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how would they triangulate the pinger on the black boxes of the malasian flight? | i understand the concept of triangulation, but do sound waves experience any kind of shift or something that will let them know approximately how far these signals are coming from? otherwise, how would they find an exact location, other than finding a number of probable points? | okay, i probably have some real insight in this because i had a conversation over lunch with one of the researchers trying to use acoustics to triangulate the sound. we were discussing methods for this exact problem. here's the essential idea, if i have one sensor by itself, i can try to figure out the distance using the level shift. basically, the further away the sound, the quieter the sound i receive. this gives you a circle of some radius that the source could be at. unfortunately, there's a lot more going on than distance between the black box and your hydrophone. there are eddy currents, sound speed variations, fish, currents, etc. all of these will have some impact on the level you receive. this means that instead of a narrow circle along which the source could lie, you have a big fat ring, where the source could be anywhere inside of it. if, however, you have multiple receivers, you can use the phase of the sound at each hydrophone to get an angle. in this respect, any two hydrophones can give you an angle to the source (basically a line that stretches out from the pair towards the source). however, because of the same reasons outline above, this straight line becomes a small arc, basically a triangle extending out from between the two receivers. to find the source's exact location, you need multiple sensors. you need to either make multiple rings using the level or (more commonly) multiple arcs using pairs of sensors. it then becomes a process of elimination. i know my source is within the arc of pair one and the arc of pair two, so i only need to look in the place where those arcs intersect. the more pairs of sensors i have, the fewer places that intersect, and the better my estimation becomes. i hope this answers your question, but if you have anything else you're wondering about, please just ask! | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do these "3d" representaions explain 4d objects? | [imgur album](_url_0_) | i'm not sure what you mean by "explain", but let me say something about these pictures. suppose that you look at an image of a cube. say, [this one](_url_1_). you think of this as a three-dimensional object, but obviously you are looking at your screen, which is flat (two-dimensional). the depth of the cube has been "flattened" onto the screen. the direction in which it was flattened is not exactly parallel to one of the edges of the cube, because then you would see something like a square. if you have a four-dimensional thing, you can do the same thing. you can (hypothetically) draw it in 4d using line segments. then, you project it onto three-dimensional space. you get a three-dimensional thing which sorta shows you a "shadow" of what the object looks like. (in fact, the things you are looking at in the imgur album are of course two-dimensional, being displayed on your screen, so these pictures have actually gone through two such projections.) now the imgur album contains animations, and not static pictures; in fact, they are changing the direction in which they are projecting the 4d object into 3d. following the above analogy, it's like looking at a 2d image of a spinning cube, like [this one](_url_0_). | 16 | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/a/B7reK"
] | [
"http://www.unige.ch/sciences/biochimie/Edelstein/rotating%20necker%20cube.gif",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Necker_cube.svg/2000px-Necker_cube.svg.png"
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is my understanding of cryptocurrency correct? | my terminology will be very off, but do i have the general idea right? it was explained to me that there is basically a program that everyone agrees to use to test if a number is a valid "coin" or not. the numbers that will pass as true through this program are very difficult to figure out because they are very large and involve lots of computations with exponents of very large numbers. so if someone wants to, they cane use their processor or graphics card to run programs that will try to find numbers that will pass through the tester program, and that is mining coins. additionally, whether or not my understanding is correct, will it become harder to mine coins in various currencies over time as more and more are found? | i'll assume you are referring to bitcoin specifically. (there are other cryptocurrencies.) generally the mining process you've described is correct. the basic notion is that there is some "proof of work" -- a problem that is hard for everyone to solve but easy to check the answer. this is not the whole story of bitcoin, however. the next problem is how to get everyone to agree on what is solved and given the "official stamp of approval". you could imagine that, lacking any other mechanism, people would just lie about finding a solution to the current problem. bitcoin prevents this by having everyone participating join into a network and have a distributed consensus protocol -- basically make everyone agree -- on what problems have been solved. once "the network has agreed" on a solution, then that solution is basically used to stamp the last batch of transactions as approved. the cleverness is that the "proof of work" -- the problem everyone is solving while mining bitcoins -- is actually doing this validation procedure. these transactions are also appended onto the entire history of bitcoin to legitimize the record, and the process repeats. this process makes it very hard for anyone to fool the network and pull any shady business, but it has some costs. there is a _lot_ of energy spent mining coins -- that is, validating transactions. this is "wasted work" if you trusted a third party (like a bank) to keep the transaction record. it also means you get no additional transaction throughput from the network because that work is instead going to validating the record. bitcoin will slow down the rate of mining over time, yes, but this is not in any way necessary. it only depends on the majority of nodes in the network agreeing that the rate of mining should slow down, which basically comes down to the majority of nodes agreeing to follow the specification as given by _url_0_. you could design an alternative cryptocurrency that never slowed down, or one that had a central bank that controlled the inflation rate. this is in fact a concern for cryptocurrencies, that some state (say the usa) would pass a law to put it under the control of the fed, and pressure nodes on the network into following the fed's plan for the currency by state power. personally, i think that concern is a little unrealistic. | 7 | [] | [] | [
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econ question: what would happen if everyone on earth was given 3000 dollars? | australia did a $950 version in 2008. a consumer survey found the following: about a quarter of the sample (27.4%) reported an intention to spend more as a result of the stimulus package many respondents plan to put the stimulus package towards paying off debt (49%) and savings (31%) on average, respondents would spend $783 paying off debt findings indicate that 56% of the stimulus package will be reinvested in the economy, with a possible 46% in retail | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do any fellow biology lovers have any suggestions for some scientifically accurate microbiological ecology or probiotic books? | any suggestions would be appreciated. | while somewhat old, gary huffnagle's "probiotics revolution" is actually mostly based in science. i interviewed with him for grad school at u michigan. his published papers are fairly solid, though i don't know how much direct follow up he's done for his book. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the major unanswered questions of biology? | this is definitely a biased list, especially since it's a wikipedia page that's subject to anonymous editing. multiple reason exist to why the pages are so disparate, but i'll save that argument since it leads nowhere. i would argue that biology has too many big questions, especially since so many of them are tied to medicine. every since disease that does not have an absolute cure (different from a treatment, so insulin to diabetes is a temporary fix) is a problem for biology. we also don't know how many parts of the body work, especially the brain and immune system, with all it's working parts. evidence for this? the major peer-reviewed journals (nature and science), and the top ones which have the greatest impact factors overwhelmingly have more biology/biomedical research articles pushing the field. as a matter of fact, the us has the national institutes of health, which funds an enormous amount of peer-reviewed research (the dept of defense funds a lot, too, but that's more for gain rather than pursuit of scientific knowledge), is the largest of its kind, and many other countries have similar systems of trying to uncover the basics of life in an effort to better human life. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
since objects are constantly abrading against one another, will everything eventually be smooth? | i used to own a rock tumbler when i was younger that would turn rocks and sand over repeatedly until they were very smooth. this lead me to think that, if within this closed system, after enough time and movement, everything in the system eventually became still then the same might be true of the universe, or at least the world. does anybody know more about why this would or wouldn't be the case? | no, because sediments such as sand and clay can form sedimentary rock, which can then break into sharp pieces once again. sediments can also be subducted into the mantle and eventually spat back up as lava, forming igneous rocks. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the update rate vary in different locations of the eye? | i was standing at the post office and while i was waiting i was looking at the handheld laser scanner sitting on the desk. if i looked directly at it, i noticed only a minor flicker, but if i looked away in my peripheral vision i saw major flickering. so i was wondering do different parts of the eye update faster and have there been any studies into this effect. | the quick answer to your question is no, there is no difference in "update rate" (you may be thinking of flicker fusion rate?) across the eye. the reason for what you saw is actually more simple. a flicker, as you saw, would be a difference in the intensity (or brightness) of the light. you may have heard that the retina of the human eye is made of rods and cones. both rods and cones detect light, but they are specialized in what exactly they detect about the light - rods detect the intensity, whereas cones detect colour. the distribution of rods and cones differ across the eye - you have more cones near the fovea (the centre focus point, the middle of your vision) and more rods near the periphery. what this means is that the centre is really good at detecting colours, but shit at brightness. so when you looked directly at the flickering light, you mostly used cones, so couldn't detect the tiny changes in intensity. when you looked at it out of the corner, you were using your rods. an easy example of this is to look at the night sky and find a very faint star. if you look directly at it, you may not see it at all, but if you use the corner of your eye, you have no problem. and alternative example, to show the lack of cones in the periphery, is to have a friend hold up different coloured pieces of paper, and try to figure out what colour they are using only your periphery. if you don't cheat, it's almost impossible. seguey : different types of cones detect different colours. people who are colour blind are missing some cone types and so can't detect those colours. source : msc in neurobiology, and i teach physiology at university. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how old is the hawaiian hotspot? | i have read that the oldest seamount in the hawaiian-emperor chain in the pacific is around 80 million years old. however, is this a good estimate in how long the hot spot which created it has been around, or has it been around even longer, we have just lost the evidence in the subduction zone in the north pacific? also, possibly related question- what is the consensus on the hot spots mobility; is it generally accepted that it has moved over time, or remained stationary for its whole life? | you said it yourself, the oldest evidence for the existence of the hawaiian hot-spot is the existence of the oldest seamount of the hawaiian-emperor chain, at about 80 ma. since there are no known seamounts associated with that hotspot, the only thing we can say is that the hotspot is at least 80 million years old. it could be older, but as of yet we have no way of telling. in regards to its movement, in 2001 the ocean drilling program set out to solve this problem, and drilled a bunch of rocks out of the various seamounts. in 2006 they published that between 80 and 47 ma, the hotspot was moving southward at about /year, which is pretty quick. however, there was no evident movement after 47 ma. [source.](_url_0_) there is still a lot we don't know about how the earth works, which is why geology is still very exciting! edit: missed a word | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/197_SR/synth/synth.htm"
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how much of a role does the centripetal force of a planet affect it's life sustainability? | i know that the centripetal force we experience due to our own spin isn't that significant--but what about on planets where the spin is faster? does the potential atmosphere on such a planet get expanded further out in to space? could rocks float off of the surface? could life exist on such a planet? | what you are talking about here is *centrifugal*, not centripetal, force. centripetal force is the force that the planet exerts on you to keep you rotating with it. centrifugal force is the force that a body experiences in a rotating frame of reference (like on the surface of a rotating planet). i know you've heard that it is a "fictitious force", but that only means that is is the result of a coordinate transformation, not that it doesn't exist in the real world. on-topic, on the surface the centrifugal force manifests itself as a decrease in the gravity. that decrease will be the largest at the equator and smallest at the poles (and would likely be exaggerated by the planet being more oblate due to the rotation). above the surface, because the centrifugal force goes like 1/r and gravity goes like 1/r^2 you'll get a larger effect on the atmosphere and it would probably be less able to sustain one. you'd also get a very large coriolis force which could make the weather dynamics even more dramatic. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there an equivalent phenomena for blackbody emission/absorption but for sound/vibration? | i know of blackbody radiation, a heated object (with certain specificities) emits a continuous spectrum of light due to the fluctuating particles that composes the object due to thermal agitation. demonstration: heat a metal hot enough and it will shine in red or even all optical colors. is there an equivalent for sound? where a metal vibrates into all it possible sound frequencies due to thermal agitation? can you heat a metal so it makes audible noise? if this doesn't happen then why is that? edit: my question does not concern the inside of the solid, consider a box with a hole, does heating (or cooling) generate audible sound transmitted trough air? edit2: i realized i just described a teapot, so forget the hole in the box for the sake of the argument update: it seems like the solutions comes with the idea that gases do not have phonons | yes, it's called ringing. physical vibrations in the material dissipate through the air until the object and the air are in equilibrium. you can observe this with two tuning forks of the same frequency, as energy can be imparted to one that is not ringing from another fork that is. it's called [sympathetic response](_url_0_) e: the second part, mechanical objects resonate differently than hot atoms. they have base mode shapes, which are determined by the material stiffness and mass distribution, and integer multiples of these modes, so they don't have a continuous distribution like electromagnetic radiation. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xgpLfLtcbkk"
] | [
