acid and base, i.e. equal buffer capacities both ways. higher concentration also makes a better buffer since that also adds buffer capacity. the henderson-hasselbach equation is just taking the (negative) log (base 10) of your equilibrium equation written as the acid dissociation. it gives the result that ph = pka when an acid and conjugate base form are equal, but so does the straight equlibrium equation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how many ways can you arrange all atoms on earth? | you can roughly estimate this with the bekenstein bound, which gives the upper limit of the entropy that these atoms could have, which is related to the number of arrangements. if all the earth was a black hole it would have a radius of 9 mm, meaning its surface area would be about 4x10^65 planck areas, and its entropy a quarter of that number (10^65 ). the degeneracy (number of possible rearrangements) would be e^10^65 which is a very big number. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there such a thing as a "perfect three meals" that could be consumed every day and fulfill all of your nutritional needs? | is it possible to eat the same thing every day and meet all your nutritional needs or do we need that much variation in our diet? | you could make a complicated salad that would get you pretty far (mixed greens, peppers, onions, potato salad, cheese, bacon, chicken, etc.) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does d2o have a different color than h2o? | someone was talking about this in r/chemistry | yes; water (h2o) is blue. it has absorption at the red end of the spectrum by some of its higher vibrational states. this is not true of d2o because of the difference in mass. if you model the vibrational states as a [harmonic oscillator](_url_0_), the energy states are multiples of h-bar times omega, where omega is the sqrt(k/μ). k is a constant depending on the bond strength; specifically it's the second derivative of the energy w.r.t. the interatomic distance. this depends only on the electronic state and is thus the same for h2o and d2o. μ is the reduced mass of the two atoms; μ = m1m2/(m1+m2), dependent on the relative masses. so with h2o, μ = 1\*16/(1 + 16) and for d2o μ = 2\*16/(2 + 16), making it almost twice as large for d2o. so in that model, the vibrational spectrum of d2o is shifted downwards in energy by a factor that's roughly sqrt(1/2). which is what you see in the link proviided by ktoff, where the h2o absorption at 760 nm is shifted to 1000 nm. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_harmonic_oscillator",
"http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm"
] | [
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does your body have an electric field? | a lot of woo and pseudo-science is sold that is supposed to affect your body's electric field. that holographic bracelet is an example. it seems like a lot of this stuff would be nipped in the bud if it turns out we don't even really generate an electric field. but if we do, does it have a specific, coherent frequency? and if so, what happens if we come in contact with something that matches that frequency? this all seems to be the foundation for a lot of pseudo-science. | as iorgfeflkd says, anything that's charged has an electrical field. your body has lots of electrical fields, because there are a lot of places where you have a separation of electrical charges. e.g. between neurons in the brain and across the inner membrane of cellular mitochondria. our muscles for instance, do have an electrical field, and it changes slightly when we use them. the duck-billed platypus (and its cousin, the echidna) has sensors in its bill to detect this and find prey underwater (they swim with their eyes closed). but the fact that we put out small electrical fields as an unavoidable consequence of how our physiology works doesn't mean that changing the field _outside_ the body causes any significant physiological changes. the electrical field around an electric wire or a battery is much stronger than what we put out. and as iorg said, our field is mostly static too, so no frequencies either. it's all pseudoscience as far as i'm concerned. but it's not as simple as not having electrical fields. but we don't have a single field or any such thing. as with most pseudoscience, to whatever extent there's a 'theory' behind it, it's one that can be dismissed directly on the basis of how overly simplistic it is. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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saw this ring around the moon tonight, what is it? | [_url_0_](_url_0_) picture is pretty much as it was seen by the eye, no lens flare or anything causing it. | it is a [lunar halo](_url_0_), caused by refraction of moonlight through high altitude ice crystals. they are a tad more rare than solar halos because the moon needs to be near full to be bright enough to create them. | 7 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/ZIsnx.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/22°_halo"
] | [
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what does the term linear independence represent graphically? and what are the implications of two things being linearly independent? | two vectors are linearly independent if they are not parallel. three vectors are linearly independent if they don't all lie in the same 2d plane. four vectors are linearly independent if they don't all lie in the same 3d "hyperplane." ... | 24 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what would happen to harvey dent's face in real life over time? | in the dark knight, harvey dent refuses medical attention his burned face. so what would happen if similar wounds happened to a victim over time? if the victim were to leave a hospital early, have the wounds exposed for an extended amount of time, and have no medical treatment to it. | well, in any case of having flesh exposed to a contaminated environment, the risk of infection goes up. in a real life harvey dent scenario, considering the extent of his facial injuries, infection would inevitably occur, and without treatment necrosis is a very real possibility, eventually leading to gangrene. in certain incidents of facial damage and deformity, harm can be minimized by protecting the exposed tissue from pathogens by using skin grafts. this is clearly not the case you're talking about though, so the most likely scenario would be infection, with pathogenic bacteria entering the bloodstream and tissue, creating a whole host of medical issues. in real life, harvey deny would likely die from such untreated wounds. | 53 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
when measuring devices are made how do we ensure that they are accurate? | when measuring devices are made how do we ensure that they are accurate? what would the basis of comparison? for example how would you make sure the first meter stick was measured 1 meter precisely divided into 10 equal decimeters and 100 equal centimeters. how do you make measuring devices without measuring devices? | units like meters and kilograms are first defined arbitrarily. units are often* man-made concepts that have no inherent existence in the universe. some people just decided to define the mass of a chunk of metal as a "kilogram". then, everything thereafter was compared to and calibrated using that original chunk of metal. this chunk of metal (a carefully constructed cylinder made of a platinum-iridium alloy) is known as international prototype kilogram (ipk). all standard weights, in some way or any other, were calibrated with ipk. the ipk could have easily been heavier or lighter (technically, containing more or less mass) and we would have developed a measurement system around that. so the original definition of the kilogram was arbitrary. *some units, though, like the second, are now defined by physical phenomena. in the case of the second, it's the time it takes a cesium atom to vibrate a certain number of times. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"balanced.off.it"
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is the perception of heat linear or nonlinear? | i have always felt that when microwaving food, it quickly transitions from lukewarm to way-too-hot. this makes me wonder, is our perception of heat linear or nonlinear? for example, if the temperature of my soup goes up by 10%, does my perception of the hotness go up by 10% or some other factor? the possibility reminds me of how we process hearing, which is more logarithmic. | were bad at sensing temperature. we sense heat flow much better. veritasium did a great video on this. you can feel a block of room temp aluminum and a book and the metal feels cold and the book feels warm despite them having the same temp. this is because the aluminum conducts heat from your body better than paper. also remember that there is a certain point when something goes from being warm to painful. these are not the same sensation. i imagine our bodies have evolved to trigger pain in addition to heat at different times. | 26 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the best way to teach someone to think scientifically? | first, sorry if this is outside the mandate of r/askscience since it's not a question about a specific scientific problem, but this seemed like the place to go. ok, what do you think is the best way to teach a lay, non-scientific person how to think scientifically, skeptically and critically? what is the best way to get someone to value evidence-based scientific thinking in order to inoculate them against superstitions and absurd baseless bullshit in all its varied