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how is risc-v different from normal risc? | i've heard that risc-v is a open source architecture, how exactly is it open source and what are its benefits? how small is the processor and how small can it get? what is the performance like? is it a big deal for general computing? | it's not a processor architecture and it does not state what size the processor is. it is an instruction set architecture which defines the instructions used in processor. open source means that every design desicion is documented and can be implemented by anyone without having to pay for it. | 8 | [] | [] | [
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how are the trajectories of subatomic particles imaged? | images such as this (_url_0_) are the poster pictures for subatomic particles. however, it has never been clear to me how they were generated in the first place. in a particle collider, two bunches of particles smash together in vacuum, resulting in some collisions. high energy collisions give birth to several new particles. how are the newly generated subatomic particles tracked? | this image is a photograph of a cloud chamber - an old fashioned (but still cool) way of seeing particles. in a modern collider, the setup looks like [this](_url_1_). here we have at least three cylindrical, concentric layers of detector. when particles come flying out from a collision, they hit each layer of the detector. a computer then looks at all of these hits and pieces together the tracks of the particles. some more information if you're curious! the tracks are curved because of a powerful magnetic field. positive particles spiral one way, negative ones the opposite way - this allows us to determine the charge. in addition, high momentum particle make wider curves - so we can measure the particle momentum. if you look at pictures of [atlas](_url_0_) (my experiment!) you can see the concentric detector layers! | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/MsF7B9i"
] | [
"http://scipp.ucsc.edu/personnel/atlasdet.jpg",
"http://imgur.com/VxInk8k"
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how to reconcile clocks in simple time dilation problems? | i think the answer here is going to be pretty straightforward, but i can't find what i'm looking for in the faq or by searching. i think my confusion might go a bit deeper, but i've boiled things down to a simple problem that i can't quite grasp. got to be something simple i'm missing. let's say there are two spaceships, both 6 lightyears from earth in opposite directions. the ships and earth have their clocks synced and have no relative velocity. both ships accelerate quickly to 0.6c towards earth and stop when they arrive. from the reference frame of earth, it will take 10 years for both to arrive. the lorentz factor for 0.6c is 1.25, so when we look at the clocks on board they'll say 8 years have passed. so a person on earth was correct to believe that the spaceship clocks tick slower. confusion: shouldn't the observers on the ships perceive time passing more slowly on earth and (even more so) on the other ship? let's say ship a assesses the situation after accelerating (instantaneously). earth is 6 lightyears away and coming closer at a rate of 0.6c. ship b is 12 lightyears away and coming closer at a rate of 0.88c (by velocity addition with relativity). that gives a lorentz factor of 2.125. this means earth should reach a after 10 a years (6/0.6), while only 8 years (10/1.25) passed on earth. and it means b should reach a after 13.6 a years (12/0.88), while only 6.4 years (13.6/2.125) pass on b. obviously this second set of calculations makes no sense. it seems clear from the problem that b and a should reach earth at the same time. and it's also confusing that the clocks don't match up. i expect that part of the problem is the "broken symmetry". the ships accelerate and earth doesn't. but with my understanding i get the same confusing results if you remove this aspect. toss out earth and the problem should look the same either way, no? yet each ship thinks time passes differently on the other ship. so how can their clocks match up in the end? i've tried drawing some minkowski diagrams to make sense of things, but it's not helping. i assume my misunderstanding is either carrying over to that exercise or else it's deeper than i think. can anyone help me out here? | this is your problem. you're treating this setup as if it's universally true, but it can only be true in one frame (implicitly earth's frame). in this frame, earth is actually only 4.8 lightyears away. let's forget ship b for a second. taking length contraction into account, earth reaches a after 8 years (4.8/0.6), while only 6.4 years (8/1.25) passed on earth. ship b is a more complicated situation. you assumed that each ship started moving at the same time *in the earth's frame of reference*, but in the other two relevant frames these events aren't simultaneous. from ship a's post-acceleration perspective, ship b already started accelerating 9 years ago. at that time, a was moving at the same speed as earth in this frame, and b was twice as far away as earth was, 9.6 lightyears. adding the 0.6\*9=5.4 lightyears a covered before decelerating to a stop in this frame (accelerating towards earth in the earth frame), that's 15 total lightyears b traverses in this frame. at 0.88c, that takes 15/0.88=17 years, as expected (9 years before a accelerated/decelerated, 8 years after). thus earth and ship b do indeed reach ship a at the same time. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could you test blood-type, by mixing two people's blood together and watching for coagulation? | lets say that person 1's blood type is a+ and we wanted to find out person 2's blood type. if we did not have the instruments to test blood through modern means, could we simply mix the two people's blood together in a test tube (or onto a microscope slide), to identify if the blood types as either a match (no agglutination), or not a match (agglutination present)? my questions are: 1) could you simply mix two people's blood together (in a test tube for example) and get a result? 2) would that result be visible to the naked eye (like mixing milk and coke)? 3) how long would this reaction take before becoming visible? 4) what would the accuracy be like in such a test? thanks! | what you describe is more or less how they used to test before they could isolate antibodies and antigens . so yes, this does work, results are indeed visible to naked eye, and are result is more or less immediate (maybe a minute or so, tops) the test would be more or less 100% accurate | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do we account for the gain/loss of time in a day due to earthquakes and tectonic activity? | i'm aware of how earthquakes, such as that last big one in japan, can cause the earth to spin faster, but i'm wondering how we can account for these moments in time. | through [leap seconds](_url_0_). they are added every few years to account for the slowing of the earth's rotation from the moon's tidal friction and internal tectonic processes. | 59 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_second"
] | [
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is repeat exposure or length of time more important for creating familiarity? | let's say you are given a picture and asked to remember as many details about it as possible you have the option of looking at it for 5 minutes 10 times over the course of a day or once for a solid one hour. in which circumstance would you have better recollection? conversation came up with some friends when we noticed that the girl at subway remembers me and my order every week after only two months but the waitress at the jazz club doesn't even though i was her only customer for 2 hours a few nights ago. couldn't find any real studies on the subject and most things i found, like my experience, were anecdotal of nature. thanks! | i don't have an answer. but one thread of inquiry would be looking into research on kims (keep-in-mind) games. this is an awareness excercise that replicates what you are describing. i know they are of use in the military. there might be field manuals or other documents that cite primary sources on the topic. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would it be possible to 3d print coral reef and then populate with living coral? | they sort of do this already. on a small scale they put out trays, mats and various things and farm coral for sale or repopulating, like [this.](_url_0_) they also using ships,concrete objects and such to build [artificial reefs.](_url_1_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.brucebalan.com/migrations/images/13/AitutakiUW-11_small.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_reef"
] | [
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|
poincaré recurrence puzzles me greatly, could someone elucidate it? | i have read some about the poincaré recurrence theorem, and it left me very much confused, especially the examples given. if you have all particles that make up a gas in one corner of the room, in a matter of seconds the pressure will reach an equilibrium. due to poincaré recurrence, in an almost arbitrarily long time, the room will return to the state with all particles in one corner of the room. but how? why would the particles do that? if the volume of the room is constant, and the amount of "stuff" in the room is constant, pressure should also be constant. i don't see where time comes in as a factor in this at all. also, how would such an event look like? would particles all of a sudden "decide" to not obey boyle's law (among others), and spontaneously rush into the corner of the room? would they be driven by some force against the pressure of the gas already in the corner? could anyone clear it up for me? sorry if i misinterpreted the whole concept, my understanding in this field is *very* poor. | complete chance combined with a near-infinite amount of time. it's a little bit like the "an infinite number of monkies on an infinite number of typewriters" thought experiment, except that unlike in the case of the monkies, there is a limited amount of possible things they can type (a finite amount of configurations of gas in the room), so *eventually* they will type the literary work of your choice (be in the configuration you want). this isn't actually true of the monkies/typewriter because there is no limit to the number of characters that can be in a piece of work why? there is no why -- they just do, out of necessary consequence of random change. because they are moving; it's a gas. a gas in a room like you are imagining is always changing, the molecules are always moving. consequently, it will change through every possible random change it can make, given enough time. one of those random changes will eventually be one where all the particles are in the corner of the room. pressure is *approximately* constant. remember, this is a gas. sometimes there will be sizable deviations from the approximately-constant pressure in different areas, because the density in any given region is going to be slightly different from the average. the longer you let the gas bump around in the box, the more large deviations you will see from the average pressure. but they will be fleeting deviations. *eventually* one will be a large deviation like the kind you are looking for. but like the rest, it will be fleeting, and after it reaches that configuration it will bounce off that corner and go back to a near-average-like state. the system changes over time, going from one "microstate" (configuration of gas molecules) to the next. all microstates are energetically accessible, and the next microstate is basically random. so, given a landscape of accessible microstates for the system, and given the fact that it will progress through all of these microstates, *eventually* it will reach a microstate that is extremely rare and deviant from the highly-probable near-average microstates. basically yes. it would look like the exact *reverse* of if you started with all the particles in a corner, and then let them go to fill the rest of the room. so it would look like all the particles move spontaneously into a corner of the room. the particles don't "decide" this, and the fact this happens does not violate boyle's law, and it does not violate the modern formulation of the second law of thermodynamics (which is statistical/probabilistic in nature, not absolute like was believed in classical thermodynamics). basically yes. ideally, there should be equal pressure in all directions, approximately anyway, due to molecules bouncing off of eachother. but in this type of situation the various gas particles would all end up on trajectories into the corner of the room (out of chance), and would not collide with eachother until they were in the corner, so suddenly there would be no pressure on one side (where that corner is), and all of the molecules would bounce their way into the corner. hope that helps. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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did people who existed before electricity was a widespread thing experience the shocks you might get randomly when touching metal? what did they think it was? how do these shocks happen? | there's a fish that lives in the mediterranean sea called the torpedo ray. (the "torpedo" underwater bomb is named after them.) they're in the "ray" family related to sharks, they look like a small rounded chubby stingray. they can produce an electrical shock like an electric eel, not quite as strong, but strong enough to give a human being a good zap. the ancients were well aware of these fish, but as far as i can tell didn't have any understanding of this phenomenon at all or even try to categorize it - it was simply "the torpedo ray thing"; _url_1_ _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo_(genus)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torpedo_ray",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leyden_jar#History"
] | [
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|
is electrical activity a necessary condition of biological life? | apologies in advance for a muddled set of questions. i'm really pathetically ignorant of basic science, so i've tried googling these topics, but i don't even seem to know enough to do an effective google search. but so anyway, when electrical activity stops in the brain or heart, we die. so electrical activity seems to be necessary to human life. [or is it? maybe the electrical activity is just a byproduct of some other process necessary to human life?] either way: how does the electricity, well, *get there*? in us? i have a vague sense that when we talk about electrical activity in brains, we're talking about various chemicals gaining or losing charges, so presumably as soon as those chemicals exist, they start exchanging particles. but at what point is that? when the first cell divides? later? i assume animals all work in a similar way, but do insects? what about plants? could you call the biochemical processes of plants electrical? also: how (if at all) does that kind of electricity (chemicals gaining and losing charges) differ from the kind of electricity we use in our homes? i know batteries give power through a chemical reaction, right? is the electricity in our bodies essentially the same as the electricity in a battery? if so, is that different from the electricity in a power grid? | the basis of electrical activity in our nervous system is not so much various chemicals gaining and losing charges. instead it is the movement of charged particles (mainly sodium and potassium ions) other across cell membranes. enzymes in the membranes of neurons (brain cells) transport sodium from the inside of the cell to the outside and potassium from the outside to the inside. negatively charged amino acids which do not cross the cell membrane are attracted to the build up of positive charge outside of the cell (because of the sodium ions) and line the inside face of the cell membrane with a negative charge. this creates an electrical potential known as the resting potential. when the neuron fires channels on the cell membrane open allowing sodium ions to rush into the cell, causing a depolarization (as positive and negative charges are no longer separated) and generating an electrical current which passes from one neuron to the other, triggering that neuron to fire. this electrical signaling is the basis for the functions of the brain, without it, the brain cannot signal to the rest of the body. the energy to generate this electrical current ultimately comes from our food, which is used to generate chemical energy (atp), which is in turn used to power the enzymes which set up the electrical potential (resting potential). i believe all animals (including insects) have neurons which function in this manner, except for the sponges, unfortunately i know next to nothing about plants. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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help me some with the finer points of human evolution? | chemist here - i understand the general theory of human evolution well enough, but i'm still a bit lost as to why species such as h. heidelbergensis, h. erectus, h. rhodesiensis existed for periods of time up to and exceeding a million years (far longer than h. sapiens sapiens has!), yet went extinct despite their capacity for speech, fire, tool/weapon making, planning, social organization and recognition. it seems strange they existed for so long and yet did not evolve/improve to dominate the planet like we have. does it have to do with our unique ability to rapidly incorporate new technology and experiment with new ideas (stemming from perhaps just achieving certain brain mass)? these other homo-species seem to look and (from what i've read) behave very us-like, but are quite different. do we know what particular environmental stressors brought about such prompt genetic change to result in what we are now? what am i missing? | most anthropologists would say that h. sapiens is a direct descendent of h. heidelbergensis, so in a sense, heidelbergensis did go on to dominate the planet! h. heidelbergensis, in turn, probably evolved from h. ergaster. so again, h. ergaster did go on to dominate the planet. (there is debate whether h. ergaster and h. erectus comprise one or two species.) there were some branches in homo. h. neanderthal is one, although now there is genetic evidence for introgression from neanderthal into modern h. sapiens. asian h. erectus was another. the denisovans might be another. so your question is really why some of the side branches went extinct after long periods of "success." this is a long-standing question in paleoanthropology that shows no sign of being resolved any time soon. there are ecological hypotheses, demographic hypotheses, and competition hypotheses, among others. here are a few relatively recent papers on the topic: _url_3_ _url_0_ _url_2_ _url_1_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/335/6074/1317.full",
