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a math question with multiple probabilities | this question would be more appropriate in /r/learnmath or /r/cheatatmathhomework. you can multiply and add probabilities according to the rules of [conditional probability](_url_0_). for this problem, you have a 1 in 2 chance of getting heads followed by a 1 in 4 chance of selecting a red ball plus a 1 in 2 chance of getting tails followed by a 1 in 2 chance of selecting the red ball. the total chance of selecting a red ball is then (1/2)\*(1/4) + (1/2)\*(1/2) = 1/8 + 1/4 = 3/8 = 0.375. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_probability"
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|
have isolated tribes ever developed the scientific method? | i am curious about the model which groups outside the influence of our cultural sphere use for understanding the world. obviously, evolutionary pressures would influence knowledge of things like helpful/poisonous plants. there seems to be a rudimentary instinct towards using the "observe, test, report" model which has been codified as the scientific method. one explanation would be the "probabilistic brain" which compares competing hypotheses. | tentatively no, although that depends on how you define science. you are on to something. science, as a system of knowledge production, has many analogs in ancient cultures. cultures like the ancient greeks, mesopotamians, maya, chinese, etc. had dedicated institutions composed of specialists whose job was to produce knowledge. a good example is astronomy. all of the cultures i just listed accurately calculated the synodic period of venus. they did this through meticulous observation and record-keeping, augmented by mathematics. the conclusions they came to about what venus was and why it moved through the sky were obviously *wrong*, but then again so were many of the conclusions of early scientists. (and i'd bet many of the theories that we're so sure of now will likely be disproved in coming years.) in a sense, these earlier systems of knowledge were a lot *like* science in that they were belief systems formed through observations of the environment and shaped by cultural institutions and practices. but what defines science today is a particular *method* of arriving at conclusions. the scientific method, as it exists today, was largely defined by 17th century philosophers like rene descartes. i'm not sure it's really accurate to describe anything before that as "science" in the strict sense of the word. that's not to discount the achievements of earlier cultures, but it's important to remember that modern science has it's own distinct historical trajectory. trying to find examples of a modern cultural institution in the past is teleological reasoning; it defines the past in terms of the present. most anthropologists are hesitant to do that because it opens the way for us to introduce all sorts of subjective biases into our research. instead it's generally better to look at ancient institutions as culturally-specific and understand them on their own terms. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what factors preserve wood shipwrecks? | if i remember correctly, the salt in the water plays a major role in the preservation of the wood. is there a depth at which shipworm are out of range? if a piece of wood breaks off, is it too water-logged to float? type of wood matter here? any significant differences between driftwood and a shipwreck? | there are many things that preserve shipwrecks. you might be surprised to hear that *fresh* water wrecks are more well preserved than salt water wrecks. this is because the shipworms (which are not worms at all, but mollusks) don't live in salt water. then again, in certain freshwater environments you have lots of zebra or quagga mussels, and the sheer weight of these can collapse a wooden wreck. in "typical" oceanic wrecks, you see a few different site formation processes. one common wreck type you see is a "filet-o-ship", where the ship's iron fastenings break down, and the ship splits apart and "filets" itself. where you have a sand or mud bottom, you typically see everything under the sediment staying nicely preserved, and everything on top of the sediment is just *gone*. so it's very common for us to have one side of a ship up to the turn of the bilge, for instance. if it's a rock or gravel bottom and the wreck didn't settle in, you might only have a pile of ballast stones and concretions, with maybe a little bit of wood under that stone. to sum it up, the factors are where the teredos can go. if they can't live at all, you have excellent preservation. if they can live there, then wherever they can't physically access is preserved. depth, temperature, salinity, and oxygenation all affect the ability of teredo to thrive. we've already talked about salinity. oxygen levels are important - very low oxygen levels in water mean well-preserved wrecks, like in the baltic. extremely cold water also helps, but if ice forms, it will damage the wreck. depth is inversely correlated with temperature (you find cold water at depth), so that also helps. i'm not aware of an absolute depth limit for shipworms, but i'm also not an expert on their biology. after the shipworms eat a wooden ship (which they can do very quickly - within a few years), their calcified tubes can make the ship appear to be more intact than it is, but those tubes will eventually demineralize and fall apart. another factor is the energy level at the site. in a "high energy" site (where there's a lot of wind, wave, current, and general water transport over the wreck), you'll have physical processes that eat away at the wood. the sand can act like a sandblaster and literally physically remove the wreck's wood. you ask about driftwood. driftwood is exposed to weathering effects, and a constant dehydration/rehydration cycle that can mess up the cells in the wood. naturally, every piece of driftwood is different, and some (like the [old man of the lake](_url_0_)) have been floating around for ages. hydrodynamic stability helps there, as does a freshwater environment and a relatively low-energy body of water. finally, the composition of the wreck itself is a factor. if there's a lot of iron, the corrosion products from wood-iron contact will help preserve the original surface of the wood in a matrix of iron product. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Man_of_the_Lake"
] | [
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why is the moons revolution period about 27 days when the period between phases is about 29 days? | i already know why there are phases, and i know they are not caused by earth's shadow. i do not know however, where those extra 2 days come and go. i got this information from my science teacher so i do not know if he was correct. thanks! | start with full moon, the moon is exactly opposite the sun as seen from earth. then 27 days later, the moon has made a full orbit around the earth. during this time, earth has moved roughly 27 degrees on its orbit around the sun. so after 27 days, even though the moon made exactly one orbit, it's not yet directly opposite the sun, it's about 27 degrees short. it takes the moon about 2 days to move the final 27 degrees. of course, in those two days earth again moves relative to the sun a bit, but not as much. in any case, it takes a total of about 29.5 days for the moon to be opposite the sun again. so between full moons, the moon orbits about 390 degrees in total. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~blackman/ast104/moonorbit.html"
] | [
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why does the right side of the brain process signals from and control movement of the left side of the body? this seems like more of a bug than a feature. | my apologies for asking a "why" question instead of a "how" question. please reinterpret as you see fit. but seriously, the neural pathways, especially for the ears, are significantly longer than they need to be since sound from one ear is processed on the opposite side of the brain. same thing goes for the eyes, where the right half of the visual field (from both eyes) is processed on the left side of the brain (though the neural pathways aren't really any longer in this case). and for sensory and motor processing for the rest of the body, where the afferent / efferent nerves go through the spinal cord, again there's no difference in the length of the nerves. but this is stable across all the higher animals (if i recall correctly- please correct me if i'm wrong). why is that? evolutionarily, the simple scenario that occurs to me is that if i am hit or attacked on my right side, having an uninjured left side of my brain controlling a mostly incapacitated right side of my body is pretty worthless, as is having an injured right side of my brain controlling a perfectly functional left side of my body. having the eyes split the visual field and process it the way it does makes sense- collocating the the processing of the two images of the left visual field (allowing for stereo vision), and also having the coordination of the left appendages in the same hemisphere. but why they would reliably be on the opposite side of the brain from the external physical phenomenon is baffling. tl;dr: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system seem to be cross-wired pretty perfectly. wtf? | it's not necessarily a bug. according to this paper: [why decussate? topological constraints on 3d wiring](_url_0_) there's good mathematical evidence that cross-over type of wiring (called decussation) is much more robust against certain types of wiring errors. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1002/ar.20731/asset/20731_ftp.pdf;jsessionid=1253D2E31FD57806F2A65D9060196664.f04t04?v=1&t=iex7hgxf&s=3a9dff9d120cf4ae082ee41b58a3b5bbc7c63308",
"http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1474442205009907",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_system#/media/File:Schematic_diagram_of_the_human_eye_en.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_system",
"http://www.kinsbournelab.org/uploads/1/4/3/1/14315208/kinsbourne_2013._somatic_twist_.pdf"
] | [
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to what extent can we quantify biochemical processes? | is it possible to estimate how many chemical processes in total occur in the human body per second during respiration, glycosylation, gene expression, and other vital functions? do these numbers increase significantly when we are exercising? | well physiologist are actually the ones who do this and it can be done in a few ways. you can measure how much oxygen an organism is consuming and how much co2 they are expelling to approximate how much glucose is being metabolized. this could then be used to determine how much atp is produced. from there you could estimate how many atp is used per reaction. i did the math and its around 10^25 reactions in a day or about 10^20 reactions per second this is a form of indirect [calorimetry](_url_0_) exercising significantly increases theses numbers. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calorimetry"
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how are biochemical pathways discovered/worked out? what techniques are used? | say you had a small molecule, and you wanted to work backwards to figure out the biosynthetic process used to create it. how do people do that? | sorry, this will be quite long. in the earlier days of biology, this was critical work, but a *huge*, extremely intricate, pain. there are various techniques and machines that make it easier (or skip whole sections) nowadays, but it can still be a pain. tl;dr--you can start with the genes, try to break the mechanism of making x, and then go back and figure out what you broke, or you can start with proteins and try to isolate the ability to make x in a tube that contains as few components as possible. one could take a genetic approach. this would require that you be able to make mutations in the organism in question, and that you have a simple way to test whether cells produce the molecule (molecule x) in the question. ideally, you would make a situation where cells have to make x to survive under the conditions you're using or, even better, where making x kills them. this is called selection. then, you would subject the cells to some dna damaging agent and subject them to conditions that either kill cells that make x (so you only get mutants that can't) or you subject them to "normal" conditions and then move them onto another medium (for microorganisms, you press the plate into sterilized velvet to pick up colonies and then press the velvet to a new plate to deposit them) where they can only survive if they make molecule x. in that case, you'd look for the ones that died on transfer. now, you have a collection of mutants that don't make x. what happens next depends on the organism you're using and how tractable it is. in many organisms, you will do a series of mating tests (or make diploids or partial diploids in some types of bacteria). these will allow you to test two main things--whether your mutants are dominant or recessive, and, for the recessive mutants, whether the two mutants are in the same gene or different genes. this will give you a set of candidate genes. from this point on, you need to figure out what genes you have knocked out. originally, people would do genetic crosses where you look at the ratios of progeny with certain traits to determine what genes your mutation is linked to, and narrow it down that way. this was a long, painstaking process, and generally requires short generation times and lots of progeny to work well. later, people would try to fix the mutation, or "rescue" it, by adding back short snippets of dna with known (or easily knowable) contents, and seeing which ones worked. this is still done in some organisms, but requires that the organism be amenable to you adding dna to it. another thing people do nowadays is just sequence the whole thing and see what happens. it's worth knowing that nowadays in some simple-ish organisms, we have things called "knockout collections". they're arrays with a knockout of every gene in the genome (or most of them) in sequential wells. if you had one of these, you'd just subject them all to a selection/screen for x. it's also worth noting that if x is necessary, then this gets more complicated. you'll have to do something like make conditional mutants (mutants which are normal or normal enough at one condition, but dysfunctional in another, like a high temperature) to test. another way to go, which works for smaller or simpler conditions, is biochemistry. certain organisms are more and less amenable to genetics and biochemistry. basically, if you start with a whole cell, you have an activity that makes molecule x. to do this, you need a fairly straightforward way of testing for x. you also need to be able to supply the non-protein components needed to make x (an early precursor, a cofactor, etc.). you break open a whole ton of cells and test for the ability to make x. hopefully it's there. then you start removing fractions. you do this using various protein purification methods--separating by the properties that differ among different proteins, like location in the cell, how hydrophbic or hydrophillic they are, charge, size, affinity, etc. you make "fractions" using each method, often methods in sequence, and you test each fraction for its ability to make x. often you'll reach a point where you have a partly pure fraction which makes x, and split it into five fractions and none of them make x alone, but two together will. this is, again, a complicated and often painstaking process. eventually, you've hopefully purified a very small number of proteins which, in aggregate, can make x. if you remove anyone of these, you no longer get x. then you have to identify them. this used to be *really* hard. sometimes people would use a painstaking process called edman degradation to sequence proteins. now, we'd send them for mass spec analysis and it's not *too* bad. so, in both cases, you now have the identity of proteins/genes that are required to make x. in the genetics case, you probably also have some things like regulators and proteins responsible for sending your proteins to the right place. at this point, you've got the pathway. to get the molecular intermediates, it depends how much you already know. you can do genetics to order the genes in a pathway. if you know enough about related genes to know what genes like those do (or have seen these genes before for other things), you can often work out the chemistry that way. otherwise, you would have to switch to the biochemistry side of things at this point. to do the biochemistry, one would add the necessary components of the reaction, plus *some* of the required proteins. if you don't know the order in the pathway, you would have to try many combinations to figure out where to start. but if you add the first protein in the pathway and your precursor goes away and all you get is molecule y, well, molecule y is probably the first step to x, and so on. | 4 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can someone explain ftl in general relativity? | lawrence krauss says at 51:10 minutes in his "a universe from nothing" lecture that eventually galaxies will move away from us faster than the speed of light and disappear. i've been doing a bit of reading and am beginning to understand this concept, but can someone explain it to me in more simple terms so that a non-science college student can understand it? thanks guys | lawrence krauss is actually wrong on this one. at any point in time, sufficiently far galaxies will recede with speeds greater than the speed of light. the threshold distance for this is the hubble distance, d = c/h. if you plug this in to the hubble law, v= d\*h, it's easy to see that v contrary to common belief, even among experts like krauss, these distant galaxies do not become invisible. in fact, the hubble distance right now is at something like redshift 1.6. we routinely observe galaxies with a higher redshift than that, the record being at something like 7 or 8. the cmb is observable and at redshift 1100. why light from these galaxies can reach us has to do with the expansion of the universe. honestly, it's a bit technical and really hard to explain. the reason why this is not a problem for relativity is that it only states that superluminal speeds are impossible in *inertial frames*. in curved spacetime, inertial frames can only be defined locally. someone living in such a distant galaxies would not be able to pass a lightray. [source](_url_0_) (note that krauss' misconception is mentioned in paragraph 13 of appendix b.) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0310808"
