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can someone please explain how electricity works? | this has always been in my mind but i just never seemed to ask anyone or google the answer. i've always wondered how a flashlight turns on just from a switch or how a tv lights up when you press a button. i know it has to do with something dealing with electrons getting excited or something like that but i never understood the big picture. | here's the explanation that worked for me. it's confusing because there are *two* very different things we casually call "electricity". to distinguish them, i will call them electron-stuff and energy. electron-stuff is made of electrons. electrons are *stuff*, in the sense that they have *mass*. they're part of what everyday things are made. if you have 1000kg of something (copper or car tires or wheat flour or molasses), then around 270g are electrons. electrons are coupled with (much heavier) protons and neutrons, but not strongly; electrons can be made to move independently. when an electron moves, another one takes their place, so that the base material seems the same (if it lost electrons, it would actually lose a bit of mass, and weight less on a (very accurate) scale). in some materials (like car tires) electrons are hard to budge, but in others (copper) they're already naturally floating all over the place, and only need a little "push" to switch places (these materials are called *good conductors*). if you make a circle of copper and "push" the electrons, they all go in the same direction, round and round; this is called *direct current*. you could also make the electrons wiggle back and forth in the same place, without traveling down the path; this is called *alternating current*. either way, *electrons move very slowly*; something of the order of 8cm/hour. they don't travel at the speed of the light at all. this makes sense when you recall that electrons are "stuff"; and stuff with mass *can't* travel at the speed of light (the closer you get to speed of light, the more your mass increases; if you could make an electron travel at the speed of light, it mass would become infinite). electron-stuff is measured in coulombs, or amperes (=coulombs per sec). but wait: when you press a switch the light turns on (almost) instantly. it's not *quite* the speed of light, but it's a significant fraction of it—certainly much faster than 8cm/hour, which would take hours to reach your light bulb! so *something* is going down the wire much faster than electrons. that something is energy. energy is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic (em) fields that manifest *along* the wires (actually outside the wires proper!) whenever electrons are moving about (either round and round in direct current, or wiggling back and forth in alternating current). you may have heard that light is a kind of em field. just like light is "made of" photons, em fields in general (including those of electrical energy, radio, microwaves etc.) are also "made of" photons; the only difference from light and other em fields is that their photons have different "sizes", and our eyes can't see all of them. (i'm using scare quotes because i find many physics students really hate the words "made of" and "sizes" in this context, to which i can only say: feynman used these words, blame him for ruining me). now electrons and protons ("stuff") are emitting and absorbing photons (em/light/energy/etc.) all the time. and these em exchanges simultaneously make stuff attract or repel, moving in space. so you can induce movement in electrons by e.g. pushing them with a magnet (which outputs em/photons); once the electrons are flowing in an ordered way, the photons they constantly emit/absorb will also flow in an ordered way, which is another way of saying "an em field". and, just like light can be used to power things, this em field can be used to power things. in contrast to the current of electron-stuff, energy is measured in joules, or watts (joule/s). i'm a layperson so i'm probably getting something wrong. thanks in advance to physicists who correct me. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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before phototherapy, if a baby was born with jaundice, did it just die? | did it die at an early age or as a kid or something? i read about all the effects of having high amounts of bilirubin in your blood, and they sound like things a baby wouldn't be able to handle, especially the liver and brain damage. i was born with jaundice, and i was then put under a bili light when i was a baby. if i was born 50 years ago, would i be dead or brain damaged or something? | the reason babies with jaundice are put under uv light is because they lack sufficient liver enzymes needed to conjugate the bilirubin into a form they can excrete. uv light conjugates indirect bilirubin, meaning it changes into an excretable form. in most circumstances, jaundice of the newborn does not require phototherapy unless the bili level reaches a certain point. in time, the newborn's liver will develop sufficient ability to conjugate bilirubin. the danger of having a high unconjugated bilirubin is something called kernicterus. it is a special form of encephalopathy which causes irreversible neural damage, seizure, coma, and death. in the past before uv phototherapy, if a newborn was jaundiced, they more often than not would survive because the level was not high enough to cause kernicterus by the time the liver began to be able to conjugate the bilirubin. in cases where the bili was too high, the death rate was quite high. to answer the question about if 50 years ago would you have been brain damaged, it really depends on how mature your liver's conjugation enzymes were and how high your bili level was. since you required phototherapy, it is possible it might have had some effects. also realize that in our evolutionary past, we had much more exposure to uv light outdoors. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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my friend told me that you burn the same amount of calories running, jogging, or walking a mile. is he talking out of his ass? | hey! allow me to *actually* answer your question rather than give you a calorie count for one exercise. i'm using the [same table provided by hamm](_url_0_). i'm looking at the column for a 130 lb person. i'll compare the calories burned after running 1 mile at the lowest running speed listed (5 mph) and the highest running speed listed (10.9 mph): running at 5 mph - running at 10.9 mph - so... running for 1 mile at jogging speed really does burn about the same calories as sprinting, based on this table. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nutristrategy.com/caloriesburned.htm",
"http://www.nutristrategy.com/caloriesburned.htm"
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] |
|
how much electricity could you siphon from an overhead power cable via induction | a user in ask reddit posted this : what is kind of cool is that you can actually siphon electricity from power lines just by having metal within about 10 feet of them due to the electromagnetic field that power cables generate. you could steal electricity without ever touching their equipment by putting two cables in a tree that has been trimmed back. i would have to do some math to find out how much juice you could get per foot of distance and that would depend on the power cables as well. i just thought it was kind of neat when i found out that was even possible. how much energy could you actually get from this? | first, before anyone starts to think "hey, this is a good idea!" know that you will be causing a voltage drop in the line, and the power company can detect that delta v, narrow it down between two transformers and then come find you. so, you won't get away with it. that being said, the mathematics is really quite simple. you calculate it using [faraday's law of magnetic induction](_url_1_). this equation says the voltage induced is equal to the derivative of magnetic flux with respect to time, times the number of coils of wire you have. let's break that down: what is magnetic flux? you can think of it as adding up the strength of all of the magnetic fields that pass through a loop of wire- since the magnetic field will basically be a constant through the wire, in this case it is simply the strength of the field times the area of the coil of wire. why is it changing with time? because power is in an ac circuit. this wouldn't work with a dc circuit, but in ac the direction of flow changes (60 times per second here in the u.s), so the direction of the magnetic field changes as well. and it is proportional to the number of coils of wire you use. so this tells you that you can steal an arbitrary amount of power, you just have to use enough wire. so, let's calculate. the formula for the magnetic field from a current in a wire is described by the equation [b = mu_naught\*i/2\*pi\*r](_url_0_) where i is current and r is the distance away. so, let's say there is 1000 a in the high voltage wire, and you are 10 meters away. this means that the magnetic field where you are is 0.00002 t. now, we need to know magnetic flux, so we have to multiply by the area of the coil. saying our coild has a 3 meter radius, this leads to an area of about 28 m^2 . so the magnetic flux is actually. 28\*0.00002 = 0.00056 tm^2. we know that in 1/120th of a second that magnetic flux will go from +0.00056tm^2 to -0.00056tm^2 (since it is ac current), so we know that the change in flux as a change in time is 2\*0.0056tm^2 /1/120s = 0.1344 v. so, each 3 meter radius coil, 10 meters from the power line, will give you 0.1344 v. stack 100 coils, and you have 134 v, so not bad. but, like i mentioned above, the power company will know exactly where you're at if you try to do this. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.phys.uri.edu/~gerhard/PHY204/tsl216.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction#Faraday.27s_law"
] | [
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is it just a coincidence the mouth of the amazon river is at the equator? | i was looking at a map, and noticed the mouth of the amazon river is almost directly at the equator. i know things like warm air holds more water, which is why there's the band of rainforests right near the equator, but does that tie into why the mightiest river on the planet empties there too? or, is that pure coincidence? | just a coincidence. there are rivers all over the world that empty at all different latitudes rivers flow from the highest altitude to the lowest, and the amazon's path just follows the geography that happens to take it where it does. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadley_cell",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congolese_rainforests",
"http://www.sepmstrata.org/Terminology.aspx?id=base%20level",
"https://www.seas.harvard.edu/climate/eli/research/equable/hadley.html",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=dew+point&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjI_bmDy_TdAhXNrVkKHV3kB88Q_AUIDigB&biw=1229&bih=603#imgrc=tE8o0t6-JkRlZM"
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anyone here work with holographic technology? are we getting anywhere near the stuff we've seen in movies for the last 30+ years? | after playing mass effect 2 and seeing holograms *everywhere*, i'm just curious about how far we've come and if anyone here has anything to say about this kind of technology. is it even possible to produce the effects we see in movies or is it a pipe-dream? | a research group where i work is working on something very similar to the type of device shown in [this video](_url_0_). this is, of course, nothing like a hologram in science fiction. i believe that some companies are working on holographic displays but it is outside my field so i will not comment on it. i would suggest doing a google search on "[volumetric displays](_url_1_)" | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://vimeo.com/610602",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumetric_display"
] | [
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what are hazmat suits made of and how are they assembled? | the material of the suit varies, but a good example is tychem made by tyvek. these are the fully encompassing suits you often see in tv/movies with self contained breathing apparatus used for breathable air in suit. there is also chempak ultra barrier made by gore. if lesser protection is needed depending on the chemical, thinner variations of material can be used such as the tyvek f. really depends on the chemical agent. as to how they are assembled, it is a mix of stitching and super adhesives. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
please explain eva silverstein's (professor of physics, stanford university) version of "nothing" | i was watching the annual issac asimov debate and while i thought tyson's explanation of why "nothing" is so incredible was eloquent (or...comprehensive), i was struck by how definitive her version of nothing seemed to have silenced the panel. is there a more user friendly explanation of what she's talking about? a summary: the ground state of a gapped quantum system, or the absence of degrees of freedom" derived from viewing quantum field theory over longer scales of distance. [video of her explanation](_url_1_) i'm not likely to comprehend the ins and outs of quantum field theory, but i'm curious why distance/scale play a part. if you're looking for "gaps" to explain nothing, doesn't this definition only suit the word vs. the actual state of all existence prior to where we can trace string theory back to? i feel like she's implying that this state could explain an origin for all existence...is her below explanation an actual model for the 'pre-dimensional' state of the universe? [direct link](_url_0_) | she's being a little bit tricky. the idea is you can use the renormalization group flow to see what a quantum field theory looks like at lower and lower energies (or longer and longer distances, they are equivalent). when you do this you can actually get new theories that appear as the "effective field theories" of some high energy theory. one of the basic things that happens is that high mass degrees of freedom get "integrated out." basically, if you have a state that has a non-zero mass that state will disappear from the theory and sort of be absorbed into other stuff once you restrict to energies lower than the mass of the state. if the theory has a mass gap (which means the lowest excited state has a nonzero mass) then that means if you flow to low enough energy you will integrate out all of the states of the theory and end up with nothing. of course, the question is if this is really a physical nothingness, since the low energy theory is really just an approximation. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OLz6uUuMp8&t=55m35s",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OLz6uUuMp8&t=82m53s"
] | [] | [
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can someone briefly explain lawrence krauss's theory of "something from nothing"? | here's a 2-hour hd video (which is very brief in order to understand the author's conception). it's a conference that was held at arizona state university in 2012 with richard dawkins & lawrence krauss: [something from nothing - a conversation with richard dawkins & lawrence krauss](_url_0_) | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtube.com/watch?v=YUe0_4rdj0U"
] | [
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|
what is the science behind being mentally 'on fire'? | there are days that we all have in which everything seems to go right. a day when we top the scores in our favorite first person shooter time after time, or when we manage to kill it in social situations. what has always been a mystery to me, however, is how i can have the exact same day: wake up, eat cereal, play battlefield 2; and one of those days i play the game excellently, and another day i spent all day dying and unable to hit other players. same food, same sleep, same everything. my question is, what is the science behind these type of days? why don't they happen more often and what can we do to control them? | if we knew, you'd know. the idea of an 'on' day is hard to define, and may not actually be one, but a you selectively recalling important events that just happened to go right, whether in or out of your control. in addition, there are so many variables it can be nearly impossible to control all of them. i am not aware of any research in this area, the closest thing i can think of is [this paper](_url_0_) that correlates back squat performance and salivary free testosterone levels day to day in trained athletes. as you can see, it's only very tangentially related. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22201698"
] | [
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in atherosclerosis, what exactly is the difference between eccentric and concentric growth? | i can't seem to find a uniform definition or plain clear description. also google translate doesn't help. | are you sure you're not referring for heart failure? concentric growth is thickening of the heart muscle commonly due to long standing hypertension. this typically is referred to as diastolic dysfunction , in that, during the diastolic portion of the heart cycle, less blood can enter the ventricle leading to less blood being pumped to the body, ie-heart failure. eccentric growth, systolic heart failure, is thinning and stretching of the ventricular wall. this is pathological secondary to decreased stroke volume (the amount of blood pumped out of the ventricle in a contraction) and thus decreased blood to the body, ie - heart failure. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will we see a rapid evolution, then 'devolution' of mankind? | there is no such thing as devolution. all evolution is evolution, regardless of whether or not it appears to 'retrace its steps' so to speak. not really more to it than that... think of it like this. those factors really only matters when it effects reproductive fitness. how will more food being available effect reproductive fitness? people with diabetes/those who are overweight can still reproduce. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