forms? anyone have a good article? video? book that addresses this head-on? | the way i feel like i developed my own scientific thinking was when i was in engineering school, a lot of emphasis was place on what the equations mean, not necessarily how to derive them. for example, what happens when certain variables are large or small? what happens when time goes to infinity? what implications do these phenomena have? what happens when we apply these quantum equations at a macro-scale? basically, the first step is to have an idea of what you expect and just as important is being able to sit down with your results and truly explore their implications on a broad scale. developing governing theories is increasingly different as we have more data because it's more and more difficult to reconcile everything simultaneously | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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glass cookware i.e. pyrex/corning visions, etc, what are the difference between the various vitroceramic materials? | i am researching glass cookware to outfit my kitchen and am a little confused with the various glass materials that were available. i am particularly interested in stovetop glass cookware (corning visions), they are stovetop safe compare to pyroceram cookware that are only suitable for oven use and marketed as oven-to-table. what are the differences between soda-lime, borosilicate and aluminosilicate glass? | i will outline the basic differences here, because they can be summed up fairly quickly: * soda-lime glass: "normal" glass, which is prone to cracking and chipping (damage to one area often compromises the entire thing) and is not resistant to heat shock (quick cooling/heating can crack it) * aluminosilicate glass: glass that has aluminum added. this is what "gorilla glass" is made of and is especially durable and doesn't have the susceptibility to shattering that normal glass has. * borosilicate glass: glass that has boron oxide as major component. most laboratory glass is made of this because it is resistant to heat shock and also is more stable than normal glass. in my opinion borosilicate is the way to go. they are more durable (though perhaps not as durable as aluminosilicate) than normal glass and the heat-shock resistance is a huge plus. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any truth to the idea of, "we've already been exposed, might as well not avoid it now." | on a lot of shows and movies, people realize that someone is getting sick, and they just decide that there is no use in quarantining that person, since they were already around them during incubation. isn't it possible that by being around a virus longer you are increasing your chance of catching whatever it is? | it is true in some cases that if you're already *infected* there's no point in avoiding it. for instance if there are epidemics of contagious diseases, e.g. viruses causing diarrhoea, or respiratory viruses, specifically those that cause bronchiolitis in babies, you can test to see what virus they have and then put patients with the same thing together. another example would be for patients receiving transplants. there is a virus called cmv related to the one that causes glandular fever. it can cause severe illness in those who are immunosuppressed. because it is a herpes virus it stays around for life. if the donor tests positive they could transmit it, so you would want cmv positive to go to cmv positive recipients and cmv negative to go to cmv negative. this doesn't work if you don't know the exact virus, or for things like hiv that can vary wildly. for exposure it all depends on how contagious the bug is and how big the exposure was. some exposures will infect anyone susceptible, e.g. being in a room for a while with someone with active measles. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.catie.ca/pif/summer-2012/putting-number-it-risk-exposure-hiv"
] | [
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correlation between element density and rarity? | so if all of the elements denser than iron are made in the final moments of massive supernovae, and the denser elements are the most difficult to make and thus produced in progressively smaller amounts, shouldn't the rarity of an element directly follow its density? do they? lead seems fairly common. is that just because of earth's specific accretion? | density doesn't have any necessary connection to atomic mass -it's more a function of whether the object is solid, liquid, or gas in typical situations. it is true that among metals (which are solid) elements with higher atomic mass are usually denser, but there are significant variations that result from different configurations of the solid. from here, i will assume that you were asking about atomic mass. in general, lower-mass elements are more common, because the universe started out as 75% hydrogen and 25% helium, and producing high-mass elements requires a lot of fusion. but this isn't everything. the actual mechanism of fusion makes some low-mass elements rare and some high-mass elements common. the most prominent reason for this is that helium is very stable, so fusion of higher elements typically means adding a helium rather than a hydrogen to the previous element. as a result, atoms with an even number of protons are much more common than those with an odd number of protons. here is the [cosmic abundance of materials](_url_0_), which clearly shows this pattern. the formation of elements is as follows: hydrogen fuses to helium - helium fuses to carbon and oxygen. (thus, lithium, beryllium and boron are rare despite being lower in mass than carbon and oxygen) these processes produce energy in all stars. so the order of abundance is hydrogen, helium, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen for the most common elements. in higher-mass stars, you fuse carbon and oxygen as well as adding helium to carbon and oxygen, producing elements like neon, silicon, calcium, and magnesium. energy-producing fusion ends with iron (silicon +silicon), which is the most stable element. therefore, in type 1a supernova explosions, the entire mass of a white dwarf is converted to iron. that's why iron is common. of the heavier elements lead is relatively common because it has a "magic" nuclear configuration, making it the (second) highest-mass stable element. thus, it is one of the first decay products of higher-mass, more radioactive elements. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www2.latech.edu/~upali/chem481/Chem481c1.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oddo%E2%80%93Harkins_rule",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Elements_abundance-bars.svg"
] | [
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is there any truth to the myth that the use of chapstick creates the need to use more? | yes. salicylic acid is present in many lip balms ([including carmex](_url_0_)), which is more widely used as a chemical exfoliant for your face. if used too often, it will slough off too much of the outer epidermis (stratum corneum) and leave you with skin that is soft, but prone to drying out. which creates the need to moisturize more with more lip balm. now, this is really only a problem if the balm contains salicylic acid. i checked chapstick's website and apparently they don't use salicylic acid anymore—though i know they used to, and that's why i stopped using it. i use a neutrogena lip balm that is clear and flavor-less, contains no salicylic acid, and has a better texture and have zero problems with dry lips. edited to add: i have no idea about any connection with eyedrops. i had never heard of whitening eyedrops. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mycarmex.com/our-products/original-carmex-stick/default.aspx"
] | [
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|
what is the science behind red sky at night shepherd's delight? | i feel like there is actually a decent scientific explanation for this. of course it could be utter rubbish. | red sky can be caused by weather conditions associated with rain (clouds, high humidity). because weather systems generally move from west to east, seeing a red sunset (west) means that rain is retreating, whereas a red sunrise means these conditions are approaching. i have no idea whether the colour of sunrise or sunset can actually predict anything beyond chance, but at least there is some science behind it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does 'locality' mean in terms of quantum physics? | typically when i don't understand something in physics, it's an equation. while i'm not saying i think quantum physics should be easily understood, but one quality that really perplexes me is when variables are said to be 'local' or 'non-local'. what does this mean, and why is it not a numerical value? can you explain it in layman's terms? | as is often the case in physics, locality is a concrete mathematical property which is always going to lose some accuracy/correctness when expressed in words and qualitatives, as physics is at its core nothing but a quantitative mathematical model. so i don't know if one can express locality in a "100%-no-math" way while still being an accurate and correct description. but i think locality can be expressed, perhaps, in a "math-lite" way, so let's try to do that. the principle of locality can be expressed in a few different - though quite related - ways, but i'm just going to explain the most straightforward way of expressing it. in this way, it amounts to a restriction on how and in what way a present state of a system is mathematically allowed to depend on the state of the same