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a question about the biological clock | i know that the biological clock is partially socially constructed and partially biologically constructed, but are there any studies about how much of the biological clock effect is due to social vs actual biological differences? edit: by biological clock, i mean the idea that people are programed to want children at a specific age. | quite a lot of study on biological clocks is in animal and cellular models, which tells us that there is a very strong biological clock that governs metabolism and activity of most animals. many of the mechanisms that regulate it are deeply conserved in evolution (fish, insects, humans and even plants using some of the same molecules). however, it is quite true that some societies follow very different behavioral patterns in reference to sleep, for example the piraha people do a lot of napping and thus are awake quite a bit at night (reminds me of the mice in our lab). if you raised a kid without the cultural expectation to sleep through the night and stay awake all day, my hunch is that they would probably do a good bit of napping and be awake more at night, though it would certainly vary by individual. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_people"
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why would my fingers not prune while in the dead sea? | i recently went swimming in the dead sea, and i noticed along with others i was with that our fingers and feet did not prune the way they would in fresh water. why is that? | the reason why your fingers prune up, is because water enters the skin, causing it to swell, which in turn causes the skin to form folds. the driving force behind water entering your skin is osmotic pressure; if fresh water is in contact with salty water, with a semi-permeable membrane in-between (like you skin), to stop them from immediately mixing, then water will wander from the fresh water into the saltier part to 'dilute' it and equalize the salt concentrations. since your body is saltier than freshwater, water will enter your skin and you'll prune then. but since the dead sea has a very high salt content, the driving force isn't there. on a related note, that's why sprinkling salt on vegetables like eggplants when cooking, it draws water out. (which you want in the case of the eggplant so that it fries rather than boils in the pan) | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.livestrong.com/article/261414-why-do-fingertips-wrinkle-when-immersed-in-water/#ixzz1kaBaIJem"
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the science of sekanjabin and similar vinegar-based drinks | recently my in-laws introduced me to [sekanjabin](_url_0_), a traditional persian drink (known to the ancient greeks as *oxymel*). a 4:2:1 simple syrup of sugar:water:vinegar is created, then diluted with water to taste. other juices and spices may be added for extra flavor, and it is also sometimes used as a dip/sauce for greens. in addition to being quite tasty, my mother-in-law insists that sekanjabin has interesting medicinal properties: * it helps the body stay cooler during hot weather * it is jam-packed with minerals and vitamins * it allows the body to hydrate itself more efficiently * it is a powerful hangover preventative, as somehow it blocks the formation of aldehydes as a result of ethanol processing is there solid food science to back up these claims, or are these old wives' tales? i can't see how sekanjabin is much different from lemonade, about which i've never heard such amazing claims. would anyone be so kind as to shed some light for me? thank you! | i'm not too sure about this, but my initial guess would be no. human thermoregulation is controlled by the hypothalamus, and as far as i know, this mixture has no direct effect on temperature control. it may be indirectly related to the hydration benefits of sekanjabin, discussed below. probably not. taken alone, sugar, vinegar, and water do not have any appreciable amounts of vitamins and minerals. when combined, sugar and vinegar (a weak acid) can react to form small amounts of carbon. however, no commonly known beneficial vitamins or minerals are formed. this i can explain. by adding vinegar (an electrolyte) to the mixture, you replace ions as well as lost water; think gatorade's benefits over drinking water after physical exertion. by taking up ions, the body becomes more hypertonic (as opposed to hypotonic after sweating) and more readily takes up water. it may prevent hangovers, but not because aldehyde formation is prevented. this reaction is catalyzed by [alcohol dehydrogenase](_url_1_), and in fact, the acetaldehyde produced is converted to acetic acid (i.e. vinegar) by another enzyme, [acetaldehyde dehydrogenase](_url_0_). one might hypothesize, therefore, that an increased amount of vinegar in your body would tend to drive the reaction back to the alcohol, having more of an **inductive** effect on a hangover! alas, this is primarily not the case. the reason sekanjabin might prevent hangovers is again due to the hydrating nature of the beverage. however, i would posit that water would work pretty well in this situation too. tl;dr appears to be mostly old wives' tales, but does have some good hydrating properties. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.superluminal.com/cookbook/beverages_sekanjabin.html"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetaldehyde_dehydrogenase",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_dehydrogenase"
] | [
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looking through all of my own notes about evolution and how species have separated over time... | i was wondering: do we have any evidence of two different species doing the opposite and converging genetically to the point were they can reproduce or something similar? | no, you do get convergence of species to fill the same ecological niche, since the same selection pressures are there. however for the correct mutations to occur to bring species together after separating is incredibly unlikely (and does not have the same kind of selection pressure as straight forward evolution). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_speciation"
] | [
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i heard somewhere that the amount of land alaska gains and loses when the tide goes in and out is bigger than texas. could this be true? | i first heard this from an amused alaskan trying to show me, an uppity texan, how small my home state really was. as i understood it, the assertion states that: [(alaska's land area at high tide) - (alaska's land area at low tide)] ** > ** (texas's land area). really, my question is less about how texas compares, and more about how to go about finding the value of the left side of this inequality. at first i thought a reasonable estimate would be (alaska coastline length) x (average tidal range), but then i realized the tidal range is the vertical difference, not horizontal. there are definitely places where a 20-foot tidal range exposes much more (and in some cases less) than 20 horizontal feet of shoreline. this also raises a further question, namely: regardless of its relation to the size of texas, the land area difference in question is certainly substantial; how is this difference accounted for in calculating land area statistics? | alaska is about two and a half times the size of texas. i don't need to do any calculations, there's no way alaska gains and loses 40% of it's land due to tides. | 34 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i left a bag of skim milk out by accident. when i found it, the bag was full of air and about to burst. the milk was gunk floating in clear fluid. what happened? | when the milk warmed up, some acid and gas producing bacteria had a feast. some bacteria produced the gas that filled up the bag with 'air' and other bacteria produced some acids that caused the fats and stuff (gunk) in the milk to separate from the whey (clear fluid). the same thing happens when you make ricotta cheese by adding vinegar to the milk. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
are there applications of action principles and noether's theorem outside of fundamental physics? | has anyone run across the use of action principles and noether's theorem as mathematical modeling tools outside of fundamental physics? perhaps in areas like engineering, biology or even economics? | i guess any system where you need to minimize a functional can be considered a kind of action principle...if so you can find it in many places. i am working on my masters thesis in physics and i am working on a model to predict blood vessel growth in tumors. the equations that describe the system come from a functional derivative of a free energy. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1410.6753"
] | [
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at what point is it too cold to sense it is any colder (ex: -30 & -40 would be harder to tell apart than 60 & 70)? | the heat loss from your body to the surroundings is approximately proportional to the temperature difference between your skin and the environment. suppose skin temperature is 93 f. at 70 f, the temperature difference is 23 f, whereas at 60, it's 33 f. that's means a more than 40% increase in heat loss at 60 f compare to 70 f. but at -30 f or -40 f, the difference is 123 f or 133 f. so that's only an 8% difference. as you get to colder and colder temperatures, a 10 f difference is a smaller percentage, but there's no clear threshold where it stops mattering at all. a fun comparison would be to consider what temperature you'd have to go down to to make the person dressed for -30 f feel as cold as the person dressed for 70 f does at 60 f. the answer is -83 f! that seems implausible, but in practice people going outside in -30 f are rarely dressed to be truly comfortable at that temperature over the long term at steady state. if they were, -83 f wouldn't feel all that bad, no worse than being in 60 f dressed for 70 f. you might argue that the absolute difference in heat loss is the same, even if the percentage difference is smaller, but if we assume that you are dressed comfortably for the first temperature in each pair, then the initial absolute heat loss is the same at each starting temperature, and the difference in heat loss really is smaller for the -30 to -40 comparison. for example, if you are comfortable at 100 w of heat loss, the transition from 70 f to 60 f leads to a 43 w increase in heat loss, but the transition from -30 to -40 f only increases heat loss by 8 w. what i haven't gotten into is the dynamics--which are slower when you have more insulation--and the effect of how active you are--which is greater when you have more insulation. those complicate the comparisons. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are tendon sheaths made of, and how well do they heal? | did you have any imaging? essentially tendon sheaths are connective tissue lubricated with fluid. you could have a range of issues, tendinitis or tenosynovitis the most likely. bursitis is less likely with that history. soft tissue injuries generally heal in 2 weeks. if the is ongoing issues then either more significant damage (tendon tear for example) our an overly exuberant inflammatory response is likely present. both should be manageable with rest, unless the tendon is completely torn, which sounds very unlikely. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does the brain control every process of your body? | or do organs run pretty much autonomously? does it depend which organ? does the brain tell the intestines to move food through? tell kidneys to process urine? hair folicles to grow hair? | processes such as the reflex arc occur without the involvement of the brain, although they are still a part of the central nervous system. in situations where your reflexes kick in (touching a hot stove, pin prick on your finger... etc.) the sensory nerves in the area affected will send a signal to the spinal chord and back triggering a response without your brain needing to get involved. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is my physics teacher correct on this fact? | he said that because red shifting proves that stars are moving away from us, that means that our theory of evolution is disproven. not the part of survival of the fittest, but the bit with "primordial soup". he said that, in order for "primordial soup" to exist, there would have had to been multiple big bangs. is he right..? | no. redshift is evidence for the universe expanding which supports the big bang theory. this has nothing to do with evolution and the connection he is trying to make between the beginning of life and redshift makes no sense at all. | 83 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a chemical you can spontaneously inject into the muscle tissue and have someone immediately pass out like hollywood shows? | i thought for an intravenous injection to work/have rapid onset it had to be... intravenous? | there are medications that can be used for 'rapid tranquilisation'. these can be given im and, as the term suggests, can cause tranquilisation. examples are lorazepam, haloperidol and promethazine. their effect isn't immediate, it can take minutes. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what type of logic gate is this (more in the description)? | my friend and i are trying to build a binary to seven segment display driver in minecraft. we are used to logic circuits, but we don't know what the circle before a gate means. we know that immediately after a gate a circle represents an inverse signal. here is a picture of the circuit we are trying to copy and some closer views of the circles-before-the-gate _url_0_ | before or after a gate, a circle represents an inverter. in fact, the symbol for a not gate is actually the symbol for a [buffer](_url_1_), a triangle, with an inverted output. on an input, it just means to invert the input before performing the operation. it's worth noting that, applying [de morgan's laws](_url_0_), an and with all of its inputs inverted (and not its output) is the same as an or with its output inverted (and none of its inputs). the circuit you've referenced has used this property to express the function entirely in terms of and gates, but it will likely be more practical for you to use or gates when building the circuit in minecraft. | 9 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/MxE5A"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Morgan%27s_laws",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_buffer"
] | [
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what is the meaning of ancestory proportion? | what does 10% r1b means? does it mean that only 10% of male ancestors had r1b y dna? how can ydna be composite? thanks | it means that 10% of your y chromosome's dna is traced to r1b lineage. it does not necessarily mean that 10% of your (i assume we're talking about you?) paternal ancestors were of the r1b lineage, it just means that whatever their own ancestry was, the final product is someone with 10% r1b by volume in their y chromosome. & #x200b; it is my understanding that *all* dna is "composite", and that's how genetics actually works. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how to convert sucrose mol/dm^3 to concentration %? | dm^3 seems like it's going to be a horrible unit, but it's actually just liters. sucrose has a molecular weight of 342 g/mol so x mol/l of sucrose = x*342 g/l of sucrose so if we have x * 342 grams in one liter, then we have x * 342/1000 kiligrams in one liter, so we have x*342/1000 % solution (w/v) | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
askscience cosmos q & a thread. episode 13: unafraid of the dark | welcome to askscience! **this thread is for asking and answering questions about the science in *cosmos: a spacetime odyssey*.** if you are outside of the us or canada, you may only now be seeing the twelfth episode aired on television. if so, [please take a look at last week's thread instead.](_url_0_) this week is the eleventh episode, "the immortals". the show is airing in the us and canada on fox at sunday 9pm et, and monday at 10pm et on national geographic. [click here for more viewing information in your country.](_url_4_) **[the usual askscience rules](_url_2_) still apply in this thread!** anyone can ask a question, but **please do not provide answers unless you are a scientist in a relevant field.** popular science shows, books, and news articles are a great way to causally learn about your universe, but they often contain a lot of simplifications and approximations, so don't assume that because you've heard an answer before that it is the right one. if you are interested in general discussion please visit one of the threads elsewhere on reddit that are more appropriate for that, such as [in /r/cosmos here](_url_6_), in [/r/space here](_url_3_), in [/r/astronomy here](_url_1_), and in [/r/television here](_url_5_). please **upvote good questions and answers** and **downvote off-topic content**. we'll be removing comments that break our rules and some questions that have been answered elsewhere in the thread so that we can answer as many questions as possible! | why is the discrepancy between the observed gravity and the expected gravity assumed to be result of "dark" matter and not a mistake in our estimate of how much regular matter is in the galaxies? and if dark matter exists in all gravities, shouldn't it have have an effect on our solar system? why can't we detect it close by? | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/272mbe/askscience_cosmos_qa_thread_episode_12_the_world/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Astronomy/comments/27nppz/cosmos_a_spacetime_odyssey_episode_13_unafraid_of/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/index",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Space/comments/27npq5/cosmos_a_spacetime_odyssey_episode_13_unafraid_of/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Cosmos/wiki/aspacetimeodyssey/episodeguide",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Television/comments/27nppt/cosmos_a_spacetime_odyssey_episode_13_unafraid_of/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Cosmos/comments/27nofz/cosmos_a_spacetime_odyssey_episode_13_unafraid_of/"