#bio can the organ of balance be permanently damaged, leaving you, never being able to stand upright normally again? | this question popped up in my head when i fell while showering. | it can be irreparably damaged, but when it happens people learn to adapt by relying on vision and touch clues and go on to lead more or less normal lives. they'll always have trouble with things like slightly sloped hallways or any other subtle change though. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you had access to limited zero-g (~30 seconds), what experiments would you perform? | is there research you've done that you feel could benefit from a zero-g environment? i've done research in fluid dynamics in the past, but i'm open to experiments from any field. | i'd like to see how mixtures of different sized materials mix up. is there any other effect similar to the brazilian nut effect where the largest particles rise to the top? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in movies and television, injections seem to take effect immediately. is there any accuracy to this portrayal, and if so, what is going on? | it depends on what is being injected, and how. for some situations the portrayal is not all that far off. iv drugs enter the bloodstream immediately. the blood circulates pretty quickly, so the drug reaches all parts of the body within a matter of seconds. it can start working right then. in the hospital we can inject sedatives which take effect so quickly, people nod off right in the middle of a sentence. the difficulty is that an iv injection needs to be done into a vein, which is a small target. this can take a while to set up even in the controlled conditions of a hospital. if you're doing something like shooting tranquilizer darts, you won't be hitting a vein directly. injections into the muscle or fatty tissue take longer to be absorbed into the blood and have their effect. for instance if i give an intramuscular injection of haldol, it can take 30 to 60 minutes to have its greatest effect, compared to maybe a minute or two if it's given iv. tl;dr - if they're showing a careful iv injection, it's legit to see the effects almost immediately. if it's a dart or a james bond gadget that just sticks a random part of the body, then in real life it would take longer. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does air pressure exert force in all directions? | i was watching wonders of the solar system and prof. brian cox was doing an experiment where he filled a glass halfway with water and put a piece of paper over it. he flipped it upside down and the paper was held in place and the water remained in the cup. he explained that the air pressure is pushing up against the paper. how does it exert force on the paper from the bottom if there is only a few feet of air underneath the cup? | try this experiment: just hold out a sheet of paper without the glass of water. why doesn't the huge column of air above the paper just push the paper to the ground? it's because the column of air below the paper is supporting the column of air above the paper, so there is no net force on the paper. imagine the air as a really tall stack of springs. the springs near the bottom will be compressed due to the weight of the springs above them. now imagine you could insert a sheet of paper between two of the springs near the bottom. the springs above the paper are pushing down on the paper with the same force as the springs below the paper are pushing up. nothing changed by adding the paper into the system of springs. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do i understand light spreading correctly? | _url_0_ is it correct visualisation of light beams? eye 1 receives less light beams than eye 2 because its father away. so the lightbulb seems dimmer for eye 1, right? same goes for the stars in the sky? we get only a tiny amount of their light beams so they seem dimmer than the sun? it may look like a child question, but i just want to be sure. | yes, you've pretty much got it - the only problem with the diagram is that the lines are quite faint and hard to see! this effect is known as the inverse square law - the amount of light you receive drops with the square of your distance to the source. therefore, if you move twice as far away, you receive 1/(2^(2)) = 1/4 of the light you did at your initial position. | 19 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/0C1lclY"
] | [] | [
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how exactly does an induced-fit model work? | how do enzymes know when to change the size/structure of their active site when different substrates are presented? also, how do these enzymes organize their substrates so efficiency is maximized? (so do they do all of substrate a at once then substrate b, or do they alternate, etc) | biomolecules are not rigid. if you look at nmr determined solution structures you find multiple, similar conformations. also, they do not "know" because they do not "think" or "feel" or "want." the only determinant is what is stable. in terms of an enzyme there is a catalytic pocket that a substrate fits into. the substrate fits because not only is the pocket spatially formed to fit, it has hydro-philic and phobic regions that correspond to the substrate. a pocket may be slightly bigger to allow for ease of the substrate to fall in ( citation needed ), however once the substrate is in like forces will attract. this now semi-flexible protein's pocket may conform more tightly to the substrate because of these forces. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does cowper's fluid, and cowper's fluid alone, cause pregnancy? | sexual education in the united states commonly discourages withdrawal as the primary method of birth control. this is in large part because withdrawal does not protect an individual from std's. withdrawal is also difficult to practice, as there is a decent risk that an individual will lose control during coitus and ejaculate prior to removing their phallus. even if an individual succeeds in withdrawal, premature ejaculation in and around the vaginal area may in certain circumstances lead to pregnancy. however, sexual education in the united states commonly forwards the proposition that cowper's fluid, and cowper's fluid alone, can lead to pregnancy. this question is not about the effectiveness of withdrawal. it is purely about whether cowper's fluid on its own can produce pregnancy, and what the relative likelihood of that result is assuming that no other form of birth control is used. (no physical barrier. woman is ovulating and is not using physical or pharmacological contraceptives.) | just to clarify. the belief is that there is sperm in the cowper's fluid (aka pre-ejaculate) which could potentially lead to pregnancy and not that the fluid (in absence of sperm) could. as far as whether or not there is sperm in the fluid, [wikipedia](_url_3_) outlines the research well enough. [here](_url_2_) is an example of a paper where no sperm was found and [here](_url_1_) is an example where sperm was found in some of samples (both full-text). even the latter only concludes conservatively: which points out correctly that the amount of sperm seen in the fluid of those men who did have sperm is not generally associated with a high level of fertility (not even mentioning the effects of not having the additional seminal fluids to help negate the acidic environment of the vagina). all of this being said, we do know that the withdrawal method is surprisingly effective with only 4 out 100 couples getting pregnant at one year with perfect use and 27 out of 100 couples getting pregnant at one year with typical use (compared to 2 out of 100 and 18 out of 100 for condoms). these numbers vary somewhat, i used the [planned pregnancy](_url_0_) numbers. that being said, there are other reasons to dissuade people from using the withdrawal method, chiefly the risk for improper use of the method and std transmission. (as you mentioned above) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/birth-control/condom-10187.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3564677/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3455634/pdf/10815_2004_Article_461193.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-ejaculate"
] | [
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why are some people heavy walkers? | i'm sure you all know about people who literally stomp when walking. i've noticed that weight has very little to do with it and often the worst stompers are the slender ones. google tells me its because of flat feet or not enough knee flexion or not walking properly. can anyone expand on that? is there some other explanation? edit: thank you everyone! all the responses have been very illuminating and interesting. i'm definitely learning a whole new way to walk and its been very interesting watching how others walk. | when people walk, they should be walking on the ball of their foot. that is, the part between toes and arch. [there is some more info here](_url_0_) another here about [walking properly](_url_1_) basically people arent walking correctly because either their muscles arent strong enough or they just don't know how to walk effieciently. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://nymag.com/health/features/46213/",
"http://www.workingatmcmaster.ca/med/document/walking-mistakes-1-37.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Kram%20R%22%5BAuthor%5D",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking#Biomechanics",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=%22Alexander%20RM%22%5BAuthor%5D"
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what is the physical meaning of debye length? | i know the expression and the formal definition but i think there is something essential in my understanding of electrostatics that is flawed. bjerrum length for example, is the distance at which two unit charges are interacting with energy of kt (that is, the thermal energy from that distance further is dominant over the electrostatic energy). how can i apply the same logic to debye length? | take a positive point charge +q and place it in the center of your coordinate system. what happens? the +q charge produces a coulomb field that extends away from the charge. in a vacuum, there'd be a drop off of the potential at the rate of 1/r. now take a plasma in which the ions (+) and electrons (-) have equal temperatures, simply opposite signs (+e and -e) and surround this +q at the origin. what does this +q charge do at this point at time? well, it attracts the negative electrons with charge -e, and it repels the positive ions +e. this means that there is now a cloud/shell of negative charge surrounding the +q charge. normally you'd think that those negative electrons would just collapse and neutralize that +q charge but that's not the case, because the electrons have too much thermal energy *k*t. the -e's are bouncing around and colliding into *each other* which helps keep them away from the +q, and this competes with the intrinsic *attraction* between the +q and the -e. so now that we know a negative electric cloud is surrounding our positive charge, we can say that the plasma is polarized. like we said earlier, in a vacuum your +q would have that potential that drops off at 1/r, but now with the negative electron cloud surrounding our charge, that potential drops off much faster: it now drops off exponentially. this is what the debye length physically means. it's the amount of polarization. it's this screening distance due to the cloud of negative charges surrounding your +q. it's the distance over which a significant charge separation can occur. outside of this negatively charged 'sphere of influence', the charges are all screened from +q. so if you had a point charge that is some distance away from +q, the electric field that the point charge creates will be shielded from +q *as long as the charge is outside of that debye length*. the debye length *decreases* as you increase the number of plasma particles surrounding your +q. or in other words, the more dense your plasma is, the shorter the debye length. your +q is now shielded to a greater extent. the debye length will *increase* with increasing temperature, because now the electrons that make up that shell have a greater kinetic energy and therefore fill up a larger radius surrounding that +q. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if 2 dynamos are connected to the same energy source, is the energy divided between them? | if i was to connect 2 dynamos to the same front when on my bike, one for a light and one for a phone charger, would the energy going to each dynamo be divided between the two, or would both get the same amount as if there was only one? if yes, by how much, a noticeable amount or not anything that would be noticed? if now, why? how can it produce the same amount when there is a finite source of energy being produced? | the electrical load on each dynamo would determine how much force was exerted on the wheel so they wouldn't necessarily be the same. i doubt it would be noticeable but it would slow you down or cause you to pedal harder to some extent. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is a day in the life of a typical hunter-gatherer like? | how do they sleep? when do they wake up? do they eat breakfast? what do they do with their time? how do they preserve food, and other things we take for granted? sorry for such a broad question, but i've always been interested and only ever seem to glean little facts at a time. | the term "[hunter-gatherer](_url_1_)" is very broad and encompasses many different groups of people from various cultures. these cultures will have their own traditions, customs and taboos which will dictate when certain tasks can take place or if they can take place at all. "hunter-gatherer societies tend to be relatively mobile, given their reliance upon the ability of a given natural environment to provide sufficient resources in order to sustain their population and the variable availability of these resources owing to local climatic and seasonal conditions...hunter-gatherer settlements may be either permanent, temporary, or some combination of the two, depending upon the mobility of the community. mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available." on the floor (packed dirt), on straw mattresses or mattresses made out of local plant material that is soft but durable. they may also use furs to keep warm (think inuit/eskimos or the traditional people of mongolia living in [yurts](_url_0_). in modern times even remote villages will have modern mattresses. usually at sunrise and sunset which will vary during the year and it also depends on where you live. if they have access to external power - like fire or flashlights they can stay up for longer but would likely restrict their activities to those that can be done by minimal light. i.e. they are not likely to be sewing, but talking about their day. although most of the gathering is usually done by women, a society in which men completely abstained from gathering easily available plants has yet to be found. generally women hunt the majority of the small game while men hunt the majority of the large and dangerous game, but there are quite a few documented exceptions to this general pattern. **the most important message here is that their is a misconception that only women gather and men hunt.** yes. depends on your age, sex and culture. you may spend your day gathering food or hunting for it (most obvious) but other tasks can include: making baskets, jewellery, musical instruments, canoes. they may also clean the house or repair it. other tasks: helping out neighbours, relaxing, talking, sleeping, making clothes, washing clothes, making hunting tools (spears, bows ...) preparing for a celebration, preparing food, taking care of infants and children (feeding them, cleaning them, nursing them or watching them as they play). they may also make cultural items, like totem poles, signs, art (stone art, cave art) etc. they may also spend a good deal of time taking down and setting up their houses depending on how nomadic they are. they may also engage in trade with other neighbouring groups. simply put the day is full of activities! smoke it or salt it. for instance the first nations on the coast of british columbia, canada smoke a lot of their meat. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yurt",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter-gatherer"
] | [
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] |
