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what would the discovery of a lorentz violation imply? | what exactly are you looking to know beyond what's in the appropriate wikipedia article: _url_0_ they imply violations of special-relativity and the standard model. a funny thing about the standard model is that it's the most accurate theory human-kind has ever constructed, and yet we know it's wrong (or rather a low-energy approximation of a larger theory). it's built into the very way we calculate things with it that it has to fail at some energy. so far, experimentally, we've never seen it fail though. that means we're in a funny position. we have this great theory but we know it must break at some point but haven't seen any breaking. we also have many theories that, you might call, "super"-theories that may include the standard model and unify it with general relativity. however, in order to lend evidence for such a theory we need it to predict something experimentally verifiable that is different than the standard model. so by finding standard model violations we have a criteria to evaluate the correctness of such theories. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_searches_for_Lorentz_violation"
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|
is there a science or a branch of science specifically dedicated to the study of time? | if such a branch exist, please recommend me any reading material (i.e. textbooks) relating to the study of time. also, what is currently the most accepted theory for why and/or how time work/exist? | it would be a branch of physics. i'm not sure if einstein's relativity is what you were looking for, but it seems to be the best description of time right now. it's a dimension similar to the 3 dimensions of space, but is different because it gets subtracted in the equations instead of added. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the pineal gland release dmt? is dmt released in a large quantity upon death? | this probably needs to be a faq it gets asked so often. dmt has been found in all over the body in trace amounts. there's no conclusive evidence the pineal gland manufactures it. the amounts of dmt found in the body are so minuscule as to make it equally plausible it's just metabolic waste vs serving some functional purpose. there's no evidence large amounts of dmt are released up death. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
physics question (work and energy) | okay, something occurred to me the other day and i just can't figure it out. let's get some things clear for starters: 1. work is equal to the force exerted on an object times the distance over which the force was applied and is measured in joules. 2. the amount of work you put in is equal to the amount of energy you get out. for example, applying a force of 1n across 1m to a 2kg object will give it 1j of kinetic energy and a velocity of 1m/s (because ke = (0.5)mv^2 ). 3. gravitational potential energy is calculated by work. since force is mass times acceleration and you're working against gravity, it's calculated by mgh, where g = 9.8m/s^2 and h is the height to which the object was raised. now, maybe some of that was obvious, but i don't want any confusion. okay, now for the question. let's say you had an object, 1kg. if you raise it 1m, the potential energy stored in the object will be mgh = (1)(9.8)(1) = 9.8j. it can be calculated from this that the force used to raise the object was 9.8n. however, you can lift it with a greater force than that and it mgh will still work out to be the same. where have i gone wrong? | this is wrong. this isn't the force used to raise the box, but force due to gravity f = mg. you must overcome this force to get the box moving upwards. a greater force upwards will just mean you move the box a distance *h* faster. you've done the same amount of work, but with more power p = w/t. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the 2011 earthquake in japan shortened the length of the day by 1.8 microseconds. how was this measured? | atomic clocks have no problem keeping accurate track of a microsecond, or even a nanosecond, over a day. you just need a good reference, e.g. from the sky. by comparing the signals multiple radio telescopes receive you can determine the current rotation angle of earth very accurately: the time delay between the signals depends on the rotation angle. more modern: laser interferometers can also keep track of the rotation rate of earth. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/japanquake/earth20110314.html"
] | [
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|
is there a chemistry reason for this? | i'm not a doctor, please consult with your physician with any problems you have. i am not sure about your mental state, but you might be undergoing [respiratory acidosis](_url_1_) during your episodes of dyspnea (difficulting breathing). when you can't breathe very well, you are not removing enough carbon dioxide from your body to keep the ph of your blood and tissues within the appropriate range for the proteins in your body to function. essentially the more carbon dioxide in your body, the lower the ph of your blood, which can lead to problems described in the first link. (this wikipedia source [respiratory acidosis](_url_0_) describes a bit more about co2 concentration and its effect on ph) i would think that confusion, fatigue, sleepyness, and lethargy would put me in a down mood as well. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_acidosis",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001154/"