] | [
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what is giraffe vocal communication like? | giraffes have such long recurrent laryngeal nerves, i imagine they would cause significant delay in vocalization. i wonder if this has anything to do with the persistent myth that giraffes have no vocal folds. how does it compare to, say, okapi vocal communication? | i've only heard a giraffe once (outside of mating and the usually snorts) and that was when a female had recently lost her calf to a pride of lions. the only way to describe it is as the first half of a domestic cow's "moo". just a low, but ascending moan. it was one of the oddest noises. i cannot compare this to okapi noises i've heard, because this was clearly an unusually and emotion driven vocalization. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is it possible to estimate what percentage of fertilized eggs fail to implant in the uterine wall in humans? | i realize it would be difficult to track because when it happens it would go unnoticed, but do estimates exist? | they do! the general estimate is that about 50% of fertilized eggs will fail to implant. [link here](_url_2_) to the uscf medical center's explanation of conception and implantation, but i've seen multiple sites mention the 'roughly half' estimate of failure. edit: wanted to add, many times the failure to implant is due to chromosomal abnormalities and other issues that would prevent normal development, [but roughly 1/3 of 'normal' eggs](_url_1_) will also fail to implant for various reasons. embryos that do implant also tend to die off at rate of about 50%, often before a woman could even know she was pregnant. it was estimated that it can be up to 70% of embryos lost in this extremely early phase of the pregnancy, but [that's been challenged](_url_0_) by researchers who put the estimate closer to 40%-60%. basically, it's remarkably common for fertilized eggs to not implant at all or to fail to thrive extremely early in the pregnancy. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5443340/",
"https://www.coastalfertilityspecialists.com/blog/why-do-chromosomally-normal-embryos-not-implant-in/",
"https://www.ucsfhealth.org/education/conception_how_it_works/"
] | [
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is there any correlation between religiosity and educational performance? | i just read [this](_url_0_) article on yahoo! and noticed that the most religious states are generally the worst performing in educational standards, while the least religious states are typically the best. | it's complicated. the best study i found is [this one](_url_0_), which doesn't give you much of a clear answer, but seems the most impartial. basically, they found that more educated people are more likely to belong to a church, but denominations with the highest average level of educational achievement have the worst attendance rates (i.e. how often their members actually go to church). this is explained, in the author's eyes, by the fact that educated people seem to have weaker beliefs as a whole, but are more likely to seek out the social aspect of church. so, it would seem that more educated people have less intense beliefs, but are more likely to belong to some religion. i guess you could say that it's a mixed bag. i do want to add that other sources i came across have said different things, but i was put off by what i perceived as the author's biases. this is one of those issues that's really hotly contested, so it's really hard to get impartial observations and research on it. a lot of people pick and choose their data so it produces the conclusion they wanted, so you have to research really carefully on subjects like this. edit: can never remember how to format links | 4 | [] | [
"http://news.yahoo.com/most-religious-us-state-151539552.html"
] | [
"http://www.economics.harvard.edu/pub/hier/2001/HIER1913.pdf"
] | [
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is there a way to check if certain dna/genes in a human is on or off? | the other answers are mostly beating around the bush. let's imagine you're looking for expression of gene x in someone's liver. let's skip forward a few days and imagine you biopsied a piece of that person's liver. you're probably going to want to grind it up into a homogenate -- which is kind of like making a disgusting smoothie -- so you have a nice liquid sample to work with. now what? there are a couple of ways to detect whether or not a gene is "on" or "off". is the liver producing rna from this gene? well, you could do an [rt-pcr](_url_1_). this is a pretty straightforward technique for detecting rna in a sample. that's great 'n' all, but just because a gene is producing rna doesn't necessarily mean there's a protein being made at the end -- assuming we're talking about a protein coding gene. with your homogenate, you could do an [elisa](_url_3_), which is a technique that uses antibodies to detect the presence of a protein in a sample (see an example [here](_url_0_)). that will tell you if there's protein x in your sample. as /u/myguitarisacoustic kind of alluded to, you could do some kind of sequencing, but that would be kind of overshooting things. you definitely wouldn't use a microarray, which is relatively outdated technology. if you really wanted to you could do [rna-seq](_url_2_), which could tell you *all* the rna present in a cell, but i'm not sure you'd need something like that. edit: in a lab setting, if your rt-pcr turned up something you would likely have it sequenced to confirm that what it turned up was your target gene. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18279887",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA-Seq",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELISA"
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|
how is dirt/debris/inorganic material handled or processed when a caterpillar passes through the pupal stage (and digests itself)? | where i live (rural area) there are always lots of caterpillars seen near the fields and crossing roads this time of year. it is hot and the roads are oily and lots of tar/rock chip, etc. there have to be oil / tar / debris that sticks to the hairs of the caterpillars, and i was wondering how this stuff is accounted for when the caterpillar turns itself into soup inside the chrysalis. do they shed an outer layer or dispatch of the hairs/fur before going through this process, to avoid complications? could certain debris or chemicals cause issues during this transitional phase? | when a caterpillar transforms into a pupa, it is actually undergoing ecdysis (shedding its exoskeleton) for one final time. the new cuticle (in this case the pupal casing) is forming underneath the cuticle of the caterpillar during its final instar, and “transforming” into a pupa is just shedding its cuticle, allowing for all the debris/inorganic matter to be shed along with the former exoskeleton. as for the material inside the gut of the caterpillar, often times the larva stop eating before pupating and may purge their guts of undigested organic matter before pupating. | 37 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do coil tattoo machines work regardless of the position of the clip cord? wouldn't switching the clip orientation, reverse the current and there by reverse the polarity of the coil electromagnet? | instead it seems to work regardless of the current direction, always producing a downward force. been training tattoo's for a year now, and studied mechanical engineering in college, lol this is really blowing my mind. | ok, i shouldn't comment here since i've never seen a tattoo machine but let me ask two questions to clear things up. 1) aren't you plugging into a wall outlet, which is a.c. current? 2) when you say downward force, doesn't the needle actually move in and out very fast? like 60 times a second? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is personalised medicine? | i've been hearing this term a lot recently and read a few definitions, but surely medicine has always been carried out to be as specific to the patient as possible? and how does understanding molecular cell pathology contribute to better approaches for personalised medicine? *personalized medicine for the americans here :) | the only "personalized medicine" with which i'm familiar has been a big topic among bioinformatics audiences, and i usually hear it as "personalized genomic medicine." medicine, to some degree, has focused less on the patient and more on the target (i.e. the infectious agent, the type of cancer, etc.) the new concept of personalized genomic medicine is taking into account the individual patient's genome, epigenome (where the technology remains lacking), and so on. officially in the united states, the president's council of advisors on science and technology defined it as: "…refers to the tailoring of medical treatment to the individual characteristics of each patient. it does not literally mean the creation of drugs or medical devices that are unique to a patient, but rather the ability to classify individuals into subpopulations that differ in their susceptibility to a particular disease or their response to a specific treatment. preventive or therapeutic interventions can then be concentrated on those who will benefit, sparing expense and side effects for those who will not." (president’s council of advisors on science technology. priorities for personalised medicine. 2008. _url_0_) a good example of where this can go is cancer. cancer's cause is *always* genetic (but not always heritable), in which dna has been modified that allows certain cells to escape replication checkpoints and divide uncontrollably. in the case of the genomic approach to medicine, it could be possible in the future to sequence the genome of these cells, identify the individual mutation(s) that lead to tumorigenesis, and either specifically target that mutated protein with the patient's immune system or remove the error altogether from the tumor genomes to restore normal function. this is a very reductionistic way of putting it and there's a lot of complexity and ethical concerns for doing this type of genetics work on living patients, but it shows promise over less targeted approaches. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://oncotherapy.us/pdf/PM.Priorities.pdf",
"https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg127/chapter/1-Guidance#choosing-antihypertensive-drug-treatment-2",
"https://beta.nhs.uk/medicines/ramipril/"
] | [
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] |
in a survival situation without water, are you better off eating or not eating food? | say you are stranded on a mild desert (no water at all), and the only thing you have are dried meat/fruits, nuts, and bread. would you be better off not eating these things because it will dehydrate you faster or are we better off eating to sustain our energy level? | eating, you still need to intake nutrients, and there is almost always a method to gather water: condensation trap, collect rainwater, etc. but if there is truly no water it doesn't really matter; you'll be dead within ~~a week~~ 72 hours max. edited for a more accurate survival timeline. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible, or even desirable, to make wells to recharge aquifers, like this sinkhole near san antonio? | here's a video of [water gushing down a sinkhole into the edwards aquifer](_url_0_) west of san antonio, tx. pretty often we're warned that aquifers on the plains, like the edwards and ogallala, are on the verge of being emptied, but meanwhile when it rains, most of the runoff goes into the ocean. what would be the negatives of making artificial means to recharge aquifers during rainy spells, so you'd have water to use during droughts? | not an exhaustive answer, but i can think of a couple notable issues: well-type intakes lack the filtration inherant in the natural system - normally water infiltrates slowly through miles worth of sediment, removing nutrients, organic contaminates, and some chemicals. man-made intakes could pollute an entire aquifer with organics, bacteria, chemicals, sediments, metals, etc. diverting water from runoff into groundwater can affect other aquifers, since you're artificially changing the watershed area. even when runoff heads directly into the ocean, plants and animals in those areas may rely upon that influx of brackish or fresh water, and their local ecosystem could suffer if too much water is diverted. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=850kNMUOEKc"
] | [] | [
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has there ever been a recorded case of a person who did not have the sense to touch or feel? | it got me thinking because you can (temporarily or permanently) lose all your other senses. such as being deaf, blind, or being sick enough to not taste or smell. but you always seem to be able to touch and feel things. | [there have been cases of people being unable to feel pain](_url_0_) but i have not heard of any where somebody has been unable to feel at all. it would be very interesting to know if anybody has ever been born that way, especially to find out if they were able to move and walk on their own or if they were essentially like a paraplegic. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_insensitivity_to_pain"
] | [