"http://www.sciamdigital.com/index.cfm?fa=ExtServices.GspDownloadIssueView&ARTICLEID_CHAR=0EDB6898-1B78-E06C-AE4D3CF751040F8D",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01660.x/full",
"http://www.paleodiversitas.org/PDF/135.pdf"
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why is hero worship so ubiquitous throughout society? | i'm pretty sure that it's impossible to have a scientific discussion about this. all answers are pure speculation, including this. on a basic level people want to feel that their existence is important. people are afraid of dying and being forgotten. all of the "heroes" in our culture are generally just people who have transcended those fears and have been remembered long after they have died. they are people we aspire (consciously or unconsciously) to be or envy, and i think it's just as simple as that. on an evolutionary level, i suppose, remembering and passing down the wisdom of the great people would be a good way for a people to survive. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i want to teach myself physics. how the hell should i do this? | richard feynman's popular works are a great way to 'click' on a lot of physics. books like [6 easy steps](_url_0_). i'm not sure what level they expect you to be at already, but feynman was an outstanding teacher, one of the world's best in my opinion. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Six-Easy-Pieces-Essentials-Explained/dp/0201408252"
] | [
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|
volume of curve rotated around... another curve? | first off, sorry for the poor communication, i'm on mobile and also have no way to do sketches, so bear with me. in my calc class we just got through finding the volume of an object generated by rotating a function(s) around the x or y axis. today we made it a little spicier by rotating instead around another line, y=4, for example. at the end of class, i found myself wondering if it is possible to 1. rotate a function/object/whatever around a curved line(x^2 for instance) instead of a straight line and 2. if you could measure the volume of an object created with this. i'm happy to answer questions about what the heck i'm asking (i'm not good at asking questions) and if need be, i'll pull out my drawing tablet and laptop. thanks in advance! | yes, this is possible to do. in fact, you can use a generalization of pappus' centroid theorem to compute the volume of such objects more easily, [as i have written in this post on my blog](_url_2_) a while back. the idea is just like what /u/marpocky said, but the centroids allow you to simplify the calculation because the overlap between the discs cancels out. you may still encounter problems for very tight curves, though. if you don't use centroids, then the integrals become much more complicated. since rotations around an axis produce disks and the centroid of the disks are already at the curve, the calculation becomes really easy and simple and reduces to a simple line integral like v = ∫ π r(s)^2 ds, where r(s) is the radius of the disk at a distance s along the curve (in terms of arc length). this doesn't work for areas of the shape, however. more generally, the computation would involve the same math as we usually do for rotation around a straight line, except we would define it in terms of the [frenet-serret frame](_url_0_) at each point in the curve, which gives us system of coordinates that changes at each point. the [article i cite at the end of the post by goodman & goodman](_url_1_) covers the formal details of the approach, and should be accessible to anyone who has taken vector calculus. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas",
"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2316426",
"http://1ucasvb.tumblr.com/post/90160448163/mathematics-is-full-of-wonderful-but-relatively",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Esempio-formulediriduzione-r2.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_integral#Computing_a_volume",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Stokes%27_Theorem.svg_"
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what is the frequency range in which pulsars radiate? | i have heard that it can be several ghz although was wondering if there any particular estimates. does it vary by pulsar? do different pulsars have different peak intensities at different frequencies? is the broadband spectrum of a pulsar comparable (at least in the range of frequency) to a star such as our sun? | pretty much all electromagnetic frequencies. the vast majority are observed as radio pulsars but there are many seen at x-ray/gamma ray and a very few in the optical even. here i'm referring to the beamed emission (the "pulse" part of the pulsar) but as a thermal blackbody they are also seen at x-rays and into the gamma ray as well. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do animals consciously control chromatophores? how do their brains interface with the cells? | in essence, their brain interfaces with the chromatophores in the same way brains interface with muscles. indeed, in the case of cephalopod chromatophores, that is basically all that is happening, muscle cells surrounding a dye filled sack either contract or relax. so a neuron from the brain forms an axon which descends and synapses with muscle cells in fish/frog chromatophores, things are bit more complex, and i don't know it as well off the top of my head, but basically melanin is transported around inside the cell, either concentrating it (which actually makes the cell appear lighter) or spreading it out. as you can possibly imagine, this is a slower processes. but again, it is under neural control. if you're struggling to conceptualize what it must be like, remember that if you have pale skin, it is likely you colour is somewhat under the control of your brain. you can blush, you can turn pale. you can go kinda bluish. here the muscles controlling your pigment are the smooth muscles of your vasculature, and the pigment is hemoglobin in red blood cells. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does science really tell us that the future is predetermined? | last week's nova show on pbs was about time (great show to learn about science btw). they don't normally give very detailed explanations and i'm still puzzled about how they explained space-time. they compared the space-time continuum to a loaf of bread that you can slice in many different ways. each slice represents a "now" and so depending on how you cut space-time, different events will occur simultaneously. their example was of a static human here on earth and of an alien 400 billion light years away. if the alien moved at an unspecified speed towards earth, than his time would be simultaneous with what happened 200 years ago on earth (1811). but if he were moving at that same speed away from earth, his time would be simultaneous to what happened 200 years "in the future" on earth (2211). that's a mind blowing concept, first because it suggests that the future already exists and that it's predetermined. it also makes you question what simultaneous even means. is this a well proven theory or just speculation? and, just for fun, could you actually calculate the speed at which the alien was going? | the relativity of simultaneity is a known aspect of special relativity. the conclusion drawn, that the events simultaneous with my present may be events in the future or past of events simultaneous with your preset seems to follow directly out of relativity. this model of space time is known as the "block" structure of time, that the past, present, and future aren't well defined concepts at the universal level. now of course it turns out that in all of this mucking about with "what *is* the present" it happens that we cannot communicate information from your future to you, even if it's simultaneous with our present. the rules still prevent that kind of stuff. but it does seem to imply that, at a metaphysical level, the future "exists" "already" just as much as the "past" exists. you just don't have access to information about what lies in your future. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the future pre-determined? | if i'm not clear enough please let me know... i was watching "beyond the cosmos" on tv about "time warp". they described space-time as being a loaf of bread and that perception of time (slice of bread) would change depending on how fast you were moving. their example was that if an alien a billion light years away were to be standing still, they would perceive time on the same plane of space-time as a human on earth standing still. if then the alien began moving away from earth, the plane of space-time perceived would shift slightly to the past. so if the alien were to look at earth while moving away from the earth, they would see the past. then they went to explain that if the alien were to be moving towards the earth, the plane of space-time perceived would shift to the future letting the alien see events that would happen in the future. which led me to the question, "if the future can be seen by a creature moving towards the earth, then is the future already pre-determined?" | one consequence of the relativity of simultaneity does appear to be that events in your "future" may be in the "present" for another observer that is spatially separated from you. [edit] i drew a picture, which you can see [here](_url_0_). the vertical direction is "time according to you", while the horizontal is "space according to you". thus, the blue line is "all of space right now according to you" and the green line is "your current position for all time according to you". the orange dot is thus an event in your future—as you see it, in some amount of time, whatever event that dot represents is going to happen right where you are sitting. now, the red line represents the path of a distant spaceship traveling at 2/3 the speed of light, as seen by you. this spaceship is coming closer, and it reaches your current position right at the very top of the picture, which is some (further) time in your future. the *purple* line is what relativity tells us corresponds to "all of space right now *as measured by the ship*." notice that this line passes through the orange spot? that means the event that you think is in the future is happening "right now" according to that observer. now, imagine sliding the purple/red lines along the blue one while keeping their slopes the same. this corresponds to putting the ship at different "current distances". notice that if you do this, you can get that purple line to cross your green line at any point you like. thus, for *every* event in your past or future, there is a reference frame such that an observer who was in that reference frame "right now according to you" would think that event has happening "right now". | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/acCEo.png"
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is the human concept of present time just the maximum rate at which our neurons can fire? | no. i'm not even sure how else to answer this, but it is not that. what did you read that caused you to ask this question? i might be able to answer better if you give a little background. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why don't the high voltage cables melt? | if q=v^2 /r , the voltage is about 100.000 volts, that's a lot of heat being generated. i think. | the v in your equation is the volts that are dropped across the line, not the voltage on the line. so, if you put in 100000 volts at one end and get out 99999 on the other, you've only dropped a volt and you aren't generating much heat. i don't know the actual numbers, but i do know that for a given resistance of a line and a given transmitted power, you lose less energy (and thus generate less heat) if your voltage is higher compared to if it is lower. edit: i should add that that's the whole reason we have high voltage power lines, and also the reason that ac is used for power transmission- because it's much easier to step up and step down ac power compared to dc power. edison originally tried to push dc for general usage, but couldn't produce large dc networks due to transmission losses. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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missing time (x-post from /r/askreddit) | so i was thinking, and i could be completely wrong here and probably am. an average day is considered 24 hours (1 rotation of the earth on its axis) the earth actually takes 23:56 minutes to rotate, this leaves 4 minutes. now you could say "well a leap year accounts for that time" but a leap year actually accounts for the 365.25 days it takes the sun to travel across the sun which is why we have it every 4th year (.25x4=1) so i also thought "hey, maybe that time, the 4 minutes left over from the days is what is causing the 365.25 to not be exact" so i checked this 365x4=1460 1460/60=24.333... so there is 24 hours, but that makes no sense because it's 365.25 not 366.333... am i over thinking this or have i just realized something i should have know for a long time, that time is subjective to our interpretation of the world and our experience and the exactness of it doesn't matter at all. if that's so, how are we measuring our time? it's not on the earths rotation or position to the sun... so where do these lost minutes go? | it's really about how you count time: a sidereal day is what you refer to as 23:56, which is the time the earth takes to rotate relative to the background of stars. a solar day is defined as 24 hours, and is the time it takes for the earth to ~~orbit~~ **rotate** relative to the sun (and is slightly longer because we're orbiting the sun). 365.25 solar days is the time it takes the earth to rotate the sun, it's independent of the earth's rotational speed. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_year"
] | [
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is there a scource for all the different types of body language and the interpretations? | like, when i want to know what gesture x/y/z could mean. where do i look for without reading a complete psychology 101 book? | the best answer i can give you is a book. 'what everybody is saying' by joe narvarro. he is an ex-fbi agent and uses examples from cases he worked on. by far the best resource on body language i have come across. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.google.com/search?ie=UTF-8&q=The+Definitive+Book+Of+Body+Language"
] | [
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what are the computational advantages of various rotation methods? | in other words, what makes quaternions, matricies, euler angles, etc. better/worse than others in various contexts? | i'm going to approach this more from a computer science perspective since you mentioned computation (and since i have a background in graphics). one example of an advantage would be that a quaternion won't encounter something known as gimbal lock, where performing an eulerian rotation can run into this. at extreme angles an eulerian system can have two of its axis of rotation align causing it to lose a degree of freedom. if you have ever used an eulerian camera in a game or a modelling program you may have seen this where rotating the camera above or below the subject made it hard to move the camera in a particular direction without rotating another axis first. quaternion based cameras dont have this problem. on the other hand, quaternions are a lot less intuitive than euler rotation. so if you dont care about gimbal lock you might avoid quaternions to simplify things. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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deformed fly wings, are these 'normal'? | i was in the garden this weekend and i saw a fly that could not fly, only buzz around the floor a bit. i saw it on saturday and sunday but not sure if it was the same one but i found a [video](_url_0_) that someone else shot. are these defects normal? what causes them? and was it the same fly i saw in my garden on saturday and sunday? | as lithium said, it's probably the result of a genetic mutation. because flies breed in incredibly large numbers, with a very short time between generations, mutations appear frequently (this is why they are used as model organisms in genetics a lot). although mutations in most genes cause simple defects like in the video above, if developmental genes are mutated, the results are more impressive. for example, in the [bithorax mutant of d. melanogaster](_url_1_), the [halteres](_url_0_) are replaced with a second set of wings. this is due the mutation effectively "reorganising" the activation of other genes in the developing fly. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pCHMxeAS1VA"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halteres",
"http://www2.hmc.edu/~drewell/l-flies.gif"
] | [