what do fermions do? | hello all, to make a long story short, i was curious about how time dilation worked, entered the wikipedia, /r/science, /r/askscience, quora rabbit-hole, and eventually made it to the smallest building blocks. i am now reading about elementary particles and wave-particle duality, which started from trying to understand how photons can travel at the speed of light. * i made the (very) basic assumption that photons are "carriers" of light * it makes sense to me that other forces and phenomena might be "carried" through the other subatomic particles. * i think, from what i've been able to understand, that gravitons are hypothesized to be the gravity particles. * when i look up fermions, all i find are articles talking about how they spin weirdly/oppositely/doubly. each wikipedia page i click on gets more and more complex instead of answering my questions... now, i am by no means a scientist (as is by now probably obvious), i just have a curious mind. i know there are always people who don't want to simplify too much, because then too much accuracy is lost. however, these physics concepts do not seem to come to me naturally, and i would appreciate a basic level of understanding. could someone please explain to me, in simple terms, how fermion particles function, and/or what purpose they serve, in relation to observable phenomena that they influence, or "carry"? thanks! | all particles are one of two types: fermions or bosons. fermions obey the pauli exclusion principle, that is, two identical ones cannot be in the same quantum state. (if you're familiar with how atoms work, electrons are fermions. this is why "shells" fill up in atoms rather than having all the electrons in the lowest energy states.) bosons do not have this restriction. now, all particles, elementary or not, are fermions or bosons. but you seem interested in what happens with elementary particles specifically. not all elementary particles are associated with forces, but for reasons which are rather involved, forces have elementary bosons associated with them. these are the photon for the electromagnetic force, the w and z bosons for the weak nuclear force, and gluons for the strong nuclear force. (maybe a graviton for gravity, but that's still speculative.) so it's really the case that forces have bosons associated to them, but there's no reason that you should expect all particles, or even all bosons, to be associated with a force. in fact, the higgs boson is an elementary boson which is not associated with a force. i don't know why there aren't more (known) elementary bosons that aren't associated with forces; you should ask a particle physicist about that one (although some people believe there should be more). as for fermions, there are several different types of elementary fermions. there are six different quarks. quarks make up protons and neutrons as well as more exotic, short-lived composite particles. then there are the "leptons", which are electrons, the electrons' cousins called the muon and and tao, and three types of neutrinos. so several fermions (up quarks, down quarks, and electrons) are involved in ordinary, everyday matter, and some are involved in more exotic particles that don't make up everyday matter. (edit: for completeness i should mention that there are also the anti-particles of all of the quarks and leptons that i mentioned.) the spin business isn't crucial to understanding fermions vs. bosons. it comes up because there is a theorem called the [spin-statistics theorem](_url_0_) which relates the spin of elementary particles to whether they are fermions or bosons. but i don't think that's really relevant to what you're asking about, so i'll leave that to a separate explanation. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93statistics_theorem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model",
"http://www.daviddarling.info/images/Standard_Model.gif"
] | [
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is there a field associated with fermions? | this is my first question here, so let me know if it should be relegated to a different subreddit instead... struggling with understanding the foundation of the quantum nature of particles. after going through qed and the quantum universe, i gathered some random facts, but something is todavía missing. please help me feel up this elephant from the different angles... * is there a relationship between a photon's wavelength and the speed of change in its probability amplitude? * is there a relationship between an electron's energy and the speed of change in its probability amplitude? * photons and other bosons are required to have an associated field (right?...). can it be thought of as a propagation medium of the probability amplitude, or the two are distinct? * if so, is there a relationship between electromagnetic properties of the photon (polarization?) and the quantum probability amplitudes? * if electrons (and other fermions) behave according to the same quantum rules as photons, is there a field associated with them? e.g. when we are talking about the wave equation for a fermion, what's the carrier of that wave? * if there is a field, is this field the same for all fermions or each of them would have its own? thank you! | ok, this is a fairly mammoth topic... qft is quite a heavily mathematical subject and can be hard to grasp intuitively without some of that maths (which i can't really go into here...) but for now think of a field in general as being a number or set of numbers at every point in space-time (it's very abstract i know...) i'll try and start with the simplest type of field in qft: the scalar field. the only known fundamental scalar field is the higgs field. this sort of field essentially just looks like s single number at every point in space-time. this number is essentially the probability amplitude (ish). a moving higgs boson then has a wave function that looks something like a * e^{ikx} where a is some normalisation constant, k and x are both four vectors, k being the wave vector which contains information about that particle's energy and momentum and x is the position (kx = et - p.x, where those last two are the more familiar 3-vectors of momentum and position). this e^{ikx} part of the wave function appears for all particles (ish, again) - this then hopefully answers your first two questions. other fields are more complicated because instead of being a single number at all points they are in fact more complicated mathematical objects. for instance, the em field ( associated with photons) is a vector field (you might be familiar with this already in the vector potential). the type of field a particle is associated with depends on its spin. spin 0: scalar. spin 1/2: spinor. spin 1: vector. spinors are weird mathematical objects that i can't really explain here. the point of them is that they solve the dirac equation (which is the equation that governs the kinematics of a fermion). these solutions do have a very interesting property though; there are two sets - one has an exponential factor e^i(et-k.x), the other e^i(-et-k.x). this second solution gives you anti-fermions (and a very neat way of thinking about them) all fermions have associated fields and they are different but they are all spinor fields. the vector in a vector field carries information like polarisation etc as well. these are incredibly complex topics and i've tried to simplify where i can so some things won't be 100% accurate. even so there are probably areas which are unclear or need further explanation... | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the "extinct" trigonometric functions? | the ones that aren't: sin, cos, tan, csc, sec, cot. | there are a lot of "trigonometric functions" one can construct by taking combinations of those six (e.g., chord(x) = 2sin(x/2), or versine(x) = 1 - cos(x)). some of these have enjoyed varying degrees of popularity in the past, and you can read more about them [here](_url_0_) (with a nice picture demonstrating what they correspond to geometrically) and [here](_url_1_). if that doesn't answer your question, can you clarify what you're looking for? | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versine",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_trigonometry"
] | [
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i want to understand the mechanics of teleportation. | i have a physics background, and i have knowledge of the concept of quantum entanglement--although i don't understand it. i have heard of the advances in teleportation since the early 2000's and with this recent announcement from china, i am once again curious to understand the mechanics behind the science. so, my understanding is that you take matter and transfer its "information" (quantum state, etc) to a medium--thereby destroying the original (doesn't violate heisenberg), and recreate the same "information" in matter at some distant area... hence, teleportation. please explain the technology behind this process. i mean, **how** are they doing this and correct my conceptual errors please. thanks physical geniuses of r/askscience. | i'm afraid that understanding is incorrect, except as a description of a sci-fi concept which we have no reason to believe could work in reality. perhaps start with the wikipedia article on [quantum teleportation](_url_0_): a key point here is that the entanglement approach being used in quantum teleportation is not capable of directly transferring classical information, let alone transferring matter or energy. to perform the trick, you first have to entangle some particles and then move those particles, by normal means, to your distant location. only then can you perform "teleportation", and what you're actually teleporting are quantum states. that's why the chinese experiments use photons: they're quick and relatively easy to move around (at the speed of light) without becoming entangled with something else along the way, ruining the experiment. if you did such an experiment with matter, after entanglement you'd literally have to drive or fly the entangled matter to the distant location, which rather puts a damper on the whole "beam me up" thing. if you google keywords like "china teleport" you'll find plenty of articles about the chinese experiments, and the ones in reputable sources tend to mention these limitations. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_teleportation"
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how much does the outdoor temperature fluctuate during 24 hour day? does the amplitude of flux increase away from the equator? | how many times does it change direction or is it pretty much warming up as sun is out and cooling when it goes back down? where on the planet is the most "unstable" place temperature-wise? | you can go to wolfram alpha and type in (city) temperature (date) and it will show you how much the temperature varied that day. [for example](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=Montreal+temperature+March+21"
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can someone explain heteroscedasticity in simple terms? | i'm currently working on a statistics project and one of the biggest barriers is in my inability to understand heteroscedasticity. i have a couple questions that'll help me out quite a bit: * what does the assumption of homoscedasticity tell us and why is it important? * when we this assumption fails, we have heteroscedasticity, which lowers our statistical power and opens the door for type i errors? why is this? only two questions, but i really don't understand. my textbook doesn't cover it too well, my professor is near useless in explaining it, and the ta only helped me out a bit. i figured i'd ask all of you to see if anyone can help. thanks! | i'll try to do it in somewhat visual terms for you rather than in terms of the error statistic or matrix math -- let's look at the sample plot for the topic on wikipedia (_url_0_). in the sample, you can clearly see a couple of things. firstly, there is apparently a clear line of best fit for the data that runs from the lower left to the upper right: it's obvious what your final regression model's linear equation will look like if you graph it as a line. it'll go right through the middle of those dots and will be very good about having equal numbers of dots above and below. secondly, in any given region around the regression line, the average distance between the line and the dots above is comparable in scale to the distance between the line and the dots below. think about the implications of this visually first. your regression line is still an *unbiased* estimate of the data no matter where you are on the line. a real data point is as likely to be above the line as below, and if you go looking for a real data point above the line, on average you will not have to stray any farther than if you go looking for one below the line. thirdly, however, the dots toward the lower left side will crowd together close to your line. toward the upper right, the average distance between the line and a data point, regardless of whether it is above or below the line, grows much larger. the assumption of homoscedasticity is that this does *not* happen. data points are not supposed to "fan out" as you move down the line, regardless of whether they keep the line in the center. your error (or residual) term, ε , is supposed to be an equally useful guide to how good your line is, regardless of where you are on the line. this is important for type i errors because statistical inference has two parts, not just one: in a simple ols case, it is a combination of *both* (a) how sloped your line is when you fit it to your data *and* (b) an estimate of how likely it is that the line is only sloped by chance, and that if you got a whole new data set on the same topic, the line would be flat or slope in the other direction. and the key to the second part is getting a good and consistent measure of how far the data points are spaced from the line. if they hew closely to the line, then you can have higher confidence that the trend is "real"; if they are scattered much further from the line, then your confidence will diminish. intuitively, you can see in that picture that the line seems to be a very good description of the data toward the lower left, and it is not such a good description of the data toward the upper right. now you have to consider what you are doing when you run a hypothesis test and say that you have 95+ percent confidence that there is a real, positive trend to this data (in other words, you are rejecting the null hypothesis, concluding that if you got all new data about this topic over and over again, you would keep seeing positive slopes in your regression lines). how do you determine the confidence interval? well, you hypothesize that the "real" trend is zero, and that if you did the experiment over and over, recording the slope of the line you got, the data for all the slopes would cluster around zero: specifically, they would form a normal distribution around zero. if the slope you got in the experiment you really did is far away enough from zero (about two standard deviations), then it is really unlikely that you would have gotten it in a world where the reality is zero, so you conclude that the effect is real. the key piece of the puzzle is that in every experiment, you have to redefine what a standard deviation actually means in numerical terms. with heteroscedastic data, you have compromised your ability to state how responsible the slope of your line is for keeping the points close to it (and remember also at the outset that you are using the squares of distances rather than the absolute value of distances when you are doing ols regression). you are coming up with an estimate of how big the error term is going to tend to be every time you re-run the experiment, and in a type i error case, you are understating it. this means that, while your estimate is still unbiased, it looks like it is straying very far from a world in which the "truth" is zero. in reality, though, the truth could be zero *and still* allow you to run a bunch of sloped lines that look like they're doing a good job at estimation. look back at the sample plot to see this visually. take a ruler or a piece of string and overlay it on the line of best fit. now rotate it around back and forth, with the center of rotation being in the middle of the dense cluster of dots toward the lower left. you now can see how, even when you move the slope quite far off of what you think its "true" trend should be, the "bad" lines you are making are *still* able to capture a lot of brownie points, as it were, for being very close to the dots down there on the lower left. and because, further on the right, you are still in the thick of the "fan", you aren't being punished all that much for "missing" the middle of that section. now consider what happens if you try that with homoscedastic data, like with the wikipedia sample plot for linear regression in general (_url_1_). now, if you pick a point on the lower left (or anywhere on the line, really) and rotate the line around it (to give it an ''incorrect'' slope), you can still stay close to the dots near your axis of rotation. but your error term immediately starts to punish you severely elsewhere on the line, because when you look at the upper right, you are moving away from all of the data points and moving toward almost none of them. when you were in the fan, the punishment was not nearly so severe. therefore, from a visual perspective, heteroscedastic data can cause you to make a type i error because it may be capable of accommodating a relatively wide range of regression line slopes that each reports a relatively small average error. this can lead you to set tight definition for how ''bad'' a line slope has to be in order to be an outlier, since a line that has even a modest amount of error will look like a bad line. this is because the heteroscedastic data is making it artificially easy to be a ''good'' line. since the null hypothesis is that zero slope is correct, then, if the null is true, you must have been *terribly, badly unlucky* to end up with a set of points that generates even your modestly-sloped line. you may have decided to say that ''if my line looks like one of the bottom-5-percent most unlucky lines in the world, i'm going to conclude that it's not me that's unlucky, it's that 'zero is the truth' is wrong." and then you'll pull that trigger, when the truth is that zero is the best answer but that this data is going to throw up more unlucky-looking line slopes than you expected. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Heteroscedasticity.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Linear_regression.svg"
] | [
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] |