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can someone explain how this picture of an atom might be a bad representation of what it's like to be an atom? | [alleged picture](_url_0_) - gleaned from wikipedia, shooped to my understanding of an atom. although i do think scale is completely off between electrons and the nucleus here, i was kind of too lazy to change that. but other than that, what would these things be doing if they were a gif, and how fast would they be doing it? | electrons exist in orbitals. think of a "shell" around the nucleus, and the probability for finding the electron exists throughout that shell. as they occupy different states of orbital angular momentum, these shells can take different shapes. [this image is more realistic](_url_0_), again keeping in mind that they are probability distributions and do not correspond to the electron's actual motion, which it doesn't have as explained by nonlinearhamilton. | 5 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/xiB9Mck.png"
] | [
"http://chemistry.beloit.edu/Stars/images/orbitals.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_particle_duality",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/9/c/a/9cab6787646062d6e658cd1e83ad468f.png"
] | [
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] |
laser scientists: what are you working on? | smaller, but with more power. by shooting them. almost all wavelengths are now accessible through semiconductor lasers, quantum cascade lasers and quantum dots (to name a few). commercial applications will certainly grow, but probably not in leaps and bounds the way one would expect. the real frontier is at the microscopic and nanoscopic level. always use your laser on your cat. yes actually, alternate forms (beyond traditional gaussian) of solutions to the wave equation yield interesting possibilities that allow such interesting possibilities as laser beams that bend in mid air. lasers will be everywhere. they go "pew pew". when i take my work home it's the theoretical side, not the hardware. my experiments are going well, thanks for asking. sorry this wasn't better, gotta head to work and make some lasers. i do hope this gets things rolling though! | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110612/full/news.2011.365.html"
] | [
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|
is it possible to calculate the rate of condensation given a surface area? | having an issue at work and worked with calculating rates of condensing steam but is there a formula that can be used to figure the rate of condensation that would occur given a surface area of steel (a tank) and relative hummidity and temperatures? | analytically, nothing immediately jumps to mind. you could possibly figure it out if you knew the ambient humidity and you had a steady-state heat transfer rate between the surface and the air, but the heat transfer rate is going to be tricky to figure out analytically because you're dealing with convection, which has a lot of complicating factors. alternatively, you could just determine it experimentally. get a squeegee or sponge and outline different control areas to measure the condensation from. you measure different surfaces at different intervals (for example, four control surfaces and you measure one at 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 45, minutes, and 60 minutes, and then repeat on different areas of the tank) and then plot it out. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can a paper cup full of water not burn up on a 2400 degree billet of steel? | _url_0_ how it is possible for this paper cup of water to not burn up on a 2400 degree billet of hot steel? we tried it with a plastic cup of water and it instantly burst into flame. the water started to boil in the paper cup but it never caught on fire. | the reason is that, perhaps surprisingly, the paper simply does not get hot enough. paper has an autoignition temperature (the temperature at which it will burst into flame) of about 210-250^o c. if you were to just put an empty paper cup on the hot steel, it would rapidly reach this temperature and start burning. however, with water in the cup the situation is different. the presence of water on the other side of the wall of paper will reduce the rate at which the paper can be heated by the steel because it will cool the material. this cooling can be fairly efficient since [convection](_url_0_) will cause hot water to move away from the walls, letting cool water replace it. once you reach 100^o c, the water will start boiling. however the temperature of the water will not rise any further at that point, because as happens at any phase transition, all the extra heat added to the system will go into that driving that transition (boiling). so surprising as it may sound, you can get into a steady state regime, where even if the water is hot enough to boil, because this process occurs at 100^o c, the boiling water may still be "cool" enough to prevent the paper from going above 210^o c(ish) and burn. | 184 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/MjFzB81"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convection"
] | [
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why couldn't gabe newell get artificial corneas? | graft rejection always being the problem with these things but it appears an artificial corena does exist and has passed clinical trials. no idea on performance though; - _url_1_ last year a boy in india has a successful transplant with an artificial cornea; - _url_0_ i get the feeling it's not as safe or effective as a 'real' cornea so maybe just waiting for a compatible transplant, or a stem cell derived lab grown one, would be the better idea. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-06-10/pune/29642172_1_artificial-cornea-supply-of-donor-tissue-eye-surgeon",
"http://singularityhub.com/2010/06/02/germanys-artificial-cornea-getting-ready-to-restore-sight-to-thousands/"
] | [
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|
i recent watched an interview with heinz von foerster where he stated that particles are merely scientists filling the gaps in their theories. is there any merit to this idea? | its been racking my brain for days. how can particles not be real, as he's seemingly alluding to? edit: recently* edit2: [here's the video for reference](_url_0_) he starts talking about particles at around 2:30 | i'm always very wary of the word 'merely'. it doesn't mean much. particles fill gaps in theories of physics. they are also real. if you require a higher standard for realness than "gives a good explanation for all of my current observations", you're going to end up a solipsist. is your keyboard real? or is it merely a hypothesis you've formed, that helps you explain the data coming from your eyes when you look at it, and your hands when you touch it? the existence of the keyboard is the simplest explanation for the data you observe. it is also 'merely' a model you create to fill what would otherwise be an unexplained aspect of your observations. it's just a lot more intuitively satisfying than something which we can't directly detect through our normal senses, and only observe by looking at the readings of various expensive and complicated sensors. | 11 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2KnPBg-tanE"
] | [] | [
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how does the cremaster muscle work? | i understand that the cremaster muscle can contract and expand the testes as a self-regulatory means to achieve optimal scrotum temperature for the spermatogenesis process. in some instances, however, the air temperature might be higher than your body temperature. therefore, the testicles would presumably get even hotter with an increase in exposed tissue. my question is the following: what would happen in the aforementioned case? put another way, is this a reflexive process, which merely contracts when too cold and vice versa, or is the cremaster muscle heat sensitive, and therefore able to always raise or lower the testes towards the area with temperature closest to the scrotum's optimal temperature? | the cremaster muscle is essentially your testicular high regulator for all situations. the one most notable is usually temperature and the body attempts to keep the testes at am appropriate temperature. but, it will also raise and lower the testes in response to other stimuli. in situations where there is the possibility of a lot of movement, the cremaster will pull the testes up to the body to prevent damage occurring from them swinging around too much. this may happen as a result of the fight or flight response or similar sympathomrmetic events (think exercise). basically, the cremaster muscle will respond to a wide variety of stimuli in order to best protect the testes and, most importantly, the sperm. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can honey badgers get right back up after a cobra bite? | i was watching a video where the honey badger eats a cobra, during the fight he gets bitten by the cobra and "passes out" due to the venom then gets back up and continues to eat... how can their body do that? tolerance? | they have a high-level tolerance to certain types of venoms. also their thick skin prevents too much venom from getting into their system from the bite. also, it's a honey badger. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it harder for a 200 pound person to do a pull up than a 120 person? | i was told that it is more difficult for 200 pound person to do a pull up than a 120 pound person at the same body-fat percentage. is this true? if so, why? | identically proportioned i would say yes based upon the assumption that strength of a muscle group is proportional to the area of it's cross section. as we are theoretically shrunken, the cross section of our forearm to volume (analagous to mass) ratio increases. the effect of this geometric ratio change is commonly called the "square cube" rule. with every halving of our dimensions, the cross section of our members is reduced by a quarter, but our mass reduces by eight times! this means that for every halving of our dimensions, our strength to weight ratio doubles. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is it possible that one day people could use some kind of bio-electricity to power stuff like phones? | because that's a step away from some seriously awesome sci-fi stuff. | are you referring to a literal power "plant?" or that humans themselves would generate electricity bodily? for the former, it may one day be possible to have naturally assisted electricity generation but out would likely be inefficient and low voltage. if the latter, look up electric eels: the biology to create these chemical batteries is taxing vis. other biological systems. we would have to sacrifice significant complexities in order to create that kind of "manpower." | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does skin effect in electrical conductors work? | i know what the skin effect is, as in there is a certain distance that an electron (other particles too?) can reach into a particular material. i think the official definition is 1 skin depth contains 63% of the electrons? but i was going through a power class the other day and the professor stated that as you go up in frequency (aka with the introduction of harmonics) the electrons migrate to the edge of the conductor. i knew about the penetration aspect, but not that the skin effect causes electrons to migrate towards the skin. or do i have this completely backwards? | the skin effect describes the penetration of em waves, not of particles, into a conductor. the waves induce currents in the conductor, and energy is lost due to the resistance. this effect is larger at high frequency, leading to a more rapid attenuation (small skin depth). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any concrete use of geometric mean in physics? does it relate to any physical quantity like arithmetic mean does to the center of mass of a body? | geometric mean distance (gmd) is used when calculating the impedance of three-phase power transmission lines. some line structures are imbalanced thus causing different inductance values on each phase. this can be mitigated by transposing the phase conductors in the middle of a line to give each the same average inductance. gmd is used to calculate the average (effective) inductance over the entire length. gmd is simply the geometric mean of the distance between each phase conductor. edit: i removed the word "intrinsic" from "intrinsic impedance." intrinsic impedance is a wave impedance of an electromagnetic medium. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_standard_deviation"
] | [
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|
how does the brain (microglia) know which synapses to prune in synaptic pruning? how does it make the choice? | there is a hypothesis called the synaptic tagging and capture hypothesis where the default state of a synapse is actually to be pruned. then, if a synapse is used enough (i.e. has experienced the correct neuromodulatory signals combined with a high frequency of excitation), that synapse will be "tagged" with some protein (still unknown) and the brain knows to keep that synapse as it goes through its normal process of getting rid of the rest. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if a horse egg fertilized with horse sperm were implanted in a donkey's womb, would the donkey be able to carry to term? | this question came up in my intro to biology class the other night. if a horse and donkey breed the "usual" way, they are similar enough that you get a healthy offspring, a mule. but they are different enough that the resulting mule is sterile. one of my classmates wanted to know if a donkey could be a surrogate for a horse, or vice versa. the teacher thought that when it's 1/2 horse and 1/2 donkey it can carry to term, but when it's all horse in a donkey womb, things like hormonal differences will likely result in a miscarriage. i just want to see if i can bring an answer to class next time. | the genomic differences between horses and donkeys are mainly in the [arrangement of genes in chromosomes](_url_2_); the actual sequences of horse and donkey genes are fairly similar ([moreso than in comparison of either to zebra)](_url_0_), so the hormonal issue is unlikely to be a hurdle. in any case, the developing embryo will generate the signals that control its growth on its own, so the main problem will be if the maternal systems are unable to interact with it to form a nutrient network. [placenta structure is similar in horses and donkeys](_url_3_), so again this shouldn't be an issue. the main challenge is likely to be the size of the developing foal - donkey birth weight is [25 kg on average](_url_1_), while average horse weight is almost exactly double that (can't find a source for this, but i majored in animal science and it's in my reproductive physiology notes as ~110 pounds). if the fetus is too big it won't be able to fit through the birth canal and it will likely suffocate if a c-section is not performed. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=BAYoZV_05vgC&pg=PT75&lpg=PT75&dq=genetic+similarity+horse+donkey&source=bl&ots=CRhsgeBrJW&sig=YNyloYUicLR8FIqAmf1bNu8r2sw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3YM6UbiCEbHv0QHknoDACQ&ved=0CEAQ6AEwBDgK",
"http://www.arubandonkey.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=57&Itemid=61",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FB%3ACHRO.0000009298.02689.8a",
"http://lib.bioinfo.pl/paper:10864805"
] | [
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] |
is neural activity affected by quantum uncertainty? or are neurons too big for that? | as far as i know, things are pretty much predictable at our level--you can predict a bullet's trajectory, whereas it seems you can't really predict a photon's. however, if it turns out that neural activity occurs on a small enough scale that things like quantum tunneling come into play, then perhaps our minds will never be predictable. | we don't know. people have argued on both sides, and there isn't any evidence supporting quantum implications in neural activity in a major way. my opinion, as someone educated in qm, is that it's very likely no. the brain is too warm and the molecules too big for quantum behaviour to be a dominant part of the process i think. the heat means that the mean momentum of these chemicals is significantly larger than the uncertainty in their momentum by their approximate size. this is a good way of approximating quantum effects, is the product of your length scale and momentum scale on the order of the quantum of action (planck's constant) | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100317/full/news.2010.130.html"
] | [