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can you count algae in a non-pure culture with a hemocytometer? | i would like to get a quantitative count of algae in an ibc tote full of nutrient rich water(used for hydroponics). we've noticed biofilm in the tank and would like to get a baseline algal count before we start treating it. i've used a hemocytometer to count algae before but only in pure cultures. i was just wondering if it would work in a non-pure culture. thanks! | my advice to you is to stop looking for a perfect solution. what you need is a close enough estimation, as even a modest amount of error will likely not be significant for your results. here is an arbitrary example for you to get the gist : initial measurement : 5.0e5 cells / ml post-treatment measurement : 5e2 cells / ml percentage of algae cleared: assuming no error = 99.900% assuming 10% error = 99.888% assuming 20% error = 99.875% assuming 30% error = 99.857% but i will throw out there... why not use a spectrophotometer to measure od at 750nm instead? just another option if you decide to forgo the hemocytometer, and could be a good way of avoiding the problem with filamentous algae. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do a lot of stuff we enjoy - alcohol, smoke, sweets - are bad for us? isn't there something fundamentally wrong with that? | something is wrong with my question i think, but here goes anyway. smoking does not give us stamina, drinking does not make us alert chocolates do not build muscles, multiple sex partners mean a higher incidence of stds... but we enjoy them all. why is it that stuff we enjoy are stuff which deteriorates us in some way or the other? is it that if we keep smoking, perhaps some day evolution will ensure that it is harmless to us? (not a science geek, arts major. please bear with me.) | ill just list them out best i understand them multiple sex partners- this one is pretty straight forward, looking at it evolutionarily, multiple sex partners mean more children for males and more males who may provide parental care to the children of females (as they may think the child is theirs) smoking & drinking- these are both part addiction, part enjoyment. alcohol and nicotene can both cause physical addictions, so continued use or abuse is easy enough to understand. they also both play a part in modern socializing, cigarretes lowering tension and alcohol lowering inhibitions, both of which can make social activities easier given anxieties that can result from our relatively recent high density living (prehistoric human populations likely lived in groups of 150 or less). sweets- given high metabolic demand of noncivilized life, actively hunting and gathering food with potentially low caloric value, fats and sugars would have been incredibley important. today, we are mismatched with a high demand as well as a high supply, so we consume too much. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it useful to hyperventilate during childbirth? | one of the changes in maternal physiology during pregnancy is an increase in minute ventilation (hyperventilation). this occurs even before labor (evidenced by decreased paco2 =mild respiratory alkalosis). many times we (physicians, nurses) tell people to focus on their breathing. this is mainly a distraction to take their mind of something else (stressor,pain, etc.) rarely is it necessary to remind someone to breathe (e.g., recovery room after anesthesia). | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
why is discovering a new particle such a big deal? what do we hope to gain from these discoveries? | some particle discoveries are just confirming what we already know from theory and proving it with experiments. others show us something we didn't know and we develop new theories. for example the higgs boson was a conformation of a theory, where as if we suddenly discovered a new quark that isn't predicted to exist then we would study it to develop new theories or alter our current ones. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can someone explain to me what a cross section in nuclear or particle physics means? | im finding it very hard to understand and could do with some help, thanks! | let's say you put a basketball on top of a fence post, back up 20 yards, and try to shoot it with a bb gun. from your vantage point, you don't care that the ball is a sphere - to you, it looks like a circle. and your probability of hitting the ball with the bb gun is related to the cross-sectional area of the ball (pi\*r^2 ) instead of its volume. collisions in particle physics are very similar. this isn't to say that the collision depends solely on some actual cross-sectional-area of an atom or particle. there's lots of complex quantum mechanical processes that go into whether or not two particles interact. but mathematically, we can describe the rate of those reactions as though the area metaphor was true. imagine you are looking at a thin foil of gold atoms. now lets say you shoot alpha particles at the gold foil. the alpha particle will be stopped or scattered if it "hits" one of the nuclei. now let's say that, when we shoot these alpha particles, they scatter 10% of the time. from this, we can assume that the aggregate size of the targets (the nuclei) was about 10% of the total size of the foil. if we calculate the density of gold atoms in the foil, then we can figure out what the effective area of those nuclei was. the gold nuclei doesn't actually have some physical area that blocks the alpha particles, but the positive charge of the nuclei has some range of effect over which it can scatter the gold atoms. my favorite part about nuclear cross sections is the units. typically, they are expressed in "barns" - which is 10^-24 cm^2 . this comes from early experiments which showed that uranium atoms looked "as big as a barn" to neutrons. it also makes calculations easier. since you typically end up having to multiply the cross section by avagadro's number, you just call it 0.602 and the 10^24 business cancels out. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can money/currency ever depreciate to a 'negative' value? if so, how would it happen? if not, what is stopping it from occurring? | the things typically used as "money" either have a non-zero material value (e.g. the copper in a penny, and metal in all coins) or are very easy to dispose of (for example, burning paper money). this makes it very difficult for an actual currency to fall to negative value. in principle money could fall to negative value if we made some extremely bad choices regarding our currency. for example, if we used crt televisions as currency, and the currency was devalued (e.g. no longer supported for use by the government) then the crt television vehicles of currency would in fact have a negative value, because legally and safely disposing of one costs more than the value of its parts. this means you would have to pay somebody (probably in a foreign, more stable) currency to take the currency off your hands- meaning it has negative value. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
at what point is the body officially hungry or full? | let's say i have a bag of chips, and i am hungry. after i finish them, i am full. at a certain chip does my body tell me that i am full through use of hormones, or is it after a period of time that my body responds with the message of "you are full"? | actually, it's much more complex than that. you are assuming that the physical feeling of fullness is the only signal processed by the brain to maintain a feeling of hunger or "fullness". the first part is a [biological response](_url_0_). as you eat, your blood glucose slowly increases triggering fat cells to release a hormone called [leptin](_url_1_), which decreases the hunger. since there's a delay in raising the blood sugar, you might become physically full (no further space in the stomach), before the brain thinks you have received enough food. i guess if you ate just ¼ of that bag of chips, and give enough time for leptin levels increase, then you'd probably have no interest in eating the remainder of the bag. there is also a behavioral component to hunger. humans eating behavior evolved in response to the fluctuation of food resources. it may be that you eat the bag of chips, because, at a basic behavioral level, your brain assumes that food may not be available for three days, so stock up now. but of course, it's substantially more complicated. maybe it's also a strategy to give the body more energy to find food. of course, this behavior is maladaptive in an environment where food is just a short drive away. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunger_(motivational_state)#Biological_mechanisms",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptin"
] | [
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i heard that phobos is "doomed" is that true? and if so, why? | does it have something to do with tidal forces? or just standard orbital decay? | the orbit is decaying due to tidal forces from the anisotropies of mars. in some 30 million years phobos should either disintegrate from tides and form a ring system, or reach the atmosphere and impact on mars. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_acceleration"
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a couple of questions about light | if light is an oscillating magnetic field with a perpendicular electric field, what happens when two plane-polarised photon beams are combined? is it a case of superposition, or does something more complex happen? if, for example, two beams, plane polarised 45 degrees (if possible) with respect to each other, were combined, what would the resultant beam look like? furthermore, i know magnetic fields have effects on the polarisation of light. what is this effect, and what governs it? i'm studying electromagnetism in second-year physics, but i don't think we cover photon interactions this semester. | it would be a more luminous beam polarized at 22.5 degrees. to make things easier, consider two light beams of equal amplitude e0, polarized at 90 degree separation, and keep them in phase. to further simplify, look at just the electric field. pick coordinates so that one beam is in the x-direction, and the other in the y-direction. **x** and **y** will be basis vectors in these directions. the electric field looks like this: **e**(x,y,z,t) = e0 cos( kz - wt ) **x** + e0 cos( kz - wt ) **y** i can also define a new coordinate system **x'** and **y'** that is rotated by 45 degrees. in this new coordinate system, the electric field is: **e**(x,y,z,t) = (√2 / 2) e0 cos( kz - wt ) **x'** so it is equivalent to think of it as a superposition of the two beams, or just one beam at 45 degrees. for photons, it is exactly the same story. if you choose to think in one basis, you have a beam of photons half in one polarization state, and half in the other. if you chose to think in the rotated basis, then all of your photons are in the one polarization state. both formulations lead to exactly the same predictions, it is just a matter of convenience. ~~just as a side note, if you allow beams that are out of phase, then you get interesting [circular and elliptic polarizations](_url_0_), and you can to think of any resultant wave as a superposition of exactly *three* different polarization states.~~ edit: struck out incorrect statement | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_polarization"
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how exactly does a dipole cancel out? | let's take carbon dioxide as an example. i read so many explanations as to why it is a non-polar molecule and they all seem to come down to 'because it's symmetrical and the net dipole moment is zero'. however, i would like to go deeper. what does it exactly mean? the electrons are still pulled towards each oxygen making each of them slightly negative and reactive. i don't see how symmetry would rule that out? | carbon dioxide can be viewed as o=c=o. you've got 2 c=o bonds present, each with dipoles making the oxygen's more electron rich. these two dipoles are of equal magnitude, but in opposite directions, so cancel out, so the molecule has no *net* dipole in any direction. i also think you might be confusing two explanations here. the lack of a net dipole results in weak intermolecular forces, so carbon dioxide isn't liquid at room temperature like water, which does have a net dipole moment. however, the bonds in carbon dioxide do still show a greater electron density on oxygen, making the carbon atom electron poor and thus attractive to nucleophiles. this can be exploited to make carboxylates, by the reaction of a grignard reagent with carbon dioxide (usually in dry ice form). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do supplements containing echinacea or ginseng have any proven effect on the immune system? | many products are available containing these natural herbs, and they cost quite a bit. most of them claim to have been proven effective in clinical trials, but is there any scientific research that shows that echinacea or ginseng have a positive impact on the immune system? | the immunomodulatory effects of echinacea, ginseng, b-glucans, mannan-oligosaccharides, and many other popular prebiotics and probiotics come from their chemical structure: repeated polysaccharides are common on the surfaces of bacterial and fungal pathogens, and are oftern described by immunologists as pathogen associated molecular patterns (pamps). this means that exposure to pamps should cause a boost in the innate immune response, and some activation of the adaptive response. the key with this type of modulation is you *don't want* a strong response to the stimulant - if you took a supplement every day that impacted inflammation, cell production, and cell activity at a high level it would be diverting resources from your survival and would have the potentital to induce a dangerous response. this is part of the problem in studying immunomodulators in humans - there are *many* factors that impact human immune reponse - exercise, diet, genetic background, exposure to pathogens, stress, environment quality to name a few - so to observe a small response we would have either have a very large experiment or monitor the test subjects for a long period both before and after the treatment to observe changes from a baseline. in animals, which don't have these constraints, it's pretty easy to get convincing data: [echinacea stimulates a plethora of innate responses in mice](_url_0_) [echinacea minimizes the inflammation associated with delayed hypersensitivity response in mice and rats](_url_1_) [ginseng enhances antibody production, cytokine signaling, and killer t cell activity in mice](_url_2_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2362099/",
"http://www.vvvvvv.pjps.pk/CD-PJPS-26-2-13/Paper-26.pdf",
"http://www.encognitive.com/files/Long-Term%20Oral%20Administration%20of%20Ginseng%20Extract%20Modulates%20Humoral%20Immune%20Response%20and%20Spleen%20Cell%20Functions.pdf",
"http://img2.tapuz.co.il/CommunaFiles/32117163.pdf",
"http://summaries.cochrane.org/CD001364/zinc-for-the-common-cold",
"http://summaries.cochrane.org/CD000530/echinacea-for-preventing-and-treating-the-common-cold"
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what`s the thinnest layer of material which isn`t transperant? | how, do i calculate the critical thickness, when 100% of a specific elctromagnetic wave frequenz gets absord. so nothing of that frequenz gets to the other side. (i am studying mechanical engineering, but i am not a native speaker) | the amount of light that transmits through a material decays exponentially based on the thickness of a material so only an infinitely thick layer would absorb all light that strikes it. the exponential decay depends on the magnetic and electrical properties of the material. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
i've heard that cheese contains a protein that acts like an opioid in the brain. is there any truth to this statement? | a little searching and i found that caseins and some other proteins might be bio-active but i don't know what is meant by that. can any one help me figure this out and learn more? | this is probably not what you were talking about, but it is in the news from time to time... one bioactive amine from cheese that is clinically relevant is [tyramine](_url_6_). tyramine can't get into the brain but causes the release of certain neurotransmitters like dopamine and epinephrine. [monoamine oxidase](_url_5_) is an enzyme that normally breaks down tyramine. some people take [monoamine oxidase inhibitors](_url_1_) (for depression, among other things) which stop that enzyme from working. this can lead to a build up of tyramine resulting in headaches, increased heart rate, and even [adrenergic storm](_url_2_). as far as caseins and casomorphins (breakdown product of caseins), there doesn't seem to be a whole lot in the literature. i saw a few studies talking about beta-casein and risks for certain neurological condictions, cardiovascular problems, and diabetes. [here](_url_3_), [here](_url_0_), and [here](_url_4_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16403684",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAOI",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic_crisis",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=search&term=kaminski+casomorphin",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21335999",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAO",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyramine"
] | [
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what is this unknown nugget? | i've got a nugget here my girlfriend has had for years, i can't tell what it is. it's quite weighty for it's size. anyone have any ideas on what it is? album below: _url_0_ | it's [pyrite](_url_1_). also know as "fool's gold" because small flecks of it are easily mistaken for gold ([larger pieces of gold](_url_0_) are easy to distinguish from it though). it's pretty widely available if you are interested in collecting rocks (you can get it at museums, nature centers, online, etc.) | 10 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/bupPi"
] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Native_gold_nuggets.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite",
"http://www.ehow.com/how_7827013_recognize-iron-pyrites-gold-pan.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galena"
] | [