why is the goldilocks zone used as a metric to judge the potential habitability of a planet, when other factors such as the atmosphere play such a volatile role in the conditions on the planet? | when searching for planets, we often speak of the "goldilocks" zone which is a certain distance from the star where liquid water may form. planets in that zone may have liquid water and be suitable for life of kinds similar to that on earth. in our solar system, venus is near the inner edge while mars is near the outer edge of the goldilocks zone. why is the goldilocks zone used as a metric to judge the potential habitability of a planet, when other factors such as the atmosphere play such a volatile role in the conditions on that planet? consider our solar system. venus is a hot hell hole mostly because of its thicker atmosphere. now, consider jupiter, wwwwaaaayyyyy far beyond this goldilocks zone. it is believed to have a thin layer of water clouds below the ammonia, and further down where hydrogen goes from gaseous metallic, it is believed the temperature is 10000k (9727 celsius, or 17540 fahrenheit, or just a lot hotter than anywhere on venus). (source: _url_0_). saturn also gets similarly hot down in there. i understand that at extremely high pressures, water does not exist in liquid form. but it doesn't take a lot more atmosphere to heat things up quite a bit. consider if we took our earth and pumped in a bunch of co2 to perhaps 5 times the atmosphere, basically same amount of oxygen and nitrogen but a denser heat-trapping atmosphere. i'm not sure but perhaps we have to throw some asteroids at it also to give it more mass to hold the atmosphere in. obviously we'd have to move earth's orbit out to compensate. wouldn't we be moving it well beyond mars, beyond the goldilocks zone, to keep it a comfy paradise? i understand your tomatoes might not come out as plump, but we'd still have plenty of edible dandelions. i am just guessing because i have no idea how far out earth would have to move to compensate, but wouldn't it then violate the goldilocks zone? | the goldilocks zone is used as a metric because it's so simple. you simply work out the radius from a sun a planet can be for the temperature on the surface due to insolation to allow liquid water to exist. there is no inclusion of processes like internal heat or greenhouse warming (you can include them in a modified definition, but it increases the parameter space a huge amount and makes the definition even less useful). really the goldilocks zone means very little. we can see in our own solar system that liquid water exists outside of our own sun's zone (europa), though it isn't on the surface. interestingly, earth is actually outside the strictest definition, as our atmosphere is just enough to keep the surface water above freezing. planetary science is complicated. there are a lot of interrelated and interacting processes that happen and they can't all be accounted for. simplifications make life slightly easier but they always need to be accompanied by a certain amount of caution and view to what the real situation is. | 2 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter"
] | [] | [
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are there canoe paddles designed to reduce vortex shedding? | i recently started watching smarter every day on youtube. in [this video](_url_0_) he discusses vortex shedding and how some planes have wings that reduce this for higher efficiency, using paddling in a kayak to further illustrate the concept. are there paddles that are designed to reduce vortex shedding? also are there any other "everyday" occurrences that cause vortex shedding? | vortex shedding is everywhere. almost any time momentum is transfered to/from/in a fluid, there is vortex shedding. in planes you want to reduce this, because you want to reduce transfer of momentum from the air into the wings, which causes drag. with canoe paddles however, this is a good thing... you're *trying* to cause transfer of momentum between you and the water (to push you forward). the momentum shows up as vortex shedding. really what's going on is that whenever a quantity called reynolds number is large, momentum transfer will result in vortices. reynolds number is simply a characteristic length times velocity divided by viscosity. so if the paddle were very large and moving slow, you might not get them. in air, which has a much smaller dynamic viscosity than watter, vortex shedding happens almost everywhere. any time something not streamlined (a bluff body) moves through fluid at somewhat high reynolds number, you get what's called von karman vortex shedding. | 6 | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/ZauGjgZ0rBQ"
] | [] | [
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if one were to be shot in the stomach would it be better to have a full or empty stomach? | well, since more acid is created when food is present/about to be present/was just present, i would say that it would be better to be shot in the stomach when it is empty and has been for a little bit. other then acid content, i would have to say both would be equally bad | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the oldest known case of bi polar disorder, specifically manic episodes? | how did people finally realize that it was a mental disorder and not (witchcraft or demons), and, what would happen to a person with an untreated manic episode in the wild. is there any documentation in history of people following someone with it in history. also, would it reverse, or get worse, or death if untreated? | like many illnesses, the ancient greeks were pretty damn good at figuring things out. that goes for the ancient world in general: greek, roman, persian, chinese, egyptian, etc. scholars described mental illnesses quite accurately. many indigenous cultures also recognize specific mental illnesses. it was when mental illnesses started to get wrapped in religion and moral values that things started to go sideways and people looked to religion for treatment. mental illnesses like bipolar disorder don't cause death on their own. it's not like your brain falls apart. bipolar disorder is an episodic illness. if one doesn't receive treatment, the episode will eventually come to an end on its own. some people may only have a few episodes of depression and mania over the course of their lifetime. other people have a lot of episodes. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do machines run out of hydraulic fluid? | this is something i have heard on space rockets and other machines, but i have seen these simplified "syringe hydraulics" and it seems like a closed loop system. so how do they lose the fluid? | if you're thinking of one of the spacex landing failures, they were using an open loop hydraulic system at that point. the fluid ran through the actuators, then overboard. these systems are lighter and simpler than closed loop systems, but you run the risk of running out of fluid. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the benefits of bronchial constriction? | there are several hypersensitivity disorders with mediators that cause bronchoconstriction, like asthma. my question is why even make these agents? when is blocking the airways ever useful? | as a cardiologist and not a pulmonologist i'll take a stab at this. i'm not sure there needs to be a direct benefit of bronchial constriction. at least not in the way i think you are implying in your question. there is smooth muscle in our airways, true. this muscle allows for reactivity of airways in normal, physiological ways. for example, our bodies have ways of shunting blood or air to/from parts of the lungs that are over/under ventilated or perfused. reactivity of airways and blood vessels are necessary to accomplish this. but asthma, for example, is a maladaptation of this. hypertension would be a cardiovascular example of such a maladaptation in the vascular space. in a broader, somewhat more philosophical sense, the definition of disease is something along the lines of abnormal function of tissue, organ, organism, etc. but there has to be a normal, adaptive function to start from. edit: i just re-read my response and thought i'd elaborate/clarify something. there is a notion of matching ventilation and perfusion within the lungs. this is a helpful/necessary adaptation as it is harmful (or wastes energy unnecessarily, etc) to have areas of lung that aren't getting blood but are getting oxygen and areas of lung that are getting blood but aren't getting oxygen. the latter is a "shunt" where blood is passing through the lungs and not oxygenating. the former is "dead space" where lung is filling with oxygen and not getting blood supply. so the system is made to "self-regulate" to adjust all this. it's a pretty fascinating, well-tuned machine in normal circumstances. something as simple as going from a supine posture to an upright posture (which we do quite a bit as humans...alligators have less of a problem) causes more blood to go to the lower lungs (higher hydrostatic pressure) and less air/oxygen (compression of alveoli in the lower lung fields, expansion of alveoli in the upper lung fields). so the muscle that constricts in our lungs is part of this system. bronchial constriction in a pathological sense is when this system goes awry. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do certain species of australian marsupials withstand the potent stings of the d. moroides tree? | the same way other spices can withstand snake venom. the reason the stings are so painful in the first place is due to evolution. i don't know the exact term, but the plant would get eaten by the marsupial and eventually only the slightly stingy ones are left because the marsupials don't eat them. then some of the marsupials die off because they can't find food and only the ones that can tolerate the pain of the plant are left. and the cycle repeats. i'm probably not 100% right, but it works something like that. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do we never hear about people getting sepsis from hemorrhoids or anal fissures? | given the various bacteria in human fecal matter. | hemorrhoids are dilated veins in the rectum area. they are not ruptured or exposed directly to the gut flora as there will be skin barrier (endothelium/epithelium) separating the venous system from the rectum. anal fissures do have a break in the skin so there is a potential for infection, and likely there will be inflammation there. but, our body is fairly good at keeping the bacteria out of the body unless you have other disease processes like ibd, cancer, or previous infections. | 50 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/fpm3w/considering_the_massive_amount_of_bacteria_in/"
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are kinetic barriers and shields a plausible means of protection for infantry? | i know that some universities are experimenting on technology that could potentially block radiation in space with the use of an electromagnetic field. but would a personal em generator or similar defense system be a realistic form of protection? could an em field be strong enough to stop or deflect a projectile? | not with the current tech level, anyway. we does not have cheap batteries with the sufficient power density. the similar question about em bullet protection was asked here: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/tt29l/how_powerful_would_a_magnet_need_to_be_to_stop_a/"
] | [
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why are duck billed platypuses considered to be such a strange species? | i read that when they were first brought to england, no one believed it was a real animal but there was nothing i could find that seems extremely out of the ordinary except that it’s like a weird morph of ducks, beavers and otters. (there could have been something but i really don’t know much about this) | because it's rad as hell. but: 1) males are venomous (there are ~7 venomous mammals) 2) no stomach 3) it's an monotreme. which means it lays eggs and doesn't have nipples for milk production. it "sweats" the milk. 4) they have 10 sex chromosomes. "we" have no idea how it works. 5) they have electrolocation honestly, just check out the wikipedia on them. _url_0_ | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platypus"
] | [
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is this an example of an interference pattern? (img from /r/wallpapers) | i found [this image of a labyrinth](_url_0_) on /r/wallpapers, and when i stretched the res preview i noticed that the image appears as a square pattern of black dots, increasing in size around certain image sizes. since i've read about light and interference patterns in school i thought that this could have something to do with that, as the dots become larger around certain sizes and they become more "frequent" the smaller i make the image, similar to the way a light spectrum would behave. so my question is: can this be explained by a physicist, or should i ask a software developer? :) it is easiest to see this when using the res preview as the scaling is fluent, i.e. not limited to intervals. zooming in or out while on the imgur link works aswell. on my 1920*1080 monitor the pattern was most visible at 110% zoom. to clarify: make the res preview as small as is possible, then slowly stretch it (by clicking and dragging) and you will see a pattern of dots increasing and decreasing in size over set intervals. | this is better described as aliasing. aliasing is what happens when the sampling rate (number of pixels used to display the image) is insufficient to properly resolve the actual information (the image itself). the resolution of that image appears to be 1366x768, so as you zoom the image into boxes of sizes other than that number of pixels, your computer will do some interpolation and decision making as to what pixels will be dark or won't be dark. for more information on aliasing, look up the nyquist frequency on wikipedia. | 4 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/90heyjp"
] | [] | [
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aside from the human brain has natural selection ever made an adaption so strong that it completely unbalanced the ecosystem? | yes. the evolution of photosynthesis released so much oxygen into the earth's atmosphere 2.3 billion years ago that the chemical processes usually sequestering it became saturated, resulting in the environment becoming toxic. this is called the [oxygen catastrophe](_url_0_), and is thought to have been the most thorough mass-extinction of geologic history. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event"
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|
lack of a specific neuro-transmitter | i am taking psychology at my high school and my teacher was discussing neuro-transmitters and then he said that a lack of a specific neuro-transmitter can cause depression and other mental sicknesses... he said this is common in teenagers and psychiatrists will sometimes prescribe medicine to get them back into balance... how accurate is this? | i'd be surprised if there was a neurotransmitter that was completely "lacked" by a human being. most neurotransmitters have far more than a single function, so if a person lacked one, i doubt they'd develop past very basic embryological stages. cases of people who are thought to have *atypically low* (but still present) levels of the neurotransmitters associated with mood are probably what he meant. for instance, selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors *increase the concentration of serotonin*, (oversimplification.jpg) which is thought to improve mood. however, this neurotransmitter has other, more fundamental functions. a fetus would probably not be viable if it lacked serotonin all together. check this link out and see if it sounds like what your teacher was describing. if you have any questions, feel free to ask them here. good question, mrchow669. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor"
] | [
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in an interbedded shale rock (brittle-ductile-brittle,etc.), why does a fracture grows more if started in a brittle zone and grows less if started in a ductile zone? | here's an example of what i mean... _url_0_ as you see both fracs pass brittle and ductile zones several times, but the one originated in a ductile zone with high total organic content grows less than the one originated in the brittle zone. | there is a lot of stress accommodation within a ductile zone, so much of the energy is propagated laterally through the ductile layer. this means if you start a frac in a ductile layer, much of the energy is absorbed, but if you start it in a brittle layer, the fracture is oriented perpendicular to the length of the bed, thus the stress is in a different orientation, and the stress envelope at the tip of the fracture will force it's way through the ductile layer easier. the angle of the fracture will not turn 90 degrees into the horizontal ductile layer (even though there is some refraction, but not *that* much refraction). | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/ryjzj.jpg"