system at an earlier time. let's imagine how something like a scalar field behaves in time. a "scalar field" is just math talk for basically just a function f(x,y,z,t), meaning that for every point in space (x,y,z) and time (t) there is some number f assigned. it is a "field", i.e. something that assigns a mathematical object to every point x,y,z,t, and that mathematical object in this case is a "scalar", i.e. just a number (rather than a vector or tensor or whatever). thus "scalar" "field". an example of a scalar field might be the temperature in the room you're in, we could call it a "the temperature scalar field" and for every point in your room and at a given time there's a defined temperature associated with that point in space and time (say 20 degrees celsius). we might call this field, in math language: t(x,y,z,t) which means it's an object that you plug in an input of an "x", a "y", a "z" and a "t" and it returns the temperature "t" at that point and time. so what does it mean for this temperature field to obey "local" laws of physics? well let's imagine i want to determine what the temperature at a specific point (x0,y0,z0) will be at that same spot but at a time that is just the tiniest bit in the future. if we say the present is t0 then i want to know what "t" will be at the point (x0,y0,z0) but at the time t0+dt where "dt" just means "a small amount" (an infinitesimal time later, if you know calculus, if you don't it doesn't matter). so this is the question, if i want to know t(x0,y0,z0,t0+dt) what do i need to know about t(x,y,z,t0). now keep in mind what i mean here, t(x,y,z,t) (x,y,z,t are general variables, not specific values like x0,y0,z0,t0) means complete knowledge of "t" at all points in space and time, like i'm a temperature omniscient deity. but the question i'm asking if i only want to know the value of the temperature at one specific point in space and time, how much do i need to know about t. do i need to know the temperature everywhere at t0, i.e. do i need to know t at x0+2000 km or at z0-3,000,000 km, do i need to know t(x,y,z,t0) for all values of x,y and z that can exist? everywhere at all times? or only some places in t0? etc. if the temperature scalar field obeys "locality" then what it means is that the laws of how temperature changes in time are such that if i want to know t(x0,y0,z0,t0+dt) i only need to know the temperature at that same point a moment earlier t(x0,y0,z0,t0) and the temperature at points that are immediately next to that point:t(x0+dx,y0,z0), t(x0-dx,y0,z0), t(x0,y0+dy,z0),t(x0,y0-dy,z0), and so on (where dx,dy,dz means a "tiny bit in that direction"). in a local theory, the value of at t(x,y,z,t) only depends on the value of t at the same point a moment before as well as its value in some very tiny neighbourhood in its vicinity. it doesn't depend on t anywhere else but that small neighbourhood. that's what is meant by "locality". if you know your calculus it can be pretty succinctly be described as: the value of t(x0,y0,z0,t0) can only depend on derivatives of t(x,y,z,t) evaluated at (x0,y0,z0,t0) and on external functions (like an external potential) evaluated at (x0,y0,z0,t0). it can't depend on anything else. so a non-local theory basically has laws dictating its dynamics such that t(x0,y0,z0,t0+dt) depend on the complete knowledge of t(x,y,z,t0) (i.e. you need to know the temperature everywhere in the universe at time t0 to calculate what "t" will be at the point x0,y0,z0 and a time t0+dt). if you know calculus then t(x,y,z,t) might depend on term like integral(t(x,y,z,t)*g(x2,y2,z2,t), integrate over all (x2,y2,z2)) (you can safely ignore this if it means nothing to you). so, in a local temperature theory, if i want to know the temperature in paris in 1 second, i only need to know the temperature of the air at paris currently and maybe the immediate vicinity. note that the point here is that 1 second is small, if i want to know the temperature of paris in 4 weeks the "neighbourhood" i need to consider may very well grow to be quite large, likely the whole planet, but that's fine and has to do with the finite speed with which two temperature points t(x0,y0,z0,t0) and t(x1,y1,z1,t0+ 4 weeks) can be causally linked. in a non-local temperature theory, in order to know the temperature of paris in the next second i don't just need to know paris' current temperature but also the temperature in alpha centauri and delaware. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is locality important in physics, and how is it defined? | hello, on many different topics such as the speed of light or the expansion of the universe, i come across the term "local" - e.g. i've read here that the universe only expands on a huge scale, but there is no expansion in smaller areas like our solar system, and this is not just a matter of the expansion being too slow to measure, it simply doesn't take place. i've also read in [this thread](_url_0_) that "the **local** speed of a massless particle is always c. so if you're observing the motion of a photon from very close by, you'll always see it moving at c. however if you're watching the photon move from far away in curved spacetime, the rate at which its position changes in *your* coordinate system doesn't have to be c. " now i get that one example doesn't have much to do with the other, but in both areas (and probably many more) locality seems to be important. i have a layman's understanding of the theory of relativity and somewhat get the idea of curved spacetime, time dilation and the likes that make it so two observers can make different measurements on the same event, but i always wondered how exactly this locality is defined - back to the linked / quoted example, how far would i have to move away from the black hole to see light moving at a speed below c? how far do i need to "zoom out" from our own solar system to see expansion take place? **and finally, why is locality even important?** it seems very counter-intuitive for the universe (or anything else) to behave differently on a huge scale than it does on a smaller scale; if the universe expands everywhere and in all directions, you'd expect the space between earth and moon or earth and sun to expand just as much, but apperently it doesn't? | how do you measure a speed? for light that is just passing you this is straightforward - use a ruler, use clocks. for light far away this approach doesn't work. you can still use a ruler, but how do you determine that this ruler doesn't move? you can use clocks, but how do you determine that they run at the same rate as your clocks? if the universe does not expand this is still easy. just extend/move your ruler and your clocks to that place slowly (so relativistic effects don't matter) and measure then. but in an expanding universe the universe changes while you do so and you will measure something else than you wanted. there are multiple different approaches how to measure the speed of something in a place far away, and they lead to different results in an expanding universe. this is only an approximation for large distances. gravitationally bound systems (like our solar system or the local group) don't expand. if you want to see light where our distance to it increases faster than the speed of light you have to send the light outside our local group. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/50mriq/can_photons_move_slower_than_the_speed_of_light/"
] | [] | [
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how does bernoulli's principle (basically, saying that pressure and velocity of a fluid are inversely related) work in the case of a tube that enlarges with distance? | college student here, just learning about fluid mechanics, ftp blah blah. so bernoulli's equation says that pressure + (gravity\*density\*height) + 1/2(density\*velocity squared) is the same throughout a fluid. if we take a fluid flowing through a tube that is horizontal (keeps the same height), we can eliminate the middle term, so pressure + 1/2(density\*velocity squared) is constant. i'm just having an intuition problem here. this makes sense when we consider a tube that shrinks in radius; since flow rate av is constant as well, the velocity is higher as the tube gets narrower. then, when the tube is larger, the velocity is smaller, but there is more fluid pushing on the walls as the tube shrinks, like the bottleneck effect. this makes sense with bernoulli's equation - when velocity is lower, pressure is higher, and vice versa. but how does this make sense if the tube widens over time? it just seems like a fluid coming from a narrow opening and losing velocity due to the greater area wouldn't expand enough to make any pressure on the walls of the tube, let alone more pressure than when it was in the narrow part. my professor used the example of a water fountain, or a hose, to illustrate the conservation of av; as the water sprays out of the end, it slows down and the area expands. but at this point, there's even less pressure on the water than when it was inside the hose! so the pressure and velocity would both be decreasing (and even the height, if it falls). this seems like it doesn't follow bernoulli's principle. where am i going wrong here? thanks! | bernoulli's equation comes directly from conservation of energy, just in terms of density. you can think of it this way: the internal energy of the fluid (pressure), plus the potential energy (from gravity), plus the kinetic energy (from speed), is always equal to the total energy. meanwhile, the conservation of av is about *mass* conservation - if av is not conserved, then that means that mass is piling up or disappearing somewhere along the pipe, and that's not a steady state situation. so, if the pipe gets wider, then conservation of mass means that the flow has to get slower, otherwise you're sucking out more water than you're putting in. if the water is going slower, it has less kinetic energy, and that energy must have gone somewhere. if it's a small horizontal pipe and we can ignore gravity, then it must have gone into internal energy - pressure. it may be counter-intuitive, but the pressure does increase as the pipe expands. note that this does not mean you can get unlimited pressure but making the pipe as wide as possible. when velocity goes to zero, the pressure reaches its maximum value, where all of the energy is now in internal energy. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any good metrics to measure both relative and absolute growth of a quantity? | i worked for a website for a while where one of my duties was tracking our user growth from week to week. early on in our site's lifetime, we had terrific relative growth but crappy absolute growth. as our user base grew, our absolute growth week-over-week improved, while our relative rate decreased. this made it tough to compare our first few months' growth to our growth after the 1-year mark. i guess i'd been thinking about the problem for a while, but as i read [this xkcd comic](_url_0_) today, i started wondering if there is a way to express both relative and absolute growth in a single metric. i have a decent grasp of statistics, but i haven't heard of anything like it. is it possible and does it exist? | maybe not what you're looking for, but you could use [bayesian statistics](_url_0_) to weigh relative/absolute growth depending on how many users you have. | 2 | [] | [
"http://imgs.xkcd.com/comics/fastest_growing.png"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_statistics"
] | [
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can you forget your native language? | let's say for example, that your native language it's chinese, and then you go to live to russia for many years without practicing your native language, it's possible that you can "forget" your native language and adopt russian as your first language, or it's impossible to forget your first language?. | this depends on the age of the person, the length of stay and the environment. a 10 year old who was adopted by american parents, moved to the united states and went to an american school will forget the language very quickly, unless he spends time speaking it. a 40 year old immigrant, who spends all his time outside of work with people from his native country will not forget it. i moved to the us from russia when i was 14, 16 years ago. i spend most of my time around english speakers, and if it wasn't for speaking with my parents i would have forgotten the language a long time ago. it is much easier for me to express myself in english. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201207/can-first-language-be-totally-forgotten"
] | [
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does swimming or running for equal distances produce more lactic acid? | just curious! assume both swimmer and runner and are at same level in ability in their respective sport ( not some average joe and michael phelps for example ) | i was curious about this, so i did a little research, but i would love if someone more knowledgeable could contribute. here's what i found. note that i messed up reading this, so you get the long answer. [olbrecht et al 1985](_url_4_) had a number of tests performed on members of german national level male swimming, so elite swimmers. there are a lot of different tests and a lot of different numbers involved. they cite that exercise intensity at 4 mmol/l (millimols per liter) lactic acid is considered the anaerobic threshold and find that "maximal" swimming for 30 minutes achieves this threshold (see the abstract, sorry, the paper is paywalled). the abstract also says that this can be related to other swimming tests and speeds. i was trying to figure out what maximal meant, and they find that the mean maximal speed of the swimmers is ~1.4 m/s. since i have no idea what that means because i'm not a swimmer, i find that the 1500m freestyle long course (50m pool) world record is 14:31.02, which translates to [~1.7 m/s](_url_2_). they are swimming for longer, and are a bit slower, but this seems to all hang together with it being a maximal effort, so i'm going with it. a similar effort for an elite runner is roughly a 10k. the men's world record is [26:17.53](_url_5_), and elites run a bit slower, for example, the american record was recently broken at [26:44.36](_url_9_), so maybe we're talking about the 28-29 minute range for "elites", but this is close enough to 30 i think for the comparison. tim noakes' [the lore of running](_url_0_) has an absurd number of graphs, but figure 3.22d of the 4th edition shows blood lactate concentration versus time for different running speeds. the top speed they have is 18.75 km/hr, which is a [32:00 10k](_url_6_), so "sub-elite" (lots of college athletes will run this, for example). the graph extends to only 25 minutes but is just shy of 7 mmol/l. the progression implied from the graph and the text is that at that speed is that it would be around 7 mmol/l for 30:00, maybe a bit over. if you went to faster times, i.e. to elite runners, it would be even higher. so, my conclusion is that swimming and running for equal times means that running will produce more lactic acid. however, i really messed up reading the question. so let me actually answer it. taking the swimmer again, that distance is roughly [2.5 km](_url_7_) or 1.57 miles. that's a kind of funky distance, but an elite runner can run that in a bit over 6:00 (4:00 for the mile is elite, but the world record for two miles is just under 8:00), let's say something like [6:15 to 6:20](_url_1_). that's a speed of [~24 km/hr](_url_8_), and reading figure 3.23 in the lore of running (see above), this will give you between 11 and 12 mmol/l. the figure looks a little schematic, but it agrees with figures 2.2 and 2.5 in [daniels' running formula, 2nd ed.](_url_3_) which means that because the runner is moving faster than the case above, still for a relatively extended period of time, they will be producing more lactic acid over the same distance. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Lore-Running-Edition-Timothy-Noakes/dp/0873229592",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=1.57*4",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=1500m%2F14.5+minutes+in+m%2Fs",
"http://www.amazon.com/Daniels-Running-Formula-2nd-Jack/dp/0736054928",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4008143",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10,000_metres#Men",
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"http://www.usatf.org/News/Galen-Rupp-breaks-men-s-10k-American-record-on-Nik.aspx"
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if i had a tapeworm (or other internal parasite) would i feel it wriggling about? | for ingested gastrointestinal parasites, you wouldn't be able to feel them. the sensory nerve supply is very generalised and can only feel very rough areas of where things are, like build up in pressures when you're constipated, when compared to skin for example. other parasites, such as [schistosomiasis](_url_1_), enter through the skin and can cause itching, from the worm burying into the skin. there's also the [loa loa eyeworm](_url_0_) which can be sensed passing across the eye, according to wikipedia | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loa_loa_filariasis#Clinical_presentation_in_humans",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schistosomiasis"
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|
what does the electric field look like in a basic circuit? | imagine a very basic circuit: a battery hooked up to a light bulb. from what i know, the battery, through its chemical constituents, creates a potential difference across its terminals, thereby generating an electric field. my question is, what does this field look like? if you were to sketch the field lines in the picture described above where would they lie? would it only exist within the battery? and if so what keeps the electrons moving through the wire? | like [this](_url_0_) (think of the resistor as a lightbulb). the red arrows are the electric field vectors, the green arrows are the magnetic field vectors, and the blue arrows are the poynting vectors, which represent the flow of energy. it's clear that the battery is acting as a source of energy and the resistor is acting as an energy sink, since energy is lost to heat (and light in the case of a bulb). | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Poynting_vectors_of_DC_circuit.svg/11573px-Poynting_vectors_of_DC_circuit.svg.png"