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if we constructed a circular space station that spun to simulate gravity, could a river flow all the way around the interior of the ring? | *assuming* that your river channel is "level" all the way around the rim, it would depend on how fast your initial spin impulse would be - in other words, resting inertia of the liquid water would want to stay "at rest" as your ring spun up. eventually friction would get your water moving along with the rest of the mass of the ring so it would not be flowing any more. but since the mass of the ring system is taken as a whole when you fire up your spin rockets, it's going to be slow enough that you're probably not going to get much of any flow rate. if you thinking of putting in some sort of incline in order to get the water to flow downhill/downstream, you'll have to get it up above that point. try sticking a rock in a bucket of water, tie it to a rope, and whirl it around - you'll see it doesn't flow. tl;dr: no. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the functional and practical difference between an axial air gap and radial air gap dc electric motor? | google scholar wanted to make me pay to read scholarly articles, which is where i normally turn to investigate these matters. i'd appreciate someone who has engineering background on this matter! | the air gap is the part of the motor magnetic circuit that separates the rotating component from the stationary component. in a typical dc motor like the starter on your car, the rotating part is a cylinder. in this type of motor, the air gap is between the outer surface of the cylinder and the stationary part of the motor. it's called the radial air gap because if you measured that distance, it would be along the radius of the rotating part. in another kind of dc motor, the rotating part is a disc. the air gap in that kind of motor is on either side of the disc. when you measure the air gap on that kind of motor, you are measuring axially along a distance that is parallel to the axis of rotation. basically, it's the difference between an axial measurement and a radial measurement. the two measurements arise because of the two ways that a dc motor can be constructed. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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might waveform-based communications be susceptible to gravitational redshift? | if we or a hypothetical alien race were to attempt to communicate through waveform communications, could the frequency of the communications be "redshifted" by gravitational wells that the signals pass by/through? if so, is this compensated for when listening/transmitting at various frequencies? | they absolutely are, yes. effects from general relativity are taken into account for gps satellites in order to get the accuracy they have (someone with satellite expertise can talk more about the technical aspects if they feel moved). any clock in a gravity well relative to an observer is redshifted, be it light or gravity wave or one of those felix cats with the swinging tail and shifty eyeballs. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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turbulent air and drag | i was reading [this article](_url_0_) about turbulent air and drag. it says that when the surface of an object is rough (like a golf ball) and the speed is high enough, the drag coefficient drops. **so my question is**, why are cars built to be smooth if, were their surfaces rough, they would reduce drag? **or rather**, what am i misunderstanding about all of this? thanks! | the only answer i'm seeing here that's near to getting it right is [icegreentea's.](_url_0_) no one has mentioned reynolds numbers at all. first, [take a look at this plot.](_url_1_) on the vertical axis is drag coefficient, the horizontal axis is a non-dimensional number called the reynolds number. notice that for both smooth and rough spheres (e.g. smooth and dimpled golf balls) there is a rather sudden drop in drag coefficient (cd), and the rough sphere experiences the drop at a lower reynolds number (re). at lower and higher re, the spheres are nearly identical, although the rougher one actually has higher drag at higher re. re here is defined as the velocity times a length scale (sphere diameter) divided by kinematic viscosity of the fluid (re = u*l/nu). broadly speaking, re describes how turbulent a fluid is; lower re = more laminar/less turbulent, higher re = more turbulent, and there's a distinct transition point in between regions. golf balls just so happen to typically travel in that transitional regime that enables lower drag when you add dimples. if they were traveling 10x faster than they do, the dimpled ball would actually have more drag. similarly, if they were traveling the same speed but were 10x larger, the dimpled ball would again have more drag. a car's speed is about the same order of magnitude as a golf ball (driver speed about 150mph for the ball), but the car's length is 100x that of the ball. this means that a car on the highway typically travels at a reynolds number 50x higher than a golf ball, which is well above the transitional regime where dimples help, and would in fact increase drag. this is a severe simplification, as individual car parts such as an f1 wing would have an effective re lower than when considering the full length of the car, and cars aren't spheres, etc., but this is the main gist of it. **tl,dr; cars would experience more drag if they were dimpled.** **tl,dr pt 2; mythbusters didn't need to do the experiment, they could've just asked someone that's taken an introductory aerodynamics course.** | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.ultimatesoccercoaching.com/soccer-kick/how-to-curve-a-soccer-ball.html"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/142at5/turbulent_air_and_drag/c79covv",
"http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/dragsphere.html",
"http://www.racecar-engineering.com/articles/technology/can-dimpled-aerodynamic-surfaces-reduce-drag/",
"http://autospeed.com/cms/title_Blowing-the-Vortex-Part-1/A_3058/article.html",
"http://kereta.info/wp-content/uploads/2008/11/vortex-generators-on-cars.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_separation",
"http://dsc.discovery.com/tv-shows/mythbusters/videos/dimpled-car-minimyth.htm"
] | [
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what is it about america that makes it the exception to the rule that the better educated and the wealthier a society, the less likely its people are to believe in a god? | moderator weighing in here. speculation and anecdote will not be considered good answers and may be removed. i have approved this thread on a probationary status (it had been reported several times). it can be discussed in a scientific manner perhaps, as our official stance is that social sciences are, in fact, sciences, so please keep the discussion confined to scientific material. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what's better for traffic? a city with concentric roads and roads running along the diameter of the circle or a city with straight, orthogonal roads? | i'd say you would have to look at this problem from different perspectives: **mathematical: [shortest path problem](_url_0_)** this is probably the first thing you would think of when thinking about your question. what is the shortest (thus, in theory, the "fastest") way from a to b? this, however, cannot be answered for those two setups because they strongly depend on conditions like: * how tight are the roads together? or in more technical terms: what is the "resolution" of the road system? for both the setups applies: the denser the roads, the shorter the path you have to travel. for example, if the roads were infinitely dense, you would basically have a huge area of concrete, on which you could *always* travel from a to b in a straight line. however, this would kind of... everything... since there were not any space left to do anything else, so why need roads in the first place? as the resolution increases and is at a practically usable level (certain distance between the roads to build stuff between them), the problem is again strongly dependent on things like: * how many radial roads are there? at which radius to you introduce additional radial roads? because as the radius increases, so does the distance between the radial roads; this could make travelling on the outermost circles very inefficient. think about having only one radial road going from north to south and one from west to east. if you were at say circle 15, point north west and you want to go to circle 16 north west, you would have to drive the entire circle up/down to the north/east radial road in order to switch circles. then drive the whole way back again. this would be a distance of several kilometers, when in fact wou were just 100 meters away. **psychological: navigation complexity for humans** a big part of the "traffic" is influenced by actions of humans (stopping for weird reasons, not knowing where to turn, etc.). therefore the roads should also be built in a way that is easy to understand for people. right angles are pretty easy to understand for everybody, whereas circles can be kind of complex. imaging someone describing the route to some restaurant to you in: "take the 5th counterclockwise, then go outbound on the 225 degree, then make a right onto the 7th and just between the 270 and 300 degrees you should see it on the right." - as opposed to: "take the 5th avenue eastbound, make a right onto 7th street, where it should be just around the left corner after 2 blocks.". also, i think it can be very tiresome for people to drive in circles all the time. it would probably result in more accidents than straight roads ... with all them kids nowadays textin' 'n' drivin' 'n' all... **construction: cost and space efficiency** this is not really a traffic-problem, but circular roads create a lot of weirdly shaped land sites, which can result in a lot of wasted space. this could be very expensive in big cities. also, cities that are surrounded by mountains, sea, etc., could not really build a circular road system, because the terrain just would not allow it. this would result in lots and lots of "exceptions", which would, again, defeat the whole idea of such a thought-through traffic system. i would really like to write a little simulation of this, but i do not have the time at the moment :/ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortest_path_problem"
] | [
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|
i noticed this cloud formation yesterday. what is it called and how is it formed? | i was driving through the hill country in central texas yesterday, when i noticed a fairly unique looking cloud formation. the entire sky was covered in one gigantic cloud, with waves and bulges throughout. i had never seen anything like it. so, as the titles asks, what is this formation, how is it formed, and why have i never seen it before? picture here: _url_0_ edit: formatting | looks like an atmospheric gravity wave causing undulations in the existing cloud deck. the physics is the same as a surface wave in the ocean (gravity acts as the restoring force for the wave) but in this case it is occurring on the interface between two layers of the atmosphere with slightly different densities. they are created by winds sweeping over a mountain or by some intense perturbation of atmospheric winds. sometimes they are a [precursor to tornadoes.](_url_0_) [timelapse video of atmoshpheric gravity waves in iowa](_url_1_). | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/zqsfsqd"
] | [
"http://science1.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/19mar_grits/",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yXnkzeCU3bE"
] | [
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why is the lagrangian in classic mechanics equals to t - v ? | that minus sign seems so counterintuitive. i know that some physical or mathematical questions have for answer "just because". and in this case, one answer is "because t - v gives you the same answers that you'll get with newton's equations". but i was wondering if there was an alternative way to see it, a derivation of the equation that make you exclaim "of course it must be t - v. it's so obvious now!" | the presentation you've seen reflects how it's typically used in physics. once the principle of least action and the euler-lagrange equations are established, physicists just pick the l that gives the desired equations of motion. this doesn't apply to just mechanics, but also to classical and quantum fields. the derivation you're looking for is given in the first chapter of *classical mechanics* by goldstein. the euler-lagrange equations and l = t - v are derived from newton's second law by introducing generalized coordinates. as far as i know, this is close to the original derivation by lagrange and euler: speaking a bit roughly, they were looking for a formulation of mechanics for general coordinate systems that was as easy to use as newton's second law is in rectangular coordinates, m d^2 x/dt^2 = f(x). i think the derivation you've seen is common because it emphasizes that the principle is far more general than you would think if you just derived it from newton. edit: if t - v seems nonintuitive, think about newton's second law rewritten as dp/dt - f = 0. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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questions about carl sagan's explanation of flatland | _url_0_ i wonder if someone could help me overcome some obstacles that are preventing me understanding this. when a 3 dimensional object appears in flatland, he explains, a cross section of it will appear to the flatlander. what i can't get my head around is how could the flatlander perceive an object that has no height? i imagined at first that the apple (at it's central cross section) would look like a line to the flatlander, but that "line" would have to have some height to see it wouldn't it ? what would a line that has no height look like? | just think about it in abstract geometrical sense. trying to figure out how vision would work in 2d is kinda misses the point. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fVXV8XB-GPo"
] | [] | [
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when attempting to determine the direction on a compass from hartford ct to vancouver bc, do i need to account for the curvature of the earth? | title is kind of awkward. i don't really know how to articulate what i'm asking. thank you in advance | no and yes. it depends on what path you're interested in - do you want the shortest path between hartford and vancouver, or do you want to be able to follow a single compass bearing? these aren't actually the same thing. you can try understanding it by this example let's say that, instead of vancouver, you are trying to go to bayin qiandamen in the gobi desert near the chinese-mongolian border. it has the same latitude as hartford, but is on the exact opposite side of the earth. the shortest (or great circle) route is directly over the north pole and takes about 10600 km, and you first need to follow your compass due north to the north pole and then due south to the destination. alternatively you can follow your compass due east and never have to change direction, but this root is much longer - at about 15100 km. your example is a little more tricky: for hartford-vancouver if you want to take the great circle route you need to constantly change your compass bearing (the calculation of which depends on the curvature of the earth). you can plot this course on a gnomonic projection map, where straight lines on the map are always the shortest distance between two points. if you want to follow a single compass bearing then you can plot your course on the familiar mercator projection map, where straight lines are lines of constant bearing. hope this helps! | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it better to be layered with loose warm layers or tight fitting layers on a cold day? | i have noticed when i bundle up to go out in the cold that if i wear tighter fitting layers that i do not feel as cold. is it better to wear several layers that are kind of bulky, like sweat shirts or hoodies, or the same amount of layers that are tighter fitting, like thermals? | it's all about air. air is a poor thermal conductor. you want the air to not be moving. that means trapped pockets or layers of air, and little or no airflow between the air trapped in your clothes and the outside air. however, i think your premise is flawed, as that depends on the materials moreso than on the volume or mass of your clothes. for instance, long underwear is tight, but it has a pattern sewn into it that creates small air pockets, so it is warm when worn under heavier clothing. ideally, you'd have an airtight outermost layer and several inner layers of trapped air pockets. that's how the down parkas work - they have a synthetic material on the outside that prevents airflow, and feather stuffing on the inside to trap air. so it's not that tight is better than loose or vice versa. you want it close enough to your skin that outside air can't get between it and you, but you don't want a skintight article of clothing that doesn't trap any air. that's why you wear layers, so you can get both. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would a grand unified theory merge the color charges and weak isospin together? | i may be misunderstaning, but from my studies i assume that the w± bosons were just supposed to carry isospins of up-andtidown and down-antiup in the same way gluons carry color-anticolor pairs as i understand it, a grand unified theory is supposed to mix the strong and electroweak forces, and adds bosons that turn colorless particles with weak isospin into colored particles without weak isospin, in other words it would the particles added would be color-antiisospin and isospin-anticolor. if so, does this mean that they're essentially five types of the same charge? | yes, this is what happens in the georgi-glashow su(5) theory and related models: the su(2) weak isospin and su(3) color charge combine into a five-component charge (hence the "5" in su(5)). for more information, including how does u(1) hypercharge fit into this, you can check section 3 of [this paper](_url_0_) by john baez. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/guts.pdf"