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some schools in my area are bringing back mandated rest periods for kindergarten. are there benefits for the students by bringing naps back? or cons? | the serious issue with mandated rest periods isn't actually a health related issue. while young children are most definitely polyphasic sleepers, meaning they have multiple sleep episodes per day, the serious issue with this is scheduling. the inherent differences in children will almost certainly mean that they will require naps at different times, depending on the diet and activity level of each child. as such it is very hard to organize a single mid day rest period for children, because no matter when you schedule it, you will have some children who should have taken a nap already, and some children who are not yet ready for a nap. for children over 5 years old naps are not generally required, and may in fact be harmful to the child by preventing them from getting a full nights sleep. instead of naps it makes more sense to schedule quiet periods of low activity during the day. things such as reading time, or working on puzzles. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can an opening in an electromagnetic wave reflector that is smaller than the wave, pass it through? | we did an experiment in class where we covered our phones in tin foil and tried to call each other. and our teacher said that we have to make sure there are no holes in the foil. but how can a really tiny hole pass let through a wave thats up to a meter long? | while it is actually possible, most of the wave's amplitude gets lost in the process. the scenario can be described with [single-split diffraction](_url_0_). it may be easier to think about this in terms of water waves passing through a slit: consider two water basins with a small slit in between. now generate very long-ranged waves on one side. no matter how slow/long the waves on one side are, the water won't be completely still on the other side of the slit. in terms of electromagnetism, the hole effectively acts as an "antenna" re-emitting the wave that's coming in from the inside. contrary to popular belief, any antenna can emit waves of any wavelength. however, if the antenna's length and the wavelength don't match, the transmission is extremely inefficient. however i can't tell you how large the hole has to be in order to allow the phone to communicate. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction#Single-slit_diffraction"
] | [
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what causes the arm burn/pain of holding your arms up? | i work a lot with my hands and certain tasks involve having my arms above my head for periods of time. however i can only do this for so long before my arms hurt/burn but if i lower them it goes away instantly and "resets" the timer for how long i can hold my arms up. it will happen while standing or laying down. what causes this and why does it seem to be able to be reset so easily? | a combination of muscle stress and blood's decreased ability to reach your arms causes a temporary lactic acid build-up. lowering your arms allows blood to rush more quickly to clear out the lactate. once it's out, the pain alleviates. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can multiple parallel procedures be simulated as a one? | if you have an abstract system which runs a number procedures, naturally with possibility of being out of sync, is it possible to emulate the evolution of the whole as a single procedure. i just go idea that one could maybe encode the whole system as an evolution of one-dimensional string. **or does it turn out fundamentally impossible task?** please grant any notable properties, pros and cons, of such way of structure if you know any. | whether you can do this in any meaningful way really depends on what you're trying to do. yes, it's possible to **serialize** multiple parallel processes, but in doing so you must pick one particular serialization out of many possible serializations. if by **emulate** you mean "explore the total range of possible behaviors" then this is in general not possible. one of the fundamental difficulties in parallel and concurrent programming is that parallel processes can generally execute at any rate relative to one another, and the programmer has very little control over the specific order of execution. for example, if you have two parallel threads executing functions a and b, then it's possible that function a executes first, and then function b executes second. it's also possible that b executes before a. worse, it's possible that a and b execute concurrently, with different instructions from each function interleaving themselves, such as: half of a executes, then half of b executes, then a little more of a executes, then b finishes, then a finishes, etc. in fact, there are an exponential number of possible parallel executions. consider the following model: you have a processor and two parallel functions a and b. the processor executes one instruction at a time, and is allowed to choose which function it executes each cycle. thus for cycle 1 it may choose to execute function a, for cycle 2 it executes function b, then cycle 3 it executes function b, then cycle 4 it executes function a again, etc. how many possible program execution traces are there? if the processor executes two cycles there are four possible traces: * aa * ab * ba * bb if the processor executes for three cycles then there are eight possible execution traces: * aaa * aab * aba * abb * baa * bab * bba * bbb if you follow the pattern, if the processor executes for n cycles then there are 2^n possible execution traces. this grows exponentially, so for n=20 there are roughly a million execution traces, for n=30 there are roughly a billion execution traces, for n=40 there are roughly a trillion execution traces, etc. this behavior is confirmed analytically by observing that during each cycle the processor has two choices, and the decision at each cycle is independent of the cycle previous. two things to note about the above situation. first, real processors don't generally switch between real processes at a rate of once per instruction, but it can still happen extremely frequently in real systems on the order of hundreds to thousands of times during a typical execution. second, you'll notice we're not actually talking about parallel processing yet- here we just have a single processor switching between two concurrent processes. parallel processing, predictably, just makes things worse and can lead to faster exponential growth in the number of possible execution traces. the conceptual model for true parallel procedures would be that you have two processors and three or more alternative functions, and each cycle both processors would have to pick which of the three functions they were going to execute. now, back to serialization and emulation. it's very possible to serialize these asynchronous functions. all you have to do is to pick one specific execution trace and run it on a single processor, and that is your serialization. however, the total range of possible behaviors is only encompassed by all possible execution traces. in order to fully explore all possible behaviors you'd have to run all possible execution traces. since the number of execution traces grows exponentially this is only possible for every small-scale situations. in practice, rescheduling of processes onto processors happens about once per millisecond. my gut feeling is that it's probably possible to "fully emulate" all possible parallel behaviors for a time span of 5-20 milliseconds of execution, depending on how many processes and processors you're actually thinking about. beyond that the number of possible execution histories is just too large. there are some parallel systems that support automatic serialization of a parallel program. for example, cilk plus is a parallel programming platform, and when you compile a cilk plus program you can ask the compiler to generate a serialization instead of a regular parallel program. what happens here is that the compiler essentially ignores all the calls to execute functions in parallel, and simply executes them immediately (in the main thread of execution) when the call to parallelize is encountered. this generates what you might call the "depth first" serialization of a parallel program. other platforms such as openmp support serialization as well, but how exactly the serialization is generated is going to be platform-specific. now, there is work that has been done on what i'm calling "explore all behaviors of a system". what this comes down to is trying to prove assertions that limit the total possible behaviors of a system. there might be an exponential number of possible execution traces, but if you can prove that a number of execution traces are equivalent to one another then you can make statements like "any one of these billion execution traces proves the validity of the entire class, so we only have to run one and it's like we had actually run all one billion of them". for example, a technique called [*symbolic execution*](_url_1_) analyzes a program to determine what conditions cause what parts of a program to execute. in parallel programming this might let you say that you have three parallel functions a, b, and c. but your symbolic analysis shows that either a and b can execute simultaneously, or b and c can execute simultaneously, but never a and c. the problem is still exponential, but that constraint means that you never have to consider any execution trace where a and c execute together. another technique is called [*model checking*](_url_0_), where the system is abstracted into a very precise formalization. then you can feed your representation of the system into a [boolean satisfiability solver](_url_2_) in order to make queries about the way the program executes. this allows you to discard execution traces that can't happen in practice. this is not my exact area of practice, but a quick google search turns up this paper, which attempts to use both these techniques: _url_3_ in this work, in case you're not able to read it, they apply some of these techniques to four small numerical parallel programs (~50 lines or so it would look like). the "easy" programs take about ten minutes to exhaustively check all behaviors, while the "hard" programs take a few hours. the tl;dr is that this is possible in the small scale if you know what you're doing, but generally impossible for systems of any significant size or complexity. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_checking",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_execution",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_satisfiability_problem",
"http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1350000/1348256/a10-siegel.pdf?ip=165.134.212.75&id=1348256&acc=ACTIVE%20SERVICE&key=B63ACEF81C6334F5%2EF8AA8898C57C2859%2E4D4702B0C3E38B35%2E4D4702B0C3E38B35&__acm__=1530314396_681229ecafcb45aa125fff9ed45f0a49"
] | [
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what were the first organisms to develop a circulatory system? | or, how did the circulatory system come about through evolution? | phylogenetically, the phylum mollusca was the first animal group (most primitive) to have a circulatory system but it's an open system with hemolymph with the exception of class cephalopoda, which has closed circulatory system. cephalopoda is made up of squid and octopuses (not octopi) which appeared about 415,000,000 years ago. annelida is the first phylum in which all its members have a closed circulatory system. since annelids are soft bodied, fossil records are a little fuzzy. the first annelids appeared as early as ~518,000,000 years ago and as late as 65,000,000 based on what fossil records you go by (i.e. there is a debate as to what fossilized organisms are actually annelids). the first plants to have a vascular system i believe were part of the class, rhyniopsida. they first appeared as early as 419,000,000 years ago. all other kingdoms in the eukarya domain are basically single celled (although some, such as fungi species form simple multicellular tissues) and therefore have no need for a complex circulatory system. same goes for the archaea and bacteria domains (yay carl woese!). as with all organ systems, they came about through evolution. as angrybill stated, circulatory systems really came about due to the increasing size of the organisms. source: microbiology grad with some background in zoology and botany. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i'm concerned that a cancer patient may be getting bad advice | i wouldn't go looking for medical advice on the internet in general, particularly not religious or alternative healing. that being said, no medical advice is one of the rules of this sub, so i can't really help, i'd suggest seeing a doctor for any medical issue you have, sorry. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are some tips to help 'shift' a sleep schedule? | humans, and many animals, have a circadian cycle longer than 24 hours, so require cues from the environment to stay synchronized with a 24 hour day. one of the strongest cues is light and dark. the '[light phase response curve](_url_0_)' describes the response to light at different times of the day. in the morning, bright light soon after waking is a signal to the body to wake earlier the next day: it means you missed the 'sunrise'. so that moves your clock in the direction you want, an 'advance' on the phase response curve. but avoid bright light late in the day, as this will delay your sleep time. in the evening, the body releases melatonin in response to the onset of dim light [source](_url_1_). it's a marker the body uses for 'dusk,' and natural levels can be controlled with light exposure, with no supplements. so switch to a dim environment at a predictable time each night, a few hours before bed, and avoid bright light in this time. you can switch to dim light earlier, to help advance your sleep timing. light in the morning, and dark before bed. it's the cue that our bodies use to stay centered on the night-day cycle, against the natural drift of a cycle longer than 24 hours. you can advance your sleep time with careful control of light conditions. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_response_curve#PRCs_in_Circadian_Rhythms",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melatonin#Light_dependence"
] | [
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|
if a jar of different sized balls was shaken, which size would be at the bottom? | for simplicity, say there are 3 different sized balls: small, medium and large. there are many of each size in a closed container with room for them to move. if the container is shaken for a long time, would there be a higher chance of any size of the balls being in a specific position, bottom or top. | **the smallest balls will sink to the bottom, and the largest ones will rise to the top.** [this is amusingly known as the "brazil nut problem"](_url_1_) because of the tendency in a can of mixed nuts for the brazil nuts (the largest ones) to be found on top. there's a few explanations on that wiki you can browse. a simple intuitive explanation could be that there are larger gaps between the larger particles that smaller particles can fall down through, but the reverse isn't true, so you find the smallest particles at the bottom. there are also explanations based on convective currents. there's also a thermodynamic argument based on the principle of minimum energy -- the lowest potential energy state will occur when the center of gravity is lowest, which for particles of equal density will happen when the smallest particles are filling up the bottom. i actually first encountered this problem talking to a researcher that worked on fluidized bed reactors, so there are certainly real-world applications. edit: [neat simulation of a bunch of small spheres with one large sphere being bounced around.](_url_0_) | 212 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uKQVVP9xcCM",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granular_convection"
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this video is getting up voted in r/videos, but i'm pretty sure it's inaccurate and misleading in parts. can someone confirm? (link in comment) | specifically when discussing a black hole's effect on time, as well as the center of the universe. _url_0_ a second opinion would be great as i'm not 100% on this myself. | it's all pretty accurate. there are just a few slight technicalities that aren't quite correct. the only one that really stood out to me was when he talked about traveling **at** the speed of light. what he described was traveling *near* the speed of light (relative to the stuff around you). nothing that has mass can travel at the speed of light. equivalently, nothing that can travel less than the speed of light can be accelerated up to the speed of light. and there is no speed of light reference frame, so the question, "what would it look like to travel *at* the speed of light?" is meaningless. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3pAnRKD4raY"
] | [
"http://www.exploratorium.edu/hubble/tools/center.html",
"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/GR/centre.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_time_dilation"
] | [