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what happens to the dipol-inducing wave energetically during rayleigh scattering? | as far as i understand rayleigh-scattering happens when a em wave hits a relatively small particle and induces a dipol which emits a wave with the same wavelength. however, to induce that dipol some energy must be lost and therefore the color of the light would have to switch more towards the red spectrum? what am i missing? | rayleigh scattering is **elastic** scattering of light off of tightly-bound charged particles. the fact that the scattering is elastic means that kinetic energy is conserved. if you look at it classically, some plane electromagnetic wave comes in with definite momentum **k**. then to lowest order, the bound charged particle feels a linear restoring force, so it behaves like a driven harmonic oscillator (you can also include a damping term to move the singularity at resonance off the real axis in the complex frequency plane): **r**''(t) + ω*_0_*^(2)**r**(t) = q**e***_0_*cos(ωt-**k∙r**)/m. this is a nasty nonlinear differential equation unless we work in the approximation where **k∙r** can be ignored, so we'll treat the case where the wavelength of the incident light is much larger than the particle off of which it scatters. then this differential equation reduces to the very well-known linear ode for a harmonically-driven simple harmonic oscillator. the solution **r**(t) to this equation is just a sum of a transient term and an inhomogeneous term, which will oscillate in phase with the driving force. we are interested in the inhomogeneous term which gives the steady-state behavior, just a sinusoidal oscillation at the driving frequency ω. but an oscillating charged particle emits radiation, to lowest order as an electric dipole. the intensity of electric dipole radiation is proportional to |**r**''(t)|^(2). since **r**(t) is some sinusoid, so is **r**''(t). the actual time-dependence of it is not important, but when averaging over |**r**''(t)|^(2), you get something nonzero. so just like any accelerating charged particle, it emits electromagnetic radiation. so yes, this: is correct. so in reality there will be some very small energy loss in the recoil of the atom, but since the total kinetic energy is conserved (because it's elastic scattering), the outgoing light has essentially the same energy that it came in with. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about a hypothetical parkinson's disease treatment - is it possible to ensure that injected cells reach a target area? | my classmate and i are working on a science fair project relating to parkinson's disease. we've been studying the disease, its causes, treatments, and barriers to treatments, and have been trying to come up with a hypothetical treatment for it. our approach involves differentiating cells into dopamine-secreting cells and injecting them into a brain ventricle. to bypass the blood-brain barrier, we inject amino acids shortly afterwards, after the dopamine-secreting cells have been halted at the bbb. these are actively transported across the bbb , and we are hoping that in this transaction, some dopamine-secreting cells will be able to cross the barrier. these cells have to be transported to the substantia nigra, and the striatum, which is where we hit our roadblock. is there any way to ensure that they are transported to the target areas? we based our approach off internet research and a few emails from e-mails, so any other improvements/problems with our approach would be greatly appreciated as well. | targeting is one of the biggest problems in stem cell research today. if you come up with a solution for it, you'll be a very rich man (or you'll make somebody very rich). we're fairly accomplished at keeping stem cells alive, and we've got a good amount of data on how to differentiate cells into nearly every kind of cell in the body. however, this hasn't really translated into many practical uses, since there aren't a lot of techniques more advanced than "inject them somewhere nearby and hope like crazy it works." i know of a two methods people are working on for this. the first is to immobilize the cells in some kind of gel. the idea is to give cells some time to secrete matrix around themselves, and to expose them to cytokines from neighboring cells for longer to help with differentiation. the second method is to find a peptide or other drug that binds to the area you want cells to go to. you attach this tag to your stem cells, and hope it glues them in place long enough to settle down. as for the blood-brain barrier, i'd be surprised if active transport could drag an entire cell through it. active transport is used more for drugs. eukaryotic cells are bigger, and harder to get across. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can we say that the column of air above us is pressing on us with x amount of force when air molecules are not physically connected? | in other words, how can air molecules from 3km affect me down here? bonus question: if air above us is pressing with such tremendous force, why don't our houses just collapse? how can 10km of air excerpt the same amount of pressure as the air inside? thank you so much! | define *physically connected.* even in a solid, the intermolecular forces that would lead to a 3km tall solid crushing you are still just a result of electromagnetism. all the air molecules above you are interacting with each other; they "bounce" off each other in some sense. they also interact with gravity, so they have a preference in their random motion to go down. the aggregate effect of this happening to many many particles is that at lower altitude you have higher pressure and density because there are more particles above them. google "hydrostatic pressure" for more info. pressure in a fluid acts in all directions. so for any object exposed to air, it has equal pressure on all sides and thus experiences no net force. with no net force there's nothing to collapse your house. for the same reason you can find intact champagne glasses in the titanic wreck at the bottom of the ocean, where the hydrostatic pressure is far far higher than at the surface of the earth. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a term for the following rhetorical trick? | for example, if i begin an argument with "i know many people will disagree with me but..." less people will actually end up (openly) disagreeing with me as i (somehow psychologically) discredited their opinion by anticipating it. | i would say that this is an example of [anchoring](_url_0_). what you are doing is setting the expectation that what you are about to say is really controversial or antagonistic. people create an anchor point in their mind for how they think they will feel about it, perhaps overestimating how much they will disagree. then, when you say your piece, it actually seems less controversial than they imagined, leading to them to feel more positively towards the statement relative to the anchor point. if you hadn't provided the anchor, the listener would have to judge whether they agreed or disagreed based on the statement, but with the anchor, they make judgments in part based on how they anticipated they would feel. that's one theory i can use to explain this effect, but i can think of some other ways that might also explain it as well. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anchoring"
] | [
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the draco antiviral drug. is it too good to be true? (journal article attached) | [here is the link](_url_0_). after reading through the whole thing, i can find no flaws with this drug except that it has not been moved into phase 0 clinical testing. is it a lack of funding? can any other science savvy redditor find something wrong with this? | that paper is nine months old. they may well be working on preclinical stuff right now; it takes a while. i'm working with a small biotech right now, trying to do the preliminary stuff to get to preclinical testing on a compound that was first published on ~2 years ago. and we got our funding fast-tracked. it looks promising, but it's hard to say. from a brief scan of that paper it looks like they got it to work in tissue culture and got some proof of concept done in mice. very interesting and very promising, but there's a lot of work yet to be done. we'll have to see how it turns out. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0022572"
] | [] | [
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can you catalyze the aluminum - gallium - water reaction? | i've read that the reaction is good at producing hydrogen, yet the limiting factor is that it produces it very slowly. does anyone know of any research done into accelerating this reaction? | the use of gallium itself is a means to increase the efficiency of the reaction between aluminium and water to produce hydrogen. it's there to prevent the formation of a passivating layer of al2o3. more generally, there as been research into hydrogen production from aluminium/ water and even patents have been produced. here's a [report](_url_0_) from the us department of energy on the use of the reaction as a source of hydrogen outlining some possible reaction promoters. the report summaries a few drawbacks for this type of hydrogen storage namely the fact that systems utilising water as a hydrogen source can't meet intended targets of hydrogen 'density'. additionally, as you mention, the reaction is just too slow for hydrogen fuel cell applications. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f9/aluminum_water_hydrogen.pdf"
] | [