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what happens if you put a spring in a centrifuge? | this might be a stupid question, but what happens if you put a spring in a centrifuge? when i compress a spring with my hand, for example, the spring compresses uniformly as i increase the force. would a spring in a centrifuge compress uniformly? i'm asking because i have an intuition that the centrifugal force is weaker near the center of the rotational axis since the path of rotation is smaller. | your intuition is correct, the centrifugal force is proportional to the distance from the axis of rotation. this sounds like an interesting mechanics problem. if you have a spring (constant k) with one end fixed, and the other rotating with some constant angular velocity ω, and a mass m on the other end, there are two relevant forces in the co-rotating reference frame: the inward spring force, and the outward centrifugal force. there is some equilibrium distance where the two cancel each other out. if the spring by itself has equilibrium distance r*_0_*, the centrifugal force will change the equilibrium position to kr*_0_*/(k - mω^(2)), assuming i haven't made an error. the effective potential energy for this system is k(r-r*_0_*)^(2)/2 - mω^(2)r^(2)/2, so the equilibrium can be stable or unstable depending on the relative values of the constants m, k, and ω. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if a teenager took an aspirin a day for the rest of his life, would his risk of heart attack be tremendously reduced? | i have heard taking an aspirin a day reduces you risk of heart attack. i was wondering how much it reduces it. | prophylactic aspirin has been shown to reduce the risk of [cardiovascular events by 10% \(primarily through its reduction of rates of non-fatal heart attacks\) ](_url_1_). however, these studies are all based in the more elderly population (average age 57 for the meta-analysis linked above), because heart attacks are so much more prevalent in the elderly population. if you look at epidemiologic data represented by the [framingham risk score](_url_0_), you can see that [a 20yo male smoker with cholesterol at 200, hdl < 40, and systolic blood pressure elevated to 130 would still only have a 5% chance of developing coronary heart disease in the next 10 years.](_url_2_) now compare that with a 60yo male nonsmoker with cholesterol of 160, hdl 40, and systolic bp 120, who has a 12% chance of developing cad in the next 10 years. i hope this illustrates why age is one of the largest drivers of heart disease risk, even in the face of other risk factors like smoking and hyperlipidemia. also keep in mind that aspirin is not without risks - in the meta-analysis above, there was a significant risk of non-trivial bleeding events from being on aspirin. in the study population, for every person aspirin prophylaxis helped by preventing a mi, two people were hurt with serious bleeding. now imagine this in a younger population, where the baseline risk of mi is much much lower, while aspirin's bleeding risk remains equally strong. **having everyone take aspirin for heart disease prophylaxis would likely do more harm than good.** | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framingham_Risk_Score",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22231610",
"http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/risk_tbl.htm"
] | [
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have those who run "unethical" experiments ever gone on record as regretting it? | i know a scientist who did some unethical animal experiments without institutional approval. he had absolutely zero regrets, as he felt they were the only way to answer an important question, and they served the greater good. he also got a nice paper out of it :/ that's not quite on the same scale as immersing humans in freezing water until they succumb to hypothermia, though. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can someone explain non-inertial reference frames and gravitational redshift to me, or suggest a relevant book? | i'm reading up on the area around black holes, especially as regards time dilation, for my sci-fi comedy animated series. looking for ideas. | an inertial reference frame is a reference frame in which newton's law of inertia still holds (a body in motion will stay in motion at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force). any reference frame where that *doesn't* happen, is non-inertial. some examples include accelerating reference frames, reference frames in a gravitational field, and rotating reference frames. in general relativity, the equivalence principle says that a constant gravitational field is indistinguishable from a constant acceleration. when something is accelerating relative to some source of light, there can be red/blueshift. therefore, by the equivalence principle, gravity must cause red/blueshift as well. and it does. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is known about the effect weather/climate has on our psychology? | i was just wondering. isn't the effect underestimated? would it be worth moving somewhere just because of the sun? or is it that after a few months/years you can get used to rainy weather and it doesn't bother you as much anymore? | in temperate places there are more violent crimes committed in the summer. also, seasonal depression in the winter is a well-documented phenomenon. i can't guess to whether this is directly caused by sunlight or temperature or anything really. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are closed mussels ( and other mollusk) not supposed o be eaten? | and how to they stay closed? | i'll try to find some scientific citations on this, but the simple answer is because they are already dead or undercooked. pop one open and you can tell which it is; a dead/rotten one will look like mud. edit: [here](_url_0_) is a decent answer with citations. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=136767",
"http://www.tasfish.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=635:mussels-an-open-and-shut-case&catid=94:issue-70-october-2007&Itemid=145",
"http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/10/29/2404364.htm"
] | [
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is there a term for the ability to simulate other people's minds? | also, is this ability covered by empathy alone (plus us-having-experienced-similiar-things-as-the-person-whose-mind-we-want-to-simulate), or more? how much research was there done on this ability? (links to papers, please?) | i think what you may be asking about is [theory of mind](_url_1_) or [mentalizing](_url_0_). these both relate to the ability to take someone else's perspective, kind of put yourself in their shoes mentally. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0,39&q=mentalizing",
"http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=theory%20of%20mind&btnG=Search&as_sdt=800000000001&as_sdtp=on"
] | [
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just got my first car. how far do i have to drive, and what tools do i need, to calculate the circumference of the earth? is there a day in the year that it would work best? | i had typed a pretty detailed multi-paragraph answer with details about how to make the measurement and what systematic effects to watch out for but then my browser crashed right at the end and i lost the whole thing. i can't bring myself to type it all out again but here's a summary: the upshot is: * tools: your car's odometer, a yardstick and a level (or buildings you know the height of for preference - eratosthenes used an obelisk and a well) and a tape measure. * measuring near the summer solstice is best because you're taking the arctangent of the height of the building/stick over the length of the shadow, and arctangent is flattest at angles near 90 degrees, which reduces the impact of measurement error. winter solstice is fine, it's just that summer solstice is better. * drive as straight north and south as you can in as straight a line as you can. example: don't go from new orleans to washington dc, go from new orleans to st. louis. * make your measurements at **local** noon (not noon for your time zone) on the same day of the year (1 day apart is probably fine, especially near the solstices) * drive about 5-10 degrees in latitude for every degree of uncertainty in your angle measurement (measure several times to get a sense of that number) depending on your desired level of accuracy. * make sure the ground is level * make sure the height you use in the calculation is height above the ground instead of length of the stick (which is what the level is for) * make sure you measure length of the shadow *from the point* casting the shadow (e.g. don't use the sword tip of a statue to cast the shadow and then measure the length of the shadow from the center of the statue) * you're using the car's odometer to measure an arc length along the earth, and the stick/shadow to measure the angle change by using the sun as a stationary reference point. final formula: circumference = 2*pi* (car trip odometer / (arctan(height / shadow length #1) - arctan(height / shadow length #2))) | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how to calculate the amount of infrared light that will pass through a material(eg paper)? | i am trying to build a sensor, and to do that i need to find the maximum amount of infraredb light that can pass through a piece of paper, when there is an ir led at one side. in my research i can across "optical density", i couldn't find any useful information about calculating the amount though. | you will need an ir spectrophotometer. you can place a piece of paper in the beam path and record the transmittance at the wavelengths you are interested in. [here are some spectra](_url_0_). note that absorbance = -log(t/to) where t is transmittance of the material and to is the transmittance of your blank. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.shimadzu.com/an/industry/petrochemicalchemical/e8o1ci0000000nfa.htm"
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] |
how can sterlisation have an **almost** zero failure rate? | sterilization for women usually takes the form of cutting the fallopian tubes. however, the tubes may heal so fertility is restored. or an egg can leave the ovaries and be fertilized without the tube--the resulting fetus may start to grow outside of the uterus, or in one part of the tube. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the naming system of time periods? | from what i can tell, eons are the biggest time period. and they are split up into eras, which are then split into periods. what determines a change in period, era and eon? how long can each one be? is there anything shorter than a period? longer than an eon? basically my question is, how is time divided? sorry if i’m unclear. | here's a good geological time table: _url_0_ there are divisions smaller than a period. the next smaller is "epoch" and then "age". technically a "supereon" is a step up from "eon" but they are only used in very specific contexts. the only one i can think of is "precambian," which refers to everything before the rise of burrowing animals....which leads me to your next question. most of the divisions are roughly based on geological or biological changes in the rock record. in the earliest divisions, this is more often based on large-scale changes in the rock, or, sometimes it's based on nothing more than chronometric convenience. for example, the difference between the archean and proterozoic, roughly, is the rise of molecular oxygen on earth, corresponding to the invention of photosynthesis. however, because the actual date of this change is somewhat wobbly, there is an arbitrary date set as the cutoff. other time periods, especially more recent ones are named and differentiated by the findings of particular fossils. generally the periods are named after the location where the fossil is found but other times they are named more esoterically. for example, the cambrian era was originally set as the beginning of burrowing animals (which substantianlly changes the preservation record) and was named after cymru, the welsh name of wales, where the britain's cambrian rocks are located. also, the time periods aren't set in stone. they can and do change a little from time to time, depending on fossil discoveries. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.geosociety.org/GSA/Education_Careers/Geologic_Time_Scale/GSA/timescale/home.aspx"
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why are transformer and brushless motor stator cores made of steel laminations? | i want to build a bldc motor, but need to understand the purpose of those steel laminations. i've heard that electrical steel is used for the plates, why that and not regular steel? could i cnc the steel and glue it together with some sort of resin, would that work? thanks! | eddy currents. the laminations block the flow of current in that direction and help block the formation of eddy currents which would lead to inefficiency and cook the motor. i’m sure google has some animations to help visualize it | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any modern world models and what do they forecast. | it was by chance a long time ago i found the book "the limits to growth" - actually i found "models of doom" (a critique of it) first, but i remember it blowing my mind. are there any current world models, and what do they forecast? i'd assume only horrible things, like more societal collapse, poverty, pollution, etc. or any neo-malthusian posses that i could get into? | how long-term are you looking? stratfor (full disclosure; i once worked there) puts out forecasts that try to be relatively systemic and released a century forecast as a book. _url_4_ if you're primarily interested in population, unpd is usually a great place to look, and they draw on a lot of research and contextual information: _url_2_ . keep in mind that the prevailing wisdom is still quite strongly anti-malthusian: empirical research continues to see a general pattern of increased material prosperity dramatically lowering birthrates. economic forecasts are more all-over-the-map when they try to account for systemic forces acting over long time-ranges, like to the end of this century. some see [permanently tiny growth in many current powerhouses](_url_0_), others tend to just offer a range of scenarios without choosing between all possible alternative assumptions. here is [one example of that](_url_1_) and [here's another](_url_3_). are those the kinds of things you were talking about? | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.theguardian.com/environment/earth-insight/2013/jul/19/economy-end-growth-resource-scarcity-costs",
"http://asiapacific.anu.edu.au/researchschool/emerging_asia/papers/McKay_final.pdf",
"http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm",
"https://www.gtap.agecon.purdue.edu/resources/download/6003.pdf",
"http://www.amazon.com/The-Next-100-Years-Forecast/dp/0767923057"
] | [
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is it possible for an analgesic taken orally to target a specific bodypart? | this question came to me when i saw an ad for one of those back pain pills that claims to "target the pain" i always thought this was not possible. educate me! thanks. | nope, it will just reduce inflammation or block the transmission of pain signals, but it will work all over. they may claim to reduce back pain specifically because it is typically caused by inflammation (or something) that their medicine directly affects. it doesn't stop back pain because it is back pain, it stops back pain because it stops any pain of that particular type. [not a scientist or medical professional.] | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why aren't there uuu and ddd nucleons? | so to my understanding the nucleons are made of up and down only and have spin 1/2, while the delta baryons are u/d only and have spin 3/2. why are there not uuu and ddd baryons with spin 1/2? | there are such baryons. the deltas come in 4 varieties: uuu, uud, udd, & ddd. edit: i misunderstood the focus of the question. see comment from /u/dukwon below. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i was reading about oviraptors, and it seems they aren't part of the dromaeosauridae family. why are they called raptors then? | dromaeosauridae is the raptor family. i'm wondering how, if at all, are oviraptors and the raptor family related? | "raptor" means thief or taker. *oviraptor* means "egg thief". it was so named because it was often found near fossilized nests, so it was assumed to be stealing eggs. we were wrong; we have fossils of closely related oviraptorids [brooding](_url_0_). they weren't stealing eggs - they were nesting! we don't change scientific names unless the name itself becomes obsolete, generally because it's redundant with another name that has precedence. the fact that it seems misleading isn't really a consideration. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/on-exhibit-posts/get-to-know-a-dino-citipati-osmolskae/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_of_prey"