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how does emergency contraception (morning after pill) containing levonorgestrel work? pre-fertilization or post-fertilization moa? | i just saw this in an askreddit thread where someone said that the morning after pill works to prevent ovulation and fertilization. this caught me a little off guard, so i wanted to ask about this here! i'm not in the us - i'm in south america. although i eventually dropped out, i did go to med school for three years, and i distinctly remember my pharmacology professor and later an obgyn preceptor during my first clinical clerkship saying that levonorgestrel has a higher chance of taking a post-fertilization moa. i believe there was some study that pointed to that as well - scientists from spain, i think? i'm trying to find something in english rather than portuguese and the first thing i came across was this: _url_0_ for reference, emergency contraception is available without a prescription here in brazil. someone in class asked if it induces a miscarriage/acts as an abortive medication, and the professor started going in detail about how *technically*, there is a chance that the drug works to prevent a pregnancy that's already started (very early stage, though...). iirc, the explanation given is that this particular ec "tricks" the body - it rapidly increases the progestogen levels that the body normally builds up after ovulation. this causes the endometrium lining of the uterus to thicken and then as the progestogen levels start to decline, the person who took the ec gets their period. they did say that the pre or post fertilization moa depends on what stage of the menstrual cycle the woman taking it is in. it's funny that most of the web searches in portuguese do mention the post-fertilization moa. now, when i searched for this in english, most information available (not in official research, more like your reproductive system 101) emphasized that this drug *prevents ovulation* and that it absolutely did not work the same as abortion pills. so...that got me curious, and i wanted to know what's the cause of this divergence in information. thanks! | both. pre-fertilisation: it can prevent the egg from being release or it being fertilised (by making it harder for sperm to enter the womb). post fertilisation: it's effectively an abortive, which works by preventing the fertilised egg from embedding in the wall of the uterus. the divergence is probably down to the fact that there is more than one morning after drug. | 7 | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5102184/"
] | [] | [
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i just finished reading the xkcd what if on relativistic baseball. is the science behind it solid? | _url_0_ the what if in question. to me, a 15 year old male, with basic knowledge of particle physics and relativity, it seems solid, but i have no clue on how i would even begin to fact check it. | well, the energy of the baseball should be [5e15 joules](_url_2_) the first nuclear bomb was [20,000 tons of tnt](_url_1_) our baseball has [1.19 megatons](_url_0_) of tnt worth of energy in it. this is about 1,000,000 tons of tnt. thats about 50 nukes. edit: i should use relativistic ke formula, but that should be pretty close. | 9 | [] | [
"http://what-if.xkcd.com/1/"
] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=5E15+joules",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28mass+of+a+baseball+*+0.5+*+%28268225+km%2Fs%29%5E2+%29+",
"http://forums.xkcd.com/viewtopic.php?f=7&t=87120"
] | [
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why do we have to renew a tetanus shot? over time do we lose the antibodies to fight the bacteria? | "it's clear that prevention will never be sufficient. that's why we need a vaccine that will be safe." ~ luc montagnier let's consider why this is true of a tetanus shot but not a yellow fever vaccine. it has to do in part with the [type](_url_0_) of vaccine we're administering. there are several types (you can review them at that link) and they work in different ways with different efficiency. let's look at three different types: * live, attenuated vaccines - these contain a weakened version of a live pathogen that would otherwise cause disease. example: yellow fever * inactivated vaccines - these contain pathogens that have been killed in the lab with chemicals, heat, or some kind of radiation. example: polio * toxoid vaccines - these do not contain an organism at all. rather, here we use inactivated versions of toxins produced by the bacteria that cause illness by treating them with formalin, a solution of formaldehyde and sterilized water. example: tetanus live viruses can be risky but they are the closest we have to actually duplicating infection. therefore, when they work they work well by stimulating the immune system very effectively. when we just use a toxoid vaccine, which work better and are much less risky in the case of tetanus. some organisms like tetanus are not able to be weakened to a state where they produce a significant enough amount of the toxin that causes the illness. also, dead deactivated bacteria won't work at all here because they don't produce the toxin. so stimulating your immune system with a toxoid vaccine works best here. the problem here is that the deactivated toxin (it has to be given the formalin treatment otherwise the pure toxin would cause disease) is a *modified* version of the toxin. the immune system isn't able to produce ideal antibodies to the best possible affect long term. you aren't creating a situation that is as similar to the real infection scenario like you are with the attenuated vaccine so the immune response is less ideal. the physiological processes that lead to a loss in immunity are explained in some of the other comments here but i hop this helps as well! | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/vaccines/understanding/pages/typesvaccines.aspx#toxoid",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_B_cell"
] | [
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|
how do delivery services find how to efficiently deliver packages with respect to time, operational costs, logistics, etc? | there is a whole field of research dedicated to this, it's called operations research. in many (simple) cases, theoretcal optima can be derived. if the system becomes more complex, simulation might be easier to optimize your system. however, this does require accurate parameters for your simulation model. basically it all boils down to linear programming and (heuristic) solutions. you can look up inventory control, routing problem, spare part management or shortest path problem for more reading. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation#Simulation_and_manufacturing",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijkstra%27s_algorithm"
] | [
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|
solar highways were on the table in 2008. why haven't they taken off? what are the downsides? | [this video](_url_0_) explains a really awesome idea for solar paneled highways. sounds great, and they do a good job selling it, but why haven't we heard anything about it? this video's pretty old. seeing as they were commissioned by the department of transportation to come up with this stuff, why hasn't it taken off? what isn't working? | there are several factors, including money, safety, and reliability. the first of which is solar panels aren't cheap, and neither is the additional equipment to turn low voltage dc into useful high voltage ac. second, safety: surfaces which are good for solar panels tend to be horrible for driving. finally, reliability: road surfaces take a _lot_ of abuse- things like oil and gas leaks, idiots driving on bare rims, car/truck wrecks, and fires. this means you have to design for failure and expect replacement costs, or design to survive and see per unit costs skyrocket. additionally, and i can't find a source, but i suspect peak demand and rush hour coincide leaving less power when its most needed. | 16 | [] | [
"http://www.wimp.com/solarhighways/"
] | [] | [
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does an inductor coil become a capacitor when 1 of the middle loops is cut? | it would have no direct path for electrons to cross between the 2 sides of the wire (cut somewhere deep in the coil) so to prevent buildup of static charge the 2 now separate but concentric coils should become oppositely charged, total neutral charge. do some capacitors work this way? how efficient are they compared to the parallel plate kind? how much efficiency is lost in the transform from inductor to capacitor? what if we put a switch at the break so it could change between capacitor and inductor? | the physics behind your question is sound, but i have a feeling that the capacitance of these two half-coils would be very small. the rest of your questions would be better answered by an electrical engineer. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if we could calculate with perfect accuracy would the lorenz attractor form a closed loop? | i'm wondering if the limited accuracy of floating point calculations could be the reason it never intersects itself. if not how do we know? | it contains closed loops, but an arbitrary starting point almost certainly wouldn't form a closed loop. the accuracy is not a problem due to the [shadowing lemma](_url_0_). if you're off a little on each step, then there exists some starting point near where you started that stays near where you went on each step. incidentally, you can use the shadowing lemma to find a closed loop. instead of being off a little because of rounding error, you can be intentionally a little off to make it go where you want it to go, like back where it started. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadowing_lemma"
] | [
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would an electronic scale read negative in space? | i have thought about this for a while, but never actually asked anybody it. since we are under constant atmospheric pressure (and the weight of air associated with that), would an electronic scale read negative in space? | it depends on the scale, really. if the scale were to work by measuring the pressure on the scale against the pressure of some enclosed volume (a pneumatic scale, i believe they're called), then it'd read negative in space. but most scales (including electronic ones, afaik) don't work that way, and have equal air pressure on both sides of the weighing-pan. in that case they wouldn't read negative, except for the lack of gravity making it overcompensate for the weight of the weighing-pan. but you can get that effect just by holding it upside-down. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you increase the efficiency of a centrail air unit by adding passive cooling to the refrigerant return line? | there's two 1/4" copper lines going to the ac unit. one carries cold refrigerant to the house, and one carries it back after it's well above ambient temperature. could i alleviate some of the stress on the condenser and coil by making the refrigerant cooler by the time it reaches them? it travels through ten feet of exposed line in a cool, shaded area, and i was thinking of making heat sinks to put fins along it so that the refrigerant could start dumping heat and getting closer to the ambient temperature before it even gets to the unit. | while you *could*, the effect would be very minor since the surface-to-volume ratio is far lower in the return line than in the condenser coil. you'd get a much better boost by cleaning off dirty coils(if your outside unit is a pure-aluminum coil model, it's probably dirty - those fuzzies attract dust like crazy). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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for stoke's law to apply, how small must the sphere be? | and why can't the sphere be bigger? | you mean the creeping flow equations? it depends on the other properties of the flow. compute the nondimensional reynolds number: re = (rho * v * d) / mu where rho is fluid density, d is the diameter, mu is the dynamic viscosity, and v is some characteristic velocity(typically the far upstream value v_infty). if the reynolds number is tiny--around 10 or less-- then reality should agree with your approximate model reasonably well. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes the striping effect in this satellite photo? | _url_0_ you can see the bands (roughly horizontal) across the entire image. | disclaimer- i am not a photography expert. but i do work with cameras for my job. that looks like fixed pattern noise, which is to say that it is noise from the detector itself (or i suppose the optics, but i would suggest the detector is more likely). or the read-out circuit, which reads the electrical signal out from the focal plane array. you can tell it is fixed pattern noise because of the regularity...i would also suggest that the bands are exactly horizontal by the way, and the picture is tilted. the next logical question is, why is the noise there? so that's something that probably has many possible answers, and someone smarter than me with regards to photography or detectors could help you with. but if i was troubleshooting this problem, i'd look at my detector and roic (readout integrated circuit) first, optics second, and if neither of those proved successful, i would bank shot the camera into a trash bin. | 4 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/xwNzI"
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why do winds blow along the isobars? | shouldn't they go straight from a higher pressure zone to a lower pressure one? p.s.: sry for my bad english | because the earth is rotating. in a small scale (or non rotating environment) you would be right- air flow would be perpendixular to isobars (neglecting self interactions between flows). but due to rotation the coriolis force causes a deviation from the flow perpendicupar to the isobars until an equilirium is reached. _url_0_ | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.atmos.illinois.edu/earths_atmosphere/wind.html"
] | [
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tibetan athletes dominance of endurance events in the future? | it's pretty well known that tibetans are [special](_url_6_) in regards to their physiology due to their habitat. [genetic research](_url_1_) seems to show mutation in [epas1 gene](_url_4_)(article mentions it as *super athlete gene*) is responsible for their unsual ability to function normal even with lower oxygen saturation in their blood. modern athletes are known to use the *[live high-train low](_url_5_)* approach or high-altitude training (or [hypobaric sleep chambers](_url_2_)) to enhance their performance in events which require high vo*_2_* max levels. *natural blood doping*, i've seen this phrase used for this type of training. as the links mention that for sea-level based athletes the side effect is the increase in blood viscosity as rbc count increases but the tibetans don't suffer this. tibetans live at altitudes approaching 15000 feet, this is much higher than high-altitude training programs. tibetan [qieyang shenjie](_url_0_) won bronze in the [women's 20km race walk](_url_3_) in london 2012. so the question begs, given that the indigenous tibetans have a genetic advantage over others from lower altitude regions in factors which determine performance in events such as cycling, distance running, rowing, swimming, etc, will we be seeing an explosion of tibetans dominating these events in coming years or is there is biological barrier which will negate their supposed advantage. increase in blood viscosity for low altitude athletes is a disadvantage and thus the live high-train low approach they use, will tibetans suffer similarly in the few weeks that they might have to come down to compete in events. hyperbaric chambers are used to recover quickly as well, will the tibetans on low altitude act a natural hyperbaric chamber to aid them. i mentioned *in the future* in title, some may ask why this hasn't happened already. the answer most likely is that china only recently started its extensive olympics program and it prioritizes certain sports, it is very weak in athletics and swimming (although this year was its best in swimming), so it's only in coming years that it will turn focus to athletics, etc. i thought this was interesting, apologies if this is not the right platform for this. | interesting idea, but i would think there are a lot of other factors which factor into endurance performance : biomechanical efficiency (due to limb lengths / body proportions), muscle fiber types, genetic maximums for mitochondrial development, lactate thresholds (the maximum percent of your vo2 max that you can operate at for an extended period of time without your bodies rate of lactic acid metabolism byproducts exceeding its rate of removal. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.bostonglobe.com/sports/2012/08/11/tibetan-exiles-cheer-athlete-running-for-china/yuRPqCJ8QjwYoBu5cQRJhP/story.html",
"http://newscenter.berkeley.edu/2010/07/01/tibetan_genome/",
"http://voices.yahoo.com/michael-phelps-using-hyperbaric-chamber-2012-olympic-10944446.html?cat=14",
"http://www.london2012.com/athletics/event/women-20km-walk/index.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPAS1",
"http://jap.physiology.org/content/83/1/102.full.pdf+html",
"http://io9.com/5537192/genetic-evidence-shows-why-tibetans-kick-ass-at-high-altitudes"
] | [] | [
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if i filled an empty swimming pool with cotton candy, and then jumped in, how far into it would i sink? would i be able to move around at all? | assume the following numbers go into play: * pool: 25 meters long, 21 meters wide, 2 meters deep * person: 90 kilos heavy, 1.75 meters tall assume the cotton candy goes to the top of the pool... | you're phrasing this as a question of [bouancy](_url_1_), but i don't think that would apply here. for one thing, cotton candy is a solid, not a fluid so you wouldn't really float in it. it is a very low density solid though and is extremely malleable though, so i also doubt it would support any significant weight. from my experiences with cotton candy, i would guess that when you jumped in you would create a giant divot in the candy with you at the bottom. i don't think the cotton candy would expand to cover you over. over time, assuming a warm day, you'll sweat and dissolve the cotton candy around you, becoming disgustingly sticky. kind of unrelated, but [here's](_url_0_) an interesting article i found discussing the molecular similarities between cotton candy and volcanic ash. | 38 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/10/AR2010051003247.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancy",