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what causes phone's gps to drift? | i currently have an iphone 6, but this question is probably general for all modern phones. what causes gps drift (phone thinks it is somewhere and then somewhere else meters away, then somewhere else) and how can it be created by placing the phone in a specific location (like a box made out of something that doesn't disable the signal, only weakens it). more info: mainly asking for pokemon go, but interested in gps technology too. | gps satellites broadcast a time. your phone sees a minimum of 3 satellites timestamps and as many as 12. the phone then compares the timestamps and calculates not only horizontal position, but vertical position as well. reflections of the timestamp signal, or blockage will affect accuracy. buildings, cars, hills can all be affecting signal reception. if your phone has many satellites to work with and encounters one faulty signal, it can discard it because it has a bunch of other signals in agreement and it knows that one is wrong. i think the inaccuracies start when you only have a few signals to work with, so your phone does the best calculation it can with faulty data. it doesn't have enough information to assess whether all signals are correct. side note on gps, i believe that relativistic effects are taken into account, which is cool. if you want more data, download "gps" status from the play store for you android users out there. it shows the positions of the satellites it can see, and even displays pitch/roll, heading and accelerometer data from your phone, making it a level, clock, compass, and accelerometer all on one screen. really useful for diagnosing gps and navigation issues...... and leveling a porch. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you mix drops of blood from two people, could you tell with just the naked eye if their blood types match? | so i guess my real question is, could you see the blood agglutinate (clump) without a microscope? | yes you can. the blood will clot at a macroscopic level (aka visible to the naked eye). for example if you mix type a and type o blood, the anti-a antibodies in blood sample 'o' will react with a antigen from sample 'a' and the mixture will clot. obviously this will only happen if the two blood types don't match. before transfusing we do a abo and rh blood typing using hemagglutinin tests (add patient blood to a card with antigen or antibody on it). we also do a crossmatch, which is when we directly mix the patients blood with the donor blood to make sure they actually match. | 39 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.austincc.edu/mlt/bb/Grading%20Agglutination%20Reactions.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemagglutinin"
] | [
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if i have a gravitational pull, am i covered in tiny microscopic pieces of dust/skin/etc? | and, if i hug another person for a extended amount of time, do we attract more than we would individually? | you have a gravitational pull but it's totally negligible compared to other forces at work. you don't have enough gravity to hold on to an atmosphere, and hugging someone doesn't make a measurable difference. dust can certainly stick to skin, but it has nothing to do with your gravitational attraction and a lot to do with intermolecular forces. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
do wave functions stay collapsed after an initial measurement, or so they return to a superposition of states? | for instance, if i were to measure the system a second time, would there be a 100% chance that the system is in the same configuration observed upon the initial measurement/collapse? or does the wave function return to a superposition of states and collapse again every time the system is measured? | after "collapse", if you leave the system alone, it will undergo its typical unitary evolution. so the state as a function of time will be: |psi(t) if the "collapse" left the state in an energy eigenstate, it will remain in that state for all time (assuming you leave it alone forever). however if it's not "collapsed" into an energy eigenstate, it will change with time. an example of this would be making a measurement of the position of a particle in a box, you will "collapse" its state into a localized spike in coordinate-space. but this is not an energy eigenstate of the system, so as time evolves, you'll see the wavefunction of the particle spread out to fill the volume of the box. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Zeno_effect"
] | [
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can airborne/aerosolized oxytocin facilitate a trustful atmosphere? | i have heard claims that some retail stores use oxytocin in their air conditioning systems to invoke a sense of feeling at home in their customers and i have come across a product that is basically an odorless perfume containing oxytocin which you supposedly spray on and have people trust you more. while i know there are nose sprays that can help people with social anxiety i was wondering if one could reach a high enough concentration of oxytocin with an ac unit or by spraying themselves with a solution to have a significant effect on people. | while i haven't seen a specific study on oxytocin, most neurotransmitters will not cross the blood-brain barrier and reach their intended targets through simple aerosolation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any known case where one disease has out-competed another in vivo? | i.e. is there an example where somebody has gotten a co-infection where the diseases have had acted antagonistically? such as lessening the other's symptoms or load? | julius wagner-jauregg nobel prize in medicine 1927. treatment of tertiary syphilis by infecting patients with malaria (or less potent version of plasmodium - a pathogen that causes malaria). treponema pallidum that causes syphilis is sensitive to high temperatures. malaria induces sustained fever. treponema dies, then you deal with malaria. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how sensitive are the most advanced seismometers? could they register me jumping up and slamming to the ground from a mile away? | no. you have to remember that seismic energy dissipates approximately with the cube of distance. also, it's a single event rather than anything which can generate a noticeable wave train. that means that the energy of you slamming into the ground a mile away is going to be completely swamped by local noise. i've got some experience working with a seismometer located outside london, and it is more than capable of distinguishing aircraft taking off from heathrow airport about 10 miles away. that's many orders of magnitude more energy than someone jumping though. maybe if you were within a hundred meters and we knew when you were doing it we could identify related peaks in the data, but that's all i would expect. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.king5.com/news/local/Seahawks-fans-cause-12th-Man-quake-during-Lynch-touchdown-113208789.html"
] | [
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|
have there been any studies relating to the tendency of people to seek out entertainment rather than information? e.g. like is happening on reddit. | it may be a generalization but it seems the tendency is that, by ratio, people are much more attracted to entertainment. what i mean is that as reddit has become more popular and the cross-section of users that have become active has grown, the trend has been more toward entertainment rather than insight. is it that the kind of things the more populous of the community who prefer entertainment eventually drive out the others? thereby skewing the trend exponentially their way? is it just that on average, more people are less inclined to be less curious, as it were, when faced with a choice between learning and being entertained? is it that what i deem worthy of being learned different from others? as an example, i do not deem some 13 year-old's scamming of youtube's age restriction worthy of being learned; it will have zero positive impact on me for the entirety of my existence--and i can say that with certainty. i gravitate toward knowledge that will better my life somehow; when i watch tv it's the science channel or natgeo (forgive me guys). i still like the odd house here and there, though. kind of a nice microcosm of what i'm talking about here...interesting. however, for some people things like j-lo's bra size are important? is it that this is the culture we inherit? in the event this is at least partially the case, might it be tendency to drift towards distraction on a more base level? in an effort to seek out comfort, would every culture eventually go through this phase? at its root, both forms of learning are distractions. and in the internet age easily acquired and endless. it's curious, though, how it seems that constructive-learning takes a back-seat to infotainment by and large. | i guess i'd counter with a different question - how exactly does watching national geographic really benefit you, besides the entertainment value? you state this as if it was self-evident, but really why is knowing the lifecycle of lions more useful then celebrity gossip? i'd definitely consider the former more awesome and entertaining, but useful? from a strict personal utility perspective i might actually rank celebrity gossip higher, as it is better innocuous small talk fodder. i don't keep track of it myself as i find utterly, utterly boring, but 'i don't enjoy it' is different than 'this has no value'. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://216.22.10.76/wiki/The_Fundamental_Attribution_Error",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error"
] | [
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how does our body control the speed of our heartbeat? | i'm just looking for a general explanation of the system that our body has in place for regulating our heart rate. is the bpm based on one thing primarily, or (more likely) is it a function of many variables? | paramedic here, so i'm sure you'll get more details from some of the md's but i'll give it a shot. this is an incredibly vague question. but overall the heart rate is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. there are two parts to the ans, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. think of them as the gas peddle and brake peddle respectively. the sympathetic nervous system is responsible for our fight or flight reflexes. it increases our blood pressure, increases our heart rate and respirations, and in general gets the body ready to rock and roll. the body does this by releasing catacholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine). the parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for more mundane tasks like digestion. if the sympathetic is the "fight or flight" system, the parasympathetic system is the "sit and shit" system. by releasing acetylcholine it slows heart rate, lowers blood pressure, etc. so that's kind of a boiled down explanation, but i hope it answered your question! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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should i consume an energy drink before an exam? (glucose & caffeine) | [deleted] | tl;dr: no. maybe drink straight glucose while studying. maybe drink caffeine while studying or before you take a test, but only if you're used to it. too long, will read: [there's evidence](_url_2_) drinking glucose improves memory for difficult tasks if the glucose was administered before the person was learning, not while the person was recalling. this suggests you should drink glucose while studying to improve memory, not prior to the test. there's no evidence that i can find on drinking glucose during recall only. however... in the studies that showed a difference, and not all did, people consumed at least 25g of **pure glucose** prior to learning. and since pure glucose tastes terrible, you'll want something else. energy drinks contain "sugars", which are probably a combination of pure glucose, fructose, and sucrose (glucose/fructose). i'm [waving my hands](_url_3_) to say every 1g of "sugars" in a drink means only .5g of glucose. [two 8oz cans of red bull or 16oz bottle of apple juice](_url_0_) are about 50g of sugar/25g of glucose each. simple, right? except most of these experiments looked at learning over a short period of time. we don't know how long the effects of glucose loading last. one study [in this review](_url_1_) had a 25g "top up" after 30 minutes. if we use this experiment, you need at least 50g of pure glucose per hour of studying for memory improvement. if you're drinking red bull, that's 150g of caffeine every 30 minutes. even a hardcore coffee freak would blanche if you said you'd started drinking 3.5 cups of coffee an hour. the jitteriness from that level of caffeine would completely obliterate the learning effects of glucose. drinking apple juice avoids the caffeine problem, but then you're trying to consume 32oz of fluid an hour at 480 calories an hour. bathroom breaks would make things harder, plus...have you ever tried to drink 32oz an hour for four hours? as for caffeine, the evidence is mixed. caffeine improves attention and may prevent memory loss in ad [review](_url_5_). it could [decrease word list learning](_url_4_) but only for women? also, caffeine is an agitant, which means you'll be, well, agitated. if you can deal with a bit of jitteriness, drinking caffeine is probably fine. remember you'll build a tolerance, the effects are not huge, and if you can't predict your body's metabolism, you could go into withdrawal midway through the test. alternatively, just study. :p | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sugarstacks.com/beverages.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20883717",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014299904002006",
"http://www.jenway.com/adminimages/A09_008A_Determination_of_glucose_in_drinks.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4059400",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4462044/",
"http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/xlm/5/5/460/",
"http://www.as.wvu.edu/psyc101/contents/extra_credit/Ch07ec.pdf",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eric_Eich/publication/15815918_The_cue-dependent_nature_of_state-dependent_retrieval/links/551d64780cf2ee2e6591af51.pdf",
"http://science.sciencemag.org/content/163/3873/1358",
"http://www.niu.edu/user/tj0dgw1/classes/411/GoddenBaddeley1975.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002253717580020X"
] | [
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what is happening with this chemical reaction? | thunderf00t is a smart guy and he doesn't know _url_0_ | the reaction is certainly not 2k + h2so4 = k2so4 + h2. what is probably happening is potassium is 'burning' the oxygen n the sulfate. for certain there is residual elemental sulfur left at the end of this reaction and you can see it precipitating as clouds during the reaction. the wired thing is this is a heterogenious reaction of two immiscible liquids, and they very rarely produced flames like this. flames are usually associated with two gases mixing. sulfuric acid doesnt boil till ~400c and potassium ~800. i have no sensible explanation for what causes the flames. the reaction does also smell of h2s afterwards, however given the detection limits on h2s, this might be nothing more than a minor side reaction. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=52YP4CLNVHs"
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how dangerous is it took look at the sun [details inside] | so a friend of mine for spiritual reasons has taken up something called "sungazing". i am not here to discuss the validity of anything related to that. simply asking what risks they are taking on. they tell me that because they only look at the sun during the first 30 minutes of dawn, or last 30 minutes of dusk, that risk for damage is greatly reduced because uv rays get caught by all the atmosphere the light has to go through. they insist that looking at the sun for not more than 2 minutes will not cause any permanent irreversible damage. they claim that spots in their vision or decreased acuity will "go away" after a couple hours. i am worried that my friend is going to permanently damage their eyes, and would like to be able to point them to sound scientific data to support that. or perhaps they are correct, but i doubt it. thank /r/askscience! | i dont have any numbers or papers to back this up, just wikipedia, but i want to post anyways just to be sure that this is said at least one. she could can and will eventually do severe damage to hers eyes up to the point of blindness. she should not do this, period. _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungazing#Dangers"