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does any organism release some kind of chemical message when it is attacked that serves as a warning to others? for example to warn about some kind of predatory trap. | edit: thanks for all the replies, really interesting reading. | a study a couple years ago revealed that a tobacco plant releases something called [green leaf volatiles](_url_1_) or glv. the study observed that when caterpillars began feeding on the leaves, the plant released this signal into the air. this molecule then attracts the attention of surrounding *geocoris* insects, that feed on the caterpillars. the chemical is formed when the saliva from the caterpillar mixes with surface chemicals on the plant's leaves. this molecule smells similar to 'cut grass' because grass also releases this type of molecule. so next time you're outside cutting your grass, imagine all the grass blades screaming out for help. [source](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11101536",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_leaf_volatiles"
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sleep debt, optimal sleep, fatigue/exhaustion | so i started reading a post about sleep yesterday that gave this link: _url_0_ (even when searching for it, i can't find the post, sorry). my question is more or less an extension of what was there when i read it last night. so basically, when you get drowsy in non-stimulating situations, you have a sleep debt. you get a sleep debt when you don't allow your body to sleep as much as it needs. my question: - is sleep debt that is accumulated because exhaustion/fatique is a symptom of an illness equal to sleep debt that is accumulated because you simply don't sleep enough? so is there a distinction between "wanting to sleep cause you're tired" and "wanting to sleep because it's a symptom of your illness"? | your question hits on a very complex issue that we don't fully understand yet. i will try to address it by talking about the physiology. from what we currently know (see _url_1_), sleepiness increases with increasing time awake due to the accumulation of certain sleep regulatory substances in the brain. these include adenosine and some cytokines. during wakefulness, the firing of neurons leads to the release of atp into the space around the cells. breakdown of atp leads to the production of adenosine, and interaction of atp with glial cells leads to the release of cytokines. all of these factors contribute to increased sleepiness. caffeine works by blocking adenosine receptors, thereby temporarily reducing the feeling of sleepiness. when we get sick, we also get sleepy (see _url_0_). this is at least partly due to the fact that we have increased levels of sleep-promoting cytokines -- cytokines are immune-signalling molecules. sleep serves many functions, including maintaining the immune system. as a result, there are close links between the sleep and immune systems. when you get sick, you tend to become more tired, and when you skimp on sleep, you tend to become more vulnerable to infection. so, to answer your question, sleepiness due to excess time awake and due to illness seem to involve some of the same biochemical pathways. the two are probably not exactly equivalent, though. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.stanford.edu/~dement/sleepless.html"
] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v10/n3/abs/nrn2576.html",
"http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v9/n12/abs/nrn2521.html"
] | [
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] |
where does nature break down and choice of movement begin in microscopic creatures? | on the atomic level, everything is just chemical reactions. at what point do these start turning into choices. for instance, on the cellular level, do they choose how their flagella spin to move? do viruses choose which cells to invade? do they actually control their movements at that small of a scale or what? | i'm going to share some of what i picked up in two quarters of biochemistry. the tl;dr is that when you're talking about things like cells, viruses, even organ systems, it's about feedback and feedback loops. a happens, a causes b, b causes c through g. on a cellular level, there is guidance to what happens, but not perfect control, and not conscious control. proteins have sequences that fold in predictable manners governed by thermodynamics. these proteins can be changed by reactions with other proteins, processed and altered, but reactions in the cell are still chemical reactions that depend on energy sources and favored directions of reaction. a lot of these things are controlled by moving compounds around in the cell, but again this is accomplished with specific pathways. keep in mind that all of these processes are not accomplished by conscious choice, but by proteins, membranes, and other molecules that function according to the laws of physics. our genetic code orchestrates all of this, but you can be sure that a strand of dna isn't thinking, it's simply being read and transcribed. our bodies do a magnificent job of keeping us from reaching equilibrium, but the cells make no choices about it. viruses don't choose what cells to infect, they move around the body and then they come in contact with the right type of cell and they attack. your stomach doesn't choose to digest certain proteins, it releases enzymes that degrade the proteins that they contact. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3409764/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotaxis"
] | [
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when should you consider global over local symmetry (or vice versa) when it comes to solid or fluid materials? | i was having a discussion with my optics professor about the symmetry of lens and mirror materials at the atomic scale with respect to interactions with light. he was mentioning that it is often understood that liquids and gases are more symmetric than solids because transformations applied don’t seems to alter the macroscopic appearance as much. this made sense to me overall, but of course i intuitively believed that since solids are more orderly, you could find discrete axes and planes to perform transformation that would ideally return everything back to where it started. the part that doesn’t make sense is the fact that liquids and gases likely wouldn’t microscopically look the same upon performing that same transformation. ultimately i’m curious why a break in local symmetry can be “ignored” if a given transformation preserves global symmetry? i’m fairly new to this type of topic so forgive me if this is very basic in the grand scheme. | it depends on the scale you're looking at. on the atomic scale a solid, like a crystal, is very symmetric in a few planes and certain rotations. but on a large scale it is not symmetric under rotation. small bits are, not the whole thing. in gases it's the exact opposite. on small scales it has almost no symmetries, but the properties it has are incredibly symmetric on the large scale, because they cone from a random distribution of particles. transformations on a random distribution will leave it random, keeping its properties. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's going on with the sun in this picture? | _url_0_ so, it's not the best picture because apparently taking pictures of the sun is hard. this is northern utah at about 6:30 pm. i'm curious what's going on with the bright light to the right of the sun in the clouds. it was just as difficult to look at the sun itself. | it's known as a "sun dog" or "parhelion" (latin for "next to the sun"). [they form](_url_0_) when sunlight passes through [hexagonal ice crystals oriented parallel to the ground](_url_2_), usually in thin, high-altitude ice clouds like the ones in your picture. these crystals [refract sunlight at a specific angle (around 22 degrees)](_url_4_), so sun dogs will always be at the same position in relation to the sun: 22 degrees ([or more](_url_1_)) to the right and/or left. the site i linked a few times in my explanation (_url_3_) has some amazing explanations and diagrams of optical phenomena in the atmosphere, i highly recommend checking it out. edit: added a couple diagrams. | 6 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/TGyfjg0.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/dogfm.htm",
"http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/dogalt.htm",
"http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/graphics/photos/sundogice.gif",
"http://www.atoptics.co.uk",
"http://www.weather.gov.hk/education/edu06nature/images/ele-sundog0909-12.jpg"
] | [
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how do non-bipedal animals keep from choking? | if i couldn't touch my own throat, back, or chest, i feel that i would have been fucked a long time ago. how do wild lions, tigers, hyenas, etc, not, by random chance, choke to death at some point with no way of removing the foreign object? is their esophagus/trachea organization different? | this is because humans have their larynx placed above the split between air and food tubes (technical terms ofc.) without the split humans wouldn't be able to speak but that unfortunately leads to increased ability to choke not found in other animals | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's so dangerous about energy in the form of heat? what does it actually do to our skin? | does it weaken intermolecular forces in our skin? why does heat (which to my knowledge is just a form of energy) hurt us? also, why does a lack of heat hurt so much? | cellular proteins have very narrow ranges of stability, increasing the temperature too much will cause them to degrade and stop functioning. more extreme heat can cause a phase change or initiate other chemical reactions. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much does a 'tough mind' have to do in your immune system or fighting off a virus? | so i was just in an argument with my brother over how he thinks his 'tough mindset' has helped him fight off sickness for like 6 years. he seems to think that he consciously controls his immune system by fighting off any sickness by himself. is there any scientific basis for this or is he just talking poppycock? | _url_0_ "one recent study, for example, polled healthy first-year law students at the beginning of the school year to find out how optimistic they felt about the upcoming year. by the middle of the first semester, the students who had been confident that they would do well had more and better functioning immune cells than the worried students." | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://psychcentral.com/lib/2006/the-power-of-positive-thinking/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1447278/",
"http://www.g2gfitness-mma-ccoach-sthqld.com/resources/Sapolsky%20why%20Zebras%20don%27t%20get%20ulcers.pdf"
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what made the viral youtube music video, gangman style, so popular? | there [are](_url_1_) [some](_url_2_) [studies](_url_0_) on what makes the viral videos viral, but i don't think there is a consensus yet. in any case, gangnam style obviously contains many features of viral videos: catchy melody, surprises, attractive women etc. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.fastcodesign.com/3024276/evidence/these-scientists-studied-why-internet-stories-go-viral-you-wont-believe-what-they-f",
"https://www.elon.edu/docs/e-web/academics/communications/research/vol2no1/08west.pdf",
"https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/why-people-click/201304/what-makes-videos-go-viral"
] | [
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|
how do doctors determine that an infant has congenital insensitivity to pain (cip)? | i'm just having a hard time thinking of a way to do this without actually harming the baby. | one of the biggest sign is that toddlers sometimes eat out their own lips and always bite their tongue, sometimes it can lead to some serious tongue damage. like biting is one of the first thing a baby would do in order to learn what is pain and that biting your own tongue : not good. since they don't feel pain, they keep doing so. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes sargassum to was up on shores? | recently, in the caribbean there has been a lot of seaweed washing up on shore. seaweed has washed up on our shores before however, the amount this time was massive and i was wondering what caused this amount of seaweed to wash up on our shores. in like environmental terms please like what conditions caused it. | do you by any chance know which sargassum species we are talking about?:) it kinda relates to their life style, some sargassum species are attached to a hard substrate (rocks, corals etc) others are free floating. lets assume we are speaking of a free floating species. anyhow, first of all you need a big bloom of sargassum growing somewhere of shore. the causes of a bloom are numerous, sea temperature rise (climate change), changing of currents (climate change), eutrophication (fertilizers used on land runoff to sea), regional upwelling or just favorable conditions by chance and so many more (invasive species doing well, other biological reasons). researchers themselves aren't very clear on what the causes can be for the increasing amount of sargassum to washing up on shore, and for that what the reason is for those sargassum blooms. personally i would exclude the upwelling idea because the caribbean are not known for their upwelling zones, these are most often located at the western part of the continents (the big ones). it is possibly a combination of eutrophication (from north and south america and the islands themselve), sea temperature rise and currents changing. these factors together could cause a big bloom of sargasso which would eventually wash up on shore due to currents or a storm. **tl;dr. many factors could possibly play a role: eutrophication, sea temperature rise, currents changing, storms and many more. the exact factors are not known but a fact is that a bloom is needed before it can wash up in big amounts. the characteristics of how to get a bloom are known.** source: i'm a master student in marine biology | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is producing the light in this photo of eva carrière? | _url_0_ from wikipedia "eva carrière (born marthe beraud), was a prominent spiritualist and psychic medium in the 19th century. she was born in 1886 in france." any idea on how she produced that light? is it maybe photoshopped? | unless she left an instruction manual somewhere, i don't think you'll get a straight answer, but it could be anything. assuming arthur conan doyle wasn't just playing along, it wasn't trick photography, but he or the astounded guy in the front could be in cahoots. my guess is that it's a shiny thing jiggling around or wound up on a rubber band, reflecting a non-obvious, carefully pointed light source. it could be concealed before and after the trick any number of ways. also, she could have hidden electrical wires, running to a filament which might light up briefly and then destroy itself. she could have made some kind of origami flash paper thing with a spring in it and ignited it through slight of hand. you might rather post this on /r/skeptic instead of askscience since a magician's goal is to evade scientific observation. | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Medium-Eva-Carriere-1912.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Zo1474Ic3E",
"http://kids-theme-parties.com/spinning-button-toys-for-boys-party-favour-bags/"
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how does 2,4-dinitrophenol span membranes? | in biochemistry, a question was raised that said 2,4-dinitrophenol distrupts the proton gradient created in mitochondria by acting as a proton transporting molecule. but how does it span a hydrophobic mitochondrial membrane if the molecule itself seems so polar? | 2,4-dnp is a classical uncoupler which accelerates the formation of high energy redox compounds but prevents the coupling of oxphos to atp synthesis. dnp directly permeabilizes the inner mitochondrial membrane. this leaks protons, its why dnp is such an effective weight loss agent. atp synthesis is greatly reduced despite considerable oxphos. though toxicity will result. [from alberts essential cell biology 4th ed.](_url_0_) as for the polarity of the group and the membrane. weakly acidic uncouplers at the aqueous interface of the membrane, in their ionic form, trap h+ and and become neutral. the neutral compound traverses the membrane where it releases a proton inside the inner membrane bypassing complex v. the compound returns towards the aqueous interface and the cycle repeats. delocalization of charge via resonance stabilization in uncoupler anions allows for hydrophobicity (terada, 1990). _url_2_ [link to terada's full paper on uncouplers](_url_1_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/kNfNWXZ.png",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1567840/",