"http://www.chacha.com/question/what-is-the-density-of-cotton-candy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_\\(density\\)"
] | [
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how important was opticks by sir isaac newton? | at the time, i'd say it was very important. light has always been important in the study of physics, and opticks provided a complete theory that addressed many important properties of light. for instance, einstein relied, implicitly or explicitly, on essentially newtonian idea about the transmission of light when he contrasted classical with relativistic space-time. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is japanese art (and east asian art in general) so notably different vs. that of europe? especially during the renaissance/edo period | [removed] | japan has always been pretty isolated, at times on purpose. the edo period was a period of very strict control (for reasons of mostly retaining political power by the shogun, christianity and other 'rotten western ideas' undermined it) over who comes to japan and why. at one point only several ports were even open to foreign ships, only one of them to westerners - nagasaki - and only dutch at that, and it was literally illegal for them to go anywhere outside it. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does blood coagulate in some areas faster than others? where and why? | does blood coagulate at the same rate everywhere in the body? | it will coagulate fastest in areas of stasis. since flow is lower in veins compared to arteries, you will typically see clot formation in veins. gravity will usually cause venous poplin gin the legs, so commonly you will see clot formation there | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is particulate matter (pm2.5/pm10) in the air captured and measured? | typically there is an emitter and a receiver separated by a known gap. the emitter emits a known quantity of light or radiation and the receiver only picks up a subset of the light, depending on how much is blocked by the particulate. emitters are usually either light based (typically infrared or ultraviolet depending on the particulate size and environment) or radiation based (like a smoke detector). to screen for a certain particulate size there is usually a filter of that size and an air pump or fan to provide a known volume of air per unit time. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does the brain calculate the passing of time independent of simple estimation? is there a biological mechanism? | the brain must use knowledge of how long thought processes take and can estimate time passing based on tasks and such, but is there a mechanism for linking to circadian rhythms or some other biological clock. i mean on a small scale. for example, i can often predict accurate to a minute or so when 5/10/15 minutes has passed, but my brain couldn't do this simply based on tasks, as time seems faster and slower based on different tasks. it also seems like such short spans of time are too short to rely on circadian rhythms. is there some sort of feedback loop in brain neurons or is it biochemical? | there are circuits in our brain that line neurons end to end, making small feedback loops based on the time it takes to have the signal make a full lap. smaller loops are integral in music, rhythm, and even rhythmic movements like walking, swimming, blinking. this very strait forward process is thought to be at work in all temporally dependant activities. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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it is believed that the body of an astronaut will drastically change due to mar's weaker gravity. anyone know any specific changes? | the first human settlement is said to be in 2025, where the first trip to mars will take place. i was just wondering if anyone knew exact changes that would happen to the body of an astronaut on mars. | they will all quickly start losing bone density and get osteoporosis. their muscles will also start to atrophy because of the lower demands put upon them.these are already serious issues with astronauts in space for any length of time. they've been studying this for a long time and trying to find out ways of avoiding it. they've created some treadmill exercises to keep astronauts' legs strong. because they're losing bone density so quickly, they are at increased risk of kidney stones, which can be caused by excess calcium that the body is excreting. currently, astronaut scott kelly is spending a year aboard the iss, while his identical twin brother, former astronaut mark kelly (husband of former rep. gabrielle giffords), is staying on earth. after scott kelly returns to earth, they'll do tests on the twins to see the effects of the year in space. so stay tuned for results about a year from now! that brings up one other problem with space--outside of earth's protective atmosphere, there's a lot more radiation, which can raise risk of cancer. both of the kelly twins have been on multiple space shuttle missions, and both had prostate cancer in their late 30s, which is rather young to get it. a number of other astronauts have died of cancer too, but it's hard to say if it's due to time spent in space or not. also, being in low gravity means that the body is distributing fluids differently. the body normally acts in such a way as to prevent fluids from pooling in the lower extremities, since gravity naturally causes fluids in the body to want to pool downwards. when in low gravity, the body overcompensates and fluids pool in the upper body. it can take time to get rid of that effect when back on earth. likewise, the body reacts to a person standing up or lying down by adjusting blood pressure. this reaction gets messed up in space, too. this might not be as much of a problem on mars as it is in space, since mars has much greater gravitational pull than there is in space. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunistic_infection"
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can you get an element to reach the state of bec with enough pressure instead of absolute zero? | there are videos of people making solid nitrogen by applying pressure, which interestingly raises the temp. now, bec is impossible to reach today simply by lowering the temp to absolute zero, but what about this pressure, like say in a black hole? is something that's able to punch a hole in space time also able to create something with zero atomic movement? or would less work too, like what's found in a neutron star? | actually, i disagree with /u/nickelarse - although part of the issue is that it depends on what you consider a bec. when the pressure becomes very large, the particles interact strongly and quantum effects can become important regardless of the temperature. however, in this sense, what you're getting is not a "gas" (non-interacting particles) but a fluid. in particular, these are known as "superfluids" and have a number of remarkable properties, such as zero viscosity. this has been seen in a number of systems, starting in 1938, when superfluid helium-4 was first observed. a gaseous bec has actually been observed however. in 1995, both the mit group and colorado groups managed to make one with ruthenium atoms at about 170 nanokelvin (earning them the 2001 nobel prize). actually, superfluids are very closely related to superconductors -- these can be viewed as a condensate of pairs of electrons forming a bound state. this has definitely been observed at "high" temperatures. for instance, at ambient pressure, the so-called cuprate compounds superconduct at temperature up to 130 k ~ -140 c. (how this occurs is an open question and has dominated research in theoretical condensed matter for the past 30 years.) probably more related to your question is the recent observation that hydrogen disulphide was found to superconduct at -70 c when placed under a pressure of 150 gigapascals (i don't even know what that means, but it seems big). the harvard group is trying to observe a similar phenomena with solid hydrogen. sources: i'm a graduate student in condensed matter. most of the numbers come from wikipedia: _url_1_ _url_0_ (sorry if i'm not linking properly) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-temperature_superconductivity",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate"
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a question about natural selection. | i've heard, and seen people say that doing something stupid, and dying as a result is "natural selection." i'm not sure, but i'm pretty sure that they are wrong. i read that natural selection is when something has a genetic mutation, that allows it to survive better than the others. they will reproduce and have more offspring with that mutation. or is it both? i'm not sure, so if you could tell me where i've gone wrong i would appreciate it! | there are two parts to the process of evolution. 1) random mutation - this is the part where random defects in dna are introduced. these defects can manifest themselves as a changed trait in the organism. for example a single bacterium may acquire drug resistance. note: these mutations need not necessarily have a positive effect on the organism's survival. 2) natural selection - this is a non-random process that selects those individuals with mutations that favour their own survival. in the bacterium example, this could be the application of an antibiotic (one that the mutant bacterium is resistant to). after the application of the antibiotic, all the other bacteria have died out except the mutant one. the mutant one remains and breeds. after a few divisions, all the individuals are now drug resistant. the bacterium has essentially evolved drug-resistance. these two processes are separate from each other. natural selection has nothing to do with mutations or genes. it simply selects those individuals who are more fit for survival. in fact the theory of natural selection was long before we knew about genes and dna. now if someone does something stupid and ends up being unable to reproduce, they have essentially been selected themselves out of the genepool. hence it is a case of selection. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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"block and tackle" mechanism is not violating the law of energy conservation? | hi! i'm talking about this system: _url_0_ you can lift an object with mass m, using an object with mass m/2, right? m/2 has a potential energy (mgh) at start, the potential energy of m is 0. the wire is inexstensible. when m/2 falls a bit, the lost potential energy becomes the potential energy of m. because the wire is inextensible, when m/2 falls a meter, m stepped up a meter. so when m/2 hits the ground, the new energy of the system is mgh, which is greater than the initial poteantial energy. what am i missing? | you're missing the most important concept in a block and tackle system: when you pull the rope a distance l, the object you are moving with the block and tackle will move a distance l/n, where n is an integer corresponding to how many loops are in your pulley system. you don't violate conservation of energy; the work is just spread out over a greater distance (i.e., the force required to lift the object is reduced). | 8 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_and_tackle"
] | [] | [
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] |
what is the minimum amount of time a human can perceive? | it's regularly stated that someone next to a detonating nuclear bomb would feel nothing. but what would be the minimum amount of time needed to feel something? would people on the planes on 9/11 for example actually have felt anything? | you can't "feel" a nuclear weapon going off nearby *not* because it happens too fast in the "span of time" sense, but rather, because the shockwave (which in the case of a nuke instantly vaporizes everything it touches) moves faster than neural impulses. it happens too fast in the "movement" sense for the signal to make it past the wave front. in terms of "duration", we can discriminate between visual events 15-20ms apart - though that doesn't mean "you" will have noticed a single event by then. that takes up to around 150ms before the first flickers of conscious awareness of a visual signal form (and that *also* differs from primed response time, which can do a good bit better than that even though you can't consciously acknowledge it by then). we can actually do a *bit* better than that, in that we can (learn to) perceive "lag" between two different modalities (synchronized sound and light, for example) down to under 5ms. the coolest part about that? it takes [up to **thirty** milliseconds](_url_0_) for signals to travel from the retina to v1 (the first "stage" of the brain's visual cortex, ignoring a brief stop at the lgn). so we can compare the arrival time of signals from two different senses while the "data" hasn't even travelled 1/6th of the way to the brain! | 46 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.quora.com/How-fast-does-the-brain-compute-visual-information-From-light-reach-the-eye-to-awareness-of-impression-And-how-does-the-information-travel",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_chronometry",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_threshold",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subliminal_stimuli",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06yjrdp"
] | [
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is there any evidence that the standard work week affects weather, and if so, how? | our weather has been very consistent recently (clear and sunny during the week, rained last four fridays), and i started to wonder whether traffic and factory schedules and patterns had an impact on weather and weather cycles. or whether this is just an odd coincidence. | used to be married to a meteorologist that worked for a state-run environmental group. while traffic and factories can have an effect on things like air pollutants and hazy atmosphere, they don't really change weather enough to cause rain here or there, or make it sunny over there. in fact, factories have to take into account local weather patterns when choosing a location or what they produce. local weather patterns could cause polluted air from the factories to blow over a lake or a residential area, which would be no good. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are we able to accurately aim new horizons for the flyby of 2014 mu69? | considering the massive distance and how enormous space is, how are we able to accurately aim this tiny probe to intersect with this tiny rock? | to get new horizons to pluto, there were three planned course corrections necessary. say your initial accuracy was 0.000001 (1 in one million) meters per meter traveled, so at the end of a 1 trillion (1e12) meters you'd be within a 1,000,000 m radius target. then once you get to that point, you check the sky and your other navigational aids, and your destination, and you figure out and apply the course correction needed for the next waypoint. finally having gotten to pluto, you now know very accurately where you are in relation to pluto, and you use the same procedure to get to the next waypoint and the next. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why doesn’t the rotation of the earth cause the sagnac effect to be present in the michelson–morley experiment? | forgive me if this question doesn’t make any sense, i’m not very well acquainted with physics so i’m not sure of the best way to phrase the question. it might be best if i explain why i am asking so someone knowledgeable might be able to best answer my question. i’ve been watch a bunch of crazy conspiracy videos on youtube (it's a guilty pleasure) and i ran across this video (_url_0_) from a man who believes that the earth is concave and that the entire universe is contained within the concave earth. his ad hoc rationalization for how gravity works in this model is that there is a magic “aether” that somehow keeps us from falling towards the center of his concave earth. he has for some reason linked this “aether” to the archaic idea of the luminiferous aether which was supposedly a medium through which light traveled (much like sound waves travel using air as their medium). this leads him to the michelson–morley and sagnac experiments, which he uses as “evidence” that the earth doesn’t rotate (despite the fact that when sending specific signals between relays we have to adjust for the sagnac effect because the earth is rotating). he says that the rotation of the table in the sagnac experiment produces the sagnac effect and therefore the rotation of the earth should cause the sagnac effect to be present in the michelson-morely experiment. here is where my question comes in: why doesn’t the rotation of the earth cause the sagnac effect to be present in the michelson–morley experiment? i know the concave earth guy is wrong (about everything in general, but more specifically the way these experiments work) but i can’t really wrap my head around how all of this works. i know that is has something to do with relativity but that is about as far as i can get with my poor knowledge of physics. | if i understand correctly, it's because the apparatus itself (the michelson-morley interferometer) isn't rotating. if it were rotating around an axis coming out of the plane of the interferometer, then you would have to take the sagnac effect into account. the rotation of the earth is basically just translating/moving one of the in-plane axes, so the sagnac effect wouldn't come into play here. | 8 | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/8VNJJc8fLdQ"