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sun,sand and glass | if the sun were to begin to swallow the earth, for a split second, would all of the sand on earth turn to glass due to the excessive heat from the sun? | well, if the sand spent any significant amount of time at that temperature it would quickly vaporize. however, i suppose if it was flashed at a very high temperature for a very short amount of time it would turn to glass. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what determines the tempratures at which substances change state? | so basically i was thinking about how they use liquid nitrogen to cool things. i had assumed they did this is because it's a good heat insulator or something, but then i realised that doesn't make sense since you literally use is to cool things. then i realised it must be because it stays liquid at that temperature. i then heard about people using liquid helium for even more extreme cooling. am i correct in thinking that the lighter an element is, the lower its freezing point? however, most stuff is made from carbon right? is that solid because it's bonded? also i'm confused about boiling points, water evaporates at room temperature right? so what even is the boiling point, the temperature at which you start seeing bubbles? is that even useful information? it's worth noting that my chemistry knowledge is horrendous, i'm just trying to imagine what this stuff physically corresponds to. | in a gas, the thermal motion of molecules is fast enough to overcome the intermolecular forces that you have in condensed matter (= liquids and solids). therefore, the stronger these forces are, the higher the boiling point of the substance. noble gases have extremely weak interatomic forces because they have completely filled electronic shells. within the noble gases, these forces are weaker the lighter the element. this is why helium has the lowest boiling point of all known substances. for molecular substances, as a general guideline: - polar molecules - - heavy molecules - in metals and ionic compounds, you have very strong forces in the solid, therefore these materials tend to stay solid up to very high temperatures. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Core/Physical_Chemistry/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/States_of_Matter/Phase_Transitions/Phase_Diagrams"
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what are the p-adic properties of the partition function and how does the proof work? | i'm a high school student doing advanced maths, and came across an old news story about ken ono's advancement of partition theory. i understood the basic concept, but i couldn't understand the paper link to paper: _url_0_ | ramanujan found that for certain n, p(n)=0 mod p^(k), when p=5,7 or 11. this work expands on this result a lot. the idea is to look at * p*_r,b_*(n) = p((r^(b)n +1)/24) for a given prime r and exponent b, and try to find congruence relations for these mod r^(m), for some power m. a generating function for this is p*_r,b_*(q), which is the sum of p*_r,b_*(n)q^(n/24) for n=0 to infinity. essentially, the idea of the paper is to limit the number of possible things that p*_r,b_*(q) can be congruent to mod r^(m) using the theory of modular forms. for small primes, it is a very limiting result, and shows the larger framework of how these kinds of results work. what the author studies is a collection of modular forms that satisfy certain properties when you mod them by r^(m). moreover, he finds that the size of this set, after modding by r^(m), is bounded from above only by r, not m. explicitly, the dimension of it is at most floor((r-1)/12) the result is that p*_r,b_*(q)\*e(q) is congruent to one of these modular forms mod r^(m) (when b is large enough and e(q) is a dirichlet eta function factor). now, if r=5,6,11, then floor((r-1)/12)=0, and this means that we must have p*_r,b_*(q) = 0 mod r^(m) for any m. this gives us ramanujan's result. when r < =31, then floor((r-1)/12) = 1 and so we can choose two powers, b and b (that are the same mod 2) and we'll get that there is some number a, depending on r,b,b,m, so that p*_r,b_*(q) = a p*_r,b_*(q) mod r^(m). i'm not going to go over the details on how the modular forms stuff works, because it would be long and dry and if you already know about modular forms, it's not too hard to figure out. and if you don't know about modular forms, than anything i could tell you about the proof would mean nothing. | 6 | [] | [
"http://aimath.org/news/partition/folsom-kent-ono.pdf"
] | [] | [
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can someone explain to me the fetch decode execute cycle? | after reading up on the subject and watching several videos i still find the whole process rather complicated. would it be possible for someone to explain it to me in a more simple manor. i know quite a few basics about the subject i would just like a concise order of events. thank you for your time. | 1. fetch: copy an instruction from memory to cpu 2. decode: look at the instruction and, based on what type of instruction it is (for example, "store value in memory" vs "add two values", decide what to do next 3. execute: do that | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://images.slideplayer.com/5/1509078/slides/slide_13.jpg",
"http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-Computing-Systems-gates-beyond/dp/0072467509",
"http://www.liafa.jussieu.fr/~carton/Enseignement/Architecture/Cours/LC3/datapath.png",
"http://ece224web.groups.et.byu.net/reference/LC3_Instructions.gif"
] | [
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is hemp as great as some say it could be? | if it is so great, shouldn't the parts of the world where it's legal be enjoying this miracle crop and laughing at us? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a psychological quantitative difference between suicide victims that leave a note and those that don't? | i've read that the majority of suicide victims don't leave a note. 1. what is the percentage difference. 2. is there a determinable difference between those that would leave a note and those that don't (i.e. specific types of depression, targets of depression, targets of stress, etc.? 3. for the ones that are being treated for depression/suicidal tendencies that eventually commit suicide: is there a progression from wanting to "tell the world off", "wanting to explain to family", to no note? thank you. *edit: throw away, hence the name. | you should try /r/asksocialscience - they're mind experts over there and will be more likely to know the answer to your questions. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do people seem to carry most emotion in their stomach? | to add on to your question, do animals feel emotions like in their stomach regions the same way we do, or is it entirely different for them? the animals i'm most curious about are apes, dogs, and cats. or feeling nervous, scared, raging mad. i'll feel an adrenaline-like feeling all over my body, except sometimes it's a weakening feeling or a more boiling feeling. is there a known purpose for feeling the way we do with those emotions, or do they just know what goes on chemically? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is everything a fluid? | i am sitting in the first lecture of my fluid mechanics class, and we were just told that everything is a fluid, and will flow given a long enough time frame. is this correct? i don't see how something like diamond with a robust structure would flow, even given a long time. | this is true. i research the convection over long timescales of of earth's mantle (a high-viscosity solid), which me model as a zero-reynolds number, infinite prandlt number fluid. picturing this is very difficult, even for myself. the flow methods are generally propagating discontinuities through the mineral crystals. minerals will crack and reform around hot rock as it rises and cool rock as it sinks. high pressures and temperature gradients squeeze these rocks around eachother with incredible force. the easiest way to think about this without your brain imploding is to remember that viscosity is a measure of resistance to deformation, and though the mantle is about 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 times more viscous than water, it's viscosity is finite, meaning it can be forced to flow under high enough stress. all known materials have finite viscosities. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do we have any good theories about what caused the historical drops in atmospheric co2 concentrations that followed spikes? | so everyone has probably seen this graph (or similar - grabbed off wikipedia because it was easy): _url_0_ do we have any theories as to what causes the decline in atmospheric co2 that occurs after every spike (and nearly as quickly)? what evidence are these theories based on? are we priming the planet for some kind of insane thousand-year algae bloom or something? | i think the wikipedia article from your link actually explains it rather well. looks like there were several causes playing that role. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere#/media/File:Atmospheric_CO2_CH4_Degrees_Centigrade_Over_Time_by_Reg_Morrison.jpg"
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why did rowbotham not see any curvature when doing his seven flags experiment to measure the earth's diameter? | [deleted] | the experiment you are referring to was done along a 6-mile section of a river, not in an ocean with flags spaced 6 miles apart. for more details the wikipedia article on the bedford level experiment should suffice. the seemingly anomalous result is explained exactly by atmospheric refraction. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how would evolution lead to our brains flipping the 'image' our eyes detect? and would a baby born who sees things upside down lead to consequences down the road? | i know that this is a popular idea, and that it's even perpetuated by people who should know better (*optometrists*, cough), but there is no "flipping" of the retinal image, no more than there is some correction for its size, shape, and content (do you correct for the fact that the image is 3cm wide, curved, buried in your face, and made out of light?). the retinal image has no intrinsic orientation - a physicist or physiologist looks at the retinal image and says, "hey, it's inverted", but that's from an external frame of reference. in the eye, *there is no frame of reference*. orientation, like every other visual property, is generated in the brain, which is the source of *all* frames of reference. visual orientation - up is up, down is down, left is left, and right is right - is a learned multisensory relationship between neural inputs from the eyes, the vestibular system, and proprioception (body senses). you learn that when you extend an arm in front of you, or move a foot out, there's a corresponding visual sensation, and you bind those together into a single experience. if a baby never learned this correspondence, it would be because they lacked normal visual function - i'd say they would be effectively blind. it might be a similar case to people who are born with severe cataracts which are removed when they're grown - these patients have very confusing visual experiences and lots of trouble making sense of what they see. visual orientation is only one of many problems for them. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i read that it's common for "mechanical failure" to happen to mammals after approximately 1.5 billion heartbeats, how much truth is there in this? | for the record this was on the bbc radio 4 show with brian cox. it was implying that parts of the body fail after about that many heartbeats but they didn't elaborate that much. of course we don't die after exactly x heartbeats but doesn't this imply that exercises are bad for us and that we should keep our heart rates down? i can't recall exactly what was mentioned but it was in relation to the average age of mammals and their metabolisms and heart rates. i don't know - this is why i'm asking! | a moderate amount of exercise (maybe 30 minutes a day) can actually decrease the number of times your heart beats per day, by gradually lowering your resting heartrate... most of us spend the majority of our time "resting". as for dying after 1.5 billion heartbeats, i believe this refers to species averages, and is not predictive for individuals. my source on the second part is also something i heard on the radio (possibly even the same show), so i'd love to see what someone else has to say... | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://biology.unm.edu/jhbrown/Documents/Publications/West&Brown2004PT.pdf"
] | [
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is it more energy efficient to constantly push an object a certain distance or give one strong push in the beginning to make it go the same distance? | i know that work is equal to the integral of force over the distance. since the distance is the same, the efficiency will depend on the force. would the frictional forces be the same in both cases? i'm thinking about the force/distance graph, and the first one would be a straight line throughout, while the latter is a sharp peak at the beginning. the area of these two graphs could be the same, so does that mean that both cases are equally efficient? thanks for the help! | in a highly idealized model, the force of sliding friction is constant. this means that no matter how fast the object is sliding, it will experience the same frictional force. this also means that the energy lost to friction will be the same no matter how fast or slow you are pushing it, so energy efficiency won't be affected by how fast you are pushing. of course, this is a highly simplified model. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when investors say that stocks outperform things like bonds in the long run (as they have over the past 100 years), couldn't that outperformance just be an artifact of that particular 100 year timeline? | when looking at [historical return patterns](_url_0_) for investments, one can clearly see the stellar performance of equities over the long haul. that being said, we know that we can center in on certain 20-25 year time spans throughout that century where the return characteristics look drastically different. if this is the case, then couldn't the entire 100 year period demonstrating the attractive returns for stocks be an aberration over hundreds or thousands of years, especially considering how [global growth has changed](_url_1_) since pre-history? and how could we hope to know? is there a statistical/probabilistic way to be understand whether our "long-run" returns are in fact indicative of some sort of deep principle regarding average returns in a market economy? | in order to answer this question, we would need to first answer one bigger question that is the topic of many books: is the stock market random? if the answer is yes, then one can answer your question in the manner that you have asked. we need only find the standard deviation and calculate the chances that over 100 years, the results could have been different. much like if you flip a fair coin 100 times, there is a chance, however small, that you will get 75 heads and only 25 tails. this is what you are essentially asking, and i will let a statistician answer that part. if however, we conclude that the stock market is not random, but instead there is a reason for the outperformance, then it is not really a chance or probability problem. take for example two plants, one which grows better in sunlight and one which grows better in shade. you plant both in an open, sunny part of your yard. over 100 years, the first plant will grow taller every time. extending the time frame will not change that. over the short term, the shady plant may beat the sunny one though, because there are cloudy days as well as sunny days. so as long as the sun is mostly shining, then the sunny plant will win. only a change to the system, such as a larger tree growing over the area and covering them in shade, can change that. so, what is the “sunny” equivalent for stocks? i would argue it is economic growth. so long as we have strong economic growth, i believe stocks will outperform bonds in the long term because of how those asset classes are structured. bond holders receive a fixed return based on the coupon rate. there is limited upside. common stock holders on the other hand, have no upper limit on the upside and receive all gains after everyone else that is higher in the capital structure gets paid (the government, senior creditors, subordinated creditors and so on). add in the tax deferred nature of stocks (only taxed when sold) versus interest on bonds which is taxed when received, and you further tip the long term in favor of stocks (apologies for being us–centric. tax laws may differ elsewhere). there are many other factors in this complex system, but i will leave it at that. now let’s take a doomsday scenario, where the world enters a permanent recession. say a global plague that slowly decimates our population to only 10 million people in 100 years. in that scenario, i would guess that bonds would outperform stocks as there is little to no upside for economic growth. i’ll add one last comment. when most people say “bonds” they often mean us treasuries, as shown in your graphic. however, this ignores a large portion of the credit market, which is corporates - both investment grade and high yield. i’d be curious to see a 100 year study of high yield bonds (if they existed back that far) vs. the stock market. hy bond returns are often correlated to economic growth, while us treasuries might actually have a negative correlation to economic growth. they certainly did in 2008. | 6 | [] | [