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learning from a textbook vs. from tv | i don't know if this has already been asked/answered but i was wondering if there was a distinct difference between learning from a television program versus reading it from a textbook. as an overextended college student, i find that despite reading textbooks all day, i tend to forget a lot of things i've studied. however, when i watch a television program, nova on pbs, for example, i find that the informations delivered is absorbed in my brain much easier and for a much longer time. is there a neurological advantage to learning from a textbook, or is watching a scientific documentary on the same content equally, or exceedingly, beneficial? | the biggest problem tends to be that tv programmes very very rarely contain anything like the level of specific detail conveyed in a book. while you may feel you come away from a tv programme remembering everything that was covered, is part of that due to the fact they covered far less? | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could someone explain to me how this ring changes this chemicals structure? | [deleted] | i'm not really aware of the actual mechanisms of action of both molecules in the body, but from a chemistry standpoint... phenyl and cyclohexane rings are completely different. it's the equivalent of saying, "this dog and this giraffe differ only in their size, shape, diet, and color". phenyl rings have six carbons, and between each there is an 1.5 bond (commonly shown as alternating single and double bonds, but actually the bidding elections are distributed over the entire ring). this means that each carbon can form only one additional bond, under general circumstances - meaning they can have a hydrogen attached, or a bond to the rest of a larger molecule, or something else - but not two things. in contrast, cyclohexane has only single bonds in the carbon ring, so each carbon atom can have up to two additional bonds to hydrogens or something else. they also do not have any elections that are distributed over the entire ring. there are a few big difference that arise. geometrically, a single bond is stretched longer than a 1.5 bond, and the bond angles are closer to 109 degrees, meaning that cyclohexane is not a flat, 2d ring, but has a 3d conformation (chair or crown, as they are sometimes called). the two hydrogens (it other substituents) per carbon instead of one also means that there is more bulk around the ring itself. phenyl rings, meanwhile, are 2d planar, and any attached hydrogens or other will also lie in that plane, stretched away from the ring. phenyl rings are very rigid, and cannot bend or change conformation like cyclohexane often can. moreover, the shared elections in phenyl rings make them electronically very different, and they are generally less reactive than cyclohexane rings. they also are more hydrophobic (though cyclohexanes are usually as well), and also exhibit a phenomenon known as pi-pi stacking, where they tend to stick well to other molecules (or parts of them) that have similar shared electrons. there are even more differences, but i hope this illustrates the main idea. given all those differences, it's to be expected that the body will uptake and interact differently with each molecule. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it that when sleeping, we can regulate our temperature by having one foot in or out of the duvet? | when i get hot at night, if i leave one foot out of the duvet i feel as if my temperature is much more comfortable, likewise if i'm cold i'll pull it in. generally i'll always sleep with one foot out however, it seems 'optimal'. i know many other people do this and experience this too, so what's the science behind it - do our feet have a certain control over how hot or cold the rest of our body feels? or is it all in the mind? | under a heavy blanket that allows little heat to escape, one can feel overheated because we are constantly producing heat as a byproduct of reactions going on in our cells. leaving one foot out of the duvet allows heat to escape. thermoregulation mechanisms include the rerouting of blood flow to superficial or deep vessels; superficial blood vessels (close to the skin) allow heat to escape more readily (this is why your skin appears red when you're too warm) whereas deep vessels conserve heat (your body tissue acts to insulate and keep heat in). when you leave your foot out of the covers, it will become colder than the rest of your body, so the blood entering your foot will be considerably warmer. this acts to warm your foot, and if you're overheating it will increase the escape of heat from your body. the foot has no control over thermoregulation, this is regulated by a control centre in the brain (including the hypothalamus). wikipedia has an article on homeostasis and a section on temperature: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_homeostasis#Temperature"
] | [
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isn't creating micro-openings in the blood-brain barrier dangerous for the brain cells? | i saw a technique that uses ultrasounds and micro-bubbles to create the openings mentioned beforehand, that would facilitate the transmission of viral vectors between the blood and the brain. the idea is that a genetically engineered virus would induce the creation of new receptors to alter neuron-function once it binds to one. wouldn't that make those neurons susceptible to other, more dangerous, viruses? [here is a veritasium video on the matter.](_url_0_) | the addition into whatever form of virus of a strand of dna that allows for the lysis of viruses adaptable enough to use large gaps in the blood-brain barrier could be a possible solution to that problem. however it would be hard to develop such a defense mechanism, if any, because of the heightened sensitivity caused by said gaps. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qQhUxd82Rr0"
] | [] | [
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] |
what explains the spikes in roadside pm10 and no2 levels? differs from urban or rural? | those familiar will probably not be surprised that my curiosity is sparked by the eu air quality information that's so readily available. e.g. _url_0_ but how are the huge spikes explained? like no2 jumping from 15µg/m³ to 80µg/m³ and then dropping again over the course of three hours? likewise, how can pm10 be above 100µg/m³ in one area but at 12 or 20 only a few kilometers away? are these inaccuracies in the readings or something else? | i'm not an atmospheric scientist or a climatologist, but i do work with simulated industrial flue gas, so i'll weigh in with the information i know of. looking at those graphs it appears that the spikes would correlate with regular business hours. looking at [this](_url_0_) pdf of measured air quality with emission sources, you can see spikes in production of toxic gas during the day, with dips at night. this would make sense, since things like power consumption, road travel etc. slow down considerably over night. another possible reason for more no₂ is that when nitric oxide (no) is produced, it very readily reacts with oxygen to produce no₂, and as such its half life in the open air is very short. vehicles emit a lot of nox species, so they would likely be the biggest contributor to roadside no₂ levels. | 2 | [] | [
"http://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/graphs/ARM6_weekly_m.png"
] | [
"https://gmes-atmosphere.eu/documents/.../MACC_TNO_del_1_3_v2.pdf"
] | [
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is there a point where only "supplements" can push the human body's limit, whether it be running, jumping, or any other form of exercise? | by supplements i mean things like steroids (performance boosting kind) or testosterone booster. if my title is true, how will we truly know the human body's true limit? or should it "not count"? | there are lots of things that can extend human limits, which is why the olympics basically bans anything with any pharmacological effect. caffeine is actually a pretty serious athletic performance enhancer, capable of increasing performance in running and similar sports by 10% or or so. i always wondered myself what would happen in an "open class" olympics, where people are allowed to use whatever drug regimen they please. i don't think anyone really knows what the ultimate limits of the human body are. it's pretty clear, though, that virtually every competitive athlete in some sports is already using performance enhancers. basically every olympic sprinter to break world records in the last 20 years has been implicated in steroid use at one point or another, with the possible exception of usain bolt. when ben johnson ran a 9.79, people saw it as confirmation of his steroid use, because it was so much lower than the current record. usain bolt ran a 9.58! _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sbitzer.eu/100mworldrecords.html"
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please explain how the infiniti q50's "lane departure prevention with active lane control" works. | is this an attempt at viral marketing? on the exact link you provided it says: > infiniti’s lane departure prevention system uses a camera to monitor the distance between the vehicle and lane markings. if the vehicle drifts, the system signals a warning and can help the driver return the car to the center of the travelling lane. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when fishing recreationally, is there any difference between night and day regarding the amount and type of species caught? | i'm vacationing on the gulf of mexico, and i notice a fair number of the locals putting in their boats after dark for a bit of night fishing. since i have only mediocre luck at best, i would like to up my chances. any science to help me in my quest? | i've been fishing for around 10 years and done quite a bit of research on this and other fishing related topics (i also have a background in earth sciences). the answer is absolutely yes! there are a couple of factors at play here that can make all the difference. the main factor determining what time you want to fish is most likely going to be your target species. for example i really enjoy fishing for various species of freshwater catfish. most species of catfish feed at night due to how they locate their food because for the most part they don't use their eyes for hunting. based on this info you would want to fish for catfish at night because that's when they are actively feeding most of the time. that's not to say you couldn't catch these species during the day you just have a higher probability of catching them at night. on the flip side fish like large-mouth bass or tarpon are going to feed during the day because they are eyesight hunters and need to be able to see their prey. generally the optimal times for fishing are going to be when the light is low and it's cool outside. this means early to mid morning and then evening to just before dark for eyesight hunters. fish are like humans in that they don't like to get hot so during the hottest times of the day fishing in shade can dramatically increase your catch yield. other things to consider would be barometric pressure which has a strong correlation to when fish feed and when the optimal time to fish for each day is. fish tend to feed aggressively just before a storm front comes in due to the drop in barometric pressure. my suggestion would be to either pick a target species and do some quick research to find what they feed on and when or fish with generic live or dead bait at the times i mentioned above and see what you can catch! hope this was helpful in some way. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes "molecular machines" to move? (see inside) | for instance, [here's an animation of dna replicating](_url_0_). that looks incredibly complicated, and it looks like it could only be done with some type of "brain" or something, but that is obviously not the case. what is actually happening here? | in short, changes in binding affinity of enzymes following modification of a target molecule. when an enzyme, like dna polymerase, binds its target molecule (dna), it has a certain affinity for a certain site on the target. in the case of polymerase a second molecule then associates, this molecule is a nucleoside triphosphate. by spatially associating these two molecules, dna and a dntp, a bond can be formed between the dntp and a previous small strand of copied dna that is initially added by a different enzyme. the formation of this bond changes the electrostatic environment in the polymerases binding site and reduces affinity. because of this, the polymerase is freed to bind a new site for which it has greater affinity. in this case the next site is the next nucleotide on the template strand of dna. its also important to remember that changes in a target molecule or additional binding to an enzyme can induce conformational changes in the enzyme. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.dnalc.org/resources/3d/04-mechanism-of-replication-advanced.html"
] | [] | [
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] |
can someone please explain to me some things about light? | how is light (like white light) numerous wavelengths at once? if i have this right, the wavelength of sound is the distance between the dense (or sparse) air particles. what is the wavelength of light referring to? is it the distance from something to something else? i have a basic understanding of the dual-slit experiment, etc. if that helps make explaining easier. --edit-- thanks for the quick and awesome responses! if you have more to add, please keep them coming. i am very interested and i hope you are too. | yes. it is the distance from something to something. the 'something's here are the peak amplitude (or null) points of a traveling wave (just as how the 'something's in sound are the points of dense(or sparse) air). one main difference between light and sound is that sound is a longitudinal wave (oscillation along direction of propagation) whereas light is a transverse wave (oscillation perpendicular to the direction of propagation). play around with this and you will understand a lot of things [link](_url_0_) also, light can be numerous wavelengths just as a chord (from music) can be numerous wavelengths of sound. we perceive a cumulative effect in both cases. actually, when i think about this a little more, this is probably not right since a well trained ear can differentiate the notes in a chord but the eye cannot figure the separate colors making up something. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amanogawa.com/archive/PlaneWave/PlaneWave-2.html"
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what is the percentage breakdown on how much information we get from our five sense? | here is my wild guess: sight 50%, hearing 25%, touch 13%, taste 8%, smell 4%. it would be interesting to compare that with other animals too. | i *think* that the degree of information that the brain processes from each sense is proportional to the size of the region that processes it. i know this is true of the somatosensory cortex anyway. see [this](_url_0_) image. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.blutner.de/philom/consc/homunculus.jpg"
] | [
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] |
questions about nose picking and other socially unacceptable habits | is there a reason we do them even though they're socially unacceptable? are there any inherent risks or health benefits to habits like nose picking? in a general sense, how do habits like these form, and how can they be unlearned? | risks: small but real risk of infection, which in turn [can spread to the brain.](_url_0_) the danger triangle can be traced from one corner of the mouth, over the bridge of the nose, and down to the opposite corner of the mouth. any time infection in this area occurs, there is the very rare but very real risk that the infection can spread to the brain. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.skinpick.com/nose-picking-rhinotillexomania"
] | [
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that little dance your arms do when you slip, is that your body going into autopilot? | well yes, since you don't do it voluntarily. it is an instinctive reaction to falling, trying to get a hold on anything that might help stop the falling or, failing that, at least brace the body for impact. i think the evolutionary reason for this is the brain really dislikes hitting the ground, since that tends to incapacitate you quite a lot. it was probably evolutionarily advantageous to risk fracturing your wrists or dislocating a shoulder instead of ending up as a potato wrapped in a bear pelt. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
could someone explain band gaps? | its been brought up in a couple of my classes, but i've never really understood it. | so when you have one atom you have distinct energy levels that electrons can occupy. the electron can have these allowed energies, but not any others. when you have two atoms bound and sharing electrons, the energy levels combine in such a way that two atomic orbitals of similar type end up going from orbitals of similar energy to molecular orbitals, one of lower energy and one of higher energy. in the simplest case you have a homodimer where two atomic orbitals of energy e combine to two molecular orbitals of energy e-g and e+g. of course the electrons are going to roll downhill and land in the lower energy molecular orbital (e-g, known as the bonding orbital) and leave the other (e+g, antibonding) empty. as a result the electrons in the molecule end up with lower energies than the electrons in the separate atoms. see molecular orbital theory for more of this. add more and more atoms and more and more molecular orbitals get combined together. each orbital has to be a tiny bit different from the others, so after you start piling lots of electrons in there you end up with just a band of bonding and a band of antibonding orbitals. the difference in energy between those two is the band gap. electrons in the lower band (bonding orbitals, known as the valence band) are basically stuck in place but those in the upper band (antibonding orbitals, conduction band) can move about as electron-hole pairs. if the band gap is small then ambient temperature is enough to promote electrons up to the conduction band, where they are free to move about, as in metals. if the band gap is huge, then there needs to be a big voltage put in to promote an electron to the conduction band for the electron to move and yield a current. this makes an insulator. in between are semi-conductors, where it takes a small voltage to promote an electron and yield a current. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/ghrUT"