] | [] | [
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how far in advance were/are the flybys and encounters for galileo and cassini planned? | do we know enough about the orbital solutions of the various moons and their spheres of influence to essentially have each and every flyby planned as soon as the probe enters the system from interplanetary transfer? including minor course corrections during the duration of the mission... or, are various flybys and mission highlights known only after the probe enters a system and the orbits calculated more precisely? for some context, cassini is making a close flyby of titan today, june 17th, 2014. would this flyby have been planned before launch in 1997, during interplanetary transfer, upon capture by saturn, or relatively recently? | i can't give a full answer, but i can partially answer your question about the titan flyby. many flybys within a system that they're studying (for example cassini in the saturn system) are planned relatively soon before the encounter. basically the scientists doing the mission will know that the probe will get pretty close to a body a few years in advance. they will then consider whether to use/how much fuel should be used to optimize the flyby. as an example, cassini will come close to iapetus in 2015, and a flyby is being considered, but not currently planned. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
a question about optics.... | today me and my dad were at walmart, inside this walmart was fluorescent lighting and a girl in a very dainty skirt. my dad put on his polarized sunglasses clip for his glasses and suddenly he looked at the girl and behold! he could see her thong through the skirt. he took his clip off and he couldn't see through it any longer, could someone explain what happened here without putting their mind in the gutter? | if this indeed happened then the only reasonable explanation i can think of is that it was a semi-transparent skirt to begin with and looked more opaque due to [ polarized specular reflections. ](_url_0_) when his glasses partially filtered out the reflected light, the skirt appeared more transparent. or he was messing with you. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization_\\(waves\\)#section_2"
] | [
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] |
does this guy really believe this or is it just a major troll/scam to get people to buy his stuff? or does it actually have any real scientific foundation? | a fun fact about vacuum energy: the estimate he is using is one of the earlier estimates made. this estimate became famous because it was probably the worst estimate in history that has actually been published. the value was off by a factor of 10^120. ps. no one actually believed this estimate, it was just published to show that this was not the way to estimate it. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
which is more ideal for the human body to inhabit; a planet with 0.5g or 1.5g? | are we ever planning to return to earth? if not, i would imagine that the 0.5g planet would be preferable, as setting up infrastructure would be easiest, requiring less energy to move and erect. the problems with reduced muscle and bone density will soon bring the person down a few notches, but by then most of the infrastructure would be in place. however, if we were trying to terraform our new planet, i doubt that 0.5g would be enough to ever retain a breathable atmosphere. the thinner atmosphere would mean that solar cells are more efficient, but, by the point we are terraforming, i'd assume we'd have portable fusion reactors for near limitless energy. radiation would also be less of a concern in a greater density atmosphere if the planet does not have as strong of a magnetic field. | 600 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/expedition30/tryanny.html"
] | [
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|
why are electrical circuits made the way they are? | i don't really understand why electrical circuits need to be arranged certain ways. why do we arrange resistors, etc. the way they are? is it to get current/voltage down to the right level to power devices connected to the circuit? i realize this is somewhat of a vague question i'm finding it hard to put into words. edit: thanks for the responses! | perhaps a change in perspective, to things you're more familiar with may help. there's a very neat set of analogies known as [electro-mechanical analogues](_url_0_). using this principle*, you have a direct analogy between electrical systems and mechanical systems, including fluids. so the basic laws for elements in circuits have direct analogies to mechanical systems you might be familiar with, if we take voltage (v) to represent force (f) and charge (q) to represent displacement (x): * capacitors are effectively springs: v=q/c is actually hooke's law, f = kx * resistors are losses (friction): v = ir (ohm's law) is a simple mechanical loss, f = rv * inductors are masses: v=l(di/dt) is newton's 2nd law, f = ma (the defining equation for inertial mass) so let's say you want to make an electrical circuit that has a resonance at a particular frequency. you can say 'hey, i know this one! i can use a spring and a mass!' and use all the knowledge you have about how much you know about springs and masses... the larger the mass, the lower the frequency, the stiffer the spring, the higher the frequency etc.... and then make the circuit with the right ratio of capacitance to inductance. if you're not even comfortable with the straight mechanical system, you can transform the mechanical system into a fluid one. this time, the force becomes pressure and displacement becomes volume. so, if you imagine why a water supply is built (e.g. like in *simcity*), you need to get the same flow to all these pesky residential houses. you need to build in parallel! but you also need to serialise for some redundancy.... oh now it gets complicated and looks a bit like the spaghetti circuit diagrams you see. at their hearts, most (non-ic) circuits have a simple design. it's just that you think "oh this would work a lot better with a low pass filter" or "i just need a bit more current to the far end or the diode won't light up" and they end up looking more complicated than they need to be. *for today, we'll just take the force-voltage version of the analogy | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical-electrical_analogies"
] | [
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how do peripheral neurons receive oxygen? | i know that nervous tissue needs a great supply of oxygen, but so far everywhere i've looked doesn't give a definitive answer as to how neurons uptake oxygen. is it a passive diffusion mechanism like the one we see in alveoli and blood vessels? | the same way all your peripheral cells get oxygen. the arteries from the heart divide and shrink as they progress from the aorta. from these, capillary beds spring, which are a maze of small vessels slightly smaller than an rbc. across the walls of capillaries oxygen/co2/nutrient exchange occurs, and these then diffuse into surrounding tissue. capillaries run in all living tissue, and peripheral nerves receive oxygen by diffusion from them. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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did we observe other species farming or ranching or we would be the only one? | a close comparison could be made to [leaf-cutter ants](_url_0_). they use the plant material they gather as a substrate for cultivating the fungus that their diet consists of. of course, we learned farming and ranching on our own (as far as we can tell), but yes, there are other species that do similar things. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf_cutter_ant"
] | [
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|
if you had a antelope and tiger grow up in captivity together, would they know to fear/eat the other? | when a lion sees a lion eat an antelope, why doesn't a spectating lion respond the same way as the antelope would when it sees a lion? do they have self awareness? edit: rephrasing | interestingly, [there's actually a case where a lion adopted a baby antelope](_url_5_) after the antelope's mother died. the lioness attempted to raise the antelope until another lion killed it. the [complete documentary can be found here](_url_1_). this lion adopted 6 different antelopes in total, all of them either died or left the lion. then there's examples of other animals adopting animals they would typically prey upon. such as: [koko the gorilla adopting a kitten and even naming it in sign language.](_url_6_) [these tigers nursing piglets and pigs nursing tigers at the sriracha tiger zoo in thailand](_url_0_). though this is specifically trained behavior, unlike the other examples. [this leopard saving a baboon.](_url_7_) [this cat adopting and nursing a squirrel](_url_4_) [this cat adopting and nursing a baby rabbit](_url_2_) [this dog adopting and nursing a kitten](_url_3_) as for why this actually happens from a neurological standpoint i have no idea. hopefully an animal behaviorist can explain how the mothering instinct presumably seems to overpower the hunting instinct. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cm40EBfwJPQ",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hBRoyrYv0kg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=04RZrf3-Mgo",
"http://whats4dinnersolutions.com/2011/09/18/open-houses-open-hearts/",
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1251753/Thats-nuts-Squirrel-thinks-kitten-suckles-surrogate-cat-mum.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BSJYIEk5n6o",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XqTUG8MPmGg",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ix0y9j32h70"
] | [
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can information be transmitted through the weak or strong nuclear forces? | seeing as we can measure the frequency of electromagnetic and gravitational waves and thereby transmit information using those forces, is it possible to do something similar with the weak or strong nuclear forces? or do they only operate on a scale that prohibits useful applications? | practically speaking, no. both the weak force and the strong force are short-range, meaning they don't affect anything at a distance larger than the nucleus of an atom, or radiate the way gravity and the electromagnetic force do. this means that you can't 'signal' with the strong or the weak force. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are all body parts proportional to each other in any way? | i mean this as, for example, if you were to measure the height of two different people, and then proceeded to compare it to their respective arm length, would the proportion be somewhat the same despite different numbers? | you can calculate averages, and get numbers that way. it is how children/adolescents are looked at to see if they are "failing to thrive." but as far as an exact calculation to determine how everyone's normal body should be...no. we just use averages in medicine. that goes for lab values, weight, fat content, etc. abnormalities can tell you if something is wrong though. take for example marfan syndrome (something abraham lincoln had). one way to tell if you have marfan is to measure the length of your arms when stretched out (like you're hanging on a cross). if your "wing span" of your arms is longer than your height...you could very well have marfan. it is not 100%, but it is a very good indicator...all figured out because of averages :) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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without using equations, how would you explain the 'detailed balance' theory for solar cells? | i understand the maths behind the theory, but i can't seem to get an intuitive understanding of the concept. thanks! | detailed balance points out how energy is conserved for a solar cell under illumination and the "detailed balance" part relies on fundamental physical processes having a competing, reverse process. let's get specific: for a solar cell, light comes in and is sometimes absorbed. the "balanced" process is that the solar cell also re-emits light through blackbody radiation and through radiative recombination. i like to think of it in terms of "where is the energy going?" in a solar cell. it absorbs energy through photon absorption events, and in what ways can it lose energy? answer: through blackbody radiation and through radiative recombination. when shockley and queisser gave their detailed balance analysis of solar cell efficiency, they thought about how much light is absorbed above the bandgap energy of a solar cell, then given this amount of absorption, calculated re-emission of energy from the cell in the form of blackbody radiation (dependent on solar cell temperature) and radiative recombination (dependent on quasi fermi level splitting) . therefore they "balanced" (...in a detailed way...) incoming photon flux with outgoing photon flux and in so doing identified fundamental limits to solar cell efficiency. it is a fundamental thermodynamic calculation that was a great contribution to the field, and basically treats a solar cell as a device that both absorbs and re-emits photons in a way based in fundamental semiconductor theory. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can blockages of the coronary artery be reversed without surgery? | when coronary arteries become partially blocked, in the sense that there’s still blood flow but there is build up in the artery, can diet and exercise help clear them? or does diet and exercise simply prevent further blockage? | for most atherosclerotic type plaques, you can reverse them to some extent. so if there was an immediate change in diet and exercise, you'd likely see some recession of the plaque. when you here doctors talking about measuring your "good" and "bad" cholesterol they're actually looking at certain proteins that form carrier vesicles for the cholesterol. "good" cholesterol is called hdl and is thought of as good because its capable of taking cholesterol out of the plaque and delivering it to the liver where it can be processed. so through this mechanism and others, some of the plaque process can be reversed. nonetheless, depending on how far along the plaque is, permanent damage has been done which will hopefully at least stabilize through fibrotic or calcification responses. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1022223/pdf/westjmed00072-0066.pdf"
] | [
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can somebody explain the reaction that happened here with cu, nacl, and white vinegar? | i'm doing a little home experiment where i am trying to make a blue patina on copper with white vinegar, salt, and a thin piece of copper sheet metal. i put all of the into a plastic dish and let it sit for a few hours and when i came back it had formed little tree like things on the salt pile covering the metal. i was wondering if anyone here could explain what is happening. picture of tree like things: _url_0_ | vinegar can be used to clean copper surfaces. the acidic protons (h^(+), sort of) from the vinegar react with the surface oxides and liberate copper ions in the process. this is a neat little chemistry experiment to share with your kids, but that's where the experiment usually stops. it looks like the dish has dried out somewhat. it could be that you left it out for so long that the water in the vinegar evaporated. in that case, the dissolved ions would crystallize into some interesting structures. this is supported by the fact that the tiny trees are green: solids of copper and chlorine tend to be green or blue. so i would say the tree structures are made of solid copper chloride (cucl*_2_*) and some chloride complexes of copper (nacucl*_3_*, na*_2_*cucl*_4_*), and that they also contain nacl and the acetates of copper and sodium. the amounts of each would depend on their relative solubilities and initial concentrations. | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/trB73Fp"
] | [] | [
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] |
how is the phase of an electromagnetic wave measured? | i'm specifically interested in how the phase is determined in satellite interferometry. intensity, polarization, and signal return-time seem relatively straightforward to measure, but i can't figure out how the phase is determined. | phase is determined using what's called i/q data, or in-phase/quadrature. this is generally represented as complex valued samples. the basic idea is that a complex value i + i•q comes from euler's equation r•exp(i•p) = cos(p) + i•sin(p) where p is the phase of the complex number, and r is the amplitude. so to find a phase, you sample your signal mixed with a cos(w•t) and mixed with a sin(w•t). this gives you complex samples, which will have a phase associated with it. in your case, the signal would be the voltage caused by an em wave exciting an antenna. the phase of the em wave that is measured will be the relative phase in relation to the phase of the cos(w•t) and sin(w•t) sunisoids you used to sample it with. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson_interferometer",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mach%E2%80%93Zehnder_interferometer",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_(acoustics)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_detector"
] | [