] | [
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|
does the kind of material of the surface x-rays bounce off greatly affects the scatter? | i have zero experience with x-rays, but need to know a few things about it now for a project. i know that x-rays scatter, and bounce off objects. does the material or texture of an object greatly affect the bouncing/scatter? do some objects absorb more x-rays than others? i assume so, but how great is this difference? also, are there easy ways to calculate or make educated guesses about the amount of scatter without using advanced mathematical models? | yes, the material does affect the scattering pattern. x-rays scatter off of electrons, so the electron density of the object determines how the x-rays scatter. this is a very important technique for solving atomic scale structures of complex molecules, especially when you can get those molecules to form a crystal. in a crystalline array, x-rays will scatter in distinct diffraction peaks. this isn't quite as useful as an image (it isn't easy to make lenses that work well for x-rays) but the scattering pattern can still be used to solve the electron density in the crystal. [this diagram](_url_0_) gives you an idea of how it works. x-ray crystallography allowed watson and crick to solve the structure of dna in the 1950's. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/X_ray_diffraction.png"
] | [
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how do brewers mitigate genetic drift? | good day, all! brewers (and distillers and winemakers) rely heavily on yeast for their product. how do the commercial producers avoid a change in their product due to genetic drift? | keeping pure cultures helps, as you won't have different species in contact with one another. often times brewers use a yeast blend, however. i am not sure of the rate of lateral transfer in such a situation, but i assume it would be low. while there might be some yeast in such a mixture that have laterally transferred genes, they would likely be vastly outnumbered by the original stocks. forcing yeast to mate is one way brewers develop novel strains. a media with low magnesium content helps, as adding high amounts of magnesium (iirc, but it could be another element) can be used to induce mutations in growth media if that is the goal. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why matematicians take caution when "simplifying" the quotient in leibniz notation? | i read in a lot of places on the infinitesimal approach that it is sometimes not so right. as an example, in the chain rules of exact and partial differentials, we "simplify" the quotients but comments by mathematicans say that it is not actually simplifying. what is wrong with that approach? and what are the other approaches to calculus? thanks. | the most important reason to not think of df/dx as "df divided by dx" is the fact that you would basically have to forget everything you know about calculus when moving to multivariable calculus. the nice rules attributed to leibniz notation do not transfer. for instance, dx(∂f/∂x) is not equal to ∂f or df or whatever in higher dimensions. learning to understand the equation (df/du)(du/dx)=df/dx as the more precise chain rule involving actual function composition leads to a better time when going to higher dimensions. another thing is that taking leibniz notation more seriously than just being a handy bookkeeping device can lead to incorrect conclusions. for instance, what is (d^(2)f/du^(2))(du/dx)^(2)? if we just recklessly treat these as fraction, you might think that this equals d^(2)f/dx^(2), and this is not the case. if you don't know how to be careful, then you can be lead to bad results. there are ways to look at calculus as actually dealing with infinitesimals, rather than limits. but it is far from the picture the leibniz paints, and is much harder to actually use compared to limits. it's also *way* more abstract than limits, and calculus students have a hard time understanding secant lines. it's also not as practical as limits, which are basically roadmaps to approximation, which is one of the most important things that calculus allows us to do. limits explicitly tell us how to approximate, infinitesimals don't. it has also been proved that everything that normal calculus can prove everything that infinitesimal calculus can (about normal calculus), so it literally doesn't bring anything new to the table. this infinitesimal-based calculus is a niche field that was created because people wondered if it could actually be created or not. it can, and it's a fun thing to learn about if you're curious, but that's about it. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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molecular dynamic simulations | dear all, i'm a biologist, and i'm interested in molecular dynamics. i wanted to ask what is the current state of art about these simulations algorithms and problem approach (if you have any scientific literature ill be very grateful). second as far as i understood all this simulations are iterative, thus they calculate step by step were the molecules will be after a certain amount of time (it might be wrong correct me if so). i was wondering if its possible to include the time in the simulation, by calculating on 4 dimensional vectors (x,y,z,t) instead of using only 3d vectors (x,y,z). i think with this approach the simulation will be more time consuming but preciser. | it's a really big area, it's hard to describe the state of the art on something so broad. generally there are three types of simulation: molecular dynamics, where each particle moves around according to newton's laws, brownian dynamics, where the important particles move around but there is also random motion programmed in, and monte carlo, where the system is iterated randomly in a way that generally reduces energy. each have their pros and cons. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are entropic contributions been taken care of in molecular dynamics simulation? | [deleted] | statistical physics applies specifically to those cases where we don't want to do the calculation, so to speak. molecular dynamics is doing the calculation. it's important to remember that entropy has meaning only in a statistical context. you don't talk about the entropy of a single particle evolving in a specified way according to a known hamiltonian from some given initial data because it has no meaning in that context. entropy is something like the 'informational cost' of the coarse graining inherent in the statistical description of a system. to put it more concretely, say i have n particles in a box interacting via some specified potential and i want to determine the macroscopic observables (i.e., things like temperature, pressure, etc. that i can measure by, e.g., sticking a thermometer in the box). i have two ways of doing this. i can write down the hamiltonian and solve my equations of motion for each particle for some (or many different) initial sets of position and momenta. then, after some period of time, when i believe the system has become ergodic (also said: thermalized, or forgotten its initial state) then i calculate my observable for that final configuration. this is molecular dynamics. alternatively, i don't want to solve the equations fully, in which case i opt for a statistical description of the system. in this case, following boltzmann, i make some assumptions about the statistical weight of different configurations and sample from the possible configurations according to this weight. then i average the observable, calculated for each sampled configuration, over all sampled configurations. the entropy in this statistical description is purely a function of the statistical weight of the different possible configurations. in the case that we are interested in sampling a box of n particles with a fixed total energy e, the entropy is famously given by boltzmann's formula: s = k lnw, with s = entropy, k = boltzmann's constant, and w = the total number of configurations corresponding to a particular specified macroscopic state. the point to take away is that entropy is purely an aspect of this statistical description of the system. now, whence, e.g., entropically driven phase transitions? this is purely to do with the relative number of system configurations corresponding to different phases. if we were to do the statistical experiments i described in the preceding paragraph with a system of hard disks (they can't overlap but they don't interact otherwise) in 2d, we'd find that, beyond a certain critical density, we'd be much more likely to randomly sample a state in which the disks had crystallized. thus, we have an entropically driven phase transition. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you gather trillions of amoebas or other single celled organisms together in a container, would they form anything of interest or just stay individuals? what would be the consistency of the contents of this container? | i'm not sure if i'm asking the right way, but just like we're formed of trillions of individual cells, would these organisms form a living blob? i've always wondered this and could never find out a good answer. | damn, i wish i had a source for this. but i remember reading about an experiment where researchers filled a test tube with bacteria, and then placed most of the food near the bottom of the test tube. they then collected the bacteria near the bottom, let them increase in number in a petri dish, and then repeated the procedure. they did this multiple times, and by selecting for bacteria that would sink, they actually created bacteria that stuck to each other in order to increase their ability to sink. in essence they were creating the very beginning of multicellularism. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physarum_polycephalum#Life_cycle"