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is the sense of 'proprioception' lost in individuals who have lost a sense of touch? | hi. thanks for your question. in the clinical setting, it is not uncommon to see patients who have lost some component of their sense of touch but maintained proprioception or vice versa, but these sensory modalities often appear to track together, because proprioception is a pretty high order sensation that receives a lot of inputs. proprioception, is that general sense of knowing how your body is positioned. the cerebellum is ultimately responsible for giving that sense to people. strictly speaking, there are specific nerves designed to convey proprioceptive information (muscle / tendon stretch and tension, joint position), and those are responsible for 'proprioception.' however, the cerebellum is constantly integrating inputs, sending out information for making adjustment, and then integrating a new set of inputs. for example, detecting signals from visual inputs from the eyes or balance inputs from the inner ear can help provide a sense of proprioception for the head and neck. a clinical correlation might be a patient who has some mild proprioceptive impairment--he can stand upright with his eyes open, but when told to close his eyes, he begins to sway dramatically. a sense of touch and pressure also helps the cerebellum process proprioceptive sensation, such that balance and coordination is often impaired by loss of mechanoreception in a limb. a super basic clinical example of this is seen when neurologists move a toe up and down by grabbing the sides instead of the top and bottom to test lower extremity proprioception. the question of losing proprioception and touch together depends on where the damage occurs. take the foot for example--information from proprioceptive nerves (muscle spindle afferents and golgi tendon organs) travels into the dorsal root ganglion, and then is conveyed upward along with fine touch information in the posterior column. crude touch, pain, and heat sensation enters the dorsal root ganglion, and then is conveyed upward along the spinothalamic tract. therefore, certain lesions of the spinal cord can cause a dissociative loss of sensation, but other lesions could cause coordinated loss of sensation. in the brain, mechanoreception and pain is handled in the primary somatosensory cortex in the postcentral gyrus, whereas postural stuff is handled by the cerebellum. therefore, isolated injury to these brain structures could also cause a dissociative loss. i'll also quickly say something about diabetics, since touch and proprioception loss is a very important clinical issue in these patients. diabetic neuropathy impacts long tracts with small and unmyelinated somatosensory fibers early in the disease. this first causes a loss of pinprick and fine discriminatory sensation, then pain, temperature, vibration and proprioception after that. in patients with advanced neuropathy, there is a stocking/glove pattern of sensation loss, most often with a coordinated touch and proprioception deficit. as you can imagine, this leads to bad problems for feet, where a patient is not only walking irregularly due to loss of coordination, but also unaware of pain from abrasions and pressure. [here](_url_0_) is a very detailed review of proprioceptive anatomy if you'd like to learn more. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://jnnp.bmj.com/content/73/5/473.full"
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|
if you attached a multimeter to your spinal cord, what kind of voltage would it show? would it have any negative effect on body function? | whilst i'm not sure about the effect of a multimeter, most nerves operate at between -70 and 40 millivolts (across the membrane). | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophysiology"
] | [
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|
is tesla's theory of aether accepted as science? or is it still theory? | it was debunked. tesla did most of his work in a time before einstein's theory of special relativity became commonly accepted. in tesla's time, the existence of ether was often assumed as true. however, the michelson–morley experiment proved conclusively that electromagnetic waves (including visible light) don't propagate through a background medium (ether). einstein and others built on this result to find an explanation for the properties of electromagnetism that don't include ether and their work has been shown to produce highly accurate predictions and is nowadays widely accepted as the best model of electromagnetism. for all intents and purposes, ether theory as advocated by tesla is dead and buried. | 46 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is michaelis-menten equation used for in enzyme kinetics? | as title says what is it used for, to measure/find out how well the enzyme turns the substrate into product? enzyme kinetics goes a little over my head 😅 | it's a plot of reaction velocity versus substrate concentration. from the graph, you can find michaelis constant (km), which is the concentration at half the maximum velocity (vmax/2). km is indirectly proportional to substrate affinity. in other words, a low km means the enzyme has a high affinity to the substrate. the plot, therefore, can be used to assess affinity. this is useful when testing enzyme inhibitors. inhibitors have two different mechanisms (competitive and non-competitive). based on how the inhibitor affects vmax and km, you can determine the mechanism of action. also, i believe you can determine if there are allosteric effects from the shape of the curve (it should be hyperbolic, normally). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
if you were sitting on powerful enough vacuum could you use it to suck yourself forward? | i have drawn up a very technical [picture](_url_0_) of what i'm thinking. insert obligatory "your mom" joke edit: thanks guys, my friends and i are satiated with your answers. i love this place. | in principle, yes. in practice, you're going to need a really big vacuum. the thing is that "sucking" like with a vacuum (which is actually about being pushed by the atmosphere behind your vehicle) is not the reverse process of pushing, like you might imagine a hovercraft does with its drive fan. the reason is because, as your technical drawing notes, the reduced pressure created in front of the vacuum is going to be dispersed over a large angle. this means that, in general, the energy you're putting into evacuating the area in front of you will be less efficiently deployed than blowing directly behind you (creating a pressure gradient of the same size), because blown air can be much more effectively directed. for what it's worth, this is the exact same as the logic behind the [feynman sprinkler problem.](_url_0_) edit: and shame on me for not mentioning the most obvious, common application of this difference of all. go home, turn on a fan. the air in front of the fan seems to be blowing much harder than it is being sucked in on the other side. | 11 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/PDeH3Fx.jpg?1"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman_sprinkler"
] | [
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is there any process similar to sublimation but in which matter jumps to plasma and another like deposition coming down from plasma? | i was arguing with a friend earlier that no one ever teaches us anything about plasma and then we came up with this and asked our teacher who had no idea. so is it possible to have this? also if it is possible is it limited to 2 stages as in solid > gas and would be liquid > plasma or can you have solid > plasma? | edit: changing my answer to be more clear. plasmas are created by ionization where you give an atom so much energy that the electron pops off. this can be done to any atom in any state of matter. there's no specific name for if you do it to a solid (surface plasmas in solid state physics) or a gas (plasma in the ionosphere and magnetosphere). coming down from plasma is just called recombination and it just means the electrons combine with an ion. since ions are heavier than electrons they'll dictate what state it is at the end. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do people calculate things like this: "1 in 5 people don't know they have x disease"? is it a guess? | i'm guessing that is has to be a guess because there's no way to actually tell. if it's an educated guess, how can they come up with that? or is it based on past statistics? if it is based on past statistics, does that mean that it's generally wrong? | they take a control group size (maybe 100 or 1000 or 10000 people) to research and then extrapolate that to the population size. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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optical measurement of tension in a cable | so i have an idea for an invention, part of which involves measuring the amount of weight being suspended by a cable. i know how cable tension meters normally work, but i was wondering if anyone has invented some sort of optical measurement capability that could clip onto a cable and determine the weight or tension. i would assume that this device would need to know the composition of the cable beforehand, but maybe not? any ideas? i hope this is the right sub for this question | the tension in a cable determines the frequency of waves propagating through it. an optical sensor could potentially determine small fluctuations in amplitude of the string (by comparing changes in the distance from the string to some reference object, for example) and thus determine the frequency. of course a real string will have many modes of propagation, so this concept is a simplification. also, the string will experience random fluctuations due to thermal motion. the latter concept is used at the microscale to determine the temperature or frequency of very small oscillators. a related concept is used in gravitational wave sensors, which currently are capable of detecting extremely small fluctuations in distance. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.asprs.org/a/publications/pers/2006journal/january/2006_jan_39-45.pdf"
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are humans the only animal that watches other members of the species act out scenarios for entertainment? | in other words, are there any animals that perform for each other? | there are a lot of birds doing various dances to entertain their possible mating partner. other (if you count that as entertaining) species also prove their strength in duels to decide who gets to mate or who is the stronger animal. there also is entertainment unrelated to mating, e.g. some birds (mostly the ones known for being able to talk) tend to dance with each other when there's music. but nah, as far as i know there is no species that actively puts up a show just to entertain for solely that purpose. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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addiction: when getting off drugs, would using something in the middle of recovery bring that person to square one? | forgive me for sounding vague, but i want to undersatnd this to see if i can undersatnd new supposed addictions like porn and video games. can this question be answered in such an easy manner since drugs are all so different? if so, for the sake of simplicity, if someone was on meth and they're on their path to recovery. what happens if say months down the line that person took a hit. would that bring them back to square one and they have to start over? assume that this person has the will power to once again start after breaking their recovery path. i'm curious on the brain aspects of addiction. | you need to understand up regulation, down regulation, increased and decreased expression of receptors, dependance, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms; and i don't want to write walls of text. porn is more of a conditioning, as it is associated with release, you're essentially addicted to the chemicals surrounding orgasm, porn is burned in your limbic system as the prerequisite to orgasm, so when your body needs what it is addicted to (orgasm) it signals a crave for porn. but your brain is already wired as porn -- video games is more like gambling. **a key point that is not mainstream is that addiction is, at its core, a spectral personality disorder, porn/drug/game addiction is a symptom.** | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
my city centre (singapore) is cooler than suburbs in the afternoon (1-3pm), how is this possible? | saw some statistics on my geography textbook | i've been to singapore many years ago and i remember it as being rather hot and muggy everywhere. also, if i recall correctly, the city centre was mostly along the waterfront. if so, that could be the main reason to be a few degrees cooler than the suburbs. especially if a [sea breeze](_url_0_) develops, the wind would blow from the ocean towards the land, helping to keep the temperatures of the land along the shore a few degrees cooler compared to places further inland. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_breeze"
] | [
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i've read that proteins that trigger shellfish allergies are present in cicadas. are they present in other insects? what about spiders? | the principle allergen for shellfish allergies is the tropomyosin protein. this is a ubiquitous protein present in all animals which have muscles. shellfish divide in to roughly two groups: arthropods including lobsters, prawns, crab, and barnacles and a second group of molluscs which include squid, octopus, oysters, muscles and so forth. what we know is that tropomyosin in invertebrates (arthropods and molluscs) can induce an allergic reaction whereas vertebrate tropomyosins (from sheep, pig, beef etc...) are not allergenic. invertebrate tropomyosins are also cross-allergenic, so allergy to mollusc tropomyosin is a strong risk factor for allergy to arthropod tropomyosin (and vice versa). shellfish allergy is also predictive of allergy to house dust mites and again the link there might be the shared invertebrate tropomyosin (although as we don't typically eat dust mites this link is less clear). wrt spiders, as they are arthropods we would expect a shellfish allergy to be predictive to a similar allergy to spiders. so you are probably best advised not to go around eating spiders if you have a shellfish allergy. _url_2_ _url_1_ _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4713872/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10637712",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10474029"
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|
what is the maximum operating altitude of a bumblebee? | given that their ability to generate lift depends on the viscosity of the atmosphere, there is presumably some level of air pressure below which they can't generate enough lift to maintain altitude. | there has been an article published about exactly this in the beginning of this year; [link to article](_url_0_), and [link to news article](_url_1_). they wondered about the same thing you did, that the low air pressure makes it hard to generate lift, but they did not know what the limitating factors were. therefore, they did an experiment in which they used high alititude (3250 metres) living bumblebees in an air chamber in which they reduced the pressure as they were flying and this way came to an air pressure equivalent to 9000 metres. the bumblebees responded to the changes by using a wider angle to fly, probably pushing more air downwards. however, although it may be that air pressure is not the limiting factor for bumblebees flying at such altitudes, temperature probably still is; when temperature becomes too low, even bumblebees adapted to cold will still not manage to fly. | 173 | [] | [] | [
"http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/10/2/20130922.abstract",
"http://www.nature.com/news/himalayan-heights-pose-no-problem-for-bees-1.14670"