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how does a microprocessor work? | i've searched extensively and all i can find is a basic description of logic and transistors. i'm looking to understand things at the most basic physical level. i've read things like, "executes a set of instructions on bits of data," but i have no idea how this translates into the physical world. starting with turning the power on, and having electricity flow through, where do the electrons go and how does a processor "know" how to execute these instructions? what physical forms are the instructions in? i picture it like a series of gates, the electrons flow through the gates based on physics. it makes more sense to me once a program is running because it's a loop where the electrons are flowing through based on how the previous electrons charged the gates, and to memory and then back through the processor and so on, but i just can't imagine how a human being designed such a complex system that can perform billions of steps per second. i'm lost. | at the lowest level (almost), it runs due to the actions of transistors. transistors in digital logic circuits are used mostly as switches. you want the transistors to be either all the way off (no current flow) or all the way on (lots of current flow). and you can use the output of one transistor to control the input of other transistors, so you can construct a complicated circuit by wiring them up in certain ways. using just a few transistors, you can build very simple logic circuits to implement binary digital logic (called "boolean" logic after the guy who invented it). say you wanted to add two numbers in a digital computer. instead of representing those numbers like we typically do (0,1,2,3,....) you can instead represent them in binary notation (000,001,010,011,..). this makes it easier to make logic circuits that can do things like addition, subtraction, etc. for example, let 0=off, 1=on. now let's add two binary numbers that are just one binary digit long (so our possible number choices are 0 and 1). with [this](_url_0_) circuit, we've got most of a 1-bit adder. the lines with the +/- symbols are a battery, the a and b denote switches, and the lamp is a lamp (light bulb). if both a and b are 0 (off, or an open circuit) then the light bulb is off (0). if either a or b is on (1) then the circuit is made and the light bulb is on (1). so in this circuit, 0+0 = 0 0+1 = 1 1+0 = 1 1+1 = 1 now, that last one isn't quite right, since if we have 1+1 we want the output to be 0 and carry a 1 to the next bit (which doesn't exist in this circuit), because 1+1=10 (binary for "two"). but we could fix that by making a slightly more complicated circuit. and as the circuit now stands, it is a perfect boolean "or" gate. now imagine that instead of using regular mechanical switches for a and b, we used little electronic gizmos that could open or close a circuit under the control of an electronic signal instead of being under the control of someone's fingers. a relay does this. you can also do it (approximately) with transistors, and transistors have a lot of advantages over relays...they can be made small, fast, cheap, reliable, and low power. now we can chain up circuits like the one above, but instead of controlling light bulbs, we control the actions of other switches. and the circuits made of those switches can control other ones, too. it turns out that you can build any digital logic function with a combination of just a few simple circuit types, such as and/or/not (you can actually do everything with just one, but no one really does that). by combining those simple circuits, more complicated circuits can be made (such as an adder, a multiplexer, etc.). you can use those circuits to make even more complicated ones. like a cpu. it's like if you had a bunch of little lego blocks, and you could use those to make larger lego blocks, and you could then use those to make even larger lego blocks, and so on. today's integrated circuits use more than a billion transistors to make something that is very complex, but it is built up out of very simple things. transistors are great for building these things because they are small, fast, reliable, cheap, and don't use a lot of power. these are all important properties when you are trying to make something that uses a billion or more devices. after you've built a bunch of different chips and put them into "packages", you solder those packages onto a printed circuit board (such as a pc motherboard). the pcb has copper traces on it that act like flat wires to connect things together. (it is cheaper, simpler, better performance, and more reliable to use a pcb to do this rather than a bunch of individual wires.) it even has many layers, and connection vias going between layers or clear to the other side of the pcb. so now you can connect up different chips that do different functions, like cpu, memory, graphics, etc. they "talk" to each other via the traces on the pcb according to certain pre-determined rules, called "protocols". kind of like the circuits, these protocols are built up in layers, with the lowest level protocol defining what signals mean "0" and what signals mean "1". these protocols get pretty complicated, and allow the different components to pass very complex information back and forth. the different parts of the pc have different functions, with the cpu acting kind of as the main brain and control center. it gets program instructions and data sent from the hard disc to the memory and then to it, manipulates the data as dictated by the stream of instructions, and sends data out to where it is needed. but the cpu does what it does according to the digital logic that has been built into it. remember the legos? now that everything can pass binary information around and do things with it, what remains are ways to represent information, and describing how to do things to it. the latter is where programming comes into the picture...programs describe, eventually at the binary level, how to manipulate information that is in digital form. and pretty much everything can be digitized, more or less. a sound can be measured very very rapidly, turning its waveform into a series of numbers. an image can be represented as many rows and columns of tiny dots, each one having a color and intensity, and each of those colors and intensities represented by numbers. and numbers can be represented in binary so that digital logic can do things with it...transform it, transmit it, etc. **tl;dr** - that wall of text only scratches the surface. let me know if there are specific things i didn't cover that you want me to. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/boolean/boo2.gif"
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how does manipulating light waves help informational science to the point where it would be patented? | lene hau (harvard physics professor) was granted a [patent in 2008](_url_0_) for her work in turning light waves into matter waves and back into light, retaining that light's specific signature. as far as i know (which admittedly is very little) quantum computing works with electrons, not light waves. why is this worthy of being patented? harvard would not have invested the patent money if they didn't think it would be profitable in the future, so how and where do you anticipate this technology being used? | the key to a quantum computer is the ability to generate and maintain the coherence properties of entangled states long enough to perform a computation. it is certainly not just electrons that are usable for this purpose: researchers all over the world have been working on different systems that allow entangled states to be generated and stored such as quantum dots, cold atomic samples and even photons! the patent concerns itself with a method of taking a quantum state of light, storing it in an atomic medium and a time later getting the light back out *while maintaining its coherence properties*. [this is the key!] we can imagine in principle using this as a form of quantum memory or as part of a quantum logic gate. the basic thing here is that in many proposals quantum states of light (photons) are the carriers of information in a quantum computer. it is therefore important to have a way of manipulating without destroying the coherence properties of light, this patent is one of them. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.google.com/patents/US8299419"
] | [] | [
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] |
why are our brains so high up in our bodies? | since blood is heavily influenced by gravity, and the brain requires a lot of oxygen to function properly, why do we have our brains in the highest part of our body, as it takes a lot of energy for great amounts of blood to be pumped all the way up there? | this is due to the evolutionary trend in early chordates (more specifically the [craniates](_url_0_)) for [cephalization.](_url_1_) sensory organs and nerve bundles gravitated towards one end of the body to eventually form the head with the brain, eyes and nose in the same general region. this general blueprint was passed down through all craniate descendants. this is most easily illustrated when looking at different [embryos.](_url_2_) | 89 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniate",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalization",
"http://www.lizzieharper.co.uk/image/1580/Comparison_of_vertebrate_embryos.jpg"
] | [
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how can scientists predict there will be a "megaquake" off the coast of north america? | i'm currently watching the national geographic show disaster earth and this episode is about earth quakes. they say that sometime in the future, there will be an earthquake comparable to one on sumatra in 2004 and chile in 2010. they say the cities of portland, vancouver and seattle are at risk and as many as 4 per 1000 people living in the area will die, comparing that to the fatalities of the second world war. they can't say when it will happen but they seem fairly certain that it will happen. how can they be? | we've got strong indicators that is in the works. looking to the past, we've got a longish geological record of repeated megaquakes which have left all kinds of traces all along the west coast ... turbidites, silting events, landslides, tsunamis. looking to the present, the west coast is a major subduction zone, where one set of tectonic plates and microplates in grinding into, and under, the north american continent. that pushes an obscene amount of energy into pent up stresses which build up into the lithosphere. looking into the future, one of my friends works ate the canadian remote sensing agency, and he tells me that the rockies are going up at a pretty constant and measurable rate. that tells us that the energy is building up without dissipating. the longer it builds up, the greater the release of energy when it lets go. think of it as putting tension on a rubber band ... it's bound to break at some point, but the further it's been "cranked up past eleven", the worse it's going to be when it snaps and hits you in the eye... so that's it in a nutshell: we know megaquakes happen at roughly regular intervals on the west coast from the traces of past events, we know there haven't been recent ones, and we can see that "virtual rubber band" being cranked in real time as the mountains rise and store energy. you may find the following of interest: [keilis-borok, v. i., & kossobokov, v. g. (1990). premonitory activation of earthquake flow: algorithm m8. physics of the earth and planetary interiors, 61(1-2), 73-83.](_url_0_) [clague, j. j., & bobrowsky, p. t. (1994). evidence for a large earthquake and tsunami 100-400 years ago on western vancouver island, british columbia. quaternary research, 41(2), 176-184.](_url_3_) [mazzotti, s., dragert, h., hyndman, r. d., miller, m. m., & henton, j. a. (2002). gps deformation in a region of high crustal seismicity: n. cascadia forearc. earth and planetary science letters, 198(1), 41-48.](_url_1_) [clowes, r. m., hyndman, r. d., fujinawa, y., & yoshida, a. (2002). geophysical studies of the northern cascadia subduction zone off western canada and their implications for great earthquake seismotectonics: a review. seismotectonics in convergent plate boundary, 1-23.](_url_2_) | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/003192019090096G",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stephane_Mazzotti/publication/229401229_GPS_deformation_in_a_region_of_high_crustal_seismicity_N_Cascadia_forearc/links/545215a30cf285a067c6ccc1.pdf",
"https://www.terrapub.co.jp/e-library/scpb/pdf/001.pdf",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter_Bobrowsky/publication/223234665_Evidence_for_a_Large_Earthquake_and_Tsunami_100-400_Years_Ago_on_Western_Vancouver_Island_British_Columbia/links/00b4953c68250b5c33000000.pdf"
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why are humans so good at seeing and sensing if an object (picture frame, door, etc.) is level and plumb? | just hanging a picture in my office, and i'm amazed at how such a microscopic change in the angle of the picture seems grossly out of level/plumb to my eyes. this innate sense of when a straight line isn't perfectly level or plumb to such a precise level seems like a skill that's not very useful in an evolutionary sense. | this is an interesting question and there are a few possible reasons. first, we are very, very good at discriminating edges at different orientations. interestingly, we are particularly sensitive to deviations of edges from the horizontal and vertical meridians (i.e., tilts away from perfectly vertical or horizontal) -- without training, we can detect tilts of approximately 0.6^o ([heeley and buchanan-smith, 1990](_url_8_))! the detection threshold depends on a few factors like eccentricty (whether the edge is near the center of your vision out in the periphery), the line length, contrast, and various other factors (see, e.g. [paradiso and carney, 1988](_url_11_)). so when it comes to seeing if, say, a painting is level or not, we are very sensitive to changes from horizontal. a common interpretation of the early parts of the visual system (v1) is that it is doing something like edge detection and we often talk about [orientation tuning](_url_0_) or orientation channels ([ben-yishai, bar-or, and sompolinsky, 1995](_url_10_)). there are neurons in primary visual cortex that appear to be tuned to different orientations of contrast. for example, a single neuron might respond maximally (fire a lot) whenever a black bar appear above a white bar in its [receptive field](_url_7_) forming a horizontal edge, and not fire as much or at all when a black bar is to the left of a white bar forming a vertical edge. [here](_url_5_) and [here](_url_1_) are illustrations of such [simple cells](_url_3_) (that's the technical term). so from a biological perspective, the answer is that we have mechanisms that are specific for detecting edges and their orientations. (we can go on and say that from an evolutionary perspective it is important to be able to detect the edges / boundaries of things because that's what allows us to segment the visual scene into objects for interaction / avoiding danger / living). a second answer might be that it's not that we're examining the orientation of the edges (a low-level feature), but actually the orientation of the entire object and can detect that the whole picture is crooked. this can be done in two ways. first, there may be a large, low spatial frequency filter that essentially treats the entire painting as one fat edge. this would work in the same way as the filters used to detect the thin edges that define the boundary of the painting, except it would have a much larger receptive field and be less attuned to fine details. another mechanism might be based on the representation of the object itself. if we extract out the [medial axis](_url_6_) or the [shape skeleton](_url_4_) (and there is some evidence that our object representations may be like that: [lescroart and biederman, 2013](_url_2_)), perhaps we are judging the orientation of this object as a whole as opposed to any of its individual edges. this is distinct from the low spatial frequency filter idea because it involves a decomposition of the object into another representation. related to this last point, we are also able to judge and be sensitive to object stability ([samuel and kerzel, 2011](_url_9_)). so perhaps what we are detecting is that a crooked painting is somehow "unstable". this is a slightly less convincing explanation because experiments on the perception of stability usually focus on objects that are standing on a support and the observer is asked whether it will fall over or not. that doesn't really apply to a painting hanging on a wall. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronal_tuning",
"http://www.expertsmind.com/CMSImages/1298_Primary%20visual%20cortex%201.png",
"http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/23/3/629.short",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_cell",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_skeleton",
"http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/teaching/courses/inf1-cg/lectures/5/tuning_curve_goldsteinbook.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medial_axis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptive_field",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/004269899090024F",
"http://www.unige.ch/fapse/PSY/persons/kerzel/reprints/samuel.kerzel.2011.pdf",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/92/9/3844.short",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/004269898890096X"