"http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~adamodar/New_Home_Page/datafile/histretSP.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_world_product#Historical_and_prehistorical_estimates"
] | [] | [
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why is there a negative deviation of the q wave in a qrs complex on lead 2 of an ecg? | was taught that the q wave has a slight dip downwards as the electrical impulse travels through the septum of the heart. idk how it’s negative then since it’s travelling towards the positive electrode. | lead 2 sets positive electrode as ll and negative as ra. septal q waves come from the left-to-right depolarization of the septum which yields a vector that is more towards ra. since we're here... after passing through the septum's bundle branches, the impulse travels up along ventricular walls through purkinje fibers. these are found in trabeculae along the most inside wall of the heart. the heart depolarizes apex to base, inside to out. the beat is pretty coordinated, which means the apex-to-base movement isn't typically noticed in an ekg. if your heart is pointing straight down to +90, your axis is that because of the in-to-out depolarization style and the vectors summing to there. now, if there's dead myocardium, it will conduct slower (if at all!) which means that in-to-out style isn't functioning for that specific part of the heart, and it has to spread through myocardium not using conduction pathways. this means there won't be that first strong depol there, and the vector gets pulled away. this causes a q wave. also, nomenclature has a lowercase "q" to mean benign waves like septal q waves, with uppercase "q" meaning pathological q waves. always welcome over at r/ekgs 😊 | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i live nowhere near a large body of water, but when it rains, the kids catch crayfish in puddles. where are they when its not raining? | my best guess would be that they are from a local body of water travelling through the drainage system from water overflow when the system gets less polluted. they are freshwater animals so any consistently wet area nearby could house them, possibly a small creek or pond in a nearby woodlands. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what magnification should i place my microscope at to look at sperm? | yeah this is stupid, yeah this is nasty, yeah this is nerdy. i'm just curious about science. thanks for any assistance. | sperm is usually (for humans) 5-7 microns, so you'd probably need at least 40x to see anything useful. but if you're wanting more detail you'll probably need an oil immersion lens to get to the higher magnifications. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is human labor and delivery more dangerous than other primates'? why? | yes, mainly because of a narrow pelvis, combined with large heads. (children have huge heads in proportion to bodysize and weight, as they are born with about 33% of adult brain volume) human pelvi are so narrow because of bipedality, which, as other comments already explained, seems to have been a bigger advantage than having easy childbirths. [interesting article about this topic](_url_0_) | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20161221-the-real-reasons-why-childbirth-is-so-painful-and-dangerous"
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|
how would an electroweak star look? | from my understanding of what an electroweak star is, it would look like any normal neutron star or degenerate remnant from a supernova. just that a careful analysis of its mass would reveal that the pressure at its core would be greater than even a 'quark star' could support: hence the core would be supported by 'electroweak burning', rather than pauli degeneracy or quark degeneracy pressures. the wikipedia page on electroweak stars cites a new scientist article, d. shiga (4 january 2010). "exotic stars may mimic big bang". new scientist. wherein they are discussed at greater length. tl;dr: it may well look like an ordinary, albeit peculiarly massive, neutron star. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what makes the myosin head in the muscle pop back? | i know when the myosin head connects with an actin filament it pops back which creates forward motion(muscle contraction), but why exactly does it pop back ? | one of the special properties of proteins is their ability to change shape once bound to another molecule. these shape changes can seem small, but when placed into a larger mechanism can have dynamic effects. in the case of myosin there are 2 molecules to consider. first, an atp molecule binds to myosin and transfers it’s energy to put the myosin in a “cocked” position (think of it like a gun being cocked; when triggered something will happen). when the myosin binds to actin (cross bridge formation) that potential energy is released and the myosin changes shape resulting in the pop you’re referring to which is called a power stroke. so i think the answer to your question is twofold. the myosin is in a high energy state due to energy from atp. second, the formation of the cross bridge with actin triggers the shape change that results in a power stroke. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/Ktv-CaOt6UQ"
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feynman explained that he viewed the first atomic bomb test by standing behind a glass window saying that the uv rays are polarised by the window and it would not hurt his eyes. is this true? | why can't we just stare at the sun through a car window in that case? | polarization has nothing to do with it. what he claimed was that he did the math and realized that a sheet of glass would block enough uv that he could safely see the bomb without eye protection. the brightness can still be damaging (as anyone who deals with high power lasers will warn you), but apparently at that distance it would not be permanent. he reportedly saw everything purple for hours afterwards, including the after-image of the fireball, similarly to what happens after you go to the ophthalmologist and they shine a bright light right into your retina. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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looking for a great 1st grade science fair project! | my son is totally excited to participate in his first-ever science fair. he wants an awesome experiment, however, all of his favorites are extremely messy ('cause those are the coolest, right?!) but the guideline we were given basically had 3 rules: 1. he has to be able to explain his project to his classmates himself 2. it has to fit on top of his school desk 3. it can't be messy (no volcanoes/water/messy chemical reaction experiments) so he is at a loss, and frankly, being the lazybones i am, i thought to ask r/askscience for advice before hitting the library | well, something like the saltine cracker experiment is kind of nice. the "experiment" is simple: give the spectator an unsalted saltine, and have them chew it in their mouth for a while but not swallow it. during this time, explain the basics of food and eating, and how eating is basically just breaking down food into tinier and tinier bits until our bodies can make them useful. after a few minutes, the saltine will taste sweet to the spectator. you can then explain that this is because saliva is special in that it can break down crackers into sugar, which the body can use for energy. that might be closer to third grade level stuff, but maybe it can be a start? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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flooding of the nile: timing consistent despite variable upstream climate | in will and ariel durant's "history of civilization", they explain that egyptian priests were accurate, often to the day, in their predictions when the nile would flood, and that their predictions were based on the calculated appearance of the star sirius. others have asked similar questions regarding the timing of the flooding of the nile, but their focus was on the timing exclusively (which is adequately explained by the appearance of sirius) and not why the nile would flood so consistently given what i would assume to be a wide year-to-year variations in climate in the upstream catchment areas. i find it curious that the degree of the flood was indeed variable but the timing of the flooding was consistent. can someone explain this? | i think this may have to do with the seasonal rains in the ethiopian highlands, which experience heavy rains in the summer. these wetlands, a major source of the blue nile, get their first rains in june, and they continue through september. they are, like the nile flooding, variable in degree but consistent in their timing. the phrase "dog days of summer" gets its root from the appearance of sirius, the dog star, in the morning sky during the hottest part of the year for the ancient romans. this was pretty consistent for anyone in the same part of the globe, and sirius is also one of the brightest objects in the sky. it is the kind of coincidence that ancient people tended to imbue with the power of causation. to many people, the star was bringing with it the heat of summer. so the first of the big rains happens at the source of the nile at a relatively consistent time of year, and eventually floods the river downstream at a relatively consistent time of year that happens to correspond with the brief appearance of a big, bright, very visible star. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's up with this picture? (sunset on the iss) | [photo](_url_0_) why are there two bright lines separated by some darkness as opposed to just one? | i'm guessing that it could have been an "[astronomical mirage effect](_url_0_)" and the [sun could also already have been below the horizon](_url_1_) when the photo was taken. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.facebook.com/ISS/photos/a.250704578295814.66652.168170833215856/1020957881270476/?type=1&theater"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirage_of_astronomical_objects",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vvmq66op0G8"
] | [
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] |
how do we know that the conservation of energy is an actual thing? | i don't really know a lot about physics, but from the stuff i've come across everyone seems to treat the conservation of energy or information as given, but how do we know that that's a thing? | there is a mathematical theorem called [noether's theorem](_url_0_). basically it states that every symmetry of a system corresponds to an invariant. this fact is one of the cornerstones of modern physics, specifically in quantum physics. symmetry in time leads to the conservation of energy. spatial symmetry leads to the conservation of momentum. and rotational symmetry leads to the conservation of angular momentum. there are many more symmetries that lead to many other conserved quantities. this is a well established mathematical fact. furthermore all of these conservation laws have been experimentally observed. no system where these symmetries hold have ever been observed to violate the respective conservation laws. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem"
] | [
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from how high can you catch someone jumping out of a window? | i saw something in another sub-reddit that made me wonder this. what are the factors that go into catching someone jumping from a window? i'd assume their weight, from which story they're jumping from, and perhaps the upper body strength of the catcher? do we know of any tests or formulas to know if a healthy above average strength man could (safely) catch another man from let's say 5 stories high? or imagine you're walking down the street and a building is on fire and someone is trap on a floor, what things should a person consider before telling the person to "jump, i'll catch you"? | i think i've got this one. i'm graduating with a degree in engineering. it has been a while since i've been in a dynamics class, but i'm refreshing my memory as i type this reply. anyone with more experience with dynamics, feel free to step in and help out! what you are asking about is the impulse required to bring a person to rest after a fall. impulse is the derivative of momentum (check the [wikipedia](_url_0_) link for more info). impulse can be described in two different ways: average force * change in time, or mass * change in velocity. the person falling would have some initial velocity (just before the catch) equal to 9.81 m/s^2 * the length of time the person has fallen [basic kinematics v1 = v0 + a*t]. if the catch is successful, the falling person will have a final velocity equal to zero. thus, the impulse of the person during the catch is equal to their mass * v1. now, the person performing the catch must match that same impulse for the catch to be successful. the catcher's impulse can be expressed as force * duration of the catch. this is where we have to start making a few assumptions as the amount of time it takes to catch someone is difficult to measure, but for this - just to make the calculation a bit easier - i'll assume 1/2 second catch time. assume the person falling has the mass of 70 kg. assume the person fell for 0.5 seconds before being caught (again make the math easier). falling for 0.5 second is equivalent to falling from the height of 2.45 m [again basic kinematics here: distance fallen = a*t^2 (sorry, i am skipping a few steps b/c this post is getting long)]. solve for the force required to catch said person like this: (70 kg) * (9.81 m/s^2) * (0.5 s) / (0.5 s) = 686.7 n = 157.12 lb-f here's a few questions that i would need help answering: 1) could a person impart that force on a falling person without hurting themselves or the falling victim? 2) how would some evaluate the "catching time"? i assumed 1/2 of a second, but i honestly have how to pick a proper value for that parameter | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_\\(physics\\)"
] | [
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a traditional paternity test in ancient china was to use two droplets of blood, and see if they mixed. is there any scientific basis? | the practice of dripping blood to identify relatives, or 滴血认亲. one from the father, and one from the son in a bowl of water, and see if they conglomerated in the center. an example can be see in [this](_url_0_) movie by stephen chow, of shaolin soccer fame. it's in chinese, but the result is that the blood mixed, and the guy in yellow is the baby's father. is there any scientific basis for the method? | mixing studies can determine blood type compatibility. let's assume that rh factor is positive here for everyone, so the only differences are abo classification. baby has a certain blood type. he has antibodies against the other types. the same goes for the two potential fathers. what does that mean? it means that if only one of the two fathers have the same blood type, then that father will be able to mix blood with the baby with no reaction. the blood won't lyse. however, the other man, the one with the different blood type, will be attacked by the baby's immune system. literally the second the blood cells hit the baby's blood, they are targeted and lysed. the plasma will be red tinged instead of straw colored, due to the hemoglobin now floating free in the plasma rather than kept inside the blood cells. all of that said, it's a pretty bad way of determining paternity. two people with a blood type of a and b can have a child with a blood type of o, and the child will always destroy the blood of either parent. why? because there are two copies of the genes. mom could be a via aa or ao. dad could be b via bb or bo. if they are both the latter, of ao and bo, then they give only one gene to the baby. if mom and dad, through pure, random 25% chance, each give o, then the kid ends up being oo, which is the only way of having o type blood. if you were to mix the blood of baby and dad or baby and mom, you would get a hemolytic reaction. but dna would show that despite the hemolysis, they are indeed the kid's parents. | 8 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Z5OEQNf-0Y#t=6153"
] | [] | [