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how much does constantly performing heavy calculations on a computer affect its components? | i'm currently working with quite heavy scientific computations and often keep my computer on over night when these are running. does this constant use shorten the life span of any of the individual components of the computer compared to if i had kept the computer on but without any program running? | yes, it does shorten the lifespan. various things happen when you put a modern microprocessor under a high work load. the operating voltage gets increased to its highest permissible level and the clock frequency is bumped up to its highest permissible level. (the voltage increase is to support the frequency increase.) both of these things result in the die getting hotter. and if your system is multicore and the workload can be parsed between cores, more cores may be fully powered up and running. this also increases the die temperature. both voltage increases and temperature increases have a deleterious effect for most of the failure mechanisms that affect integrated circuits. the high workload can potentially affect other components in similar manners. the gpus might be working at higher frequencies, the memory might be doing more i/o toggling, the power supply has to provide more current, etc. these are going to make them hotter, decreasing their lifetime. and as all of those things increase the ambient temperature inside of the case, all of the other components are affected by the higher temperatures, too. but generally to a much lesser extent, unless there are some odd thermal situations (which sometimes does happen in things like laptops). quantifying those effects is more difficult. there are some crude rules of thumb, but they are very crude. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the curvature of the earth considered when large buldings are planned? | when large buldings (in terms of area) are being designed (and built), is the curvature of the earth taken into consideration? if the building is large enough does it have to designed to curve with the earth? | it really depends on the building, but for the most part not. a counter example, though, is the stanford linear accelerator. the accelerator, and the associated klsystron hall is perfectly straight and just over 3km long. because it is perfectly straight, it actually appears to curve upwards to the naked eye. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do doctors/scientists determine whether a condition is genetic, or just the result of family members having similar lifestyles? | for example, my mother and brother get kidney stones. did my brother inherit the kidney stone genes, or is it because they both eat the same foods, and they both smoke and drink? how do professionals know the answer to this question? | in the past, you’d do a twin study, where you look for a pair of twins who are separated early in their life, and compare them. genetic conditions will typically follow both after separation. today, you can do genome sequencing, where you take a bunch of (related or not) people with the same condition, and compare their dna looking for similarities that aren’t present in people without the condition. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's pain? how does it affect cortisol levels? | i'm trying to understand the pathways connecting the inflammatory systems to the brain and nerves processing their response, but i'm lost on how exactly the brain communicates with the adrenals ect. within what i've heard is a daily natural fluctuation of cortisol in the body? how does this work in insomniacs or chronic pain sufferers? is it the cns or pns? sympathetic or parasympathetic? i'd love an overview of the physiology or some good research to mull over if anyone has some time and expertise. | physio here. the research on pain has changed a lot over the past ten years or so and is ridiculously extensive as well as incomplete. here is some a really simple breakdown of the research that i have read to deal with people in chronic pain. 1.) pain is a conscious perception of what you consider dangerous based on all of the incoming information from all of your senses and previous experiences. pain does not just mean damage at the tissues, something can be regarded as painful without tissue damage (such as in some types of chronic pain) or not painful with actual tissue damage present (think of an athlete who doesn't realise they have injured themselves until their event is over). 2.) the pns is responsible for nociception which is not pain. the cns integrates the nociception along with all of the other information coming from all the other senses before deciding if it is worth paying attention. if it is worth paying attention the alarm system that is pain will go off. low level risk things may only hurt when you're sitting still and have nothing else to do; think of that achy back or neck or shoulder that bothers you some times for no reason. 3.) there is a lot of chemical, endocrinological, physiological and neurological changes that take place in the case of chronic pain in both the pns and the cns. this results in the trigger for pain in a certain region (sometimes the whole body can become sensitised) is out of whack with it's actual tissue damage and threat level. in chronic pain, the sympathetic nervous system can be wound up, it is designed for short term response to threat such as immediate response to a threatening environment. the parasympathetic response is a little more complicated, cortisol is released to slow down "unnecessary" functions in response to a threat. for example in starvation it would be a waste of precious energy to have an over active immune or digestive system. depending where you want to start learning, *explain pain* by david butler is a start. tl;dr you can learn all the chemical pathways and each step of the endocrine system but don't lose site of what pain actually is: an interpretation of threat which is unique to each person based on all the available information from the senses and previous experiences. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the act of questioning have an fmri signature, and has this signature been observed in other animals? | the idea of "fmri signatures" for specific events in the brain is a bit problematic. we see a lot of reports in the news saying that "brain region x is activated when people think of y" but there are many problems with interpreting these kinds of scans in this way. i won't go into too much depth (unless you are interested - in which case please ask!) but the two basic problems are: 1. interpretation of the fmri signal itself as representing activity of nerve cells in the brain. fmri directly measures blood flow, changes in which are linked to nerve cell activity but not always in a way which is easy to interpret. 2. statistical issues regarding interpreting the fmri findings and how these studies are carried out. often studies are carried out without clear hypotheses or plans for how the data will be analysed. researchers often report whatever differnces they observe, regardless of whether they were part of their predictions for the study. this is statistically problematic. there are some excellent posts on this topic _url_0_ _url_1_ (some strong language) _url_2_ i am aware that this may appear slightly off-topic but these are really big issues in fmri research that it's useful to have in mind when you see information that relates more directly to your question. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://gardenofthemind.com/tag/bad-science/",
"http://scienceblogs.com/purepedantry/2008/06/27/must-read-paper-on-fmri-and-th/",
"http://neurealist.blogspot.co.uk/2010/09/where-does-bad-fmri-science-writing.html"
] | [
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|
refridgerator: leave open or open/close multiple times for minimum heat transferral? | i tend to open and close my refridgerator (standard, cheap model) multiple times within a short span (10sec to 1min) and i was wondering if leaving it open was more energy efficient than opening and closing it multiple times in regards to the diffusion of bodies of air with different temperatures. my theory is that the opening and closing of the door creates a suction/blowing force that can disturb the cooler air body inside the refridgerator, stirring more air in and out. is there an analytical (non-experimental) way to determine if this is true? | experiments beat theory. especially in a situation like this, if theory says one thing and experiments say another, the theory is just wrong. considering that this is basically a trivial experiment to carry out, that's what i would recommend. pretty much all you'd need is a thermometer and a watch. it sounds like a fun little science project actually. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do lab water purification (deionizers) systems work? | how do the water purification systems that have two different layers of ion exchange resin beads turn tap water into deionized water? | they contain molecules which exchange absorb ions and release water. there are many different formulations for the beads but they perform the same chemical reaction cation-exchange resin (r-h) r-h + na+ - anion-exchange resin (r-oh) r-oh + cl- - after one column absorbs the cations and the other the anions, the resulting solution is completely deionized (except for water ions). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.uswatersystems.com/di-deionization-systems"
] | [
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] |
a question about water, energy storage and conservation. | if i'm at sea level and spend x amount of energy with an electric pump filling a reservoir 200 meters above sea level with 4 million liters of water, how much of that energy could i hope to get back by powering a turbine at a sea level "drain" port? if i had a large field of mirrors that formed a parabolic solar reflector and focused the sun's thermal energy on the reservoir to heat the water to steam, could i have, in tandem, a steam turbine to generate electricity during the day and a water+gravity turbine at night? **do i have a net plus of energy to use for the next day to pump water back into my reservoir?** | for the first part of your question, this is known as pumped hydroelectric storage (_url_1_) and is ~70-85% efficient (_url_0_). it's currently the most economically viable form of very large scale energy storage for grid applications. as to the second part, average solar power in the us seems to range from ~2-8 kwh/m^2/day (_url_3_) and large steam turbines are 60-90% efficient (_url_2_). you need 2.18 mwh of energy to pump the water back up, so roughly 400 m^2 of mirrors neglecting assuming all of the solar energy goes into heating the steam for the turbine. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.electricitystorage.org/images/uploads/static_content/technology/technology_resources/life-efficiency_large.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity",
"http://www.uschpa.org/files/public/steamturbines.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Us_pv_annual_may2004.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics"
] | [
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is there a point in which the leidenfrost effect would no longer protect your hand from heat even if only for an instant? | the liedenfrost effect does nothing to protect you from radiation heating, which would become more and more important as the metal starts glowing. so, yes, would have an effect if you dipped your wet hand in molten steel - but your hand would still be roasted before your hand reached to metal, and the water as well as your hand would still explode. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
how do emps work? would one be able to shut down electronics that help keep heart beats or artificial hearts? | also, what about this new [cyborg technology](_url_0_). | this is an extremely difficult thing for most ethics boards to approve proper testing for, but the manufacturers certainly try to shield the devices in some way, and the body itself can help to protect them as well. that said, [the military](_url_0_) did a study on this back in the day, and basically concluded that while an emp could potentially disrupt a pacemaker, but it's unlikely for a number of reasons. the body acts, of sorts, like a faraday cage for the pacemaker, so unless the leads themselves are struck with enough energy to damage the pacemaker, not much will happen. even then, a number of designs are nearly fully enclosed, fully protecting themselves. this also is of minimal concern because the heart has backup pacemakers, should the implanted one fail, and there are many differents devices, and reasons, something could be implanted. the outcomes vary wildly based on the strength of the device, and the distance from detonation of course. | 3 | [] | [
"http://redd.it/yylw4"
] | [
"http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA242990"
] | [
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] |
what is the right thing to do if someone gets attacked with acid? what is the best way to neutralize it? | after reading [this thread](_url_0_), i was wondering what could have she done to maybe prevent the severe burns. the natural reaction is to try to wash it off with water, but it can make acid even worse. so i was wondering what is the proper way to deal with it, neutralize it with a strong base? | the advice for clearing acid spills is to dilute with with water before clearing it up. think of it like squash. add water and it tastes less like squash and eventually tastes just like water. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/worldnews/comments/rj1ly/expak_dancing_girl_who_was_attacked_with_acid/"
] | [
"http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/769336-treatment"
] | [
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glovebox - backflow into positive pressure? | we use a positive-pressure, argon-filled glovebox on a regular basis. there's a catalyst system which nominally removes trace amounts of water from the box - however, the moisture meter is wildly uncalibrated and unreliable. a situation has come up regarding the glovebox main vent. my lab-mates insist that if the vent is open (pipe ~ .5" diameter), then the positive pressure inside the glovebox prevents *any* moisture from entering the box. i remember hearing that some backflow does occur, but i can't prove it. i've been looking for a report, book, or journal article which mentions this, but haven't had any luck. any thoughts? thanks! edit: the way that the backflow was explained to me was that the flow would be outwards for most of the pipe, but that along the edges, it would be inwards. | if someone pulls their hands out of the gloves really fast, it's possible that you could suck some of the outside atmosphere in, but it shouldn't be standard procedure to keep the purge valve open while you're working. otherwise, with an opening that small, you shouldn't get any backflow as long as the inside pressure is high enough (i wouldn't let it drop below ~6-9 mbar while purging). there are other tests you can use to detect trace levels of oxygen and water in your box, like the light bulb test, or diethylzinc. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to predict the final volume of a solution after i add a solute to it, given i know the volumes and masses of the solids and liquids involved? | i added 20ml of sugar to 100ml of water, and the final volume of the solution was less than 120ml. why is it that volumes don't simply add up? is there a name to this characteristic of mixtures? is it possible to predict the final volume that i'll get? | volume is a poor way to measure something like sugar, there is microscopic pockets of air between the granules. sugar has a density of 1.59 g/ml but when you use ml to measure sugar, 1 ml of granulated sugar is only .85 g _url_0_ if you weighed you sugar instead, you could have a more accurate prediction. but the solution of sugar in water is more dense than water alone. what you're looking for is specific gravity. i read that 1.59g of sugar added to 1 ml of water, yields 2 ml of solution. so 20 ml of sugar, mass approximately 17 grams, adds 10 ml to the 100ml solution. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.traditionaloven.com/culinary-arts/sugars/granulated-sugar/convert-milliliter-ml-to-gram-g-granulated-white-sugar.html"
] | [
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how does a lost arm of a starfish grow into a new starfish? | stem cells with the ability to divide and then generate any cell type necessary to make an adult sea star are actually found in adult sea stars. using these stem cells and signals from the existing adult limb, they are able to grow the missing body parts (the central region and new limbs). the signals necessary for this regeneration are actually very poorly understood and are a very active area of research (for sea stars as well as other animals that are able to regenerate limbs). it is widely believed that a key reason that sea stars are able to do this is because they have a relatively simple body plan (compared to humans). eta: some sea stars actually don't need any portion of the central disk to regenerate. the limb has enough stem cells and the right signals to make a new central region (how cool is that?!). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