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is there any merit to people who claim they can feel the weather in previously fractured bones? | i have broken my wrists on three different occasions. one was an open fracture. sometimes i notice they will bother me when rain is on the way. i don't know if it is psychosomatic or not. | rain is often preceded by a sudden drop in barometric pressure, which basically means that everything liquid from your body to your bottle of mountain dew will very slightly swell as the pressure falls. this swelling within your body is so slight that is will go unnoticed expect where scar tissue is present because scar tissue isn't as flexible as the tissue it replaces. the pain you are feeling is actually not from your bones but from the periosteum, which is the thin layer of tissue that coats the bone. this tissue is normally quite stretchy and sensitive because it has lots of nerves, but when you break a bone and some of that periosteum is replaced with inflexible scar tissue you will feel pain when the nerves surrounding it swell and pull on it. this is also responsible for the less well known phenomena of people being able to predict the weather using old soft tissue injuries like deep lacerations that have healed. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is everything provable? | no, everything is not provable. there has been a large amount of work done in this area, most notable with [godel's incompleteness theorems](_url_1_). douglas hofstadter has some very accessible books on the subject. it has been proven, for example, that the [continuum hypothesis](_url_0_) cannot be proven nor disproven within the standard axiom system. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems"
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] |
|
why isn't water constantly forming? | this might sound like a stupid question, but it is always something i have wondered and have never found an answer. so, i know water is made up of two hydrogen molecules and one oxygen molecule. i also know there is a lot of oxygen and hydrogen in the air we breathe. so why don't those hydrogen and oxygen molecules constantly form together to create water? and how did water form in the first place from hydrogen and oxygen molecules? thanks! | the earth's atmosphere actually contains very little free hydrogen gas (h2). it's comprised primarily of the following gases: | name | formula | volume in ppmv | volume in % | |:-----------|------------:|------------:|:------------| | nitrogen | n2 | 780,840 | 78.084 | | oxygen| o2 | 209,460| 20.946| | argon | ar| 9,340 | 00.9340| | carbon dioxide | co2 | 397 | 00.0397| | neon | ne | 18.18 | 00.001818| | helium | he | 5.24 | 00.000524| | methane | ch4 | 1.79 | 00.000179| (note that is is for **dry** atmosphere, i.e. excluding water vapour, which is a highly variable component. most of the hydrogen in the atmosphere is actually locked up in water already. so that's the first half of your question. the second issue - why it wouldn't react if there was a significant amount of hydrogen gas present - is due to the [activation energy](_url_2_) of the reaction. most reactions cannot begin to proceed without a certain "nudge" in the form of sufficient energy to proceed. so even if a reaction releases energy (i.e. exothermic reactions, going "downhill"), the molecules still have to go "uphill" briefly before they can go down to the bottom of the energy diagram: [energy pathway diagram](_url_1_) so without an initial spark or heat from a match, the reaction cannot proceed. one other issue is the concentration: at normal atmospheric pressure and normal oxygen concentrations, hydrogen (as with [many other flammable gases](_url_3_)) has a [""lower explosive limit" of 4.0%](_url_0_), which means that below this concentration, it will not burn in a sustained manner. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_safety",
"http://resource.rockyview.ab.ca/t4t/chem30/images/m2/008_graph.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activation_energy",
"https://www.mathesongas.com/pdfs/products/Lower-%28LEL%29-&-Upper-%28UEL%29-Explosive-Limits-.pdf"
] | [
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what are the problems surrounding human cryogenises (with prospect of later resuscitation), and does anybody in the field have any insight on the steps being taken to improve the process? | i am sitting at work letting my mind wander, as it often does, and i started thinking a little bit about death. simple, fundamental thoughts that everybody has had. "i wonder what it's like. i wonder what it feels like." and it sort of occurred to me that if cryogenics were perfected, you could essentially "experience death" by completely stopping all chemical interactions in your body. and then i wondered, hey, how far along is cryogenics? i haven't heard much about it in any recent news. the last i understood was that we had the freezing aspect down well enough, but cells tend to be un-repairable afterward. are there any individuals in the field that might be able to explain the current state of cryogenic technologies? | i do not work in this field, but... freezing water produces ice crystals. ice crystals within cells destroy them, breaking apart organelles, expanding to break the membrane, causing solutes to precipitate and so on. to deal with this for electron microscopy, people flash freeze samples, freeze cells with things that are extremely cold, so cold that the water forms [amorphous ice](_url_0_) (very cold, very fast temperature drop). unfortunately, if samples are more than a few microns thick, dipping them in liquid nitrogen or liquid propane or slamming them into a copper block cooled by liquid helium doesn't cool them fast enough to prevent ice crystal formation. given that we can't really run a person through a microtome first, this is a problem. hence the need for cryoprotectants to either reduce ice crystals, or protect the cells from the effects of said ice crystals. figure out a method to either very rapidly freeze people, to prevent crystal formation, or a cryoprotectant that would kill a person and would prevent cell death upon freezing of a large sample, and you'd be a lot further along. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Amorphous_ice"
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how do you calculate specifice bending stiffness? what limitations/assumptions do you make? | at work we calculate it by: (((measured stiffness*100)^1/3)/thickness)*10 and it does not make any sense to me, also the resulting unit is weird. but on the other hand, i cannot find anything literature wise on that topic. could someone help me out? | what do you mean by bending stiffness? are you trying to measure how far something bends under a specific load? how stiff something is? how far it cantilevers? there is a ton of different test for “stiffness” and while they all might be corrated, they’ll usually give different numbers. though the assumptions that come with those tests are pretty similar. the bigg one is that you’re only measuring elastic deformation, not plastic. that is to say, your material always springs back to its original conformation, it never permanently deforms. what materials do you test? metals? plasics? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are selectable markers? my book has confused me. how are they used to identify among recombinants|non-recombinants and transformants|non-transformants? | on pg 199 of the book, (*pg no 9 of 16 in this pdf*) here they confused the fuck out of me by explaining antibiotic resistant genes. (under sub heading **iii) cloning sites**). and then on pg 203 of the book, (*pg no 13 of 16 in this pdf*) here under heading **11.3.4** explained something which is in total contrast to what they did above. | a selectable marker is something that you can use to see if transformation (insertion of your desired genes into the organism) has occurred. the most common ones used for this are antibiotic resistance. for example, if you're trying to put a gene of interest on a plasmid into e. coli, you include an antibiotic resistance gene on that plasmid. after transforming (inserting the plasmid into the e. coli, you grow the e. coli on a plate that has that antibiotic. if the e. coli survives, you know it must have that resistance gene, and therefore your gene of interest as well. so basically a selectable marker is something you can use to select for which e. coli your insertion was successful in. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a smallest possible measurement of time/distance, and a couple other physics questions. | first off, i'd just like to preface this with a note: i know very little physics, when all is said and done, and honestly my thoughts and speculation are probably way out of my league. however, i enjoy pondering this stuff, so it would be helpful if you guys could point out where in my thinking i am going wrong, if applicable. in any case, something i have often thought about is that, when travelling through space there must be a certain measurement of distance that is the smallest possible anything can move. i came to this conclusion because from what i can gather the universe is most likely finite, and this seems to mean that, could you make smaller and smaller measurements infinitely, you would reach a limit if an object tried to move from any one space to another. if the universe were infinite, this problem (i think) would be solved because every object in the universe is some fraction of the universe's total size, and a fraction of infinity would still be infinite. in that case objects would have finite measurements in relation to each other but infinite measurements in relation to the universe as a whole. regardless, in a finite universe, if we could keep making smaller and smaller measurements there would be some limit an object would approach as it tries to travel from one point to any other point, so there must be some smallest measurement, like a pixel on a computer screen. the immediate thing that comes to mind for me when proposing this is that it can be applied to time as well, and a smallest measurement of time and distance means that there would be a cap on how fast anything could travel, if i am not mistaken, and that exists. i'm not sure if i'm missing something here, and i must be because i can't find anything like this proposed before. google searches for "smallest measurement of distance" turn up silly yahoo answers questions like "what's smaller than a millimeter?" so my questions in a simple list order: 1) is there any proposed smallest measurement of distance/time? or can we keep making infinitely smaller measurements? if so, how does that work? how does an object travel through space without encountering a limit from any one point to another? 