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teaching your child science. where to start? | we are organizing a homeschool group and the oldest three kids are 6 years old. i'm going to be teaching them history and a science. i have no idea where to start with science. should we study nature? leaves, trees, anything in the backyard? the animal kingdom, classifications and species? space, planets, and stars? then you have to explain the laws of gravity and others. there are great science projects we can do involving chemistry, but that seems a little advanced. i could teach anatomy, the human body and it's functions. where should i start, what do you think is the most important thing kids need to grasp? help me please! | i remember learning science when i was that age, and i've also taught classes at a zoo to kids of all ages. i think when they are younger, kids can have a harder time grasping concepts that they don't see/experiences themselves. basically, i would probably stick to macroscopic sciences until they are a little older. things like nature and animals and plants are great because you can go very hand-on with that. the same with the human body, especially things like senses and how we process the world. i think anatomy might be a bit much some of the concepts of how the stuff inside us works could be a little too advanced. i think you also could definitely do space stuff, too. you might want to stick to the solar system and more basic concepts like galaxies and stars, but space is always really cool and there are always great museums/planetariums/science centers you can go to and supplement what you are teaching. i think that chemistry and physics might be a little advanced because kids might have a harder time visualizing the scientific lessons in those subjects because they don't get to interact with them. i hope that makes sense. also, you can being to teach scientific reasoning skills and experimental skills by having small science labs. these labs don't need to be super advanced but you could help kids go through activities that require thinking of a hypothesis (e.g. birds chirp more in the morning than at night) planning an experiment (sit outside for an hour in the morning and an hour at night counting bird chirps), taking some data, and then understanding the result. teaching them how science works is just as important as teaching specific scientific concepts. and a disclaimer, even though i have education experience, i'm not primarily an educator. my ideas are based on my experience with teaching kids at a zoo and with my experiences growing up. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://mariaesposito.org/disseration%20docs/Constructivism/Vosniadou%20-%20conceptual%20change.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology",
"http://www.crme.soton.ac.uk/publications/kjpubs/somelessons.html"
] | [
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meteorology - what exactly is a sprite? | i know that they are somehow related to lightning, and that they are very pretty looking (in that eerie, mysterious sort of way). | _url_0_ i watched this nova special on sprites when it aired and it was super informative! they are a cold plasma phenomena which means they are more closely related to fluorescent tube discharges than lightning discharges. they're caused from the discharges of positive lighting between an underlying thundercloud and the ground. they generally only happen in very powerful thunderstorms and there a different types of sprites that are catagorized by their shape. it's some interesting stuff and they look pretty cool. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/earth/edge-of-space.html"
] | [
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if the oocyte is fertilized when it's arrested in metaphase ii, how do the sister chromatids end up in a polar body without dragging along the chromatids from the spermatid? | i'm learning about oogenesis and for some reason, it's confusing the hell out of me as to how the chromosomes lined up at the equatorial plane can split without error when the male chromatids are inside the cell. wouldn't it be easier for the oocyte to finish meiosis before fertilization occurs? **just letting you guys know this is an x-post from /r/explainlikeimfive. | the paternal chromatids are inside the cell, but they are still in a nucleus. this keeps them separated from the maternal chromatids until the egg finishes meiosis. then there are two "pronuclei" in the cell, which eventually fuse to make the diploid nucleus. source with images: _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10055/"
] | [
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straight rugby player suffers stroke, wakes up a homosexual. how can this happen? | he's the easiest way: he was in the closet and is using his stroke as an excuse. or, he was in the closet and his stroke removed his ability to inhibit himself. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are blood vials rounded on the bottom? | so i work in a veterinary practice, and we work with blood vials everyday. today i was wondering to myself why are they all rounded on the bottom? is there a practical reason why, or does my hospital just get ones that are while there are some that will sit flat? are the vials the same for human medicine? thanks for your help! | i don't have an official answer, but i would imagine the engineering reason is that a rounded bottom doesn't have edges, which are stress concentrators, so for the same amount of material, a rounded bottom is stronger. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