iupac principles of chemical nomenclature | i'm currently embroiled in an argument with a chemist who refuses to admit that randomly inserting a hyphen into chemical nomenclature where it does not belong does in fact violate the rules of proper chemical nomenclature, despite my direct citation of the iupac's regulations. so, r/askscience organic chemists, i ask you this: is it valid or invalid rename 3,4-methylenedioxy-n-methylcathinone to 3,4-methylenedioxy-n-methyl-cathinone? reasoning for question: the chemist hyphenated "methylcathinone" to "methyl-cathinone" in order to seperate the chemical group and write in a synonym for "cathinone", ultimately re-writing the forumula as 3,4-methylenedioxy-n-methyl-beta-ketoamphetamine. beta-ketoamphetamine (c9h11no) being a synonym for cathinone, which is a different chemical group than methylcathinone c10h13no. input? | hyphens separate numbers and designating letters (n, e, z, beta, alpha....) that aren't words. the words should get strung together. the second example gets an extra two hyphens because 'beta' should really be the single greek letter, not a word. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does pressure in a system increase linearly or exponentially? | i was filling a tire today wondering about the pressure in it. say i have a 200psi air line filling a tire with 0psi. does the pressure in the tire increase faster or slower in the beginning? does it slow down as pressure increases because the air pushes back? the volume of the tire doesn't change and the source stays constant. | air can typically be assumed to follow the ideal gas law, where pv = nrt pressure x volume = #molecules x constant x temperature lets assume you are filling a tire with a bicycle pump. it starts off at 0psi. when you fully extend the pump, a certain number of molecules will fill the pump. and when you depress, they will be forced into the tire. regardless of the current pressure of the tire, the same number of molecules will enter the tire. since pv=nrt is a linear equation, each pump will increase the pressure of the tire by the same amount. however, more work is required each time to actually do the pump. you may notice that as you pump, the tire gets hotter and hotter. this is due to compression of the air in the pump, and would actually make the tire seem to fill faster the more full it is. this all assumes the tire does not expand significantly. also, not sure how a mechanical pump would be affected. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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during neurophysiology experiments like the one by hodgkin-huxley, how did they prevent the squid axons from dying and decaying? | surely, the squid is *dead*. so then why does the squid axon remain usable for neurophysiology experiments? do the experiments become less reliable with each passing day? | the squid giant axon can keep firing for quite some time after being removed from the animal and placed in a saline solution. you could and nutrients and oxygenate the solutions but i don't think they needed to do this. i've played with them before and they are quite robust. i've personally seen an axon from crayfish maintain spontaneous activity for days. you would probably not want to experiment with the same axon for multiple days however as the cell would certainly start to degrade. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringer's_solution"
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how to correctly build an emp-safe box? | hi everybody! so, i recently started planning on building an emp-proof box that would, if built properly, resist a [nuclear emp](_url_0_), no matter how far away it's from ground zero. i'm not too familiar with this type of physics, so i have a couple of questions: 1. when reading online about building an emp-safe box, most guides recommend wrapping aluminum foil inside a box of your choice, to act as a faraday cage. now, i'm a bit skeptical that it would be able to successfully resist such a heavy puls, primarily because of its thickness. am i wrong? if not, can that be solved by wrapping multiple layers? last, but not least, how would you practically manage to completely seal the box with the aluminum foil when closing? doesn't the conductor have to be **completely** sealed to be functional? 2. in microwave ovens, the door usually have a conductive mesh with perforations in it, which prevents the microwaves from coming out of the oven. i thought this method of shielding would be much more suitable for the task, mainly because you could easily make the box "sealed" with the perforated conductor, by overlapping, just to be sure, like when the box is closed. this is possible because the conductor doesn't have to be fully connected everywhere, leaving no gaps exposed, right? 3. how small must the perforations be so that no dangerous electromagnetic radiation could bypass the electromagnetic shield? 4. does the box need to be grounded? 5. anything else i need to know? :-) thanks in advance! | sorry, i typed a big thing, but i accidentally closed my browser. use [this](_url_0_). for resistivity, copper is 1.6 and aluminum is 2.8, both have relative permeability of 1. for your application aluminum is probably your best bet. holes are bad because you dont know what frequencies will be present, an emp is a broad pulse. the result really depends on how the energy is distributed vs frequency. the lower the frequency, the better it can penetrate your box. at 1khz, you need at least 2.7mm of aluminum to absorb most of the energy. you can use steel for its ferromagnetism (relative permeability of around 100), but if it saturates due to high fields it looses its blocking ability, since its conductivity is less, around 14 on that calculator. grounding wont make a difference, too high frequency anyway. you would need to bury the thing on a mountain of bentonite and even then it probably wouldn't matter. summary, the more you spend on buying thick aluminum, the more likely the circuit will survive. without knowing the energy distribution vs frequency of the emp, you cant be sure. from reading the wiki page, the energy is mostly in the higher frequencies, but i cannot find any graph or source as to the distribution. if you make it 1mm thick aluminum i would expect electronics to survive in there, only because i discharge 10gw lightning bolts near circuits in such boxes and they mostly do fine. | 3 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion"
] | [
"http://www.microwaves101.com/microwave-encyclopedia/435-skin-depth-calculator"
] | [
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what is the minimum size of a body of water for it to have self perpetuating waves? | for example, a small pond doesn't have waves, but the ocean does. is there a critical size where a body begins to have waves? or does it depend on a different factor? | it entirely depends on wind effect, ususally a term reffered to as *fetch*. this is the length of linear distance that the wind has to work on the water. the length depends on wind speed, so high wind speed at the surface can use a low fetch (small pond) to make waves and lower speed wind needs a longer distance to work on. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can you tell the difference between a knotted muscle and bone? | i'm told there's a difference, but i'm sort of a bony person, and i can't really tell the difference, if there is indeed one. so, is there a way to tell which it is? | where on your body are you talking about? it would be obvious on an x-ray. do you mean how to tell the difference by touch? a "knotted" muscle would still be less dense than bone and will not feel as hard when you apply pressure. one way could be to feel a place on your body where you *know* you are feeling a bone. then apply the same kind of pressure to the area in question. another thing you can do is look up anatomical diagrams of the area you have questions about. what is supposed to be there, bone or muscle? that doesn't rule out the possibility of an extrabony growth, depending on where it is, though. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
in light of the european ban on neonicotinoids, how strong is the science supporting their link to colony collapse disorder? | i know this question has been asked and answered before, but they only got a little bit of attention and not very deep answers. as a follow on, how urgent is action on colony collapse disorder? if we do nothing becuase the science is still not certain then are we facing permanent problems? it seems if we know the answer to these two questions we can understand what good policy on this ban would be. | tl;dr there is very strong evidence that neonicotinoids seriously harm bees, but only weaker evidence that this is the sole cause of colony collapse. [the guardian](_url_1_) has a summary of some of the issues, but i'll make a few comments here also. it isn't a total ban, only [three neonicotinoid insecticides are banned](_url_4_) (which ignores that the entire class of insecticides appears to have the same risks), and only from certain crops (which ignores the frequent spread of pesticides to adjacent fields), and only when flowering (which ignores that bees also feed on [guttation](_url_2_) and that the plant absorbs the insecticide through its roots or leaves and the insecticide . the [european food safty agency](_url_0_) did a six month study of all available evidence and concluded that bees feeding on treated crops suffered significant harm. by significant they mean that even diluted 400,000 times, a single exposure to a neonicotinoid insecticide will half the number of bees in a hive within 30 days. the effective does to kill unwanted pests is usually a 1,000-4,000 times dilution, so it's easy for bees to accidentally get 1% of that dose. the argument on the other side came entirely from the pesticide producers who believe banning these pesticides would hurt farmers, while there was no evidence of any sort offered to support these claims. it isn't completely clear that neonicotinoids alone are enough to cause all of the hive collapses seen. there are lots of things that can harm bees, and in many cases the cumulative effect is also important to consider. some of the standard threats like [varroa mites](_url_3_) aren't a problem for a healthy hive, but a poor summer can lead to a hive that is weak enough for the mites to kill it. it could be that weather conditions, existing diseases and neonicotinoids together are too much for the bees. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/press/news/130116.htm",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2013/apr/29/bees-european-neonicotinoids-ban",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guttation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diseases_of_the_honey_bee#Varroa_mites",
"http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-13-379_en.htm"
] | [
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] |
is there a way to identify the rate determining step in a mechanism? | can one pinpoint which step is rate determining without any specific information besides the steps themselves? if so, how is this done? | depends how good your knowledge of reaction mechanisms is. you can make a very educated guess based on what you know about intermediates’ energies (ie carbocations are unstable and take longer to form) but without kinetic data you can’t know for sure. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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theoretical ideal reflector | is there a theoretical reflectance of a reflector, less than 100%? my reason for thinking such a maximum might exist is the following: imagine a mirror floating in space. a photon which hits it and is reflected must transfer some momentum to it. if 100% of light at the same wavelength is reflected, then incident energy of the light is the same as the reflected, but the mirror would also start moving, so the energy post-reflection would exceed the pre-reflection. i see two possible solutions: the first is if the reflected light shifts to a larger wavelength, and the second is that some photons are not reflected at all. the shift of light to a lower frequency seems possible, but contrary to daily experience with mirrors. is this sound reasoning? does light necessarily lose energy on reflection, even under ideal circumstances? what is the upper bound of reflectance? | thinking of mirrors and light as balls and a wall doesn't work if you are going to think about it in this matter. you actually have to look at light and mirror as two interacting fields. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[medicine] how does solesta (hyaluronic acid and dextranomer-linked beads) work? | when it is injected into the body, how exactly does it cause the tissue to "bulk up"? | "dextranomer is a sterile, insoluble powder in the form of circular beads, 0.1 to 0.3 mm in diameter, when dry. it is a long chain polysaccharide constructed in a three dimensional network of cross-linked dextran molecules. dextranomer is highly hygroscopic due to its high hydroxyl group content and 1 g of it absorbs 4 ml of water and swells till it is saturated. the suction force generated in vitro is in the range of 200 mm hg" [source] (_url_0_) in short, it's chemical structure/composition allow it to absorb water and expand. edit:forgot a word | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.jpgmonline.com/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=1985;volume=31;issue=1;spage=28;epage=33;aulast=Parulkar#cited"
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if i went 2000 years back in time, would i be able to demonstrate that the cell is the unit of life? | given no advanced tools like a microscope but knowledge of everything there is to know about biology, is there a way to do it? | like most of the other commenters have suggested, you're mostly boned without a microscope. and even then, there was about a 200 year difference between the discovery of the cell and the development of the cell theory of life. however, you might be able to set up a rudimentary micro lab, but it might be difficult to obtain disinfectants (you'll just have to construct a simple autoclave... easy peasy, right?). you can start with simple stuff like proving [biogenesis](_url_1_) by constructing some elaborate culture flasks. you could also try to separate mixtures of bacteria and obtain pure bacterial cultures, and describe the growth of colonies. if you're really good, you might be able to isolate phages and perform a [one-step growth curve experiment](_url_0_), which produces data that may suggest a cellular basis for life (e.g. average number of plaque forming units produced per infected colony forming unit is unique for each bacterial species/strain and phage strain pair). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage_ecology#Methods",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteur#Germ_theory_of_disease"
] | [
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if i electrify the pan i am using for melting a chocolate bar, will it have any results the article mentions? | here is the post with the article i refered in the title: _url_0_ it's actually a honest question and not a try on /r/askshittyscience. | check out the [article itself](_url_0_) - it explains the process in a straightforward manner. the application of an electric field does not remove fat from chocolate. rather, it reduces the viscosity of the melted chocolate and lets it flow better. normally one adds fat (cocoa butter) to decrease viscosity - if we attempt to lower the fat the mixture gets too viscous. with this new method of reducing viscosity we don't have to add as much fat to keep the chocolate flowing (so to speak), which is the implication of that article. | 8 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/4p3rug/scientist_discovered_that_by_running_liquid/"
] | [
"http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-chocolate-electric-beam-20160620-snap-story.html"
] | [
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why do we have to fast before certain lab work? how would food effect the results? | seems like food shouldn’t make that much difference. especially if you eat right before the testing. | food absolutely affects the results of your lab work. if you’re doctor is trying to test your cholesterol and you eat a double bacon cheeseburger an hour before the test, your test will reflect the massive amount of fat you just took in and won’t give an accurate portrayal of your normal cholesterol level. same thing with testing for blood sugar. your dr can’t get an accurate reading if you just downed bottle of coke and a snickers before a test. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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so if my baseline body temp is 97.7 and average is 98.6 should i add .9 degrees to the thermometer when i take my temp? | you cannot use your body temperature to calibrate a thermometer. if you doubt the readings you are seeing, go get a new thermometer. "normal" body temperature is a range, not a set number. some people have lower base temperatures than others. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how quickly was the mediterranean basin refilled? | i came across [this article](_url_0_) today. it says the mediterranean dried up after being cut off from the atlantic 5 million years ago. 170,000 years later, it refilled, possibly due to tectonic activity. i'm curious whether the sea bed refilled gradually, or if it would have looked like something out of a disaster movie. | [here](_url_0_) is an article by a guy who did a study on it. he says: > although the whole flooding process may have lasted up to several thousand years, 90% of the water was transferred in a short period ranging between months and a few years. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090211122529.htm"
] | [
"https://sites.google.com/site/daniggcc/research-interests/messinian"
] | [
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] |