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now we have the most advanced technology, why don't we come up with famous equations anymore? | it seems as though all the modern technology we have to do science with aren't producing the results in terms of equations like maxwell's and newtons' etc like 400 years ago without these machines or even rigorous calculus. why is it? is it the dependance on technology that is killing us? | there's a difference between equations and 'famous equations'. we come up with equations all the time. papers are stuffed full of them at many, many conferences. but they're often highly specialised and not easy to digest. for many fields, this is because we are becoming hyperspecialised, looking at subfields of subfields of subfields, rather than sweeping 'theories of everything'. but i'm not entirely sure i understand the question. what is a famous equation that you can think of? and in what sense would technology kill anything like this off? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes the difference in the way we perceive the spiciness in food? | some kinds of spices cause heat in different parts of ones mouth and at different durations of time. what causes this, and what are some examples of spices and their specific effects? additionally, is there any manipulation of the ingredients that causes these specific localities of and intensities of the spice in question? (e.g. only on the back of the mouth, and very hot vs. whole mouth, a little hot) thank you. | there are many compounds that cause different perceptions of spiciness or pungency. there are many different receptors that respond to different stimuli in the tongue based on several different factors. your mouth has several thousand taste buds and each taste bud has 50-100 taste cells in these buds. the main flavors they taste are sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. the chemicals in foods react with these buds which trigger receptors on the cells which activate the cells sending nervous signals we interpret as flavors. most of the known receptors are ion channels which when triggered allow ions to travel into or out of the cells activating a signal response which then close after a time until the cells regenerate this action potential. when prolonged contact occurs with a single compound the reactivity of such cells often decreases due to this habituation, much like when you get used to smells. the activity of these receptors can sometimes overlap depending on the compounds. these receptors are found in similar spots on the tongue, mainly at the front. _url_0_ the receptors that respond to two of the ingredients that we consider spicy (or that burn) are not exactly the same as the rest of the taste receptors. for hot burns, often caused by capsaicin, the this receptor is found throughout you skin and is trvp1. this receptor also responds to heat and gives the "hot burn feeling" of spiciness associated with being burnt. this gives a burning feeling in your mouth and also the burning feeling in your rectum "mexican/curry shits". one reason capsaicin does not reach further into the nose as some other spices is that it is not very volatile and is fat soluble. this is why cooking peppers with oil provides more spiciness and why drinking water does not quench the feeling, yet milk does. the capsaicin is more likely to end up in the lipophillic membranes or fats in milk products than in water. for cold burns, trpm8 receptors, that are also found through your skin, respond to cold sensations and chemicals such as menthol which give a "cold burn" numbing sensation. other compounds such as allyl isothiocyanate, found in wasabi, also are considered spicy. in this case this compound interacts with two receptors, one is the trpv1 receptor, the same as found with capsaicin and gives the burning mouth sensation. however the nose burn often felt with wasabi is caused by this molecule being volatile and entering the nasal passages to interact with another pain receptor trpa1. many known spicy compounds such as those in wasabi and asafoetida are sulfur containing compounds such as sulfides, iocyanates, thioethers but not all. for the spice asafoetida the major flavorant is butyl propyl disulfide, a sulfide. cinnamaldehyde from cinnamon and oleocanthal from olive oil activate trpa1 for spicy tastes. gingerol and zingerone from ginger also activate trpv1 and trpa1. pungent spices such as basil contains eugenol that interacts with the vr1 (vanilloid receptor). however this molecule is highly volatile, which is why basil is added to food last given that the heat drives the compound off quickly, it is also why basil is more fragrant than the other spices. so there are many many factors effecting the spiciness of a compound and how it acts. a basic list follows. 1) the receptor/receptors the compound interacts with. most compound considered spicy react with either trpv1 and trpa1 as hot/painful spices or trpm8 as cold/cooling spices. 2) the volatility of the compound, more volatile compounds such as those found in wasabi can reach your nose and the father areas of your mouth thus providing different areas of sensation. 3) the hydrophobicity or lipophilicity of the compounds and the food they are contained in. compounds such as capsaicin can last longer on the tongue due to their being lipophilic and better binding to the lipid membranes in the cells. however if lipophilic foods are ingested soon after such as fatty milk products the burn will go away faster due to competition. 4) related to the the lipophilicity is the general solubility of the compounds in the food and in your mouth. some compounds can change their solubility and potentially crash out on your tongue due to the change in ph, osmolarity, temperature in your mouth. thus the temperature of the food, its ph, etc. effect how it interacts with your taste buds. interesting some compounds with different solubilities can still provide the similar flavors. an example of this is of limonene (the oil that gives citrus there flavor). this compound is used in citrus candies and solids, but as it is a relative immiscible oil it cannot be used in water based lemon lime sodas, thus in sodas such as sprite mixtures of similar compounds such as linalool, octanal, and 2,3-dehydro-1,8-cineole are used. 5) the interaction of the compounds with the receptors also affects the response. some compounds such as miraculin can bind for up to an hour. interestingly this protein (found in the miracle fruit) after binding also changes how the receptors respond to taste. normally miraculin causes sour foods to taste sweet. at neutral ph, miraculin binds and blocks the receptors, but at low ph (resulting from ingestion of sour foods) miraculin binds protons and becomes able to activate the sweet receptors, resulting in the perception of sweet taste. though i do not know of any directly effecting the receptors related to spiciness it is not unlikely this occurs though perhaps on a diminished level. 6) the kinetics of the compounds interaction with the taste receptors. as stated for miraculin above the compounds can bind for up to an hour (off rate). the onset of the taste can also be due to the on rate of the molecules binding (how fast it binds) and how fast it exits the food and enters your tongue. for example some gum retains flavors for a long time, (i.e. big red), due to a hydrophobic matrix so that you experience low levels of cinnamon flavoring for longer rather than it all becoming soluble at once (i.e. juicy fruit) and becoming tasteless in minutes. these kinetics are effected by the environment such as ph etc., but primarily by temperature and the concentration of the compounds, for example people generally don't even notice the taste of sugar compounds until the milimolar range. i probably did not answer your question fully as it is an exceptionally complex system that doesn't just include your taste receptors, their neural responses, and the kinetics of the chemical compounds in question but also is affected by other molecules in the food, their interaction with those compounds and your tongue as well as the osmolarity, ph, temperature, and concentration of those compounds. hopefully this gives an overview and you can ask more specific question about sources or particular interests within this area. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v444/n7117/fig_tab/nature05401_F1.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scoville_scale",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsacin",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capsaicin#Capsaicinoids"
] | [
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if i sent a ship with a clock away from me (v=%c) and after a few years i sent another faster to catch up with the first one, would it encounter time difference? | i mean, the first one would be moving in relativistic velocities, so time would slow down, but when i send the second one, the time would slow down even more on that one. but in the end, when i want to slow down again to look at the clock on the first ship, won't it counteract the time difference again? | yes, for the sake of this ill use big t for the overall clock of the observer on the ground not moving. ta will be the clock on ship a and tb will be the clock on ship b the relationship is (ta or tb) = t * (sqrt(1 - v^2 / c^2 ))............................ if for example we sent ship a at a speed of 0.5*c at time = 0 seconds, and one second later we send ship b at the speed of 0.75*c at time = 1 seconds......we assume both ships magically accelerate from 0 m/s to cruising speed instantaneously and both carry perfectly accurate stop watches both starting at times = 0................ from the ground we observe that ship b catches up to ship a at exactly time = 3 seconds (i.e. t = 3 seconds)............during the travel time of the 3 seconds, clock a results in ta = t * sqrt(1 - ( 0.5^2 * c^2 )/ c^2 ) which yields ta = 2.598 seconds. in the same 3 seconds clock b experiences 1 + (t - 1) * sqrt(1 - ( 0.75^2 * c^2 )/ c^2 ) which yields tb = 2.3228 seconds. notice on clock b there is a 1 in the beginning and a (t - 1), this is because ship b waited for 1 second before traveling 2 seconds to catchup with ship a. so there is a .275 second difference in the clocks. you can scale this up to years and it should have the same proportional difference in the clocks. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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may sound stupid but here goes , when we are in the womb and are slowly growing where do those atoms come from that make us or do we make those atoms in the womb ? | they come from the food your mother eats while you're developing, as well as your mother herself. no new atoms are created, just rearranged cleverly from food and air and water. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does δe have any effect on the rate at which a reaction proceeds? | had a discussion about this in chemistry, wanted to hear some discussion. does δe (energy change) affect the reaction rate? | the study of the the thermodynamics of a reaction (the energy changes associated with the reaction) and the kinetics (the rate at which the reaction will happen) are fundamentally connected if you include not just the net reaction, but the constituent elementary reactions as well. in the simplest model, [schematically shown here](_url_1_) the net reaction rate can be described by the [arrhenius equation](_url_0_), where a is an empirical prefactor, ea is the activation energy, and rt is the thermal energy. however, even in this simple model, it is the activation energy (the difference in energy between the reactants and the transition state), rather than the driving force (how energetically favorable a reaction is or energy(products)-energy(reactants)) that determines the reaction rate. in some particular cases one may be able to find a well-defined relationship between the driving force and the activation energy, however this is not always true. in general one cannot say whether the rate of a reaction will be slower or faster from knowledge of the driving force alone. a good illustrative example of this uncertainty is the rate of electron transfer reactions. in a simplified model, the thermodynamic picture looks like [this](_url_2_), where the electron is moving from the red curve (the donor) to the blue curve (the acceptor). in this case the activation barrier is the difference between the bottom of the parabola on the right and the point where the two parabolas intersect. notice that at first increasing the driving force (pushing the acceptor parabola downwards) reduces the activation barrier. however, at one point the activation barrier becomes zero and increasing the driving force only increases the activation barrier. in that regime, making the reaction more energetically favorable actually slows it down! in fact this initially theoretical prediction has been validated experimentally as shwon [here](_url_3_). **tl;dr: no, in general it's not possible to link the net thermodynamics of a reaction to the reaction rate.** | 2 | [] | [] | [
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what will it take for us to confirm/fund the graviton? | it is basically impossible for us to confirm gavitons, if they exist, in the same way that we have for other bosons. this is due to two major issues. 1. gravity is much much weaker than the other forces in nature. around 39 orders of magnitude weaker at the low energy scales that we can see particles at. this is 1000000000000000000000000000000000000000 times weaker. this is so low that it is impossible to observe in any particle particle interaction, and completly impossibe to build a detector that would ever see a single graviton in way we can detect a single photon. we can observe the gravitational field of large objects because it is a cumulative effect, however the gravity we observe on earth is not due to gravitons, or transmitted by them. 2. we don't know have a working theory that contains gravitons. trying to combine quantum mechanics and general relativity produces a bunch of issues when attempting to make new predictions. within quantum mechanics renomalization is required to allow it to make any sensible prediction, and this doesn't work for gavitons which would have to interact with themselves and everything else in the universe. so when one attempts to calculate if a given particle is going to emit a gravition one gets out an infinite answer. so with all this how would we be convinced that gravitons exist? there are a few ways. 1. a supersymmetric particle was discovered partnered to the graviton, the gravitino. the gravitino would be a spin 3/2 particle and would have to be massive. no evidence has been found of supersymmetry. 2. experimental evidence could come out showing deviations from general relativity consistent with some theory of gravitons. aligo can now probe very high energy collisions and many physicists are looking for any deviation from predictions to see if new physics can be found. 3. a predictive theory that combines quantum mechanics and general relativity could be found that requires gravitons, as string theory does. for example if a string theory model was found that was able to reproduce the standard model and general relativity predictions, i think it would be very convincing evidence that gravitons exist. unfortunately no compactification of string theory found so far produces anything that looks like the real world. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0601043"
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|
will a specific pressure gradient overcome a greater total pressure gradient to balance itself? | if you were to have two chambers separated by a membrane that allows only one type of molecule (lets say oxygen) through and chamber one had a total system pressure of 110 kpa containing no oxygen, while chamber two has a total system pressure of 100 kpa with 20 kpa of oxygen. would the oxygen diffuse into chamber two or does the total pressure of the second system prevent it? | if you have a membrane that only allows passage of oxygen, then the oxygen is going to diffuse into the other chamber until the [partial pressure](_url_0_) equilibriates. intuitively, if this membrane only allows passage of oxygen, then for all intents nothing else enters the picture, and it'd be like having 0 kpa on one side and 20kpa on the other. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_pressure"
] | [
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what made local iron in feudal japan fundamentally inferior to the european equivalent? | i understand that a large difference is that european smiths typically worked with material containing raw iron ore, whereas the vast majority of iron in japan is primarily found in the form of iron sand as opposed to ore. i've heard countless times that japanese iron/steel was fundamentally "worse" than the european counterpart. was this a result of iron sand being that much more difficult to successfully process than iron ore, or was there something inherent in the raw material that caused the outcome? my other suspicion is that the japanese-style forge (tatara) made it difficult to create high-quality steel in large amounts, with good steel only forming on the outer edge where it was able to sufficiently oxidize. as iron sands are far more labor intensive to mine and collect in the quantities required to feed the tatara, this would make the "good" steel incredibly valuable as such little raw material actually becomes usable steel. is this completely wrong or is this on the right track? i apologize if this question seems all over the place and includes a bit of my own guessing. ultimately i'm looking for a solid explanation as to what made japanese steel/iron so ubiquitously "inferior" that it required such advanced techniques just to create a usable product. | from what i've read, it's mainly because the iron sand was so difficult to smelt properly. the best iron from the smelting was used to make swords as japanese style swords require high quality steel to be effective. the rest of the iron was full of impurities. i remember reading an article that went over the entire process of forging a katana from the sand to the blade, but i know longer have the link. i also remember reading that sword smiths would sometimes wait until lightning would strike the sand during a storm and use the iron created from the heat to forge blades that they thought would possess mystical powers. who knows how true that is? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes an increase in diastolic pressure with a decrease in systilic pressure? | is there a physiological or pathological cause to this? | in trauma, a low or narrow pulse pressure suggests significant blood loss (insufficient preload leading to reduced cardiac output). if the pulse pressure is extremely low, i.e. 25 mmhg or less, the cause may be low stroke volume, as in congestive heart failure and/or cardiogenic shock. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do they study spiders on the iss? | what useful knowledge can be gleaned by studying arachnids in microgravity? | there are a variety of reasons, but to name a few: 1. arachnids and other simple invertebrates make good test animals because of their simple nervous systems and the lack of testing restictions, but many of the same underlying biological principles that apply to them apply to us as well. this is one of the same reasons that zebrafish are used in embryonic development studies: their development is very similar to our own, but there are less problems with cutting up zebrafish embryos at various stages of development than human embryos. 2. if we are ever going to have any very long-term actions in space, we'll need to bring along at least a simplified ecosystem with us, and knowing factors involved with other organisms in space is relevant. 3. spiders are very small and lightweight, so it is easier to bring a large population of them into orbit for testing than it is to bring larger, heavier organisms. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what limits the range of artillery? | current (non-propelled) artillery systems are limited to a few dozens of kilometers. what physical phenomenon is limiting their range? | air resistance, mainly. drag for high speed projectiles depends on the square of the velocity. secondly is gravity: for a certain velocity, there is a limit to how far you can go. both of those things can be overcome by building bigger guns and using more propellant, but you need a pretty big gun and the engineering gets difficult. for example, the german [schwerer gustav](_url_0_) could fire high explosive rounds nearly 48 km, but it weighed over 1,000 tonnes. from what i remember about the gun, each round in that gun had to be custom made and fired in order, as the barrel would be wore down with each shot. rockets are simply far more effective than guns that large. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwerer_Gustav"