2) as i previously stated, i like to think about this stuff but i think i am way out of my league here because i have very little idea of how to think about things like these. what are the errors in my thought process? where did i make stupid assumptions that are wrong, etc? 3) how exactly does infinity work in regards to stuff like this? if the universe were infinite, would every object take up an infinite amount of space in relation to the universe because a fraction of infinity is still infinity? or am i misinformed as to how infinite values work? thanks to anybody who takes the time to deal with this sloppily presented set of questions. i don't have the time/money to get a real education in physics so i have to stick with bugging people who know what they're talking about. | 1) the planck length and planck time are the smallest measurable units of distance and time respectively (c.f. heisenberg uncertainty principle). the speed of light is the speed required to travel one planck length in one planck time. quantum mechanics assumes a smooth (infinitely divisible) euclidean framework. however, there are a number of approaches to the next physical theory that are based on some degree of quantised space and/or time. 2) your thought processes are good. you could use a little more rigour in your description of finite and infinite and their relationship - but your reasoning is excellent. there are some counter arguments - xeno's paradox is worth a look, before exploring calculus as it relates to limits. while quantum mechanics assumes a euclidean space which goes against your reasoning - planck length and time support your reasoning. 3) i have read one superb book on infinity(s) (and too many really bad ones). unfortunately i can't find the title/author at the moment. the book is semi-fiction and introduces and explains the number line and various orders of infinity. i think it has a couple of authors, at least one of whom was indian. came out around 2007. i'm describing it in hopes that someone will know the book i'm talking about and point me in the right direction. i am too much of a coward to try and convey the mathematical concepts of infinity in a short post. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the significance of tsh, t3 and t4 if hypothyroidism can exhibit over 300 symptoms all over the body? | i found [this article](_url_0_) and got curious. what exactly do t3, t4, and tsh do in the body? how does a below-average count of these give way to so many symptoms? | t3 is the active hormone. you can look up all its actions. in terms of why it has such a diverse range of effects: this is because it is a hormone. it is lipid soluble and can enter cells. it binds to intracellular receptors and these cause the initiation of gene transcription in the nucleus. because it is acting at the genetic level the results can be many and diverse, and the results can be powerful. a gene may have one action, or many action, and transcription of the gene can often produce a disproportionally large and prolonged response (compared to the non-steroid hormones). contrast this to adrenaline for example. it is also produced by a gland and transported in the blood to tissues. however at the tissue level it usually acts on cell surface receptors. it has an immediate action, but of short duration. there is some amplification of the signal, but generally speaking the effect is proportional to the amount of adrenaline released into the blood. the thyroid hormones are slower in onset (they need to get the genes to be transcribed, then the mrna to be translated in the cytoplasmic ribosomes to create proteins, then the proteins need to have some post-translational modifications, then the proteins can go and do whatever they do). they have a longer duration of action (as the gene can stay "switched on" and producing proteins), and they can have a magnified response (as one gene can produce lots of the same protein or several genes can produce lots of proteins). a lot of the proteins produced will be enzymes and more enzymes means more activity. the general action of thyroxine on a cell is to increase metabolic activity. the effect will vary between cell and tissue types. in the fat tissues this usually means increase fat mobilisation so you become skinny with hyperthyroidism and fat with hypothyroidism. | 6 | [] | [
"http://hypothyroidmom.com/300-hypothyroidism-symptoms-yes-really/"
] | [] | [
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] |
what is really happening in this natural phenomenon? | [photos of the phenomenon](_url_0_) credit to [kjell h. sæther](_url_1_) for the photos. they were taken the night before february 20th 2017 in karasjok, norway. i've been told that this happens only when there's no wind, very cold (-25 celsius at the time) and has something to do with ice particles in the air. i assume the ice particles reflect the lights, but why does the light seem to form pillars? | those are [pillars](_url_0_) imagine a lot of hexagonal flat ice crystals floating in the air and reflecting the light. they are not above the lights, they are everywhere in the air, but given the position of the sun and the position of your eyes (or the camera) those are the ones where light gets sent back to you. think of it as a rainbow: not some droplets in the shape of a bow, but droplets everywhere and the only ones that geometrically get light from the sun to your eyes, must be placed along the bow. the link has an image and a geometrical explanation of why, in this case, it looks like a column of light. it's a relatively seldom seen phenomenon. it must be really cold. | 17 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/8pw4m",
"http://khsfoto.no/om-meg/"
] | [
"http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/lpil.htm"
] | [
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how do researchers assign unknown solid-state nmr peaks? | if you're studying a material with solid-state nmr, say 29si, and you see a peak you don't recognize, how would you go about assigning what it is? *ab-initio* calculations? something else i'm unaware of? if you even know of a paper in which they do this, please give a link and i'll just read that. i don't actually need to do this, but i would like to know how to do it. thanks! | computational chemistry as a method of predicting a nmr chemical shift has improved a lot in the last few years, but it still not widely used or considered reliable without experimental verification. the reason for this is that there are a number of factors in determining where a peak appears and correctly balancing through space and through orbital effects computationally is tricky. when assigning unknown peaks in a spectrum most chemists use a combination of comparison to a known sample and intuition that is developed as you become familiar with the system being studied. a typical example would be to take an nmr of your reactant, then proceed with some chemical reaction and take an nmr of your product. by comparing the two spectra you can validate what you thought your reaction would do with what your reaction actually did do. there are complicating factors for solid state nmr. solid samples typically produce broad peaks which means subtle changes in the chemical environment can be lost in the peak-width. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://nmr.cemhti.cnrs-orleans.fr/Dmfit/Help/Examples.aspx"
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when a body is in motion, its mass increases relative to an observer at rest. why? | first off, it doesn't. this is called relativistic mass, and it is a mis-understanding of relativity. what actually happens is that as objects approach the speed of light it's momentum increases faster than newton's momentum equation, p = mv, would predict. so, why does this happen? well, why is always a hard question to answer, but here is what we can tell you. einstein discovered that the speed of light is constant in all reference frames. that means that if you are running with a flashlight and turn it on, and i am at rest compared to you, you and i will both measure the speed of light to be 3e8 m/s. so, no matter how fast you are moving, in the same direction as the light is moving, you'll still measure that the light is moving at 3e8 m/s. just from this rule (which you can't say why this happens, but it is experimentally verified) you can show that their must be time dilation (time goes slower for people moving faster), length contraction (distances are measured shorter for people moving faster), and momentum increasing (like discussed earlier). | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the difference between genetic mosaics and chimera? | mosaics and chimeras are animals that have more than one genetically-distinct population of cells. the distinction between these two forms is quite clearly defined, although at times ignored or misused. in mosaics, the genetically different cell types all arise from a single zygote, whereas chimeras originate from more than one zygote. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