what is the line below the nose but above the mouth on mammals called, and what is it for? | for clarification purposes: _url_0_ i've been googling around trying to find out what that is caled. it's seen on many mammals and seems to be a defining feature, enough so where the emoticon :3 is identified as a cat. however, unsurprisingly, looking up "what is the line below nose and above mouth called" or any permutation that makes sense yields no relevant results. | haha, your image is amazing. the line you're referring to is called the philtrum. it has embryological significance because it's where embryological structures called the [medial nasal prominences](_url_0_) come together as the face forms. [here](_url_2_) is a video of the development of the face. if these structures don't fuse properly, a cleft lip forms. functionally, in other mammals the philtrum is thought to channel fluid that contains odorants (scent molecules) into the mouth, where it can contact the vomeronasal organ ([source](_url_1_)). i don't know enough about this to know if it's actually been tested or if it's an assumption based on morphology. | 15 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/MuJfwj2"
] | [
"http://image.slidesharecdn.com/anatomyembryologicaldevelopmentofnose-copy-140711103609-phpapp02/95/anatomy-embryological-development-of-nose-4-638.jpg?cb=1412296512",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00682.x/full",
"https://youtu.be/wFY_KPFS3LA",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)"
] | [
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ballpoint pens, magic? | i was wondering if anyone knew how much ink a typical ballpoint pen used per inch of writing, using even pressure. one of those things that i think about... | hmm, i feel like doing an experiment. one could mass a piece of paper, draw lines of known length on it, and then mass it again to find out how much ink was applied. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.levenger.com/PAGETEMPLATES/PRODUCT/Product.asp?Params=category=8-221|level=2-3|pageid=5938"
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are there any common drugs that strengthen the connections between the orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala? | it's been suggested that the connection between the ofc and the amygdala may be strengthened simply through long-term cognitive behavioural therapy (cbt), but i was wondering if similar results have been found with the use of any common substances. i've been having a hard time finding any research done on this, perhaps it would be very difficult to research in the first place? | i don't really believe a drug could specifically target the regions you're referring to in this fashion. the name of the fiber tracts you're referring to is the uncinate fasciculus, so googling this may lead you to some more info . i'm not an expert in this area, but i would guess that the cbt strengthens connections here just due to simple ltp processes where a therapeutic session will activate these regions more than usual, forming new or stronger connections. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a hair question | i've always wondered this. why do certain parts of our body only grow hair to a certain length? i've been told before that when the hair on my arm (for example) reaches a certain length it falls out and a new one returns and i/we just don't notice it. but i have to call bs. i've been around for 43 years and am pretty in tune with my body. my eyebrows have been the same forever (save the weird 1 inch guy i wake up with all of the sudden) my eyebrows are about 3 inches from my hairline. what is the difference in why hair grows so differently? | another way of putting it is, why do we have to get a haircut every few weeks but my legs don't look like i'm wearing a dress by now? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do fans dry people? | like when i take a shower, if i sit next to an electric fan, it dries me very fast, but it's spitting out cold air. similar to air-driers from bathrooms | evaporation rates depend on the saturation of water vapor in the air above the liquid. when the air is not moving, the air nearest to the water becomes humid quickly and it takes time for it to diffuse away allowing more evaporation. when you use a fan, you cycle the air (called forced convection) meaning the water vapor is spread out faster meaning the water on your skin can keep evaporating. next time, take a hot shower with the room-venting off, allow the room to get really humid. now when you use the fan, your skin won't dry anymore. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen in a big country like usa if the electrical grid was to get overloaded (e.g. the power supplied was 1-10% lower than the demand) - would the voltage/amperate drop? what would malfunction? bonus question: how fast would the "drop" propagate in the grid? how would it start? | if power generation is lower than demand, you get a a drop in voltage. it's called a brownout. this is tolerable at the level of 1-5%, but above the level of 10% it is not good. if it reaches that level, engineers shut off the power to parts of the grid to reduce the load, a blackout. this would bring the voltage back up for the rest of the grid. usually, the engineers will rotate the parts of the grid that are blacked out. this is called a "rolling blackout". different regions will lose power for 15 minutes, then have it restored. your questions about how fast would it propagate really depend on where. most brownouts are localized, not nationwide in the us. there is limited transmission between different regions, so most regions must match their consumption to generation locally. the grid is very heterogeneous. see this page _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.npr.org/2009/04/24/110997398/visualizing-the-u-s-electric-grid"
] | [
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|
does there exist a dielectric that would lower the capacitance between two plates instead of raise it? | no. the effect of a dielectric will always be to increase the capacitance. the weakest dielectric is a vacuum, which has a relative permittivity of unity. all materials have permittivities greater than 1 and consequently increase the capacitance. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://aip.scitation.org/doi/pdf/10.1063/1.4792064"
] | [
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|
if i concentrate, i can feel a strange tension/pressure on my forehead, like someone's touching my forehead. what is that? | point your index finger at the point a little above where your eyebrows meet, not quite touching your head, and you might feel something similar. maybe close your eyes too. i can sometimes turn the feeling on and off, and intensify it, just by concentrating. is there any physiological explanation? am i just imagining it? i first experienced it when i was trying out meditation / controlled breathing, but then for about 6 months afterwards it would randomly occur during the day. it doesn't happen randomly so often now, but i can still do it on purpose if i concentrate. it feels a bit like i have metal in my head and someone's putting a magnet close to my forehead. it's not painful as such, just a weird tension or pressure. if i close my eyes, sit still and regulate my breathing, i can get it to get more intense, and a few years back i would practise a couple of days a week and i got 'better' at it. it's similar to the feeling you get if you frown really hard, but less painful (i'm sure i'm not just sitting there frowning!) would love to hear if anyone knows what is going on physically? | in ancient greece, they used to think that the 'ego', or the consciousness, was not in the head, but in the liver. when they thought too hard, their livers would hurt. because of that, i think it's a psychological thing, not a physiological thing. reference - classic feynman, hallucination chapters. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/iqedz/what_causes_the_tingling_sensation_when_i_hold_a/"
] | [
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pityriasis rosea - if this rash is relatively common, we should have tons of data on it, so why haven't we found a cause for it yet? | we do know what causes the symptoms, the immune system. it's acute inflammation, similar to a number of other skin diseases, just with an unknown cause. it doesn't kill people so we can't dissect people to find out why they have it. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how have self-disguising creatures evolved to their current appearance? | the main example that sparked my question is the *uropyia meticulodina* _url_0_ it's really incredible that the moth has adopted the appearance that it has. how have creatures like this(there are so many good examples) evolved in to taking on the appearance of their surroundings? it blows my mind that these animals have changed based on the visual appearance of their habitat, and i'd love to understand it more. | animals evolve based on environmental pressures selecting for specific traits. in the case of that moth, you can infer that its predator ate it a little less regularly when it started exhibiting the look of a leaf. slowly, the moths that looked more and more like leaves were surviving at higher rates than the ones that didn't and thus passing on their 'leaf genes' to their offspring to further select for leaf moths. eventually, all of that species would totally resemble a leaf. | 4 | [] | [
"http://aoki2.si.gunma-u.ac.jp/youtyuu/PICTs/murasakishatihoko3.jpeg"
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what is the science behind hypoallergenic fabrics? (duvets, pillows etc.). is it all just hokum? | there are 'hypoallergenic' fabrics in terms of not hosting dust mites and mold. for those who are moderately allergic to those environmental things these fabrics can make a big difference, especially in terms of asthma. you still need to wash them on a regular basis. some people just use regular sheets/fabrics but wash them with hot water and dry them on a hot setting a few times a week to kill the dust mites & mold spores. it really depends upon how bad of an allergic reaction you have to them. i'll have to defer to the chemists/material scientists regarding the structural science behind the fabrics - i couldn't tell you what makes them work on a biological level... also, these are not 'hypoallergenic' in a skin sense, and you can still get a hives-type reaction if you wash these fabrics in a detergent/fabric softener that also irritates your skin. some people have sensitive enough skin that the soap they wash their sheets/clothes/towels in makes more difference than any other thing - and just because something says it's hypoallergenic doesn't mean that no one breaks out in a rash for it. i know people allergic to aloe vera, which is in nearly every 'sensitive skin' formula and is purported to be 'hypoallergenic'. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there any interesting chemistry that happens with lanthanides/actinides? | i've never seemed to really talked about any chemistry that happens in this block of elements in any of my chemistry courses. what sort of chemistry goes on with this block? | this is very late but lanthanides have luminescent properties and are used in those areas. the research group at my university that looks into them is fairly extensive. they mainly look at synthesizing complexes using metals in this group and then optimizing them to get the exact fluorescence they want. they are then used in biolabeling and electronic applications. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
when washing dishes, is it more advantageous to hold the sprayer close to the gunk, or up high letting gravity help out? | is the more concentrated spray nearer the nozzle more powerful than the faster-moving, yet more globular stream further away from the nozzle (assuming you're pointing it straight down)? | water tends to slow down greatly from air resistance. that's why rain drops dont skewer you as they fall from the sky. as a result, you probably shouldnt expect gravity to help much. you should just try to see which works better for washing dishes. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do liquid clog destroyers work? | they're most commonly a highly reactive base, like sodium hydroxide, or a reactive acid like sulfuric acid. plumbing clogs are most often made up of organic stuff like fats and hair. a strong base or acid can break existing chemical bonds, dissolving the structure holding the clog together. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when evaluating two separate variables in an experiment, exactly how does one quantify the strength of evidence of a causal relationship between the two variables? exactly what is the math behind it? | apologies if my question is too ambiguous; i'm running on 3 hours of sleep. a brief [google search](_url_0_) told me about this thing called causal calculus; a lot of what the article talked about was way over my head though. | as an economist who studied philosophy, i'll take a stab here. in short there is no way to prove causality. however you can say with a high degree of certainty that when one thing happens another will also happen. the frequency that these two variables change simultaneously is often referred to as correlation. i can't speak to causal calculus, but the underlying principal behind two correlated variables is that as the independent variable transforms so does the other with some regular interval. the trick is to not confuse correlation with causation. in economics a key technique for making sure you aren't doing something dumb like saying that shark attacks increase in frequency because people eat more ice cream is to make sure that a change in the independent variable implies a change in the dependent variable on a fundamental level. in order to say that higher levels of ice cream consumption will cause sharks to attack people more vigorously must be corroborated by an understanding of why sharks attack people. one might claim that because sharks hunt using smell and are attracted to the smell of people who eat sweet things an increase in ice cream sales means that people are more likely to be attacked by sharks if they have just eaten ice cream. yet ceteris paribus the same correlation can be explained without positing how sharks hunt by suggesting that during warm months people are more likely to eat ice cream and go in the water--where there are sharks who attack people with a static frequency given the same number of people are around. however if the relationship makes sense then we can test for changes in one variable and see if it leads to changes in the other. if they do, we claim that one variable is likely the cause of the other. the math behind the experiment often depends on the experiment itself but one popular choice is linear regression. edit: i forgot to mention that the reason why we can't speak about causation at all is that it inherently involves making an argument that because something happened in the past that it will continue to happen in the future. this is a logical fallacy and it is not grounds for good reason. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.michaelnielsen.org/ddi/if-correlation-doesnt-imply-causation-then-what-does/"
] | [] | [
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is water truly uncompressable? | i've heard so often that liquid water cannot be compressed, but is it really impossible? i've searched the topic and the results all seem to refer to it not being practically possible. but under hypothetical circumstances, say extreme gravity in the core of a planet or something, would it compress? if possible, my best guess would be that it becomes ice, only really hot. | everything is compressible, including water, it's just a matter of how much pressure it takes for a given amount of density change. water is just *very hard* to compress. at pressures like the bottom of the ocean, which is about 400x atmospheric pressure, density change is around 2% of sea level. so in most applications we model water as being incompressible. | 37 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_(data_page\\)#Phase_diagram"