] | [
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do different colours have different weights? | it all depends on what you mean by "weight". if you mean "mass", then no light has any mass. if you mean "force of gravity", then all light is affected by gravity the same. no matter the color, light rays will travel along geodesics. if you mean "momentum", then the answer is "kind of". light comes in discrete packets called "photons". the momentum of a single photon depends on the color, but there's nothing stoping you from having more or fewer photons. even though a blue photon has more energy and momentum than a red one, you could simply have more red photons, in which case it could have more momentum. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
question about human evolution. | i understand the basics of evolution, but there has been a question about human evolution that has been bothering me for a while. humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, but our ancestors had an additional one. i know that our chromosome 2 is actually two chromosomes that fused together. my understanding is that animals with different numbers of chromosomes cannot reproduce, so what was the process in which humans ended up with 23 pairs of chromosomes? | "my understanding is that animals with different numbers of chromosomes cannot reproduce" not entirely. due to the way dna replication works, dna polymerase can't add the last few nucleotides. for this reason, eukaryotic organisms have some extra bits of dna at the ends of their chromosomes called [telomeres](_url_1_). telomeres don't code for anything; they act as a buffer zone so that genes don't get truncated. however, the telomeres are finite in length, meaning that a cell can normally only divide a fixed number of times. some cells, notably stem cells and gametes, express an enzyme called [telomomerase](_url_2_), which uses rna to stick extra dna on to the end of chromosomes, extending the telomeres and thus allowing the cell to divide indefinitely. (prokaryotic organisms have circular chromosomes, so this issue never arises). anyway, what seems to have happened with a *homo sapiens* ancestor is that for whatever reason, in a few individuals, chromosomes 2 and 3 accidentally got their telomeres stuck together ([some evidence](_url_3_)). i'm going to refer to this fused chromosome as chr2+3. so, a few early humans were walking around with fused chromosomes, while others weren't; they had seperate chr2 and chr3. when a fused person mated with a seperated person, the seperated person's chr2 matched up with one end of the fused chr2+3, and the seperated person's chr3 simultaneously matched up with the other end of chr2+3. since chr2 and chr3 are matching up to different and non-overlapping ends of chr2+3, a baby can result without excessive difficulty. as for how this fusion became the standard, one possibility is that, when the chromosomes line up in the developing embryo, and enzyme like dna ligase came along, 'noticed' that there were two chromosomal ends right next to each other, and stuck them together, thus resulting in a cell with two chr2/3 fusions. the other possibility is that people with fused chromosomes were simply more fertile. chromosomal fusion isn't just a human thing, either. it has been observed in mice, cows, sheep, and horses, and in all cases, animals with fused chromosomes have no trouble reproducing with animals with seperated chromosomes. in fact, the offspring of such matings are occasionally *more* fertile than their parents. ([source](_url_0_)). | 26 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.gate.net/~rwms/hum_ape_chrom.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomere",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomerase",
"http://www.evolutionpages.com/chromosome_2.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mule"
] | [
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] |
can anyone explain the shor-algorithm? | as you probably already know, shor's algorithm is a theoretical method by which a quantum computer could find a number's prime factors. [wikipedia](_url_2_) has a extremely long, detailed mathematical explanation that i do not fully understand and am too lazy to copy verbatum. here is a readable explanation from [crypto.stackexchange](_url_1_): > if we look at the point n then the phase of p and q must be 0 if they are factors of n (or else there would be a remainder of the division n/q or n/p). shor just tests whether the phase of p == the phase of q == 0 at point n. it turns out that phase estimation is pretty easy for quantum computers, so it's a good tool to build into a factoring machine. see [_url_0_](_url_0_) for more information. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_phase_estimation_algorithm",
"http://crypto.stackexchange.com/questions/3932/in-laymans-terms-how-does-shors-algorithm-work",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shor's_algorithm#Procedure"
] | [
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] |
|
we may not have a theory of everything, but is there any hint of what numbers may be independent variables? | or is there any speculation on how many variables there are? | the standard model has 19 free parameters (and i guess general relativity has one: newton's constant) and it is hoped that a better theory will reduce this number by showing that some are dependent on others. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the difference between mirna and sirna? is it mirna is natural and sirna is synthetic? | both are small fragments of rna. mirna are genomically derived, single stranded, non-coding fragments used by the cell for gene silencing as part of the rna-induced silencing complex. sirnas are processed by dicer from double-stranded rna to interfere with rna translation by binding to mrna transcripts as part of the risc. the terms are somewhat sloppily defined, but sirna is usually specific for one target, while mirna binds more non-specifically and affects many targets. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://scienceblogs.com/transcript/2006/09/still_confused_about_sirna_vs.php"
] | [
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] |
|
there are standard equations for conic sections that are parallel to the x- and y-axes... but what would they be if the conic sections were slanted by θ degrees? | i'm coding a patched-conic orbital simulator and i just need to derive equations for the orbits from orbital elements so i can render their paths on the screen. in this case, i can treat the screen like a cartesian plane, but i'm stumped because i only know equations for conic sections that are strictly vertical and horizontal. | the standard equation for a conic section is: ax2 + bxy + cy2 + dx + ey + f = 0 the conic section will be parallel if b = 0 if b != 0 then the angle of rotation (θ) will fit cot(2θ) = (a-c)/b _url_1_ or if you want more lesson oriented information: _url_0_ | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://math.sci.ccny.cuny.edu/document/show/2685",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation_of_axes"
] | [
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why do we put in stents and balloons instead of removing the plaque in coronary arteries? | my grandpa had a heart attack recently and when they took him to the hospital they found that one artery was 99.5% blocked and another one was about 75% blocked. they put in a balloon angioplasty (ptca) or stent (not sure which one). why can't we just get rid of the blockage? wouldn't that be better? i've heard of chelation therapy being used for that, but i've read that it's unproven and also get rids of a lot of the other minerals in your blood. why not use the edta just at the point of the plaque? else, why not just scrape it out or something? | the short answer is this (the long answer is intricately detailed): subendothelial collagen is exposed following damage to the endothelium of blood vessels. collagen, along with other molecules such as tissue factor (released following tissue damage) are very potent platelet and coagulation cascade activators, respectively. this would be exposed/released if you were to scrape out the atherosclerotic plaque itself by damaging the endothelium, and almost certainly result in immediate thrombosis (=bad). interventions such as stents/balloons stretch the vessel but maintain the integrity of the endothelium (well, for the most part) so avoid this issue. furthermore, the vessel lumen can be stretched to much the same diameter as healthy vessel in the region. chelation therapy is very much unproven, and largely considered unsafe. further research needs to be performed to see if any benefit can be gained from similar therapies. ultimately, atherosclerosis is a disease with a number of pathophysiological processes, not just calcium buildup, which, despite what the chelation therapy advocates will suggest, is a simplistic and dangerous way to view atherosclerosis. this really is the short answer, and i can expand on specifics if anyone has any questions. source: doctor and medical scientist in the field. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why polar vortex never go to places in europe that are at same level as polar usa cities right now? | it does. currently global warming has only put enough extra energy in the system for the polar vortex to form over only one of the two continents at a time. last year europe had the polar vortex and had a harsher winter than the united states. the year before that the united states had the polar vortex and had a harsher winter than europe. this year is our year. if something isn't done about climate change and global warming, which really only means more energy in the system, next year we might be lucky enough to have two polar vortex at the same time. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are the constants uniform across the universe? if not how could we detect them? | as i understand it the constants have changed since the beginning of the universe. can they also differ across space? | first, there is no evidence that the constants of nature have changed over time (although people have proposed such models), and there is no evidence that the constants vary across space. on the contrary, we have strong evidence that the constants of nature are the same across time and space. when we look at stars and galaxies in various directions at various distances (which means looking back to different times), we see the same spectral lines, for example, which means that we are seeing the same molecules and atoms and that those molecules and atoms have the same energy levels. we can use the standard model with the constants we measure today on earth to calculate what should have happened in the early universe (as in during the first 5-20 minutes after the big bang), and find that this would have produced the abundances of hydrogen and helium everywhere we look in the universe. in short, we have plenty of evidence that the constants of nature are just that -- constants with the same value everywhere in time and space. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do the barnacles/growths you see on humpbacks and other whales do any damage to them? | i've always wondered whether the barnacles burrow into the whales or are just on the surface of their skin. | short answer: no whale barnacles float around as a free living larval stage until they find a suitable whale host to attach to. they can cement themselves to the skin but will burrow quite deeply to attach themselves more firmly. this can cause irritation and i think some scientists suggest that too many barnacles or barnacles on a sick/injured whale can cause infection or sores, but generally they do very little to the whale - some even speculate that whales can rely on them as a sort of armour! heavily burdened whales may experience more drag in the water. we don't really know anywhere near enough about whales and their habits, or the barnacles themselves, to give a more complete picture. the barnacles apparently die pretty quickly on beached whales. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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realism of wound treatment in tv/movies? | everybody knows the classic, hero gets shot or stabbed, patches themselves up in some shady, dirty bathroom e.c.t these people break arms and reset them (i would imagine based off the particular bone this could be extremely dangerous causing the bones to not set correctly) they patch up bullet wounds (is this even possible with at home materials? not to mention the likeliness of internal bleeding??) and patch up stab wounds (what are the chances of internal bleeding in a stab wound the chest/ stomach? what's the threshold between "i can patch it up" and "a professions has to do this") i know these are all holly wood affects not even closely based on reality, but i've always wanted to ask the previous questions. if anybody knows feel free to leave comment, thanks. | this is not exactly what you asked, but i have one specific example that i can point out that is strangely unrealistic in the opposite extreme. in the movie saw 7 , the protagonist is required to extract 4 of his molars , with only one very poorly suited instrument. it shows a table stained with blood as he completes his task. i have heard people argue that this is too much blood and it is exaggerated for movie effect. the reality is, extracting four molars in such a way would yield a significantly greater amount of blood and the bleeding probably would not stop for an hour or so. even a single improperly extracted molar bleeds like crazy, 4 in a row extracted in the way shown in the film would probably cause severe hemohrraging. i guess it's somewhat unrelated but point being, dentistry is often on the opposite extreme as say, internal medicine. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does m=fd - or why does a longer lever increase moment, at the most fundamental level? | anyone learnin basic physics will probably come across moment at some point. and we're all taught m=fd. and so in theory, given a long enough lever and a fulcrum you could lift the earth. what nobody has ever been able to explain to me is why that is. everyone falls back on the equation. is that because that's all you can do, because moment is defined by said equation? why is it a longer lever will allow you to apply less force? if a five year old asked me i couldn't explain it to them. | lets start with a lever, and a fixed distance between the load and the fulcrum, or levering point. when the lever is long, you push the lever a long way for a small movement of the load. the same work is being done, because nothing in this picture is losing energy. so the same work is done in the small movement of the load, as in the large movement of your hand. so if the big force and the small movement of the load is equal to the big movement of your hand, then the force your hand applies *has* to be small. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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many narcotics appear chemically similar, what's so special about that chemical structure? (pics inside) | so i didn't know what bath salts were, so i wiki'd it. [here's mdpv](_url_1_) i noticed that there are lots of drugs that have the [something like this](_url_2_) group. like [mephedrone](_url_0_) [and mdma](_url_3_) and many others. so what's so special about things that have a benzene with a tail (and usually a nitrogen)? | all those compounds appear similar because they belong to the same class of drugs. the compound you've shown, acetophenone, is a common precurser in the manufacturer of amphetamines like mephedrone and mdma. [as arumbar said](_url_0_), the phenyl group is very common in biological systems. many enzymatic active sites have a hydrophobic binding pocket, where a ligand with hydrophobic groups can bind via van der waals interactions. aromatic groups are preferable over straight-chain hydrocarbons because they're rigid, thus having a low entropic cost of binding, hence their common occurance in ligands. the "tail" - usually nitrogen, as you've stated, but could also contain other functional groups such as alcohol or acid - exemplifies the other common interaction between ligands and enzymes: ionic interactions. for the purposes of this discussion i'll group in dipole interactions along with this. these polar, often charged groups also contribute to binding, as opposite charges (be it partial or complete) attract. what this means is that if we have a molecule - be it a natural ligand or synthetic analogue (i.e. pharmaceutical agent) - with the right type of interactions at the right places, they will bind to the enzyme (with varying degrees of success, of course). you'll see that the phenyl structure is _very_ common - itshows up in [aspirin](_url_2_), [ibuprofen](_url_1_), and [acetaminophen](_url_3_). | 3 | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Mephedrone.svg/220px-Mephedrone.svg.png",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/MDPV.svg/200px-MDPV.svg.png",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Acetophenone-2D-skeletal.png/120px-Acetophenone-2D-skeletal.png",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/MDMA_%28simple%29.svg/200px-MDMA_%28simple%29.svg.png"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/vl4fi/many_narcotics_appear_chemically_similar_whats_so/c55fse3",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylsalicylic_acid",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tylenol",