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what are "glyconutrients", and are products that promote them doing you any good? | [here's an article about them from 2007.](_url_0_) short version is, glyconutrients are vaguely defined, but usually refer to certain types of sugars. ingesting them won't hurt you, but there's no reason to buy or take them unless you have certain congenital disorders related to glycosylation, in which case you're hopefully under the care of a doctor. your body can synthesize all the sugars it needs from your normal diet. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://glycob.oxfordjournals.org/content/18/9/652.full"
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] |
|
what is it that dictates the flexibility/bendability of a material? | exactly as the title says, i am wondering what it is in a material that dictates how flexible / bendability a material is. for example iron versus concrete. | we need to talk about stiffness and maximum curvature separately. some background, first. when you bend something, [one side goes in tension and the other goes in compression](_url_7_). (check out [bernoulli beam theory](_url_4_).) stiffness: the relevant number for your material is [young's modulus](_url_1_). the stiffness of your object will be proportional to this number. for steel, it is about 29,000,000 pounds per square inch. the value is more variable in concrete, but is often something like 4,000,000 psi. the shape is also important in stiffness. the higher the [area moment of inertia](_url_2_) of the cross section, the stiffer it will be. roughly speaking, making it bigger and especially deeper will stiffen up your object. this is why [it is so much easier to bend a ruler in one direction than the other](_url_6_). maximum curvature: the greater the curvature of the object, the greater the [internal stresses](_url_3_) you induce. but the thing is that materials don't have an infinite stress capacity - at high enough stresses you will damage the material, and at even higher stresses you will completely break it. this is visualized with [stress-strain diagrams](_url_0_). some materials can undergo very high strains before breaking (e.g. steel) and some cannot (e.g. glass). if you want to know why a specific material has a high fracture strain, you would need to dive in to complicated material science. in addition to the material, the shape of the object will determine what curvatures you can get before breaking your object. this is because the maximum strain you induce in your object is proportional to its depth. if object a is 1 inch deep and object b is 2 inches deep, then object b will have twice the maximum strain of object a if they have equal curvatures. as a result, you can [bend a steel paper clip really far](_url_5_), but a steel beam breaks after deforming just a few inches. sorry this is so long. let me know if i need to clarify anything. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress-strain_curve",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%27s_modulus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area_moment_of_inertia",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_\\(mechanics\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Bernoulli_beam_theory",
"http://www.instructables.com/image/FF424M8FVOEZ4WV/Paperclip-Man.jpg",
"http://labspace.open.ac.uk/file.php/6543/T173_1_053i.jpg",
"http://www.tutelman.com/golf/shafts/spines/bending2.gif"
] | [
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] |
why don't people on starvation diets get swollen abdomens like starving kids in the 3rd world? | [kwashiorkor](_url_0_) is a specific type of malnutrition that causes the swollen abdomens you see in pictures of starving children. it's commonly believed* that in this type of malnutrition, the victim is eating sufficient calories but not enough protein -- for example, eating enough rice to satisfy your calorie requirements, but no meat or vegetables. "starvation" diets usually involve a severe caloric restriction, but dieters are usually encouraged to make sure they're consuming enough macronutrients like proteins. it's the same reason they don't get scurvy -- you're supposed to be taking in enough vitamins and proteins while decreasing the number of calories you consume. *i think this may be contested. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwashiorkor"
] | [
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|
what would happen if we ate archea? | since lipids from archea are different, how would the body process them? do the enzymes that break up fats work on the ether linkages? if they do work, would the difference make any kind of differences in overall processing? are the fatty acids different enough for them to behave differently in the body? if you just ate a bunch of archea would you be able to digest them straight or would the cell wall be impenetrable to the digestive process? | i just did a quick literature search and here's what i learned. humans use ether-lipids as well as archea. we use them for structural, second messenger and anti-oxidant purposes. we can also make them (_url_0_). i read this review article (_url_1_) that talks a little about ether-lipid degradation. basically it says that we can do it but the exact mechanisms are not very well described. i found no info on ether-lipid digestion, but here is my hypothesis: we can do it but not well. the reason why i say that is because it does not seem evolutionary beneficial to be able to. most archea are rare and live in environments where humans would not be able to eat them. as such, it makes little sense for humans to invest energy in creating enzymes to digest them. we do have some ability to degrade them at the cellular level but it's not what our digestive system is adapted to do. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ether_lipid",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22771767"
] | [
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will an accelerometer measure a nonzero acceleration in a "freefall" caused by an electric field? | i know that if i have a uniform gravitational field of strength, say, g=9.81 m/s^2 in a particular direction, an accelerometer attached to a mass of, say, 1 kg, will measure zero acceleration. however suppose we charge this mass with 1 c and place it in a uniform electric field of strength e=9.81 n/c. doing the math yields an acceleration of a=eq/m=9.81 m/s^2. however, since this is an acceleration not due to gravity, does this mean it is a proper acceleration? and therefore will the accelerometer measure 9.81 m/s^2 ? i was talking about acceleration with one if my buddies earlier and it just made me realize how surprisingly confusing the concept is to me -.- | yeah, the accelerometer will measure an acceleration. the electric force is applied only on the charge, not on the body of the accelerometer; therefore the spring in the accelerometer stretches. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
this may be dumb, but how does zzquil work? | i've never really understood. but also haven't looked into it, figured i would start here! | histamine has numerous functions, but in the brain, it regulates the sleep-wake cycle by promoting wakefulness. older antihistamine drugs, like benadryl, can cross the blood-brain barrier and block this effect of histamine, which leads to drowsiness. zzquil is just liquid benadryl (and stupid expensive, by the way, compared to just buying generic benadryl tablets at the pharmacy). newer antihistamine drugs like zyrtec and allegra do not cross into the brain, so the block allergy symptoms without causing sleepiness. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a theoretical minimum response time between seeing something and reacting to it? | i was playing football yesterday (soccer for you americans), and someone took a shot from about ten foot away from me past some defenders and into the goal. the thing is, i put my hand exactly in the flight path of the ball , but was too slow to stop it.if i had been milliseconds quicker, i would have saved it and been a hero and f**ked the prom queen . which begs the question, how quickly can we physically react to stimuli? is there a theoretical limit to how quickly the nerve impulses can travel from visual perception to conscious/unconscious decision to physical reaction? could i have f**ked the prom queen? | there is indeed a theoretical limit to how quickly your nervous system can work like this, especially if a decision needs to be made. this is simply called reaction time. reaction times vary according to a normal distribution in the population. [this paper](_url_0_) from 1996 published in nature showed that the average human reaction time (in their task) was roughly 400 ms. yet they found that visual perception took about 150 ms. these time constraints are determined by action potential velocities, degree of axon insulation (myelination), synaptic transmission delays (vesicle binding, diffusion, signaling time), signal integration in the post-synaptic cell, and the number of cells between the stimulus and the response. based on the data from the paper i linked to, it seems like there might be 250 ms after signal detection for processing and motor output. this is remarkably fast. in their paper the shortest responses were around 200 ms. probably you can practice multiple times to get your responses down to be even faster, but no matter what you do you'll be limited by the neurobiology inherent in the system. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://fias.uni-frankfurt.de/~triesch/courses/260object/papers/SpeedOfProcessing.pdf"
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how much truth is there in the folk knowledge ways of increasing the chance of pregnancy? sex every 3 days, women standing upside down etc. etc. | sex every 3 days as opposed to sex every 3 months would certainly increase the chance of pregnancy (unless, of course, one or both partners are infertile). now, if we're talking "sex only every 3 days, no more, no fewer, because 3 is a magic number" (3 and 7 are big in mystical circles) then that's hogwash. as for standing upside down, there's about as much truth to that as there is to curing warts by performing magic rituals around a water-filled tree stump, which is also a folk-remedy. namely, none. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can particles spontaneously change from right- to left-handed? does this give them mass? | i stumbled upon leonard susskind's lecture called "demistifying the higgs boson" where he attempts to explain the higgs mechanism in more depth than just claiming that it's space molasses that give particles mass via physical drag. here is the lecture _url_1_ i was more or less following his explanations of what condensates and hat-shaped potentials mean as well as how fields can theoretically give particles mass. but at 43:30 he goes into a very specific example: the flipping of electrons from right-handed to left-handed, back and forth, by emitting z bosons into a condensate to conserve weak hypercharge. he goes as far as saying that the rate at which this flipping occurs *is* the mass. the emitted z boson then goes on to also emit and absorb its own hypercharge by emitting "ziggs bosons". i've done some additional reading and what i've understood so far is that the last part is a toy model dealing with a simplified universe where only the z boson exists, the "ziggs" is just that universe's version of the higgs and the real higgs phenomenon has more particles and intermediate stages. the problem is that i'm kind of unsure where the facts ended and the toy model began; and some of the facts seem off. susskind calls the flipping of left/right-handedness of the electron the "spontaneous breaking of chiral symmetry" and upon looking it up on wikipedia it's definitely a thing ( _url_0_ ) although i don't understand most of the article. it does seem to say 99% of the mass of nucleons comes from this rather than the higgs mechanism. the problem is that the z boson has a hypercharge of 0 so i don't see how it can do what he said it did, which is maintain charge conservation when the particles flip and become "hyperneutral". and how can tiny electrons and quarks be constantly emitting these massive 91gev z bosons at normal energies? i believe i'm either missing an important piece of the puzzle or taking an analogy at face value somewhere. i'd be happy to get some explanation on the role of chiral symmetry breaking in giving particles mass. | his language is quite confusing, but he didn't actually say the z boson has hypercharge ('zilch') -- he said the 'ziggs' boson has the hypercharge. the true higgs field is a 2 dimensional complex scalar field, which essentially means that it can generate four different particles (complex = 2 real numbers, so 2d complex = 4d real in some sense). all of these have weak hypercharge of 1; one has +1 electric charge, one -1, and two are electrically neutral. three of these -- the two charged particles and one of the neutral ones -- are also 'goldstone bosons', which means they lead to the breaking of this chiral symmetry. the neutral one is what susskind called a ziggs, and the charged ones play similar roles for the w^(+) and w^(-) particles. the fourth one is *the* higgs boson (the one everyone talks about). it couples to matter particles (fermions) via a yukawa coupling and contributes to their mass in some small way, but really it's just a 'residual' particle that mostly exists for symmetry reasons. the final thing i'd say is that the higgs field is also a tachyonic field, which means it has imaginary mass. this is why is forms the condensate susskind keeps talking about. none of the particles excitations have imaginary mass, though, so it's not a problem. they're 'virtual particles'. they don't really 'exist' in the same way real particles do. they're just a convenient way to visualise (and describe mathematically) the interaction between a real particle and a field. [this](_url_0_) is quite a good series of blog posts on the topic, and they go into the chiral symmetry breaking later on as well. | 9 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiral_symmetry_breaking",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JqNg819PiZY"
] | [
"https://www.quantumdiaries.org/2011/11/21/why-do-we-expect-a-higgs-boson-part-i-electroweak-symmetry-breaking/"
] | [
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what are some good resources for learning about error analysis in physics? | [an introduction to error analysis](_url_0_) by john r. taylor is the text that undergrads at uc berkeley use. it's pretty decent. as an aside, i think that the undergraduate sequence at most schools does a terrible job of teaching about uncertainty and error analysis. i'm a phd candidate at berkeley (graduating in december!), and my dissertation involves high precision measurements that test the standard model. thus, analyzing sources uncertainty is my bread and butter. i really appreciate how approximations, models, and measurement precision are interrelated. i'm really curious to see what resources other people put here. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Introduction-Error-Analysis-Uncertainties-Measurements/dp/093570275X"
] | [
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|
is atomic resonance a constant or does it depend on gravity/forces? | so, my cousin got a kinectic watch and we started discussing on how exact a watch (or any timekeeping device for that matter) could get. i mentioned how the atomic clock is the most accurate watch in existance blah blah, and that it counts the osciliation of cesium blah blah, but he mentioned that the resonance could change depending on the forces acting on it. is it true, partially or not? (please note i am no physics expert, i'm still on middle school :p probably i wrote a thing or two wrong) | the characteristic oscillation frequency that drives the cesium oscillations in an atomic clock is a dependent only on the energy level separation between the electron two states. this energy difference is a fundamental property of cesium caused by the electromagnetic force, mostly by interactions between the electrons and the electrons with the nucleus. however these orbital levels can be changed by the applications of external electric and magnetic fields. only a truly enormous gravitational field could effect these energy levels, but gravity certainly could effect the time kept with regards to other clocks (see relativity). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does oxyclean work? | we all see these commercials that they make. i'm just wondering how it works and if it really works as well as they say. | the active ingredient in oxyclean is [sodium percarbonate](_url_0_). when dissolved in water, it separates into hydrogen peroxide (h2o2) and sodium carbonate (na2co3). hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizer and a type of bleach. it works by oxidizing chromosphores, forcing compounds responsible for color to break bonds and give up electrons, losing their characteristic color in the process. yes, it really works, like any other bleach. as well as they say? i don't know. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_percarbonate"
] | [