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how do fish eggs deal with waste? | i understand that terrestrial (amniotic) eggs store the waste as urea (sometimes uric acid?) but i haven't been able to find a single thing about fish eggs. is it stored as urea too? is it diffused as ammonia? what's the dealio? | fish eggs don't have an amnion to store waste, but they have full contact with water, unlike land eggs, which helps in diffusion of wastes. their skin is really permeable and they "breathe" by simple diffusion. it's why they don't die when i put them in light agarose to look at them under a microscope. they diffuse their ammonia waste through their skin as well. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would a 100-year timelapse be enough to spot any tiny changes in a galaxy? | or are they so huge and vast and so far away that not even 100 years would be enough to spot a difference? | we can do it faster than that. hubble is actually able to see nearby galaxies *spin*, albeit only a tiny bit. so not much is changing, in terms of the qualitative structure of the galaxy, but we do see it rotate! just a leeeetle bit! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are curved displays so hard/expensive to make? | this is just my inference based on how lcd, led displays work. i'm guessing that most of the curved tvs must be leds because to manufacture lcds, liquid crystals are 'suspended' between two etched glass plates. this will be way too complicated if glass plates have to be curved. for led display diodes are fabricated over a substrate or may be simply soldered to a board (i'm guessing). the effect of curved tv is evident only when you go to bigger screens, in which case you want a 100cm curved board. it can be monolithic or mosaic (guessing again). in either case a curved board implies an altogether different macinery to fabricate it. this could be what driving the price. i don't think it is difficult to make, but certainly expensive. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
electric field inside a speric shell with non uniform charge density- how does it comply with gauss's law? | im trying to calculate the electric field in and out of a spheric shell. the surface charge density is non uniform, and is described by η = η0*cos(ϑ) // (a function of the angle). i couldnt really solve it so i looked at the answer, and i saw that the electric field inside the sphere is different then zero. how does that work? from gauss's law- if theres no charge inside a gaussian surface, then there is no field! can anyone help me understand why is this happening and how can i reach those results myself? | that is not what gauss's law says. it says that the total flux of ***e*** is zero through a surface that contains no charge. that's exactly what a uniform field is doing. flux in = flux out. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i am familiar with the 'panspermia' theory of life travelling to earth... but is it feasible that it has gone the other way at some point in the past few billion of years? | could a huge meteorite impact with earth have spread life out into the universe? i know that it is still ridiculously unlikely that any blow-back from earth would ever reach another planet/moon, but is it theoretically possible (perhaps even plausible) that right now there are meteors flying through space with earth bacteria as cargo? (forgive me if i have confused meteor/ite) | yep. totally possible. there have been a bunch of large meteor impacts since life came to be on earth. if the rocks that get blown to space happen to have bacteria that can withstand the rigors of space travel for a few million (or billion) years there is a chance. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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sometimes, when i finish jogging (for about 40 min.) and i sit down, i get quite a painful feeling around the bottom-area of my heart. it's like sometimes becomes really hard and then after abour 20 seconds it's gone again. what is this? | it could be [precordial catch syndrome](_url_0_), which, despite its ponderous name, is believed to be harmless though nobody knows what causes it. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precordial_catch"
] | [
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|
who was the furthest person ever from the earth? | i realize it was likely someone from one of the early apollo missions that went around the moon, but do he have enough information on their flight and the set up of the vehicle to determine which of them is "the one"? | james lovell, john "jack" swigert and fred haise during the apollo 13 mission--yes, the one that had the explosion. they passed the far side of the moon by roughly 100 km higher than any other apollo mission thus being the farthest humans have ever been from earth. edit: on top of the higher lunar altitude for apollo 13, the moon was *almost* at [apogee](_url_0_) or farthest approach to the earth in april of 1970. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.spaceflightnow.com/apollo13/retro/11/index.html"
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contrast mechanism of the human eye | i am currently taking a physiology course a the university of delaware and a while back we were learning about the mechanisms of the sensory systems. one thing that was not explained clearly, or maybe i just didn't understand, was how contrast works in the photoreceptor and associated cells of the eye, such as the on and off center photoreceptors and ganglia, and the bipolar and horizontal cells. can someone please explain this mechanism? | there is a simple conditioning in the "postprocesing ganglia layers" in retina. looks like: if sesnsation in this receptor is significantly different than from the neighboring receptor, make this information imortant, i.e. augment the difference even more. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it called "microgravity" instead of "zero gravity"? | as i understand it, gravity in low earth orbit or even up at the iss is quite high, but cancelled by the "falling" around the earth of the vessel in orbit. if you drop something on the iss, it doesn't fall towards earth at all, right? so why "micro" - which seems to imply there is a small amount of gravity of the order of a thousandth as much as normal? | the reason we use microgravity instead of "zero gravity" is because there are some small gravitational effects. the first is that there is a small tidal force- since the earth's gravitational field is not constant but instead falls off with distance, there will be some very (very!) small tidal forces. so, while the center of mass of the iss is in free fall around the earth, the gravitational forces on the "bottom" of the station (part closest to earth) will be a little stronger than the gravitational forces at the "top." also, there will be small gravitational pulls from the station itself. inside of a perfect sphere, the gravitational forces would completely cancel- but the iss is not a sphere so according to where you are inside the station you will feel a very (very!) small tug towards one side or the other. microgravity is not a great name for just the reason you mentioned, the accelerations you'll feel on the iss are less than 1/1000th of the gravity on earth, so it isn't an accurate name in that regard. but people probably like saying it better than "nano-gravity." | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there evidence for the influence of the birthmonth on a kids personality? | just to make clear, i don't believe in horoscope. i was just wondering if beeing born on a warm period, and having your first life experience while the sun is shining, could influence your personality. any studies or statistical analysis? | consider a zodiac sign as a catch all with regards to trait and personality; this is sometimes called the barnum effect. this is why they work for some people quick link that describes what it does is here: _url_0_. science has described that we have to types of behaviour that which is learned i.e. through modelling, learning etc and that which we pass down genetically, like that funny feeling you get in your stomach sometimes when something is not quite right. so with regards to your question yes you will see a difference in a child that is born in a hot country to one that is born in a cold one, as they need to adapt differently to survive, however, with regards to personality this is usually developed in the teenage years when the two sides of the brain start to connect and operate fully. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnum_effect"
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how many body piercings would a person need to have before i could pick them up with a junkyard electromagnet? | assuming the person is average weight, say 150 lbs, and the peircings are ferromagnetic. would it matter if they were distributed around the body, or would it be best if they were concentrated around the head? | you aren't getting many panelist responses, because the force generated by an electromagnet on a magnetizable object is very difficult to estimate in the generic case. (despite being a solved problem since maxwell's equations were formulated in the 19th century). basically, depending on the material used, they'll be a different intrinsic susceptibility and a different induced magnetization in the material. the magnetization means locally throughout the material there are induced magnetic moments which will then interact with the magnetic field producing a magnetic force via f = grad ( m dot b). so basically, its not the strength of the magnetic field you care about, but how rapidly the product of the magnetization and the magnetic field is changing to see the strength of the force (and determine that its greater than the person's weight). so basically you need to either have a strong intution about these sorts of things (which most physicists' won't have; esp in borderline cases) or start with a very detailed simulation (programming in the shape of the electromagnet, the initial location of the piercings) or even better do some experiment (starting with non-humans) to get any sort of precise answer. granted as l3lindman said, if your junkyard electromagnetic can arbitrarily pump the current quite high maybe you could do one large piercing ... but i have no detailed knowledge of junkyard electromagnets. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how many molecules do you have to have to be able to define a state? | studying 1st year chemistry at the moment, and was reading about the definitions of different states, and it got me wondering, can 1 molecule have a state? is there a limit on the number of molecules that must be together before a state can be defined? thanks in advance | no, one molecule does not have a state. you need "many" molecules to define a state. there probably is no specific minimum number. consider for example a droplet of fluid : the smaller it becomes, the larger the fraction of molecules that are at the surface of the droplet, and the more its behaviour becomes determined by surface effects (surface tension) as opposed to bulk effects (fluid behaviour). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the significance of the entscheidungsproblem ("decision problem")? | as a computer science student, i have often been confronted with the [entscheidungsproblem](_url_0_) and the work done by alonzo church and alan turing that showed no general solution to it can exist. however i never really understood the significance of this or what it really means in a practical sense. can anyone shed some light on this topic for me and explain what the consequences of the entscheidungsproblem are? | a very important consequence for computer science is, that it is not possible to write a sound and complete program analyzer for many problems. for example wouldn't it be cool to have a tool which finds all null-pointer-exceptions in a java program? thanks to the results known for the entscheidungsproblem we know that we should not waste our time trying to write such a program analyzer as it cannot exist. instead we should try to find approximations for the problem or restrict the java language with a stronger type system. and when we design a new type-system we should maybe make sure that it is decidable, but some type-systems (scala, java?) are undecidable. | 14 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entscheidungsproblem"
] | [] | [
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what is the calcification of the brain? does anything speed up/slow down this process? | it’s seemingly impossible to find anything on this subject that isn’t just speculation from a community of conspiracy theorists. | the only condition i know about is the calcification of the basal ganglia (these are structures in the deep brain that co-ordinate movement). depending on which structure is affected, you get the corresponding clinical signs. to the best of my knowledge, it’s a rare inherited condition-passed on in a dominant manner-so there’s about a 50% chance of it being passed on if one parent carries the faulty allele (different form of the same gene). if you’ve inherited the allele, there’s no way that you can prevent it from manifesting. symptoms are similar to those of parkinson’s disease and these can be treated in the same fashion. but there isn’t a cure (yet) 😔 | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can we be sure that the physical laws which apply here of earth also apply to the rest of the universe? | okay, first of all i guess i must confess that my scientific knowledge is extremely limited and i am dead-certain that this question arises as a result of this limitation. i am a layman in the truest sense: the periodic table looks to me like a child's rendition of hong kong's skyline.. so if there is some fundamental misunderstanding of the nature of science that makes this question absurd i hope you guys can explain to me where i've gone wrong. i've looked far and wide for a satisfactory answer before posting, but either i haven't looked hard enough or it is only being asked because i am fool enough to ask it! so my reasoning which leads to this question goes something like this; 1) scientists assume that all laws are universal 2) the empirical method dictates that we can only make positive statements about things of which we can have direct tangible experience (right, is that accurate?) 3) the only experience we can have of other parts of the universe is through sight 4) sight alone would not normally be sufficient to verify the nature of things on earth (for example, a glass of clear liquid might be drinkable, but it might also contain nasty diarrhea-invoking bacteria or a smidgen of hcl.) therefore it is possible that although it may appear visually that things follow the same physical laws in the rest of the universe, that, in fact, another set of laws applies for things elsewhere than here. is this a reasonable possibility? what is flawed about my reasoning? what allows science to assume that physical laws are universal? (if, indeed, science does make that assumption.) how would such an assumption be empirically demonstrated? i look forward to my ignorance being crushed by the intellectual fist of science. edit: (just noticed the typo in my title but can't figure out how to fix it: 'on' not 'of'). | i think there are several reasons why we look at the rest of the universe and expect the same laws to apply - and it's not an assumption. we can observe it in action. first, what we can observe here on earth can be used to make predictions about what we see in the rest of the universe. the same force (gravity) that operates in our every day world operates quite well elsewhere in the universe. for instance, gravitational lensing of light would only be possible if gravity worked the same way everywhere. we also see atoms interacting the same way - for instance, the spectrum we see when heating atoms can also be seen in the most distant stars in the universe- subject to red shifting effects (similar to the dopler effect we see on earth, but for light instead of sound...) and on and on. thus, what laws we see on earth are the same as what we see elsewhere. even more examples, if the laws of the universe were to change, we would predict that they would have significant effects on what we observe - and we'd observe boundaries where they break down. in fact, those places where the laws of the universe do seem to break down (singularities) can be observed (kinda) as black holes. we can't observe them directly, unfortunately - there are no naked singularities.. but those come out of predictions of gravity, which we also experience here on earth - we just (thankfully) don't have the same conditions here as in a black hole. to answer your point that it's possible that the laws of the universe might be different, but look the same to us, i'd have to say it's pretty much impossible. that would mean that there is a second set of laws that cause the same effects that we see, but some how operate through a different set of mechanisms. outside of occam's razor suggesting that that's a rather contrived solution, it's also somewhat problematic that they would give rise to indistinguishable results.... how would you tell that the laws are different when have exactly the same effect? tldr: because we can investigate (observe) the rest of the universe, we don't have to assume - we can tell that science makes the same predictions for the whole universe. edit: clarity. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_symmetry"
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probability of a roulette strategy | as somewhat of a gambler i often look around for different strategies at the different casino games. recently i found a strategy for roulette that asks you to bet 5 different numbers, for up to a maximum of 17 spins (after that the betting part of the strategy is too expensive to increase the bets, and has taken too many spins for the current bets to remain profitable) my question is: what are the chances that you won't hit your number in 17 spins? i tried to do the calculation myself and wound up with a 1 in ~0.48 chance of winning, which is astronomically low for a casino game. what would the real odds be of not hitting your number. (you can assume it is european roulette which has 37 numbers labeled 0-36) [here is the strategy i am talking about](_url_0_) if this is the wrong subreddit, my apologies, though i would like to know what subreddit to ask this in. | this "strategy" is just an adaptation of the [martingale](_url_0_). you have a high chance of winning small, and a small chance of losing very big. it would be easier (and have the same effect) to just do a true martingale and bet black every time. edit to actually answer your question: assuming you're betting 5 numbers on a 00 roulette wheel (which has 38 evenly sized slots) your probability of **not** hitting any of your 5 numbers in 17 spins is (33/38)^17 = 0.0909 = 9.09%. you will win between $1 and $156 91% of the time and lose $510 9% of the time. take it from another gambler: don't play roulette. or, if you're dead-set on martingaling: have a bigger bankroll. | 5 | [] | [