"http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/UBNRP/meth08/biochemistry/5ht.gif",
"http://psychoawareness.files.wordpress.com/2011/06/dopamine_chemical_structure1.png",
"http://0.tqn.com/d/chemistry/1/0/f/e/morphine.jpg",
"http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/dopamine/noradrenaline.gif"
] | [
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] |
"hot topic" diseases get a lot of research attention (and money). but what about cosmetic diseases like seborrheic dermatitis? have there been any recent revelations in determining its cause, or innovations in treating this annoying and unsightly (but harmless) disease? | the thing with medicine is studying one thing usually has far reaching results for many diseases (even the non threatening but annoying ones) chronic conditions like that tend to be rooted in immune system disorders where the body attacks itself or is over sensitive. now it may not be the center of attention in regards to medical research but studies into treatments in auto-immune disease would also lead to treatments in skin disorders. perfect example is viagra. there was no research group looking for a cure for erectile dysfunction. they were actually studying heart medication and found it had the side effect of causing erections. so basically what i'm saying is don't get frustrated because medicine tends to touch upon all areas. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.biomedsearch.com/article/Facial-seborrheic-dermatitis-report-current/203360216.html"
] | [
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|
origin of standard fields, limits of physics | i was trying to follow the higgs boson related news this week and i did not really understand the details but i think i got the basic concepts and this whole experience made me think. if the discovery of this specific particle required many years of preparation (e.g. build the lhc) how likely it is that we are going to hit a wall soon, so to speak, and won't be able to do any more experiments?i mean that sooner or later the required experiments will require too much energy/space etc. and we won't be able to do them. is it possible to progress further purely with theoretical experiments/simulations? the other part of my question is that where do you think the limit is? are we going to figure out (let's say in this century) what these 'fields' are generated by, how and why? maybe go even deeper and also know something about the origin of the origins of the fields. | we're basically there right now. there are a lot of smaller experiments that look for dark matter from the sky, and smaller collider/detectors being built. there is one big planned project that i know of, called iter, which is a fusion reactor. but in terms of massive international collaboration on the scale of the lhc, that's probably it for a while. that's not too big a deal, because to test the unification of the strong and electroweak forces (the lhc tested the unification of electromagnetic and weak) you need a detector that can provide a billion times the energy, which is not possible. advances in accelerator and detector technology used in smaller experiments may make the next big one cheaper and more accessible. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a few questions about platelets inspired by the blood drive. | i saw the blood drive post and realized this would be a good place to ask a few question that nobody has been able to answer satisfactorily despite decent google-fu. as a preface, i am a regular platelet donor and give 3 units of platelets every donation and donate every 2-3 weeks. questions: 1. how valuable are platelets in medical treatments? i hear of people receiving blood all the time but i never hear about anyone getting platelets. 2. given the short shelf life of platelets i understand the need for a constant supply, but of the (safe) collected units what percentage is actually used in patient treatment? how does this number compare to the numbers for red cell and whole blood donations? 3. how common is a platelet count that allows the collection of 3 units, by apheresis, in a single sitting? | i can't answer 2 and 3 (one of our panelists is in medical laboratory science and may be able to help) but as to question 1 i use them in my practice all the time. for example, we have a large haematology unit in my hospital and these patients often et very sick. they will commonly have very low platelet counts and sometimes will need daily or even twice daily transfusions - with a very low count there is a risk of spontaneously bleeding into the brain. in icu we often need to put very large drips and tubes into people and if the platelet count is low we will transfuse them to cover these procedures. people with severe sepsis or with massive blood loss will also often have low platelets which well need to be transfused to reduce the risk of further bleeds or to cover surgical procedures. so, yes, they are life saving -and thank you very much! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
are there any branches of mathematics that analyzes the way a task must be done? | suppose you need to move 1000 balls of 1kg each from point a to point b. you could take 1 ball to b, go back to a, and do that 1000 times to complete the task. the time used here is 1000*(the time it needs to go from a to b, then a again). or you could take 1000 people that each takes 1 ball at a time, and make them go to b in the same time (as the movement of each person is independent of the others); here you are emphasizing the number of balls, so you'd need to take more people with you as the number of balls get bigger. the time here is just (the time it needs one person to go from a to b). with people same as number of balls, this task gets done more or less in a constant time. but gets bigger linearly as the distance goes up. or you could hire n people-where n is the distance from a to b- and make them do a chain, then pass one ball at a time to the first on the chain and make him pass it to the following person in the chain. here you'd need as much people as distance there is between a and b (if each person can pass a ball to a person 1m after him). here the time needed increases linearly as distance or balls go up. ------ my question is if there is some work done in this subject-if there is, i would like to be linked to it-. i know is very similar to **algorithms** and the way they make tasks, but i think this approach is more general(to better or worse), where the time of each task could be determined by the ones previous to them, or if some task must wait until another task ends. | i think the broad umbrella term for what you're looking for is [computational complexity](_url_1_). as for the questions of serial and parallel tasks, perhaps [amdahl's law](_url_0_) and [gustafson's law](_url_2_) would be a good starting point. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amdahl's_law",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustafson's_law"
] | [
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how to get the average of ratios? | for example, this small list. - | a | b | a/b :-:|-:|-:|-: | 49 | 15 | 3.2667 | 28 | 4 | 7.0000 | 35 | 17 | 2.0588 | 22 | 9 | 2.4444 | 31 | 11 | 2.8181 total | 165 | 56 | 17.5881 there seems to be two ways of getting the average. * first: `17.5881 / 5 = 3.5176` * second: `165 / 56 = 2.9464` which one of those two should be used? | there is no correct answer as both ways represent a different property and which one you need depends on what you're trying to do with the data. the first option is the average of the different ratios and the second one is the ratio of the averages (or rather, of the sum, but that turns out to be the same). suppose for example that column **a** contains distances and column **b** contains speeds. the ratio is then the velocity of each segment. to compute the average velocity over the full set of distances, you need to divide the total distance by the total time, which means you need the second option. if you're looking at test scores taken throughout a school year, where the score is given as a fraction between 0 and 1 determined by the total number of correct answers divided by the number of questions, then you may want to compute the average test score not by adding up the number of questions and the number of correct answers for the entire year, but rather add up all the individual test scores and divide them by the number of tests. that's the first method. if you speak about the "average of ratios" like you did in your thread title, then you should add up the different ratios and divide by the amount of ratios you have. that's the first method. but whether that's actually the number you're looking for depends on the question you're trying to answer about your data. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_distribution"
] | [
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mood change. how and why does it happen? | psychology relies on the [biopsychosocial model](_url_0_) for this kind of question. all of these (biological, social, and psychological factors) could be playing a role in all kinds of different ways. mood is an "emergent" property. in other words, many different underlying factors contribute to mood and many different permutations of these factors can lead to the same mood. so your guess is as good as mine until you give a specific case and detail the specific biological, environmental, and psychological factors. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsychosocial_model"
] | [
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|
what technology or set of technologies constitute humanity's best hope for abundant, inexpensive, and clean energy? | putting ideology and politics aside, what are the cheapest and most efficient sources of clean and abundant energy out there today? and what areas of research do you find to be most promising in terms of future developments? | not sure about today, but for future developments it has to be some form of solar. it's the only renewable resource substantial enough to provide the extra 10-15 terawatts of power that humanity will require by 2050. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/PVeff%28rev121015b%29.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breeder_reactor"
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how do the creation of reservoirs effect the local ecology? | i was just in an area which had become a national park but contained a large (185 km^2) reservoir. previously, the terrain was rather steep and contained the river that filled the reservoir and an abundant amount of rainforest flora and fauna. have we observed how the creation of reservoirs influenced the local ecology? does the abundant water supply help or hinder the preexisting fauna? does the reservoir attract other species that put resource/predation pressure on the the prexisting fauna? | there are a lot of small effects on local populations. obviously there's a loss of space and some population fragmentation. this will effect species with lower mobility more significantly. it will also alter water availability significantly, meaning that entirely other forms of vegetation may be able to take advantage of the new niche. off the top of my head, all these effects are relatively minor; most populations can bounce back or adapt to this sort of thing (depending on the specifics of the terrain and topography). one thing that you might find more interesting is that there's some scientific evidence to suggest that the extra weight exerted on seismic plates can cause earthquakes. this is called **induced seismicity**, and my be of particular concern regarding larger dams. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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mass of a tachyon | could someone please explain why the quantum fluctuations of a string stretched between two d-branes gives negative mass sqaured giving mass as an imaginary number? | we have to be careful when talking about hypothetical particles. simply put, it is because we are trying to describe a hypothetical particle which doesn't fit into our current model. it's kind of like asking why and how a tachyon moves faster than light. you can't explain it because that is in essence the definition itself. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why wouldn't this specifically work? (troll physics) | _url_0_ | they pull at eachother equally and oppositely, and therefore provide no net force. or in other words, one magnet pulls on the boat one way, and the other magnet pulls on the boat in an equal and opposite way. | 15 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/zbXUW.gif"
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can someone explain natural logs to me in a straightforward manner? maybe using graphs? | i use them for work and grad school all the time, but i really don't fully understand what a natural log of a number is (or a log, obviously). i've read a lot of posts here on r/askscience but still it hasn't sunk in. | the natural log of a number *a* is the power you need to raise euler's number *e* to to get the number *a*. that is, ln(a) = b, e^b = a. it's used a lot in systems involving growth as the function e^x is one where the rate of change of the amount of stuff is proportional to the amount of stuff. this means the slope of a function e^x is e^x. for example, the rate of reproduction of a group of animals is proportional to the size of the group of animals. since y=e^x is a common general function, then the natural log ln(y) = x is also common. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in this video christopher hitchens claims that the majority of humans who lived during pre history had a life expectancy of about 25 and died of their teeth. can anyone tell me exactly what he meant by that? | here is the video _url_0_ skip to 2:40 | i love hitch. he's one of my favorites. that said, saying the "majority" of people died from bad teeth isn't the case. first off, how it happens: rotten teeth can lead to an [abscessed tooth.](_url_0_) this is not uncommon for modern people that neglect their teeth; it is unfortunate in this day and age that we have certain drugs that can cause behavior that is inconsistent with proper hygiene, and (eventually) lead to a life-threatening abscess. the vasculature of the head, face, and neck are such that the resulting cellulitis and inflammation can become life-threatening. that said, our ancestors lacked the same sort of hygiene tools that we have today. of course, many of these populations didn't consume sugar and starch in the amounts that we do today, and the oral flora known for producing caries (with subsequent infection as a potential result) don't feed off of protein and fat. ethnologists, archaeologists, and dentists alike have noted that cultures that lack high concentrations of dietary carbohydrates also lack caries (stefansson, 1960; lukacs, 2005; walker and erlandson, 1986; price, 2008). similarly, introduction of refined carbohydrates into the diet of populations that previously consumed almost nothing but fat and protein (specifically, the inuit eskimo) has proven catastrophic to the oral health of these peoples (schaefer, 1971). for example, in one population of north american indians, some 0.16% of teeth had caries, while in populations of the same group that had access to “modern” foods, the rate was as high as 40% of all teeth. examination of skulls of florida indians showed “not a single tooth” demonstrated decay out of “several hundred” skulls (price, 2008). similar results were found by price in populations in the pacific islands, africa, south america, peru, switzerland, and the outer hebrides islands, during a time in which both traditional diets were well-known, and 'new' foods were being introduced: sugary jams, white flour, and other sources of starch and sugar. unrefined foods may reduce the production of caries by reducing the solubility of enamel when exposed to acid (adiata, 1975). so, while hitch may be correct with respect to relatively modern humans, it seems more likely that populations that lived a lifestyle that lacked high concentrations of grains and sugars in their diet led relatively comfortable lives with respect to their dental condition; this is what is supported from the data collected by numerous researchers across many hundreds- perhaps thousands- of skulls and the condition of their teeth. otoh, infection was a much more serious condition then than today, and (with the surge in drug-resistant organisms) we will quickly come to understand the plight faced by these people unless there are some dramatic changes. adiata, a. 1975. dental caries and periodontal disease. in burkitt, d. p., & trowell, h. c. (1975). refined carbohydrate foods and disease: some implications of dietary fibre. pp. 251-277. london: academic press. lukacs jr. dental paleopathology and agricultural intensification in south asia: new evidence from bronze age harappa. american journal of physical anthropology. 2005. 87(2):133-150. price wa. 2008. nutrition and physical degeneration. 18th printing. price-pottenger nutrition foundation, lemon grove, ca. schaefer, o. 1971. when the eskimo comes to town. nutrition today. 1971. nov-dec,6:8-16. stefansson v. (1960). the fat of the land. new york: the macmillan company. walker pl and erlandson jm. dental evidence for prehistoric dietary change on the northern channel islands, california. american antiquity (1986) 51(2):375-383. | 8 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQorzOS-F6w"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tooth_abscess"
] | [
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what is humanity's best chance to get to another solar system, aka travel space/time | is there any hope the we will be able travel faster than light and thus get to another solar system within our lifetimes? | the answer to your question is a simple *no*. according to modern physics, faster-than-light is absolutely impossible. but that won't stop a horde of starry-eyed scifi fans from raving about wild impossible fantasies in which we disregard the laws of physics. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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