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] |
what are some recent (maybe a couple hundred years?) evolutionary leaps that we humans have taken? | this somewhat depends what you think an "evolutionary leap" is. it's probably better to think of evolutionary changes that have led to humans being better adaptation to our environment. there aren't likely too many changes in humans that would be measurable and characterisable as such evolutionary changes within the last 100 years. but human genes would appear to be full of changes that are a consequence of our shift to agriculture and in to urban environments. the classic example is lactose tolerance in adult humans. typically in mammals they lose the ability to digest lactose as they become adults but in human populations that make and consume dairy products we largely retain the ability to digest the lactose in milk. _url_1_ it's also suggested that the cystic fibrosis trait may have arisen in the response to cholera and typhoid epidemics in europe. carrying two copies of the gene results in the disease cystic fibrosis but carrying a single copy may provide some resistance to cholera. adaptations for malaria resistance and hiv tolerance are also visible _url_0_ i do vaguely recall reading an article that suggested around 5,000 (about 1 fifth) human genes show adaptations since the advent of agriculture. i'm not sure how correct that might be and i rather annoyingly can't find that article at the moment. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.lurj.org/article.php/vol4n1/genome.xml",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactase_persistence"
] | [
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|
joey chestnut ate 70 hotdogs in 10 minute today. what is your bodies reaction to 19,600 calories in that short of timespan? | [removed] | tl;dr - he most likely won't absorb a good deal of that 20k calories. the ultimate way the calories end up in our blood (and then the rest of our system) is via solubilized fats (help from the bile), broken down simpler sugars (saliva, stomach acid, and bile enzymes), and simple amino acids (stomach acid, and bile enzymes). i'm going to walk down the gi tract. they're not chewing it that much, so most of the food is in solid chunks without much saliva (that's why they need water after all). this will prevent all future steps from accessing all the nutrients, and is probably the biggest block to the bulk calories. it probably won't be broken down that much in the stomach. the pylorus, the sphincter at the end of the stomach that leads to the rest of the intestines, is controlled by pressure, concentration (acidity), and a few other things. 70 dogs is a lot of volume and pressure. also, the body's stomach can't produce that much acid to accommodate that much food - so the pylorus will have to let a lot of un-broken down food through. this isn't to mention that food is unbroken - it'd be a lot easier to dissolve crushed up chalk in vinegar than a whole piece. once in the early small intestines (the duodenum), the pancreas can't produce that much edit: *~~bile~~ digestive enzymes, the liver can't produce that much bile*, and the gallbladder couldn't have stored enough bile to break down that much food. a lot of the fat won't become emulsified, and thus can't be absorbed. much of the proteins and carbs won't be broken down into the smaller pieces that can be absorbed. and, of course, you can't absorb large chunks of food. the rest of the small intestines is where the calorie absorption goes on. the transit time through the intestine is longer than a normal meal, but a lot of the food is not in body-absorbable forms at this point. the large intestines is where it gets interesting. the gi's natural peristaltic rhythm moves things through (somewhat), but all that undigested nutrition is going to meet up with the large intestinal bacteria. there will be gas (the a main bacterial byproduct), but all this "digestion" doesn't really go into the human body. plus, the large intestines don't have the same nutrient absorption machinery the small intestines do. in the colon, the large undigested chunks will coalesce with dead bacteria, dead red blood cells (it's what gives the stuff most of the brown color). the large intestines and colon serve to dehydrate the remains. the un-emulsified fats will serve as...let's say...barriers to coalescence. this will make looser stools. large chunks, slightly smaller than the bites that were taken way up top, will still remain. and don't forget the gas. the parts that do get absorbed go to the liver, and are processed as normal. the sugars and amino acids are converted to fats or carbohydrates (glycogen, etc.) - but there's going to be a lot of excess nitrogen compounds in the blood (amino acids, unlike carbs and fats, have a lot of nitrogen) that will be eliminated as urea in the urine or can exacerbate gout. the sodium will easily be taken care of by the kidney. if they were to donate blood the next day, it would probably be a milky red color (versus the deep red we are familiar with). this is due to the solubilized and re-packaged fats. some are from the intestines to the liver, and some are from the liver to the rest of the body (the familiar hdl, ldl etc.) these will get absorbed by the body eventually - either by other tissues, or back to the liver. i should point out a lot of the unabsorbed calories are because the food was whole protein and carbs and fats. if 20k calories of sugar (sucrose) were ingested, the body could likely absorb almost all of it. [edit: i provided the answer to this hypothetical here](_url_0_) edit 2: i underestimated what 20k calories of sugar is like. some rough stuff will happen before that is absorbed - please see comments below the link for better explanations. | 3,087 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4ra09i/joey_chestnut_ate_70_hotdogs_in_10_minute_today/d4zodqx"
] | [
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what are the implication's of maxwell's demon? | i understand the basics of the thought experiment, and of the early responses to it. i just want to know why this demon acquiring information is an issue. i know it has to do with storage space, but once the demon has observed the system enough, why must it keep observing it and deleting information. could it not learn enough and not violate landauer's idea about it? or am i misunderstanding this information aspect? i also don't understand what many current experiments are trying to do with it, and i don't understand many of it's implications in cosmology that are occasionally brought up. | i believe the thought experiment involves a 'demon' which constantly watches the door, only allowing particles with the right k.e. to get through. therefore it needs to observe the particle coming at the door and then delete the information after it has either gotten through or bounced off, to free up space for observing the next particle. this uses up more energy than can be extracted from the temperature difference that it creates. if the demon were to observe the whole system, then i suppose that information would take more energy to collect than can be generated from the final temperature difference that the demon can create, but i am not sure about this. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can hadrons be stretched? | the strength of the strong force is directly proportional to the distance of quarks, so the farther you get the stronger the interaction is. it’s been described to me like a rubber band, where trying to pull the quarks apart gets more difficult as the ends get more distant. if i understand it correctly, this was determined in particle accelerators where protons and neutrons were simply smashed together and the evidence after these events indicated that was how the strong interaction worked. are there other means to pull quarks apart, like by an external magnetic or electric field? | that's not correct the string tension is constant, in other words the potential energy (provided such a thing makes sense) increases linearly. yes, precisely using an external magnetic and electric field! that is realized in practice by scattering electrons or muons off the hadrons. the advantage over hadron colliders is that we understand electrodynamics (the probe) very well. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are a bodybuilder's muscles "useless" compared to a powerlifter's? | why does max load - low repetition cause myofibrillar hypertrophy? why does it give different results than high rep - low weight? how are these mechanisms activated? what's actually going on in there? **i put it in here because i want hard science. not that damn broscience.** p.s: if i wanted to study this kind of things, what career should i study? kinesiology? | it really comes down to "training specificity": essentially your body responds to specifically what you train for. so training with max load / low repetition improves your performance at exactly that. myofibrillar hypertrophy comes into play because myofibrals are the structures that actually contract in a muscle. increasing the number of these will increase your absolute strength. low repetition / max load training stresses these structures, actually physically damaging the proteins, and thus your body responds by repairing and growing them. training at higher reps stress your myofibrals less than max load training. other structures come into play when training higher reps: your cardiovascular system, your ability to convert stored glucose into energy (atp), your ability to flush out waste products (lactic acid, damaged proteins). these systems are trained much more when doing a typical bodybuilding style training program: 8-12 reps, high volume. hypertrophy in these systems increase muscle bulk without necessarily causing an increase in strength. this is where the idea of "useless" muscles comes from in bodybuilders. depending on the number of reps and the volume, you can have the stress be mostly on the cardiovascular system, or on the anaerobic system. the differences in training can be seen by the differences in physiques of different types of athletes. | 51 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone explain these weird ice crystals? | instead of melting completely the ice on this lake turned into strange ice crystals, they're all basically the same size and from what i can see all the ice on the lake turned into these crystals can someone please explain how this could've happened i've never seen anything like it this is what it looks like, _url_0_ | hey cool, what you've found is called [candle ice](_url_0_). when crystalline ice thaws, it prefers to thaw on the vertical axis where crystal bonds are weaker. in special conditions (including temp near freezing) that can cause the ice to separate into hundreds of little columns. have you heard a little tinckling bell-like noise when it breaks up? sometimes candle ice makes that noise. | 5 | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/gallery/jYI3K"
] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candle_ice",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_shove",
"https://www.ctvnews.ca/polopoly_fs/1.1793866.1398536857!/httpImage/image.jpg_gen/derivatives/landscape_960/image.jpg"
] | [
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] |
how plausible/accurate is the jaw "shape" of current megalodon exhibitions? | i assume only the teeth of megalodon have ever been found, never an actual jaw outline, so all current megalodon jaw displays have been made by simply assuming it looked the same as that of a great white, and then extrapolating from there. just googling "megalodon jaw" returns [at least four largely different jaw curvatures and configurations.] (_url_1_) yes, the teeth of megalodon and carcharodon carcharias are pretty similar, [except in the former's more pronounced v-shape of the tooth base] (_url_0_) which i assume is not found in great whites to that extent, but how sure are biologists that the actual jaw curvature is the same? how plausible are the paintings and renderings in modern science artwork depicting megalodon as an almost identical twin to the great white(only with a proportionally smaller tail fin)? | the shapes are all just best guesses. its a combination of looking at the tooth shapes and the size of the teeth. they are all most likely guesses, but they are educated guesses. none of them are probably that far off, but its probably a mixture of 2 or more of the configurations. (to my knowledge, no jaw shape has been preserved) | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/PYnij0e.jpg",
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what is it about staying physically active/physically fit that seems to extend ones lifespan? | my grandma died at age 56 due to complications in diabetes, im not sure if it related to the way she looked, but she looks so worn down and old at that point. but when i see an old body builder, jogger, or an older man/woman who still works for a living, they seem vibrant, fit, and strong despite their extremely old age. so what is it about activity that seems to keep the body running? in my mind, i would think a lazy person puts less stress on a body and keeps it going longer (mostly false it would seem) not sure what flair is proper, "medicine" or "biology". medicine seems more relevant i guess. | you've asked a very, very, very complicated and extensive question. i'm going to address some of the main points of why exercise keeps you young, but keep in mind really this won't cover the basic extent of what happens in your body. first of all, let's talk cardiovascular health, specifically the arteries. within each artery, there are things that can vasodilate (make larger) and vasoconstrict (make smaller). take nitric oxide (no), for example. this is one of the main chemicals in your endothelial cells (inner linings) that help vasodilate the arteries. if your arteries are larger (less plaque, less resistance to flow, less work on the heart), you're obviously able to deliver blood better to the working muscle or wherever it needs to go. with a disease such as diabetes, heart failure, hypertensives, etc... there are many thing that can impair this vasodilation and the function/availability of no. diseases such as these can either decrease no availability or cancel the effects of no (through these nasty things called reactive oxygen species), which leads to stiffer arteries, higher blood pressure, more work on the heart, etc... anyways, with training you keep your things that cancel out the helpful no in line (less reactive oxygen species, more no available, easier to flow). so that's just one effect of training. i mean, one of thousands upon thousands on one specific aspect of your body (just keeping blood pressure low). training and being physically active can do/does all kinds of really neat stuff like increase mitochondrial density (think of mitochondria as the motors of your muscles) and efficiency, reducing ros production, making the tissues more efficient at extracting oxygen during exercise. and don't get me started about all the cool things training does to prevent ldl build up in the blood stream, reducing plaque, maintiaining insulin sensitivity to keep blood glucose levels normal. really, the answer to this question goes on and on. if you have any specific questions feel free to ask! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are you able to show the relationship of flow rate on pressure drop being linear when in laminar flow and quadratic in turbulent flow? | the equations i know of are the darcey-weisbach, and two friction factors; phi=8/re and phi=0.00396/re^0.25. | it's been a few years since i took fluids but i'll give it a shot. the darcey-weisbach (dw) equation is: dp = f * l/d * rho*v^2 /2 * dp is pressure drop * f is friction factor * l is pipe length * d is pipe diameter * v is area-averaged velocity of fluid * rho is the density of the fluid the reynold's number is given by: re = v*d/nu * v is area-averaged velocity of fluid * d is pipe diameter * nu is the kinematic viscosity the first friction factor, phi = 8/re, can be derived for laminar flow conditions. substituting the expression back into tho dw equation: dp = f * l/d * rho * v^2 /2 dp = 8/re * l/d * rho * v^2/2 dp = 8*nu/(v*d) * l/d * rho* v^2/2 dp = 8*nu*l/d^2 * rho*v/2 the pressure drop is linear with respect to change in velocity. the second friction factor, phi = 0.00396/re^0.25, is an empirical fit from measured data (if i remember correctly) for turbulent flow systems. substituting back into the dw equation: dp = f * l/d * rho*v^2/2 dp = 0.00396/re^0.25*l/d * rho * v^2/2 dp = 0.00396 * nu^0.25/(v^0.25*d^0.25)*rho * v^2/2 dp = 0.00396 * nu^0.25/d^0.25*rho * v^1.75/2 in this case, pressure drop varies with v^1.75. in order for the relation to be quadratic, f must be independent of v (and therefore re). this is often a valid assumption for many turbulent flow systems. hope that helps. edit: formatting cause this is like my 4th post on reddit | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are heat sink compounds both graded, and selected for use? whose prime area of expertise is this? | on the whole, when an end user buys heat sink compound there's no great need for in-depth decisions. a 1.5g tube for $5-10 will probably be fine. but my mac, i discovered, has at least two quite distinct grades of compound in use. there's a higher-performance paste between the gpu and its heat sink, and a much thicker paste plastered on to all the vram chips on the graphics card. it looks like tile grout, to be honest, and it has to be plastered on about 3mm deep in order to give thermal contact between the very low-profile vram chips and the graphics card heat sink they lie under. this got me wondering. how do engineers decide what grades of heat sink compound to use? how much does it matter? how many different grades are there in common use? is selecting the right compound taught in electrical engineering these days, and if not, which discipline does consider it? my £5 tube specified its viscosity, thermal conductivity, operating temperature range and maybe 1-2 other things as well i don't remember. but i didn't understand the significance of any of those numbers, so all i could do was assume the numbers were reasonable for my use case and glop it on. if, as an engineer, you calculate that you do need some specialised compound, where can you obtain it from? what use cases require special formulas?? i did know heat sink selection could be a serious business, but i hadn't appreciated that choosing the right heat sink compound could be equally finicky. | heat sinking is often done by an electronics packaging engineer. this role is usually a mechanical engineer who is specifically trained to work on electronics products. the electrical engineer is often responsible exclusively for the circuit design, and will definitely outline the thermal expectations of each chip and region of the board, but they are usually not going to be directly responsible for thermal models. generally speaking, packaging engineers are responsible for the electro-mechanical interfaces(connectors/cables), board shapes, enclosure design, bosses and fasteners, thermal control, and any other mechanical modeling that may be needed. some companies may try to have an electrical engineer perform some of these activities, but larger teams usually dedicate a specialist to some or all of these items. as for how they actually decide what goes where, i am just the ee, but i know we actually own some thermal modeling software and ran simulations on some of the hotter components to decide how efficiently we can remove heat. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i made a ring out of a quarter and it is turning my finger green. what is this? | it says chia, _url_0_ that all quarters made before 1965 are made out of silver, i dont know how pure. the green is almost definitely from the copper. the reaction is from the metal and skin contact. silver is a non bio reactive metal aswell as gold, this is why its used in teeth. try a coin from befor 1965. it depends on where you get your metals and the quality for example our desired meral i believe is silver, i have worn a silver ring for about 14 years and only take it off to shower and rebuff/repair. i had it had it made for 40 dlls . i live in a country with much silver so its cheaper here. i have never had a stain. if you do it might be just a coat or impurities. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://jewelry.about.com/od/jewelrymetals/a/skin_reactions.htm"
] | [
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] |
|
does electricity flow three dimensionally? | i hope that title does my question justice. when electricity moves it takes the path of least resistance in a straightish line. is there ever an instance where it doesnt go from point a to b and just exsists in a space? conceptually like a ball of lightning i guess. | the word "electricity" has several meanings. assuming that you meant "electric current": electric current doesn't take the path of least resistance. it takes all the possible paths, but most of it goes through the path of least resistance, a bit less through a path that is a bit more resistant etc. electric current is the flow of charged particles. it is possible that a charged particle doesn't go anywhere, but then it isn't electric current. it is possible to have a body that is electrically charged but it isn't electric current. | 29 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_lightning",
"http://i.imgur.com/8qV7l.gif"
] | [
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when we throw a rock at an object, how do we aim? | i've had a look on my universities online database (web of knowledge) for papers in the area. there are a few of them, if you want to search for yourself this is a well optimised phrase to search "reflex of aim + physiology + neuroscience". i will have a better look later for a strong published article, but my guess would be that there is some degree of modelling in he brain, knowing to throw a harder rock with more force. but that the majority of skill comes from memory, i make this assumption because people become far more skilled in fields such as archery with more practice, rather than with a higher level of intelligence. don't take that as fact for now though, the paper "on reflexes of aim and freedom in comparative physiology of higher nervous activity" by z. imeni and p. pavlova looks promising, and i will try to find an english language version to reference. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does a pro level power lifter/strong man' strength compare to wild animal's such as a chimpanzee, or a bear? | is it anywhere even close, or are animals really just that much out of our league? | generally, it's a given that chimpanzees are stronger than humans. the leading theory is that human muscles and the associated nerves are wired more for dexterity and chimpanzee muscles more for strength. basically, humans have more small motor units (nerves activate a smaller number of muscle fibers at a time) which allows for fine motor control and allows for things like writing or whatever. chimps have less small motor units, which means their nerves will activate a larger number of muscle fibers with any given movement compared to humans. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1598/2177.full.pdf"
] | [
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does the delta in daylight change throughout the year? is it linear/logarithmic? | hi, so i was wondering about the change in the amount of daylight throughout the year. obviously, the days are shorter in winter/longer in summer (here in north america, at least). does the amount of change in daylight change - for example, is it least during the equinoxes and solstices? is there a formula for rate of change? thanks! | it's all sinusoidal, the number of daylight hours and the deltas. the deltas are largest at the equinoxes and smallest at the solstices. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i just had a laparoscopic appendectomy done with the three incision sites on the left side. the appendix is on the right side. how was this done? | i have looked at various images and videos of the surgery, and the incision sites are all on the right/center as opposed to the left/center. the appendix is on the right so it blows my mind thinking about how the surgeon could have removed by making incisions on the left side. the incision points are like a mirror image of [the image on the right](_url_0_). i didn't know where else to ask and my next appointment with the surgeon is in 2 weeks so if anyone else has any idea as to how this was done could you please share? oh and bonus points to anyone who can tell me why i feel this stinging pain that seems to travel along a path in my lower intestines/anus. | i had one as well. they use a different tool at each of the incision points, a light/camera, a clamp, and a scalpel. they simply reach across your abdomen to the appendix, between the fat under the skin and your intestines. they cut it off, clamp/stitch the opening shut, and pull it across to the left side. they do this for several reasons. smaller incisions means a shorter recovery time. you're usually fully functional in just a few days. they used to cut directly down towards the appendix, but it was common for the already swollen organ to burst with the increased pressure from the incision directly above it. laparoscopic tends to be far safer. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.singhealth.com.sg/PatientCare/ConditionsAndTreatments/PublishingImages/MIS-General-Surgery-Laparoscopic-Appendicectomy.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4s69S1u5YdA"
] | [
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] |
for a laparoscopic appendectomy, why are there no incisions on the right side of the abdomen? | i had an appendectomy yesterday morning and there is one incision at my bellybutton, one directly below it at my waistline, and one on the left side of my abdomen. given that the appendix is on the right side, why was there no incision there? | you need space to work when doing laparoscopic surgery. usually you pass the camera through the bellybutton and use the other incisions as work ports. the tools are long thus if you made a port right on top of the appendix there will be no room to manoeuvre. i hope this is helpful! | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how dangerous is having and overbite or underbite to your health? | most people who get braces get it to either straighten their teeth or to fix and over/underbite. is having an over/underbite actually bad for your health? | having an overbite/underbite **may** lead to health issues. they could: * interfere with proper chewing. * make keeping teeth clean more of a challenge, increasing the risk of tooth decay, cavities, and gingivitis. * strain the teeth, jaws, and muscles, increasing the risk of breaking a tooth.* overall it's not dangerous per se. it's not like you have a incurable disease but it could lead to problem. depending on the degree of the over/underbite it is advised to seek treatment. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when holding back flatulence, what causes internal pain? | understanding that an excess of internal pressure of the intestine is not desirable, and hence the outlet of flatulence... when in a situation where one must hold back farts, what is actually causing the pain and discomfort? perhaps better asked, what reaction(s) does excess gas buildup trigger that manifest as gastrointestinal discomfort? there's a fair bit of volume available in the intestinal tract, no? and as we don't typically feel internal movement aside from discomfort, it just made me curious as to what is sending the pain signals (or bloating or otherwise). the why would be appreciated as well. thank you kindly. asked based on personal experience today. | it's likely gas becoming trapped in certain areas such as around the liver and spleen, stretching and causing some pain [ref. under gas and bloating symptoms](_url_1_) it's likely not caused by excessive gas production as people with ibs etc generally produce normal amounts of gas and respond well to antichloinergics with respect to abdomen pain [ref.](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ccjm.org/content/70/Suppl_2/S3.short",
"http://www.uptodate.com/contents/patient-information-gas-and-bloating-beyond-the-basics"
] | [
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] |
what is the meaning of geological process? what are its examples? | i've been really curious about geological processes for quite a while now and i've been searching it on internet but i'm still not satisfied | it's an extremely vague, kind of catch all term for a naturally occurring process that effects the solid earth (or other rocky planets) in some way. it could be used to describe processes occurring at a variety of scales, examples might be erosion, chemical weathering, physical weathering, plate tectonics, mantle convection, earthquakes, etc. it's vague enough that it doesn't have a formal definition and might be used by different people in different ways. e.g. for me, i would mostly consider something described as a 'geologic process' to only be related to a process that changes the solid earth. in my definition, something that exclusively happens in the atmosphere (e.g. convective thunderstorm formation) might be better described as an atmospheric process and something that exclusively happens in the ocean (e.g. thermohaline circulation) might be better described as a hydrospheric process (or maybe oceanographic process), but the line is pretty blurry as something like the [long term carbon cycle](_url_0_) involves changes in the solid earth, oceans, and atmosphere, but would could easily be described as a 'geologic process'. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www3.geosc.psu.edu/~dmb53/DaveSTELLA/Carbon/long_term_carbon.htm"
] | [
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if nerve impulses are electrical signals that travel along an axon, when we get electrocuted by high currency, is our body trying to read the impulses and fails, thus freezing in place? | i've been wondering this for a few years now. because it kind of makes sense, but i need someone who is more aware of what happens when you get electrocuted. thanks! | you have the right idea, although i would state this a little differently. it's not just that the body is trying to "read" the impulses, ie, it's not getting confused because the impulses don't make sense. it's that the electric current flowing through you is actually sending really strong signals through your nerves that automatically result in muscle fiber contraction, as well as a lot of other things. it's similar to a radio station suddenly broadcasting a signal so loud that it damages radio speakers everywhere. when a current goes across someone's chest, it can cause fibrillation. the heart muscles' normal rhythm gets drowned out, and the fibers lose track of that rhythm. they can't get back in synch with each other again. the heart is no longer pumping properly, and this obviously can cause death if something isn't done to re-coordinate the heart muscle action. in addition, (please someone correct me on this if i'm getting the physics wrong) the resistance encountered in the body by the electrical current will cause the body to heat up, causing burn damage to all the organs the current passes through. edited to add a source: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/112/24_suppl/IV-154.full"
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busting chinese myth: steel spoon absorbs vitamins? | my mom and her friends strongly believe that drinking soups with a steel spoon is a big no-no since the steel spoon will absorb all the vitamins and leave the soup impoverished. so a spoon of any other material is preferred for this purpose. personally i find this ridiculous. i assume this stems from the fact that metal absorbs heat or something along those lines? so what's the scientific explanation here? | you will not convince your mom and her friends to change their minds with any information you read here, or anywhere else. people are quite fond of their beliefs, so [it is difficult to change them by argument](_url_0_). if you just want to convince *yourself*, you can note that it's not possible for any material, steel included, to "absorb" all of the nutrients in a soup, because nutrients have both mass and volume, so they would saturate the spoon pretty quickly. it's also absurd to think that steel could summarily destroy all of the nutrients in some other way, because, after all, food prepared in steel pots and pans or stored in steel cans is not miraculously devoid of nutritive value as a result. steel cookware [*is* known](_url_1_) to release (small amounts of) metal when heated in the presence of an acid, which *could* conceivably add a *trivial* amount of unhealthy material to your food. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias#Related_effects",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1514841"
] | [
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if i were traveling in a ship and we stopped in the middle of space for a year would my watch have more or less time passed on it than here on earth? | if i were traveling in a ship and we stopped in the middle of space for a year would my watch have more or less time passed on it than here on earth? | how do you define "to stop" in space? velocity is not lorenz invariable, which means it is only defined relative to a frame of reference. as long as you do not accelerate the ship, you can assign an arbitrary velocity < c to yourself by choosing a respective frame of reference. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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