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why do we perceive things as being animate or inanimate? | for example, say i am walking through the jungle and i see a perfect artificial animatronic-whatever jaguar crouching in a tree. how does my brain instinctively establish that it’s not a real jaguar? | this is an excellent and very deep question. the animate/inanimate difference is one of the most reliable distinctions we can make in neuroimaging in carving up neural representations of semantic space (apart from faces vs. scenes vs. objects). i'm not familiar with a theory of *why* this distinction arises apart from *post hoc* evolutionary explanations like animate things can hurt you and/or be a source of meat while inanimate things usually cannot. one thing that is kind of odd about studies that find these distinctions is that inanimate objects tend to be tools, so perhaps the distinction is really between manipulable objects that engage our motor system vs ones that do not. i'd be curious if any of the other perception panelists have something to add. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what did you do today? (day in the life of our askscientists) | a simple question for those of you working in the scientific field - what did you do today, work-wise? i'm curious about the little details of just what constitutes "working" for all the very different scientific jobs covered in this forum. feel free to be as brief or as detailed as you like - to focus on just one thing you did or tell a bit about everything! i understand this isn't directly a question about science, but i hope you understand that the spirit of the discussion is. it's also only the beginning of the day here in the est zone, so you can talk about what you did yesterday or simply answer later - if anyone answers at all! | hmm, interesting question, i look forward to reading some of the other answers. my day has only just started, it's 8:50 am, sitting at my computer browsing /r/askscience. in about an hour i will head to the lab, where i will make up a couple of calibration solutions, then sit on the gcms for a few hours. in the early afternoon i will come home and work on a research proposal for a few hours, then at about 5 i will proceed to get drunk. repeat ad infinitum. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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with current and relatively futuristic technology, would it be possible to create a type of exercise equipment or something similar in your home to supply your house with all the energy it would need for the day or next couple days? | probably not, just by simple thermodynamics. but you could get within an order of magnitude: an average person consumes perhaps 3000 calories on an average day. special forces operators and olympic athletes can consume maybe 10,000 calories. let's say you're one of these and also assume that you could burn all 10,000 calories over the course of your exercise and none of those calories went into stuff like the chemical reactions inside your body that keep you alive. all 10,000 calories, directly into work. food calories are roughly equal to 4.2 kilojoules of energy. so on an average day let's say the most energy the human body could exert is 42mj. that sounds like quite a lot. now let's look at the electrical energy consumption of your average home. it's around 30 kwh per day. 1kwh is equal to roughly 3.6mj. so your average home consumes roughly 108 mj per day. so even if you consumed 10,000 calories a day, were capable of exerting every last bit of that food energy as work, into an exercise machine capable of 100% efficiently converting that work to electricity, and a battery that could store the energy at 100% efficiency. you would still only have roughly 1/3 of the energy you'd need to power an average home for a day. | 29 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is sitting so unhealthy? | i've read several studies recently that show that sitting is bad for you. even with a good amount of exercising in your life, extended periods of sitting is correlated with a higher risk of death. is this because the positions we sit in add stress to the body? or is it just because we're being inactive? | the study shows that there is correlation between the average time spent sitting and all-causes death. that was the exact point of the study — to show, that time spent sitting increases your chances of death. the paper published on the study is available online: _url_0_ in my opinion, it might be as well be a correlation bias of some sorts (from something reasonable, like — people who sit more, might be avoiding activity due to some sort of disease, such as valve defects and such, — to silly reasons, such as the amount of truck drivers included in the study). correlation does not mean causation. and i personally truly think that this is the case — people who sit more are less active for a reason, and that reason leads to their death. that said, one might speculate how prolonged sitting causes health issues. the most direct and clear way would be looking at health issues that come up in paraplegic patients, as they tend to spend a lot of time sitting. even looking a the wikipedia page about paraplegia — _url_1_ — can teach us that they suffer from thrombosis and pneumonia (i sure hope people don't sit in their office chairs long enough to form pressure sores). thrombosis is the obvious one. veins in lower extremities rely on contracting muscles and chains of valves to bring blood back to the torso (_url_2_). all other possible causes might be connected to weaker heart, various diseases of pelvic organs such as hemorrhoids, and so on. how does that lead to an increase in all-causes deaths in otherwise healthy (no previous history of cancer, stroke or hearth disease) people? no idea. but here's the quote from the article, that for me explains the most: "men and women who spent the least time sitting were leaner, more likely to have never smoked a cigarette, more likely to be employed and had lower total energy intake". that is, they were more active and more able and more healthy. as the mean age of the group was around 60-65 years, there's a real chanсe the article shows the difference between healthy people and people with undiagnosed health issues. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/172/4/419.full.pdf+html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraplegia#Complications",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Venous_valve.svg",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2012/04/sitting-time-correlating-with-mortality-independently-of-exercise.php",
"http://www.fightaging.org/archives/2012/04/exercise-reduces-risk-of-alzheimers-disease.php"
] | [
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change in a cup - always about $25. | there's the issue. the cup can hold a fixed volume. let's assume your change is randomly distributed among coin types (or that the distribution of change you get is nearly the same each time you get change). since the coinage distribution doesn't change much, neither should the amount that fits in a fixed volume container. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how exactly is the electricity in my outlet 110v? | i understand that v = i*r, so it makes sense that things running on 220v need half the amps...but where does the resistance come from? so, if my outlet gives 15amps at 110v, 110 = 15 times what? | the answers given so far are correct. the amount of current (and therefore power) running from the outlet depends on what's plugged into it. 15 amps is the *maximum* amount of current the outlet can provide. certain kinds of loads (incandescent lamps, portable heaters) act very much like a simple resistor, and so you can in principle use ohm's law (v=i*r) to figure out how much current will be drawn. something with active circuit components (like a computer power supply) can have a non-linear relationship between voltage and current, and so you have to measure them differently. i just happen to have an multimeter and two light bulbs here at my desk. the "40 watt" bulb measures 24 ohms, and the "71w" bulb measures 13 ohms. which makes sense - the 71w bulb has lower resistance, and therefore draws more current. if we plug that into the (i=v/r) version of the formula, we get: 110/24 = 4.58 a for "40w" bulb 110/13 = 8.48 a for "71w" bulb ...and those values are clearly bogus, as you can see by plugging them into the (p=vi) power formula: 110 x 4.58 = 504 watts for the "40w" bulb 110 x 8.48 = 932 watts for the "71w" bulb so, what happened here? it turns out that even a simple incandescent lamp isn't a strictly linear device. there is an increase in the resistance of the filament as it heats up. by the time the filament is glowing hot, the resistance increases to the point where the current drops to the expected level for that particular bulb. the extremely high current when initially turned on is part of the reason that incandescent bulbs almost always burn out right when they're switched on. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do people other than the mother and father get an increase in oxytocin when around a newborn baby? | for a long time i've been somewhat opposed to the idea of having children - mainly due to concerns about the environment and overpopulation. i also suffer quite badly from depression (to the point of being suicidal), so i didn't want to risk passing that along to any future children. i've always been pretty comfortable with this. however, my sister recently had a baby, and after spending a few days around my new nephew i've found myself feeling like children are the best thing in the world - even though i still have concerns about the environment etc. this feeling is *incredibly* powerful, and seems to be the result of something more than just being happy to meet my new nephew. is there any physiological basis for this? do people other than the parents get a boost of oxytocin, or is this some kind of neurological response? thanks for any information! | this sounds like oxytocin release to me. although i haven't read anything dealing with relatives and new babies, the idea of kinship theory may be at play here. for more info on oxytocin i highly recommend the book the chemistry between us. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why is it easier to break things in half than it is to break the edge of it? | for example, a wooden board can be pretty easily snapped in half against your knee, but if you try to do it somewhere close to the edge, it doesn't work; why is that? | this is a clear example of a [lever](_url_0_). the distance between the applied force (your hand) and the fulcrum (your knee) determines the [torque](_url_1_) that you apply to the wood. if the force you applied is constant, but the fulcrum is much closer, you have a smaller torque. | 44 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lever",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque"
] | [
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] |
are we failing to account for the weight of displaced air? | normally when we weigh stuff we put the container on the scale, zero it, and then add whatever it is that we are weighing and weigh it. but lets say we now have a closed container and we weigh it, we then put it in a vacuum, suck out the air and weigh it again. it should now weigh less then when it was full of air, right? are we not failing to account for that discrepancy when we normaly weigh stuff? if we start by zeroing our scales to the weight of a container full of air will we not be of by the weight of the air we are displacing? | all objects are subject to a buoyant force that depends on their volume and the current air density. i found a [fascinating application note](_url_0_) on the subject from a balance manufacturer. they even discuss how to account for weather-related variations in atmospheric pressure when monitoring the mass of a sample over long periods of time. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.radwag.com/pliki/artykuly/buoyancy_force_in_mass_measurement.pdf",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/18l66k/are_we_failing_to_account_for_the_weight_of/c8frcq8"
] | [
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is there a certain amount of "real estate" at the a given lagrangian point? could we potentially put too many stations, observatories, or other spacecraft there and run out of room? | sort of. the further you are from the lagrangian point, the further your actual behavior will be from the theoretical behavior exactly at the lagrangian. at an unstable lagrangian, that means that the further you are from it, the faster you will diverge from the point. a station that wanted to sit at an unstable lagrangian would need to periodically make small adjustments to its trajectory to "realign". the further from the actual precise point you are, the more frequent and larger those adjustments would need to be. at a stable lagrangian, that means the further you are from the point, the less of a stabilizing effect you will experience; your orbits around the stable point will be larger and less predictable. a station at a stable lagrangian could do without course-corrections, depending on how much "meandering" you're willing to accept. as you get far enough away, you would realistically need course-corrections in order to avoid other objects (like the other stations). both effects are gradual; there wouldn't be a sharp cutoff between "this station is in the 'lagrangian zone' and this other one is not." edit: obviously, the assumption is that you have to have some space between the actual objects you're putting up. if you are imagining these stations/spacecraft being literally pressed up against each other, there's effectively limitless (by earth standards) real estate. but in practice you will want quite a bit of separation. | 134 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does air flow through a curved tube at an appreciably slower rate than a straight tube? | if i put a fan on one end of a tube that had a 6 inch diameter, would the air flow be significantly (from a human perspective) different if the tube was straight or if it had some curves in it? | i'm just a lowly ac tech, but yes, it will slow airflow to a degree, but not significantly. a particular fan can pass x amount of air at a given static pressure. increasing the length of the tube or the amount of bends in it will result in a higher static pressure, meaning the fan cannot push the same amount of air (we use fan curve charts when designing as they will show this relationship). if it is a curved bend, the impact to airflow is lessened. if it is a 90 bend, eddies can form and they will have a greater effect on the airflow. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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did the construction of the ligo gravitational wave detector account for the curve of the earth? did each end of have to be risen up a bit so that each light beam was perfectly straight? | title | from [one ligo's own web pages](_url_0_) w/various ligo facts : > curvature of the earth: ligo’s arms are so long that the curvature of the earth is a measurable 1 meter (vertical) over the 4 km length of each arm. the most precise concrete pouring and leveling imaginable was required to counteract this curvature and ensure that ligo’s vacuum chambers were "flat" and level. without this work, ligo's lasers would hit the end of each arm 1 m above the mirrors it is supposed to bounce off of! | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/facts"
] | [
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] |
do the powerball numbers 01-02-03-04-05 have the same odds showing up as any other combination? | would i be anymore lucky picking random numbers than i would be if i picked 5 numbers that are next to each other? | every combination is exactly likely as any other (assuming the numbers are truly selected at random). we humans tend to assign special significance to numbers with recognizable patterns like that, but they are only special in our minds. every combination is equally likely. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
in this song there's a sound source which, even on stereo systems, seems to travel all around me. how does such an effect work? | _url_0_ noise e.g. between 1:26 and 1:40 | this is an effect known as "virtual surround sound," which relies on how your brain interprets sound to trick you into thinking that a sound is moving around your head. you can think of this like the acoustic equivalent of an optical illusion, except instead of tricking your eyes, it's tricking your ears. to pull off this particular trick, something called a head related transfer function is often used. the hrtf maps the relative acoustic intensities for different frequencies to different locations around your head. that is, it will give you the frequency response at each ear as a function of the source location. this is mapped for an "average human head" and takes into account things like diffraction around the outer ear, and path length differences for sounds traveling around your head. by applying the head related transfer function, you can make something sound like it's coming from a certain location when it really isn't. | 13 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gcBoW_IyNBE"
] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaural_time_difference",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_localization"
] | [