will time stop at 0k degrees? | if we cool 'something' down to the absolute zero (0 kelvin) all movement within molecules and atoms stop. provides our notion of time comes from observing movement. then i guess you could say time stops?! further (and maybe more interesting) what will happen to the 'something' (whatever it might be) when we heat it up again? what will act as first mover in order to set atoms in movement again? | time and the motion of atoms are not so intertwined that we could say time stops at 0k. in fact, there are a large number of systems that have positive energy even at 0k. for instance, a simple quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator will have a positive zero point energy of 1/2 hbar omega (where omega is the natural frequency of the oscillator). because of the positive ground state energy, the momentum and position of the particle are not fixed, even at 0k. similarly, we can construct degenerate ground states for a system wherein the particles at 0k can still move between the different states because there is no energy cost to do so. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1kctat/do_identical_objects_at_different_temperatures/cbnpg6a",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics"
] | [
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] |
how long does it take to boot up a supercomputer? | i presume this requires lengthy efforts, as it is a highly complicated system. | the only 'supercomputer' i have access to is a network of 128 computers, each with some xeon processors and lots of ram. these can be booted simultaneously, and boot into a minimally configured linux environment, which is very quick. the master node then needs to start the cluster management software and register all the compute nodes and you're more or less good to go. | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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being in a crash | i'm sure everybody has heard of the story of a drunk guy falling out of a 5th story window and walking away from it, but only because him being drunk prevented him from tensing up at the moment of impact. in other words, because he was relaxed, minimal damage was done. so my question is, in which situations is it better to loosen up before an impact to minimize damage? for example car crashes, being punched in the face, falling out of a building, etc. | i'm a paramedic, so not a scientist or a doctor, i've been to numerous motor vehicle crashes, pedestrians hit or falls from height. i've seen seen drunk people walk away from accidents with no injuries when you think they shouldn't but i've also seen drunk people killed or seriously injured by something minor. for example drunk falls down more than ten stairs and walks away vs drunk guy gets punched once has no visible injuries but dies from brain bleeding. i think we just hear about the survival stories more frequently because its seems so unlikely. in my experience there are as many adverse outcomes but people just don't talk about it. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19886142"
] | [
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what is the explanation for eating disorder like anorexia and bulimia from an evolutionary perspective? | there is a reason why anorexia and bulimia are listed under axis i of the dsm-iv: "clinical disorders, including major mental disorders, learning disorders and substance use disorders" they are mental *disorders.* there is not an evolutionary advantage. you could talk about how these people affected by the disorder get abnormal levels of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway when they purge/binge and purge and how the reward system itself is a evolutionary advantage to seek things that cause pleasure (like sugary foods and sex) thus increasing that creatures ["fitness"](_url_0_), or ability to pass on their genetic code. then there are the important evolutionary aspects of fear, social acceptance (and others i am sure) that play into this disorder. what i am trying to say is that this disorder plays on normal and good evolutionary mechanisms, mainly the reward system and fear. they fear gaining weight, so they purge. the purging is pleasurable so they repeat (oversimplified but it gets to my main point - someone can elaborate if needed). but this act in itself is abnormal and not evolutionary! from the dsm-iv: > diagnostic criteria for an includes intense fear of gaining weight, a refusal to maintain body weight above 85% of the expected weight for a given age and height, and three consecutive missed periods and either refusal to admit the seriousness of the weight loss, or undue influence of shape or weight on one's self image, or a disturbed experience in one's shape or weight. there are two types: the binge-eating/purging type is characterized by overeating or purging, and the restricting type is not | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_\\(biology\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maladaptation"
] | [
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|
how does the human brain make estimations? | i was watching a let's play as the player was talking about buying an item in the game. after getting distracted, he went to buy another item, which was worth about $38,000. his initial amount of money was about $180,000 and the original item he was interested in buying was $25,000. as soon as i saw the $38,000 i knew he had enough for the original item, even before i did the math. my question is how was i able to estimate that so quickly? is it just a matter of rounding, or is there something more to it? furthermore, i'm curious about the actual processes of the estimation. what parts of the brain are used, and how quickly/slowly can this happen? | there's a lot of debate over what mental imagery really is, whether it exists in the way we describe it or whether it really helps explain anything. but i'd imagine you are using some sort of simplistic imagery, in which you imagine the two amounts being smaller than half of $180 000. or you can be seeing in your minds eye (through different imagery), 2ish + 4ish < 20ish, which you quickly translate to something like [less than 10ish < 20ish] which might simply be part of the automatic association system. a good way to think about this, which somewhat coincides with working memory and long-term memory, is by talking about system 1 and system 2 (i believe it is daniel kahneman's terminology)... system 1 is the baseline state of the brain, what it always uses to make sense of the world... it's based on retrieval of long-term memory, and those memories are manufactured through the medium of direct associations between stimuli. so, when i ask you "what's 7 + 3", the vast majority of people don't actually do any mental work (use of imagery or use of working memory or what i'll label system 2)... i'd argue this is also how perception works, or rather the answer 10 is perceived in the same way if i say "apple", you see an apple automatically. there's a direct association that's been ingrained into your neural networks between the sound "apple" and the image of an apple (or rather the mostly invariant properties of apples encountered throughout your life). for more complex thinking, like the one you describe, it probably happens through mental imagery manipulation (system 2 which needs working memory). how this one works is much less understood. so, if i ask you "what's 12 x 17.2?", you'll need to use system 2. you can notice system 2 working because it's impossible to multi-task with it. in fact, you can't even perceive what you're looking at when engaging system 2, because system 2 most likely hijacks your visual representation system to compute whatever you're trying to compute. a cool effect of engaging system 2 is that your pupils dilate when doing so. try it with a friend. ask him to calculate some difficult but doable calculation (like the one i suggested) and you'll notice his pupils dilate when doing it. when the answer is found, his pupils go right back to normal. so, it seems like you either didn't use system 2, or barely did since the answer was attained so quickly. as to what mental imagery is, how working memory seems to hijack our perceptual apparatus, that's a rather open question... people can try giving you neural correlates for whatever behavior, but those don't really explain anything. they're more like data-collection... but with no framework that explains what's really occurring. the best understood connection we make between neural correlates (where and when activation occurs) and the 1st person experience is in the visual system. cell assemblies that become more complex (or rather the computations performed become more complex) as you move from the striate cortex (v1...where the inputs from the retina arrive) to the most rostral parts of the temporal lobe (the what stream) and to the inferior parietal cortex (the where or how stream) seem to account pretty well for how we perceive objects (the what stream) and how we move through our world/manipulate objects (the where/how stream)... the only framework i know of is hebbian learning for making sense of how this occurs, but that can't be the whole picture. i'd look into the logic of cell assemblies to try making sense of how automatic associations can be created through experience, but how this translates to system 2 is well beyond the reach of any theory i know of right now. by the way, if you want to see how system 1 gets things wrong often... ask someone "what's the price of a bat and a ball if they're combined price is $1.10 and there's a 1$ difference between their prices?" ... if someone has a short time (5 sec or less) to answer, they'll almost always give $1 and 10 cents as an answer. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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