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in metamorphous animals, is there a name for the class of molecules that initiate tissue breakdown? | holometabolous insects undergo secondary organogenesis by way of a larval-tissue breakdown. i'm wondering how "disorganogenesis" occurs, by which cellular or endocrine pathways. | the breakdown of obsolete larval tissues during metamorphosis can be a bit tricky given the complexity of hormonal networks and pathways, though i'll try to give a general idea of how it works, working from our basic idea of cell breakdown up to the specific hormones. * "disorganogenesis," as you called it, is the result of programmed cell death, primarily apoptosis ("cell suicide"). this destructive process is, in turn, controlled by various chemical factors, including: * the molting hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20e), which causes the transcriptional cascade necessary to initiate apoptosis. the levels of 20e is controlled by: * the prothoracic glands, a pair of endocrine units located in the prothorax that release molting hormones. the prothoracic glands are, surprisingly enough, effected by: * prothoracicotropic hormones (ptths), which are released as a result of specific environmental and nutritional needs by the: * corpus cardiacum or the corpus allatum, which are discrete regions of the nervous system (located near the brain) that store various hormones. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
can you balance anything on a flat surface?? | i keep on seeing videos of people balancing seemingly random objects, which leads me to the question. can i balance any object with enough precision? | it depends on how what assumptions you want to make. in a purely classical model where everything is perfectly rigid, at zero temperature, no air movement, etc then it is in theory possible to balance anything. this comes with the usual qualifier that this is an unstable equilibrium and any small movement will cause it to fall. if you step up the complexity a bit, you can say that thermal fluctuations in a balanced pencil, for example, will cause the pencil to wiggle slightly, which will change the center of mass ever so slightly, upsetting the unstable equilibrium and cause the pencil to fall. or you can make an argument using quantum mechanics to say that the uncertainty principle prohibits you from knowing the exact center of mass, so you can't balance it exactly. [here](_url_0_) and [here](_url_2_) are a couple treatments of this type of thing. in reality, you will never be able to balance a pencil on its tip well enough for these effects to matter. if you allow some feedback in the system, it is pretty simple to create a control scheme to make an [inverted pendulum](_url_1_) but i don't think that's really what you are asking. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://thevirtuosi.blogspot.com/2010/06/how-long-can-you-balance-quantum-pencil.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_pendulum",
"http://www.tau.ac.il/~kantor/QUIZ/03/Equilibrium2.pdf"
] | [
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if the so called "periodical cicadas" (the infamous 13 and 17-year cicadas) emerge and reproduce in 13 and 17 year cycles, does that mean that every 221 years there will be a year when both types of periodical cicada will emerge? | i was just wondering if there would ever be a situation when both the 17 and 13 year cicadas emerged at the same time and caused the worst cicada swarm ever, or at least emerged at different times in the year and produce two separate swarms. if this is so, what sort of ecological impacts would this have had or has had? also, does anyone know when the next 13 or 17 year cicada swarm will be? | you need to note, periodical cicadas are all synchronized, but not across the whole species. it's not the global population emerging at the same time, but 'only' the population of one region. so first, you need both species in one region and then, you need to be lucky enough that the years (and even hatching times) match. for both of them to emerge at the same time, it's a massive amount of food for any animal thriving on them. usually there are so many cicadas that birds can't even keep up catching them and eventually, they start covering the forest floor. for any animal surviving on insects, a year of both cicadas might be the best time to produce plenty of offspring. from what i know, there aren't any other serious environmental impacts, just a lot of noisy insects. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there an official time/clock by which all other clocks are set? | is there something close to an international standard? do different countries do their own thing (if even that)? and if this/these thing(s) exist, how do we know they're accurate? | in the united states, the official time is kept by national institute of standards and technology [nist] time and frequency division. the official clock is the [nist-f2](_url_0_) in boulder, colorado. there are different time standards kept internationally since there is the standard length of the second, and there is the length of the year which varies as celestial orbits are not perfect. the time kept by atomic clocks is known as international atomic time whereas coordinate universal time is tied to the rotation of the earth and adds leap seconds to match up the international atomic time with the earth's time. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST-F2"
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is there a numerical method to calculate the sine/cosine of a given number? | given a number x, is there an algorithm to calculate/approximate sin(x)? if so, could you explain how you arrive at this algorithm? | if you have a not-shitty function, then when you zoom in enough onto a graph of a function, it'll look like a straight line. if we know a value of the function in this zoomed in space, then we can figure out the slope of this line and write it down. this is a [linear approximation of the graph](_url_2_). if you've taken calculus, then the slope of this line is the derivative at a point. for instance, if we're near x=0, then [sin(x) is approximately equal to the line y=x](_url_4_). but graphs have curves in them and lines don't, so this loses it's accuracy really quickly. luckily, there is an easy type of function with a curve in it: quadratic polynomials. it turns out that, just as there is a line that approximates the graph, there is also a quadratic that approximates the graph. but because quadratics are more flexible, these approximations are better. for instance, if we're near x=0, then [cos(x) is approximately equal to y=1-x^(2)/2](_url_3_). but why stop there? quadratics can only turn in one direction, whereas something line sin(x) and cos(x) will change directions. so we can get *cubic* approximations as well. these are degree three polynomials that approximate the function. for instance, if we're near x=0, then [sin(x) is approximately equal to y=x-x^(3)/6](_url_0_). again, there's no reason to stop. we can find polynomials that approximate sin(x) and cos(x) to an arbitrarily high degree. if we could go on forever, if we could compute an "infinite degree polynomial", then we would actually find that this hypothetical infinite degree polynomial is equal to sin(x) everywhere. but, practically, we can't compute these, so we have to stop somewhere and just accept the approximated value. for instance, here are the first few approximations for [sin(x)](_url_4_%2c+x-x%5e3%2f6%2c+x-x%5e3%2f6%2bx%5e5%2f5%21%2c+x-x%5e3%2f6%2bx%5e5%2f5%21-x%5e7%2f7%21) and [cos(x)](_url_5_). note that as we increase the degree, the more the polynomial looks like sin or cos. these kinds of objects are called [taylor series](_url_1_) and if you can take derivatives of a function, then you can do this for that function. the idea of taylor series is that functions can be complicated and we may not be able to calculate them, but polynomials are easy and we can calculate values of polynomials, no problem. so why not try to find an infinite sequence of polynomials that will eventually infinitely approximate the function? it should be mentioned that this is not how calculators calculate sin and cos, that's a more sophisticated method called the [cordic algorithm](_url_6_). | 33 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sin%28x%29%2C+x-x%5E3%2F6",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_series",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_approximation",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=cos%28x%29%2C+1-x%5E2%2F2",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sin%28x%29%2C+x",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=cos%28x%29%2C+1%2C1-x%5E%282%29%2F2%2C+1-x%5E2%2F2%2Bx%5E4%2F4%21%2C+1-x%5E2%2F2%2Bx%5E4%2F4%21-x%5E6%2F6%21%2C+1-x%5E2%2F2%2Bx%5E4%2F4%21-x%5E6%2F6%21%2Bx%5E8%2F8%21",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CORDIC",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sin%28x%29%2C+x%2C+x-x%5E3%2F6%2C+x-x%5E3%2F6%2Bx%5E5%2F5%21%2C+x-x%5E3%2F6%2Bx%5E5%2F5%21-x%5E7%2F7%21",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/math/d/3/1/d313574308b26ae8292951977a7ee638.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_series",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/math/5/8/0/5808cbc51cff8337a53942f6dead911e.png"
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is there a term for the conservation of biological mechanisms in different systems of the same organism? | for example, many epithelial structures have similar organizations with stem cells are located in a basal layer on a basement membrane. secretory organs often organize as functional units around central ducts that connect with each other. cilia function to move fluids in many disparate settings. if these common mechanisms were observed between organisms, you might call it convergent evolution? what do you call the "recycling" of mechanisms in the same organism? | the term you'd specifically use for two mechanisms/structures/proteins/genes that evolved separately in different organisms and yet perform a similar function would be **analogs.** the next term you might see being used is **orthologs**, which describes two mechanisms in different organisms that share an ancestor. **homology**, which you'll undoubtedly encounter as well, is a statement of relation from one species or one gene to another. keep in mind that there is no such thing as part-homology: genes either are or are not homologous to one another. what you're probably looking for is what's described as **paralogs**, which is a gene duplication event within one species' genome. the most common example that i can think of is myoglobin and hemoglobin, but it's not a very specialized example because it's shared across almost all mammals and must have occurred a long time ago. so let's say we go back in time and find the common ancestor to all of the species that have myoglobin and hemoglobin. this common ancestor would have had a gene duplication event of hemoglobin, and then myoglobin would have evolved out of that based on certain selection pressures. the best way to visualize these relationships is through phylogeny trees. let me know if you have any other questions. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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electronconfiguration of lanthanoids | my question is basicly why do we "put" 1 electron into the d orbit (d1) befor we "put" electrons into the f orbit (witch has a lower "energielevel" !?). ( i`ll put here some thoughts i had in the last hour about that (its probablly total bullshit :p ) my gess is that it just "happens to be" a stable state for 1 electron because the "energylevel" different ( f =/= d ) is so small that the excited state of the f1 electron is stable and that the force of the electron (to another electron that gets pushed into the d orbit) in the d1 then gets to big for another one to be stable ) just so you know: my chemiesty teacher couldnt explain that (so dont say i should ask him :p ) and i also dont found anything on wikipedia or google.... and here is a pic because i know i cant explain stuff right :p: _url_0_ (couldn't find a better one (maybe ill take a pic of mine because you cant see it here very well :/ ) aaannnyway.... i hope you can help me | _url_0_ the short answer is, "things get complicated when there are a lot of electrons." when you have to start taking into account things like special relativity, things start to go funny in a way that's hard to explain with simple universal rules. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/F9o84"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_configuration#Other_exceptions_to_Madelung.27s_rule"
] | [
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what are the differences between a standard wind tunnel and a recreational indoor sky diving tunnel? | skydiving tunnels have a taper (except in a short section at the entrance) to reduce windspeed with height, that way you can enforce a maximum height by reducing windspeed to some un-flyable level. never seen such a taper in the few research tunnels i've seen. other than that? not much. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when neil armstrong made his first footsteps on the moon, did the dust make a crunch similar to walking on freshly packed snow? | probably not. the lunar regolith has the consistency of fine dust or sand. it was probably more like walking on really dry soil (the kind that goes everywhere when you walk on it) than snow. even though there is very little atmosphere on the moon, the astronauts would have been able to hear themselves walking around because the sound from their footsteps would have traveled through their suits. edit: plug your ears and walk around. the sounds you hear are probably similar to what the astronauts would have heard. | 43 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
let's talk about batman technology. | what i really wanted to focus on was the technology used in the latest trilogy. some specific things i wanted to know are: * does a material similar to the wings exist? that is, is there a material that holds a shape when an electric current is applied, but is otherwise flimsy? * if the above material existed, would a fully grown and armored human male be able to survive a drop down several stories? * do we have a grapple gun strong enough to pull a fully armored male up several stories, but one which is also the size of a large handgun? * the sonar device in the dark knight intrigued me. is such a thing possible with a sufficiently compromised cell phone? don't limit yourselves to these questions, these are just a few that i particularly wanted answered. | i'm a hang glider pilot and from what i have seen in the latest movies the bat wing doesn't have enough area to provide enough lift or drag to allow practical flight or safe landing. my glider has an area of 154 feet^2 (14.3 m^2) and my clip in weight (me plus my harness) is about 175 lbs (79 kg). batman is way heavier them me i'm sure. i think it would make an excellent "wing suit" like what base jumpers use but they can't use there suits to land. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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major problem with comparing self-report scales of differing lengths. (plz help save my poor study) | summary: need an empirically supported (or at least a solidly arguable) method for transforming/comparing 5- and 6-point self-report scales. first, before i get into the nitty gritty, i know the sidebar orders me to /r/askstatistics, but it seems like there's mostly cobwebs over there, so i figured i'd try here. begin nitty gritty: the study in question is a small survey of ~70 items including four scales that i administered to graduate and undergraduate social work students in kentucky. the topic is religion and spirituality in the profession. one of the more prominent scales (rrsp by sheridan out of u of va) asks a series of questions (5-point) having to do with religious or spirituality based practice techniques or interventions (e.g. praying with a client, using religious metaphors, being able to assess the positive or negative impacts of religious belief). one of the other scales (and a major focus of the study) is the attitudes towards muslims scale and is a pretty standard racism/social distance type instrument, but it's rated on a six point forced choice scale. so, here's where the problem comes in, i got a wild idea and took a few questions from the first scale, reworded them to specify muslim clients and tacked them on to the second scale. however, to make it harder to notice that they were repeats i used the six point scale so that they would blend in with the other questions. i realize that it was a sophomoric mistake to make, but i was just a lowly undergraduate at the time that i designed the study, so i guess it can be expected. i understand that there are important mathematical and psychological differences between scales of differing lenghts, but i came across a paper last year that was an empirical investigation into converting/comparing 5 and 7 point scales, so i was hoping that someone here might know something about the science/math behind this, at least a bit better than i do. i have a solid graduate level understanding of statistics, but i'm not a statistician, and this is a bit outside of the standard stats that we use in survey based studies and program evaluations. | i would think it would make more of a difference what the scales were termed (i.e. agree, strongly agree, etc.) than how many points there were between the extremes. adding one more point to the scale shouldn't cause big issues, but taking one away might. some even omit a 'neutral' rating and get 'better' results because of the forced choice. i find more problem with the reliability and validity of the new instrument considering that you a) changed the length of the instrument, b) changed the wording of the questions, c) may have messed with the factor loadings/other subscales by modification, and d) didn't give any indication that you were going to check out the reliability and validity of the new instrument. do the rrsp and atms have published reliability/validity information? were they developed in similar settings in similar manners with similar populations? if not, you've got bigger problems than changing the number of points on the scale. the last question i have is about the purpose of the research. is this for a thesis or other course project? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i suddenly swallowed a lot of calories at once could i watch my limbs get fatter in the space of a few minutes/hours? | i.e. how long does it take for the fat to "kick in" and spread throughout the body after eating? | the amount of calories it would take for that to happen would probably land you in the er because your pancreas would try to kill you. your blood sugar level would skyrocket, which can lead to blindness and coma. either state would make such observations extremely difficult. to be more direct: the number of fat cells in your body and their distribution are such that observing what you're suggesting would be difficult. the expansion of these cells would be gradual and highly diffuse. to cause expansion on a scale large enough to measure visually would require an intake of such a large amount in a short time span that you would develop other more significant health issues before the expansion would be noticeable. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are mules infertile? | horses have 64 chromosomes per cell and segregate them into 32 chromosomes to make gametes. donkeys have 62 and segregate them into 31 to make gametes. a mule has 63 and, thus, is all messed up for making gametes properly. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i've heard that heat is the "least useful" form of energy. what does this mean? to do with entropy. | this was mentioned by brain cox in his program [wonders of life](_url_0_) (uk only link, sorry) at around 35 minutes in. but he didn't really explain why one form of energy is a "lower quality" energy than another. | sory i can't watch the programme so i can't comment on exactly what he said. entropy is strange and unintuitive concept, yet it is very practical and very well understood. unlike most of the laws of physics the [second law of thermodynamics](_url_2_) is not time reversible, and states that over time in a closed system the entropy will increase. aside: this can be taken as a definition of the [arrow of time.](_url_1_) i digress. in practical terms what this means is that in order to do "useful" work (useful work can be used to reduce entropy) you need high grade (low entropy) energy and then do the work using that energy and then release as waste low grade (high entropy) energy such that the ammount of entropy increase from the waste is greater than the entropy lowered in the doing of the work. as an example the sun emits (relatevly) low entropy high quality energy (uv and visible light) which is absorbed by plants and pv solar cells lowers entropy by performs work assembling people and plants and hydrocarbons. but the earth radiates energy in the form of heat (ir light) which is the same ammount of energy at a higher entropy, lower quality grade. your, car, radio, computer, body takes in high quality energy in the form of electrcity or hydrocarbons and uses that energy to do work (potentially lower local entropy) but emits heat as the low grade output energy. ultimately all energy will end up as heat because heat is the lowest quality energy there is and once everything is at the same temperature then no work can be done since heat engines require a temperature difference. see [heat death of the universe.](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b01qh3bb/Wonders_of_Life_What_Is_Life/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_death_of_the_universe",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_%28arrow_of_time%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics"
] | [
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if a (small) tumour was close to the skin, could it be popped like a spot? | and if so, could this, in a rare case, be successful treatment? | disclaimer: go to the doctor if you have a tumor, because the proposed method would make things worse. this would almost certainly **not** be a successful treatment. it would probably make you worse off, in the long run. an invasive tumor will have microscopic extensions that go into the surrounding tissue. if you remove the visible tumor, and leave these extensions, the tumor is still growing. moreover, by removing the bulk mass, you are likely opening up blood vessels for the microscopic extensions to enter, leading to metastasis. the original greek word for cancer (karkinos) literally means "crab" (just like the constellation cancer looks like a crab). this is because tumors often can look like crabs, with a solid center and "legs" extending into nearby tissue. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are the neuromasts in fish configured in a staircase manner? | i understand that they're there for flow detection, but i do not understand the need for the staircase supporting structure on one side of the kinocillium. here's a picture of the structure i'm talking about: _url_0_ | these types of neuromasts are found in the lateral line of fishes, which has a number of purposes, the most common being involved in detecting displacement (or movement) changes in the water. these changes are detected by the side to side movement of these neuromasts. the tips of the neuromasts are all connected by acetylcholine connections, so, basically, when one microvilli experiences a pull, it will tug the others along with it. this is where their odd configuration becomes important; on top of the kinocilium and attached to the acetylcholine connections is a potassium (k+) gated channel. when flow changes, it will push or pull the neuromasts. if the push is away from the kinocilium (i.e. "down" the staircase), it will pull open the k+ channel (via the acetylcholine connections) and causes hyperpolarization of the nerve, while movement in the opposite direction (i.e. up the staircase) will cause depolarization. this configuration is important in that it allows two types of signals (a "push" signal and a "pull" signal) to by detected by a single type of cell. furthermore, the strength of the push or pull is dependent on the strength of the signal, so a stronger signal will cause a more dramatic effect, giving a sort of gradient of detection based on the signal strength. this allows fishes, especially sharks, to be very sensitive to even minute water movement changes. | 2 | [] | [
"http://farm9.staticflickr.com/8186/8103320941_da9b617656_o.jpg"
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would a catapult work in space? | basically, would the lack of gravity have an effect on how the catapult actually works. | it depends on what kind of catapult, because it is [evidently a very broad term.](_url_0_) broadly though: * gravity-powered catapults like [trebuchets](_url_3_) will simply do nothing. * spring-powered catapults like [ballistas](_url_2_) will still work, but the catapult will recoil and fly off in the opposite direction to conserve momentum ([newton's third law](_url_1_)). this will decrease the speed of the projectile a little (in proportion to the projectile's mass relative to the catapult's) because the catapult does not have the ground to push off of. if the projectile comes out of the catapult off center, the catapult will also spin to conserve angular momentum. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catapult",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_third_law#Newton.27s_third_law",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballista",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebuchet"
] | [
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how do masonry onion domes, specifically the taj mahal, not just collapse without the use of any obvious supports? | my arch prof told me that some more regular domes of different construction like il duomo use horizontal bands that basically prevent the dome from collapsing outwards instead of buttresses or external support. as far as i know the upper dome of the taj mahal is nothing but stone and has no internal supports. how does it not just splay outwards or just crash down on the part of the dome that curves back in? | information on masonry onion domes seems pretty sparse, but if you image search [taj mahal cross section](_url_0_), that should give you an idea of what's going on. it's strange that some of the cross sections disagree on the interior contour of the dome - maybe no one bothered actually looking inside? anyway, it has very thick walls through which you can draw a vertical line from the top half of the dome to the ground. the onion bulge is basically just cantilevered out as far as the mass of the structure will allow without collapse. i couldn't find examples of masonry domes with more pronounced bulges than this - those all seem to have wood or metal frames, which of course does away with the need for the dome to support itself. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.ca/search?q=taj+mahal+dome+construction&hl=en&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=zGYuUdKjMOqN0QHz34HADA&sqi=2&ved=0CCwQsAQ&biw=1600&bih=749#hl=en&tbm=isch&sa=1&q=taj+mahal+cross+section&oq=taj+mahal+cross+section&gs_l=img.3...2057.79546.0.79816.22.21.0.1.1.0.112.1971.19j2.21.0...0.0...1c.1.4.img.-HOlT4L0P5E&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.&fp=30355f970c04d980&biw=1600&bih=749"
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would it be possible to measure nerve activity using a multimeter? | does the ion movement within nerve cells produce a measurable current? | it produces measurable voltage, not current. in fact, this is exactly how an ekg works: it takes voltage readings at different parts of your body to measure your heartbeat. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are most drugs basic? | i often see on drug cases that the active compound is coupled to hcl. i also know that to extract the compound from the salt, you have to do a acid base extraction. the pure compound you then get is the freebase form of the drug. why is it that you always get the free base form? why do they not use acids? | i'm not sure that most drugs are basic, as many are acidic. one classic example of this is aspirin, a carboxylic acid derivative. [this source](_url_0_) lists quite a few examples of both basic and acidic drugs, and what makes them have those properties. with that said, one potential reason ideal drugs would be basic is due to oral administration; the small intestine is the greatest site of absorption of nutrients from our diet due to the large number of villi which greatly increase the surface area available for diffusion. the lumen of the small intestine is a basic environment, so basic compounds are less likely to be ionised there. uncharged molecules are significantly more lipophilic than charged molecules, and so basic drugs may be more likely to be used as this would increase the absorption of the drug in oral administration. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pharmpress.com/files/docs/php-epc-c03-sample%20chapter.pdf",
"http://www.chemcases.com/pheno/pheno06.htm"
] | [
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"the result of a single measurement of an observable is always one of the eigenvalues of the operator that represents the observable."? | this "unproven postulate" was mentioned during one of my lectures about nmr. question is, what does it mean? "the result of a single measurement of an observable is always one of the eigenvalues of the operator that represents the observable." | many matrices have eigenvalues and eigenvectors associated with them. the way it works is if you have a matrix a, lv = av where l is a constant (an eigenvalue) and v is a vector (an eigenvector). in other words, multiplying v by a or l gives the same result. in quantum mechanics, operators are represented by matrices; the classic example is the time-independent schroedinger equation, eψ = hψ h is an operator (matrix) called the hamiltonian, and e is a constant representing the energy. ψ is the wavefunction, which is really an abstract vector in this sort of formalism. so, we have an equation where a vector is multiplied by a constant on one side, and a matrix on the other. that is, by definition, an eigenvalue problem. measuring the energy is equivalent to applying the operator to the wave function: operators correspond to observables, and observables correspond to measurement. so, since applying the operator to ψ is equivalent to multiplying ψ by an eigenvalue, measuring is equivalent to pulling out an eigenvalue at (somewhat) random. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the body consume more calories when it's recovering from a surgery or an accident ? | i can answer this on a cellular level but i'm not too well-versed in physiology. to heal cuts and other tissue damage cells will generally undergo mitosis at a much higher rate than normal. going through dna synthesis and mitosis takes more energy than just g0 cell growth, so it would use more energy, however i don't know that is actually a significant amount of energy on the scale of a whole human. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how long could a modern coin last until it has degraded beyond recognition? | taking a modern united states quarter as an example, how many years could it last if exposed to the elements in a mountainous region like idaho or utah until it was no longer recognizable as a coin? edit: some elaboration. | there's way too much variability in your question. for instance, if your coin was on the beach being pulverized by beach sand in the waves it would wear down in a matter of weeks. on the other hand if it was just sitting on top of the dirt in the desert in a wind shadow, it will probably last a million years. also, which coin? the alloy in a nickle, is harder than the copper on a penny. a nickle would last longer in most conditions, unless there is some chemical element in the soil which reacts to nickle and not copper. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how (what experiment) was the strong nuclear force proven to exist? | if i understand correctly, you are not asking for the indirect evidence ("rutherford's experiment shows that something else must be holding the nuclei together, rather than electromagnetism"), but for a quantitative experiment ("we have measured that the force that holds them together is, like 87.5 times larger than the electromagnetic repulsion"). i think the first real quantitative theory for a force holding e.g. two protons together was that of [yukawa ](_url_3_) (roughly the 30s, i think). it was used because it roughly confirmed what the experiments, done at that time, showed for the potential between two nucleons. later, the theory of yukawa interaction was replaced by the (nowadays accepted) theory for the strong nuclear force called [quantum chromodynamics](_url_1_), which inparticular stated that protons and neutrons (and all the other lot that people had found then) were composite particles that consisted of just very few different types of [quarks](_url_2_), which we today believe to be fundamental, since nobody has been able so far to smash them into smaller pieces. although i cannot tell you which was the *first* experiment to confirm the presence of the strong force and the quarks, exactly that is happening nowadays in collider experiments with hadrons (which consist of quarks), such as in desy and the lhc. there quantum chromodynamics is tested and so far confirmed to a high degree of accuracy. for instance people like [sterling](_url_0_) have contributed a lot to our understanding of what goes on exactly within the protons and neutrons, and what role the strong interaction plays. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/people/stirlingwj.php",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukawa_interaction"
] | [
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