"http://mycasinostrategy.com/roulette+intermediate+strategy/1/MlW-gRWfIpSPM9O3I1KzcNWrcdOjMhOfMhKvYZe7gRKjU5OLU9OHUlKLgdaPIV"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martingale_(betting_system\\)"
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how do societies/cultures 'lose knowledge'? | the greek and the romans (and i'm sure other cultures too) seem to have had an amazing level of knowledge and wisdom in a wide variety of fields. they created things like the baghdad battery, the antikythera mechanism, special cements which helped create aquaeducts that are still around millenia later. also knowledge about astronomy, the human body and many other things i forgot about (pun bad, but intended). many things took centuries to be re-discovered. how does this happen and what else might we have collectively forgotten over time? | usually it’s simply because the average person doesn’t know the exact ins and outs of the most advanced technology of the time. if many people die at one time due to disease or conquest, most of the information about a society dies with them. think about it, if civilization fell chances are most people wouldn’t be able to build an iphone or a computer or a tank from pieces they had lying around. even then, it probably would be shoddy and entirely from memory. today, we do have better access to information storage with things like computers and the internet, but with an emp of some kind it would wipe all of that out. all of the internet and our digital stores: gone. the only things surviving would be physical documents and memory, both of which naturally degrade over time. sometimes, though, it’s a deliberate sabotage. the library of alexandria was burned as an attack, and that’s the biggest thing i think of when i hear “lost knowledge”. other times, it’s because certain information is considered sacred and only specific people are allowed to have access to it. it’s one of the reasons almost nothing is known about native american culture, they are very secretive about their practices. in general, there are many reasons information can be completely lost from memory. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there other useful linear decompositions besides sine? | i work in electrical engineering. sometimes, we do something we call "frequency domain analysis" of a periodic function transform, where we only examine the behavior of the transform across the 1-dimensional set of all sine functions. if the implementation of the transform is known to be "linear", we can then predict the behavior of the transform for any periodic function by decomposing the function into a linear combination of sine. my question is whether there exists any other set of periodic functions that would allow the complete characterization of a "linear" transform. (other than the obvious sine-with- phase or amplitude adjusted) or maybe another way to ask it is if there is something special about the sine curve, or if it's just a convention that we do frequency decomposition with that particular curve? thanks!! | given a function f(x) on some bounded interval, say [-1, 1], we can write f(x) as an infinite sum of "basis functions" e*_n_*(x) with some suitable assumptions on *f* and the set of basis functions. in general, this is called a [fourier decomposition](_url_2_) of *f*, regardless of the choice of basis functions. what you are referring to is unclear, but you are working in a context where the basis functions are suitable scaled versions of e*_n_*(x) = e^(inx) (scaled so that e*_n_* has an integer number of periods in the underlying period). if you work on an interval such as [0, 2π], you can always work with cosine instead since you can always consider your function to be evenly extended to [-2π, 2π], and then periodic on the whole real line. if you are using sines of the form e*_n_*(x) = sin(nx) then you are implicitly assuming the function f(x) vanishes at the endpoints of your domain or you are just willing to accept that your series does not converge pointwise. in any event, there is no reason to use complex exponentials as the basis functions. we use e*_n_*(x) = e^(inx) for various reasons, not the least of which are that e*_n_*(x) is periodic and we can compute the fourier coefficients approximately very fast using the fft (fast fourier transform). but where do these complex exponentials come from in the first place? well, you need to come up with some set of functions that is *complete*, in the sense that *any* suitable function f(x) can be written as an infinite sum of your basis functions. not all candidate sets are actually complete. the easiest way to find complete sets of basis functions is to use some functional analysis, which is a generalization of linear algebra to infinite-dimensional vector spaces. in linear algebra, you learn that if *t* is a linear, symmetric (or hermitian) operator on some finite-dimensional, real (or complex) inner product space *v*, then there exists an *orthogonal basis* of *v* consisting of eigenvectors of *t*. (this is known as the spectral theorem for finite-dimensional vector spaces.) these generalized fourier series are really just decompositions of functions over an orthogonal basis of an appropriate inner product space. in this context, our vector space is l^(2)(-1, 1), the space of all functions *f* whose square |f|^(2) is integrable on [-1, 1]. the derivative operator *t* that takes a function *f* to its derivative f' is a linear, hermitian operator on this space (at least some constant multiple of it is). so we would expect that eigenvectors of *t* form an orthogonal basis of our space. of course, since l^(2)(-1, 1) is infinite-dimensional, there's a lot more machinery needed here to guarantee that this is true. (for one, functions in l^(2) need not even have derivatives. second, the condition of *t* being hermitian is too strong; we need to settle for self-adjointness instead.) but, rest assured, there are some theorems that guarantee that a version of the spectral theorem remains true. and what are the eigenvectors of *t*? that is, what functions are constant multiples of their own derivatives? exponentials. so that's where classical fourier series make their appearance. but we could have gotten many other complete sets of basis functions simply by considering different operators. in fact, there is a whole sub-branch of analysis that deals with this. [sturm-liouville theory](_url_1_) provides a very general method for generating complete sets of basis functions for a given closed, bounded interval. in sl-theory, the underlying operator *t* is some linear differential operator and the inner-product space is l^(2), but with a certain *weight function* w(x). (so instead of the inner product being the integral of fg, it would be the integral of fgw.) one broad special class of sl-operators are those that give rise to the [classical orthogonal polynomials](_url_0_). legendre polynomials, chebyshev polynomials, hermite polynomials, and laguerre polynomials are all examples of complete sets of basis functions on their respective intervals. (legendre and chebyshev are associated to any compact interval [a, b], hermite polynomials are associated to the whole real line, and laguerre polynomials are associated to any ray [a, ∞) or (-∞, a].) so, for instance, a suitable function *f* on the interval [-1, 1] can be written as a sum of complex exponentials, or legendre polynomials, or chebyshev polynomials, or any set of basis functions arising from an sl-operator on [-1, 1]. why you would use one representation over the other varies greatly with context. for instance, if you had some set of data points on [-1, 1] and wanted to find a polynomial interpolant through your data, you would almost certainly consider either a chebyshev or legendre series. if you wanted to represent a function on [-1, 1] as a sum of *periodic* functions, i.e., decompose *f* into a sum of fundamental frequency signals, then you would use a classical fourier series (complex exponentials). are you solving for the electrostatic potential in a cylinder? well, then a decomposition using bessel functions will be most useful. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_orthogonal_polynomials",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturm%E2%80%93Liouville_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_Fourier_series",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_functions"
] | [
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what is the dizziness/slight lightheadedness that i feel whenever i enter a room that i have never been in or feel i shouldn't be in? | sometimes when i enter indoor places that i have either never been in or have a feeling i shouldn't be in i get dizzy/light headed. not sure if this happens to everyone or not, but i'm curious if there is an explanation. | it sounds like shock or fear from being nervous or shy. i used to get the same thing but to an extreme. i still do, but not to such an extreme that i used to, where i would find myself paralysed outside of a door with a need to build up the courage to enter. i'm not a scientist but i believe you can find some interesting answers if you google this subject (ideally from wikipedia). it sounds like the effect of an adrenaline release (google flight/flight response in humans may be useful). usually, the symptoms you describe are related to the availability of oxygen (and in turn the activity of the heart). what you describe also sounds like a precursor to fainting. you should check this out online as there may be a common underlying cause. answers to the physical aspect might be easy to acquire compared to the psychological aspects such as what triggers the physical response. i would also love to hear from a psychologist on this common fear. there might be a subcategory in reddit for that. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how does sci-hub work? | piracy websites usually use torrents to avoid legal issues for storing illegal files on their server. however sci-hub seems different. how does it work? can it be fully downloaded and mirrored? | there's an explanation in here: _url_0_ broadly, it has access to a number of log-ins which can be used to get behind most paywalls. once a paper is downloaded they keep a copy. so they either have a copy of anything you ask for or they can get it. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://bigthink.com/neurobonkers/a-pirate-bay-for-science?q=2"
] | [
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has superconductivity ever been observed in ions before? | as the title asks, has superconductivity ever been observed in ions like sodium dissolved in water. also out side of superconductivity and super fluids, are there any other behavior like those? | no, it has never been observed in a solution and also will never be. superconductivity is an effect which arises due to the crystal structure of some solids. like in semiconductors (and isolators), it is the electric potential created by the regularly spaced atoms which allows electrons to flow in a certain way. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how come uk mains power alternates between +ve and -ve 325v, yet is recognised as '230v' | i came across this whilst doing physics revision. "the live wire alternates between peak voltages of +325v and -325v. in terms of electrical power, this is equivalent to a direct potential difference of 230v" why is this equivalent to 230v? sorry if this is rather mundane compared to the usual high-brow stuff, but i wasn't sure where else to ask. | 230 v is the rms value. the ac voltage alternates between a peak voltage of 325 v to a negative peak of -325 v. the root mean square (rms) of an alternating wave form is more useful than the peak values when determining things like power, and power is, of course, a primary concern with the electric system. with a sinusoidal wave, the peak value is equal to the rms value multiplied by the square root of 2, i.e. peak = rms * sqrt(2). this is derived on [wikipedia](_url_0_) if you're interested in the math behind it. other waveforms will have different ratios between rms and peak. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_mean_square#Average_electrical_power",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_mean_square"
] | [
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what ever happened to the rolamite, hailed by some as the only elementary machine invented in the 20th century? | the rolamite was a creation of sandia labs in the 1960s by engineer donald wilkes. when it was first devised, [a large number of applications](_url_0_) were foreseen for this nearly frictionless and wear-proof mechanism. today it is almost completely forgotten; a google search for rolamite turns up only 2,600 results. what happened to this useful discovery? where did all the promise go? why has it almost completely disappeared? | interesting! it seems like a solution in search of a problem... i can't think of any applications where it would be profoundly superior to existing solutions, but that's probably a failure of my imagination more than anything else. linear motion seems like the most obvious application, but it seems like it would be difficult to make a rolamite-based system very precise. | 8 | [] | [
"http://www.rexresearch.com/wilkes/1wilkes.htm"
] | [
"http://bbs.homeshopmachinist.net/showthread.php?t=23745"
] | [
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] |
what is going on in the brain when we "do math"? | how did the brain evolve to do this? is the process we use similar to that of a computer? it just seems a bit odd that humans are so much better at math than other animals. | ah, i am afraid there is no short answer to this! numerical cognition (or, 'how does the brain do math?') is a relatively new area of research and therefore, there is a lot we don't know about. what do we know? numerical cognition involves extensive coordination across different parts of the brain handling things like sensory input (reading, hearing), language processing (comprehension, production) and executive (attention, resource distribution) among others. stanislas dehaene [_url_0_] has proposed a fairly comprehensive model which i'll post if i can find it... anyway, dehaene has written a lot on the subject for the general public and provides a good introduction to the topic. let me know if you want more details. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.unicog.org/main/pages.php?page=stanislas_dehaene"
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] |
please explain gravitic abberation and the speed of gravity esp carlip's 1999 paper. | this talk of speed of gravity in other topics made me wonder and research. so the speed at which changes propagate, is light speed? but, gravitic and em fields always point to the current position of an object. i can't understand. aberration and the speed of gravity, carlip, 1999 _url_0_ exerpt: the observed absence of gravitational aberration requires that “newtonian” gravity propagate at a speed cg > 2 × 10^10 c. by evaluating the gravitational effect of an accelerating mass, i show that aberration in general relativity is almost exactly canceled by velocity-dependent interactions, permitting cg = c. this cancellation is dictated by conservation laws and the quadrupole nature of gravitational radiation. help! :-) | in newtonian gravity, the force of gravity from one object on another points radially along the line between them. that is, it depends only on their relative *positions*. in order for that to work and provide the stability we observe, the "updated" position for the source object has to be known by the affected object almost immediately (using the lower bound, a signal would take only about half an hour ot. in the case of einsteinian gravity or electromagnetism, the force does *not* depend only on the relative positions of the source and the affected object. it also depends, in part, on their relative *velocity* and *acceleration*. this extra information is important, because at any given moment it allows the gravitational field to "know" where the source is *going to be* rather than just where it *is*. when you include that information in the model, you find that the "update" signal no longer has to travel faster than the speed of light in order to produce the observed stability. | 2 | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9909087"
] | [] | [
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what would it be like for someone born and living with only a brainstem? | what would they be able to do/experience (if anything)? | this is called [anencephaly](_url_0_) and it's pretty much an instant death sentence. there are a handful of cases where babies with anencephaly have survived for a couple of years, but, to quote the wikipedia article, "there is no chance of the infant's ever achieving a conscious existence." | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anencephaly"
] | [
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what exactly are "eye boogers" and why do we get them? | that gunk in the corner of our eyes after we wake up. | technically, it's called "gound" (it's also called "sleep") and it's a type of rheum - dried mucus. the cornea and conjunctiva of the eyes excrete the protein mucin and water which protects the eye from various microbes and dehydration, and it keeps the eye lubricated. normally, blinking mixes tears with the mucus and keeps it thinned out. however, when you sleep, there's no mixing and excess rheum along with dust and flakes of skin form a crust in the corners of the eyes where it wells up. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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