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has the force of expansion of freezing water ever been measured? could you use it to lift say, a train? | if the ice were confined and you kept the temperature low enough for the pressure of the train not to cause a phase change and the train exerted less pressure than the walls of whatever you were using to contain the water could resist, then yes. i did some quick googling and found that you can keep ice frozen at something lower than - 55 degrees celsius with up to 6000 atmospheres (88,000 psi). however, the water being sealed (or in a pressurized environment excepting equal or more force than the train would cause some serious logistical problems for doing anything other than strictly lifting the train. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if you traveled in a straight line in space, would you eventually end up back where you started? | in my searches i have encountered both answers. i haven't specified a speed though i understand this might be important. i presume there are competing theories out there, so maybe this boils down to which is the currently the most accepted. edit: wow, thanks for all the replies, this has cleared a few things up for me. | what you're referring to goes by a few different bits of technical jargon in the literature. it's the question of whether the universe is *spatially open* or *spatially closed,* whether it's *flat* or *positively curved,* whether it's *infinite* or *finite.* these all mean the same thing. they're just different ways of talking about the same question. and the answer is, with an *extraordinarily* high degree of certainty, that the universe is spatially open, flat and infinite. (those are all effectively synonyms in this context.) that means if you traveled in a straight line in space, you would *not* end up back where you started, but rather you'd just keep going on forever. now, i've been getting more than the usual amount of hate mail today anyway, so i doubt my saying this will help at all. but i'll say it anyway: can we *state with absolute, existential certainty* that this is correct? of course not. but again, we are *extraordinarily* certain that what i just said is true. it's on par with asking how sure we are that the sun is lit by nuclear fusion, or that the earth does not have a core of solid custard. no one will ever be able to *directly sense* things like that with their eyes, ears or hands. but we are as certain of the correctness of our inferences as it's really reasonable ever to hope to be. | 47 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_of_the_Universe"
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what is an example of two very similar chemical formulas behaving very differently? | i remember someone illustrating this for me with a very good example but i forget what it was. i have someone arguing that baking soda is like lye because the formulas are similar... edit: he's saying that baking soda dissociates to lye in water. | there are many examples of this. the chemical formula itself is often not a good indication of its properties, rather, a compound's structure is often important. take for example the formula c4h8o2. two ways that we can arrange those atoms is as [ethyl acetate](_url_1_) or [butyric acid](_url_0_). those two compounds have the *same* formula, but entirely different properties: one being an ester and one a carboxylic acid. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butyric_acid",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_acetate"
] | [
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false discovery rates and critical values for micro array data | hi ask science, so i realize this is a more specific question than is usual queried. i am looking at a micro array data set (as a noob), and i calculated a rough estimate of the fdr. but now i don't know what to do with it. how do i use these values (unique for each gene, based on the p-value*comparisons/rank) to determine a new critical value to account for false positives? for instance, gene 1: p = 0.028203, fdr = 1.107459 another: p-value = 5.61424e-06, fdr = 0.252641 also, if i am only looking (a-priori) at a subset of genes, can i calculate the fdr based on (p-value*comparisons/rank)? do i have to recalculate the rank? thank you so much. | my advice would be to to walk around your building until you find a lab that deals with microarrays a lot and then make a new friend. or if your university has a genomics core they would probably be able to help you. i know i have received plenty of help from labs that have no stake in my work but were kind enough to help me. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the menger sponge have 0 volume? | i was interested in the menger sponge and i saw that it has infinite surface area (i understand that if the pattern continues unless infinity) but how does it have no volume? | it's *all* surface; it has zero volume in the same sense that a flat plane has zero volume (not quite but close enough; it's more than 2d but less than 3d). there is no tiny ball--no matter how small you make it--that would totally fit inside the menger sponge somewhere, so it contains no volume. in each stage of construction of the menger sponge we reduce the volume by a factor of 20/27 (by cutting each piece into 3x3x3 pieces and removing the centre one and the centre of each face). multiplying by 20/27 infinitely many times gives zero. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any part of the body that cannot be accessed surgically? | i wonder if there is any part of the body that cannot be accessed surgically or is irreparable if done so | this is often case specific, but generally speaking, there are certain organs or regions that do not respond well to insult. tissues such as brain, muscle and nerve do not regenerate (or not very well), so any of these would be more susceptible to damage. also, highly vascular tissues are more difficult to perform surgery on for obvious reasons. there are some other parts of the body that are very difficult to access for anatomical reasons. one example would be the pancreas which is surrounded by many organs and vessels and offers no easy access for surgeons. with that being said, surgery can still be performed on all of these organs, often with minimal lasting injury. hopefully this somewhat answers your question, let me know if you are looking for something more specific. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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many people seem to believe that society is changing faster today than it did in the past. is this a cognitive bias, is the world perhaps changing in different ways and we have forgotten the significance of past changes, or is there some truth in this statement? | one thing nobody seems to have mentioned yet is population growth. there are *seven times* as many people alive today as there were 200 years ago. overall, the standard of living for most people has improved over the last two centuries, so a proportionately-larger number of those people are literate and educated (to some extent, at least). if albert einstein (to pick a random example) was a one-in-a-billion intellect, then there were only one or two people at his level when he was born. there are 6 or 7 of them out there right now. as societies around the world grow in technological sophistication, the number of scientists and engineers grows faster than the population growth. this makes the exponential growth of technological innovation outpace even the exponential growth of the population, and is arguably why we aren't all starving right now, despite people's gloom-and-doom predictions of the earth's "maximum carrying capacity" only a few decades ago. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if a human needs 2000 calories per day, could a human be said to run on 96 watts? | 2000 kilocalories = 8360000 joules 1 day = 86400 seconds 8360000 joules/86400 seconds = 96 watts i have to be doing something wrong here. we don't require on average less than a lightbulb, do we? | surprising as that may sound, you are right, the ballpark power expenditure of humans is roughly that of a 100w light-bulb running constantly. if that sounds surprising, keep in mind that incandescent lightbulbs are extremely inefficient, with less than five percent of the energy put in being converted to visible light. this is because the bulbs are black body emitters, which need pretty damn high temperatures (about 3000k) or so to emit significant amounts of visible light and most of the energy used to heat them up ends up being dissipated as heat (e.g. as infrared thermal radiation). edit: an interesting tangent is that lighting, because it is both so ubiquitous and inefficient is actually responsible for a huge fraction of our energy consumption, lighting eating up roughly 20% of all the electricity produced. this is why the switch to significantly more efficient sources such as leds may have a large impact on reducing electricity/energy consumption worldwide. | 57 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does fermat's principle of least time explain why light refracts, or is it just an interesting mathematical side effect of the actual mechanism? | i think fermat's principle of least time is saying that the path taken by light can be derived from knowing from knowing only it's starting and ending point. if this somehow describes the mechanism of refraction, it seems that the light would need to "know" the end point in advance. | i recommend listening to feynman describe the sum-over-histories model of quantum electrodynamics (for which he and two other men won the 1965 nobel prize in physics): [here's the video.](_url_0_) there are a lot of amplitudes, phases, and little spinning clock analogies involved. essentially, light takes all possible paths simultaneously with a certain amplitude, but phase cancellation means that certain paths have a very high probability, while most paths have a very low probability. as far as the 'actual mechanism' is concerned, feynman would say that we can't really know what it is. we can only know what it *looks like*. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LPDP_8X5Hug",
"http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-explanation/"
] | [
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when i watch (computer animated)videos of things going on inside of cells, the protiens are moving all over the place with what energy exactly? i gather that the source is atp conversion in mitochondria, but how does that energy fuel all these molecules zooming around all over the place? | one video posted by npr showed a virus infecting a cell, and the host protiens were guiding this rna hither and thither...with what? jetpacks? it can't be brownian motion, right? | well these videos aren't always realistic. if something is just wiggling around, that could be ascribed to brownian motion. if something deliberately moved from one part of the cell to the other, it could be something that requires active transport (e.g. motor proteins and actin filaments for example, which they neglected to show), or it could be something that happens by diffusion, but they simplified it and just showed something going exactly where it needs to go, even though it is a random process. for example, in a video of a neuron firing, they may show the neurotransmitter molecules (e.g. dopamine) going directly from the firing neuron and across the synapse to their receptors, but of course this actually occurs by simple diffusion and the neurotransmitter molecules would diffuse randomly in all directions, but they took some artistic license. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%2B/K%2B-ATPase"
] | [
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can someone explain how we exist here on earth without freezing or melting? | i'm guessing it has to do with our planet being the perfect distance from the sun, in that we aren't too close like venus, but not too far like mars. and if this is the case, do we exist because we have a source of water that retains its liquid state? | because we evolved here. had we evolved on another planet, we would look at the earth and declare that it's too hot, or too cold, or too wet, or too dry. this is kind of a special case of the [anthropic principle](_url_0_). **we**, specifically, exist because of that (among many other factors), but i'm pretty sure that the jury's still out on whether liquid water is a necessity for all possible forms of life. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle"
] | [
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] |
so, i've found an article about a supposed cure for cancer that's being ignored by big pharma. sounds way too good to be true, but can someone explain why this would/would not work? | [this](_url_0_) | all of these conspiracies about big pharma are a bit ridiculous. "sounds way too good to be true..." yep. the thing about magical cures like this is that if they actually existed and worked then it would become very obvious very quickly that they were legitimate. if there is a magical cure for cancer, you certainly won't hear about it first in an article laden with conspiracy and hand waving. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.moneytrendsresearch.com/scientists-cure-cancer-but-no-one-takes-notice/"
] | [] | [
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in apollo 13 they are always talking about their power reserve in amps. why amps and not joules? | was watching apollo 13 today and they discussed how they needed to come down from something like 60 amps to 4 amps in their module in order to preserve enough power to run the computers during re-entry. what is the significance of amps here, why is something like joules not used? | a joule is a measure of energy, not power. watts (j/s) measure power, which is what they cared about. presumably their energy source was a [relatively] fixed-voltage source so amperes and watts are directionally proportional (p=v*i), and their circuitry and monitoring hardware directly measured amps. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any credibility to the solutrean hypothesis? | a lot of people distort the hypothesis of humans crossing the atlantic ocean through an ice bridge from eurasia into north america with their own, contemporary political or social biases. putting that aside, is there any credible evidence that shows whether the solutrean people could have come to north america and become the clovis people, or has that hypothesis been discredited? | the clovis/solutrean hypothesis has pretty much been discredited. setting aside all quibbling about dates and tool stylistics, i'll refer you to the genomic analysis of an actual clovis burial site. this is "ground truth" in the matter of the origin of the clovis people ... if they descend from the solutreans, they will have european genes, if they are from asia, they'll have siberian genes ... it's pretty clearcut. it turns out the genome of that individual is more closely related to current native americans and shows clear links to siberian populations, than to any european group. to quote from the study: *"however, both the origins and genetic legacy of the people who manufactured clovis tools remain debated. it is argued that these people ultimately derived from asia and were directly related to contemporary native americans. an alternative, solutrean, hypothesis posits that the clovis predecessors immigrated from southwestern europe during the last glacial maximum (lgm). here, we report the genome sequence of a male infant (anzick-1) recovered from the anzick burial site in western montana. the human bones date to 10,705±35 14c years bp (cams-80538; c. 12,707–12,556 calendar years bp) and were directly associated with clovis tools. we sequenced the genome to an average depth of 14.4×* **and show that the gene flow from the siberian upper palaeolithic mal′ta individual into native american ancestors is also shared by the anzick-1 individual and thus happened prior to 12,600 years bp. we also show that the anzick-1 individual is more closely related to all indigenous american populations than to any other group.** *our data are compatible with the hypothesis that anzick-1 belonged to a population directly ancestral to many contemporary native americans*" see: [rasmussen, m., anzick, s. l., waters, m. r., skoglund, p., degiorgio, m., stafford jr, t. w., ... & poznik, g. d. (2014). the genome of a late pleistocene human from a clovis burial site in western montana. nature, 506(7487), 225-229.](_url_0_) that's pretty definitive proof that the clovis people were from asia and not from europe right there... | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4878442/"
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what causes people to procrastinate and what do you have to change to stop it? | a lot of people procrastinate. i'm an expert at it. i'm trying to figure out the underlying causes of it, both biologically and psychologically. what can one do to actively stop it from happening permanently? | check out [temporal motivation theory](_url_0_), which outlines four factors in determining motivation at any given time: expectancy, value, impulsiveness, and delay. the rationale for those factors make intuitive sense: expectancy: if you expect to succeed in a task you'll be more motivated to do it - e.g., if i get a d in every quiz in a topic i'd not be willing to invest much time studying for the next one. value: if the reward of successfully completing the task is high you'll be more motivated to do it - e.g., going out with friends is much more rewarding than studying for the quiz, so i'm more motivated to go out. impulsiveness: some people are more impulsive than others, meaning they value short-term reward over long-term reward delay: regardless of how impulsiveness a person is, there is _always_ a natural, innate human tendency to priorities tasks with a short delay for reward - e.g., going out with friends _now_ and having fun _now_ is much more attractive than studying for the quiz _now_ and doing well _later_. for some reading material you can also check out [the procrastination equation](_url_1_), a book based on that theory. it is geared towards general audience but is very well sourced. the idea behind the book isn't to eliminate procrastination - because it is impossible to do so. the argument is that humans have _evolved_ to be procrastinators. so rather than hopelessly trying to eliminate it all together, it's best to recognize how it works and what you can do to increase motivation for the desired tasks. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_motivation_theory",
"http://procrastinus.com/piers-steel/purchase-the-procrastination-equation/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premack%27s_principle",
"http://tomato-timer.com/",
"http://freakonomics.com/2015/03/13/when-willpower-isnt-enough-a-new-freakonomics-radio-podcast/"
] | [
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