different ethnicity and their comfort levels in weather? | i have a diverse group of friends. trinidadian, south east asian, middle eastern, carribean, african. recently we've had a hot spell in toronto and i've noticed small differences in how each one of my friends deals with the heat. is this genetic? are we all programmed and differently suited to be able to deal with different weather? | why would it have to be genetic? maybe they just learned how to cope with heat when they were growing up in hot places. anyway, there are a couple of very old biological principles about how [endothermic](_url_0_) ("warm-blooded") species are expected to adapt to different climates. [bergmann's rule](_url_2_): the warmer the climate, the smaller the body size. [allen's rule](_url_1_): the warmer the climate, the longer the limbs. these are simply about geometry and heat dissipation. the wikipedia articles mention that human arctic-dwellers seem to fit these rules. i'm not sure how well established this result is. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotherm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen%27s_rule",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergmann's_rule"
] | [
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how do modern rails deal with thermal expansion? | i was looking at some of the faults of the hyperloop, and it seemed like thermal expansion was a big challenge. how do modern railway systems deal with this thermal expansion? | they do so by managing rail neutral temperature, which is also called stress free temperature. the rnt is the temperature at which there is neither compressive nor tensile stress in the rail. it is normally pretty close to the temperature at which the track has been laid. it's important for the rnt to be high enough that the rail won't buckle during the hottest part of the year and low enough that it won't pull apart at a weld during the coldest part of the year. when the ambient temperature is high, and there are sections of track that are prone to buckling, freight railroads in the usa will issue "slow orders", which direct engineers to slow down on those sections of track. maintaining a high quality track structure is important, as this increases the amount of force required to cause the track to buckle. at the usa freight railroads, most management of rnt is done through rules of thumb, rather than direct measurement of forces in the rail. source: i'm a software engineer at a company that sells sensor systems to railroads, including one that measures longitudinal stress in the rail in order to track rnt. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could grigori rasputin's cyanide resistance legend be true? | say if one person would regularly ingest small amounts of cyanide, would they develop a tolerance to it? | note [from wikipedia](_url_0_) that: it has also been anecdotally suggested that glucose is itself an effective counteragent to cyanide, reacting with it to form less toxic compounds that can be eliminated by the body. one theory on the apparent immunity of grigory rasputin to cyanide was that his killers put the poison in sweet pastries and madeira wine, both of which are rich in sugar; thus, rasputin would have been administered the poison together with massive quantities of antidote. one study found a reduction in cyanide toxicity in mice when the cyanide was first mixed with glucose.[15] however, as yet glucose on its own is not an officially acknowledged antidote to cyanide poisoning. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanide_poisoning#Treatment_of_poisoning_and_antidotes",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanide#Toxicity"
] | [
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did they know anatomically where organs were before the first c-section or did they just hope they were right and move organs around until they found the fetus? | scientists have been dissecting human and animal corpses for thousands of years, well before the first c-sections were attempted, let alone successful. ancient greeks herophilus of chalcedon and erasistratus of chios performed autopsies on corposes. later in the 14th century bodies of criminals were used to advance medical knowledge. the first well documented c-sections took place in the 1500s, the oldest recorded coming from switzerland. still, this would have always been a last ditch effort to save a life in an emergency situation and the success rate would have been abysmally low for both the mother and fetus. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the next evolutionary step for humanity? | evolution is guided by natural selection. if women stop having sex with hairy men, sure, we'll get less hairy as a species. as for the other thing... the genetic code doesn't "remember" stuff like sitting in desks all the time, so that will have no effect in the way you're imagining. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the rate of decay of long-term potentiation (ltp)? | in other words, at what rate do the synaptic connections formed during ltp decay as a result of inactivity? the reason i'm asking is because i'd like to know how quickly we forget learned "skills". | i just took an interesting class on drugs and addiction.. turns out some of the ltp in the reward pathway keeps is what keeps addicts sensitized to drugs for years, at least for glutamatergic inputs onto the nucleus accumbens. i’m not sure it ever goes away completely. think about how easy it is to reinstate a rewarded behavior long after extinction! i have no idea if all ltp in the brain is equal, though. i’d suspect not. certain pathways are probably more long-lasting than others. interesting question and i hope someone here has a better answer. edit: source- i’m a neuro major in undergrad | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why aren't we using ecm (extra cellular matrix) more in the medical fields.? | i remember reading this article several years ago about how the military was testing dried and powdered ecm from the lining of a pig's stomach. it was able to completely restore the tip of a man's finger and much of the muscles in the leg of a man who lost a large portion of it in an explosion. so why hasn't this become more mainstream by now? | it's hard to mass test and produce biologics in the way we can manufacture pharmaceuticals. they're in this weird place between drugs and dme (durable medical equipment). it's not that we never use biologics -- there's a giant ecosystem for blood, after all -- it's just hard. see also our difficulties handling stool for c.diff. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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since the brain is a plastic malleable organ, how does one properly manipulate it to become smarter? | for example, i was reading about a study published in the journal of applied psychology about glycogen and exercise on rats. rats who had exercised for regularly showed prolonged increases of glycogen levels (7-9% as compared to control group) in the cortex and hippocampus. | things that can help improve synaptic plasticity (and consequently memory performance): * [repetition, spaced trials](_url_3_) * concentration * [sleep](_url_1_) * some cognitive enhancers like [caffeine](_url_2_) * [diet and exercise](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166223609000563",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959438806001474",
"http://iospress.metapress.com/content/lw1630245745v088/",
"http://www.springerlink.com/content/cmqeyygkw73m3c82/"
] | [
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x-cross post from "ask reddit" - how many calories in the human body? | the human skeleton comprises around 15% of a person's weight, on average, assuming they're not overweight, and 15% of a non-overweight man is fat, then almost all the rest is protein to a first approximation. so say an average healthy man weighs 160 lb, that leaves 112 lb of protein and 24 lb of fat. at 9 kcal per gram of fat and 4 kcal per gram of protein, that makes 300,792 kcal. okay, that's a ridiculous number of significant digits for a first approximation, so make it an even 300,000 kcal. edit: no wait, forgot about the water. 70% of that protein is water, so that leaves about 160,000 kcal. edit again: suppose that same 160 lb guy puts on an extra 35 lb, that'll get us back up to 300,000 kcal. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
how do epiphytes obtain minerals if they are not rooted in soil? | i know that epiphytes are plants like mosses and orchids that utilize other plants for structural support in a non-parasitic way. they attach to plants, sometimes with roots, but do not leech nutrients. most get their moisture from air or the damp area around them. but, i am wondering how they get the other minerals they need beyond the energy derived from photosynthesis. other plants take minerals from the soil around them, but how does a plant without soil do this? | as others have stated, some epiphytes will get nitrogen from bacteria or fungi that fix n2 from the atomosphere. but for the most part, epiphytes rely on atmospheric deposition for mineral nutrients. dry deposition (including ions as vapor in the air) will provide sulfur and nitrogen, mostly as nitrate but also as ammonium and nitrite. wet deposition knocks fine dust/soil particles out of the air and onto / near the plant. this is the source of most minerals -- k, p, fe, mg, ca, etc. i've heard it suggested that the ability to collect dust/minerals is the stronger selective force for many tropical epiphytes to have water-collecting leaf morphology since it's humid enough that they're not experiencing high transpirational losses. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velamen"
] | [
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] |
what's the point of avagadros number to have that particular value? | i know all about it but it just seems so darn arbitrary. it's defined as the amount of particles in 12g of carbon 12 (which was chosen arbitrarily for the definition). why didn't they just go with 1x10^23, or 10x10^23 since all they wanted was to make it easier to deal with amounts of atomic stuff, what's the point of making this constant such an irrational number? | it's in fact a (from my point of view) funny story how c12 was chosen as a standard. [here's a website](_url_0_) with the historical view. hydrogen was sometimes used as a standard, but since this scale does not correctly represent the number of nucleons in heavy elements, it was dropped. before 1960, most people used oxygen as a standard, but there was a dispute between chemists, who used a natural isotope mix of 1g of oxygen as a standard of 16 amu, and physicists, who preferred 1g of pure 16o isotope as the standard. using oxygen as a standard was useful for chemical stochiometry, but when the scale was defined, isotopes were not yet known, and physicists chafed at the prospect of assigning a fundamental value according to a specific isotope mixture. as it turns out, defining carbon 12 = 12 amu one comes very close to the chemists' earlier natural oxygen standard, so that they were mollified by not having to change their numbers very much, but it also satisfied the physicists' preference for a clean definition. following the 1961 definition of c12 = 12 amu, avogadro's constant is actually a measured quantity, the most exact measurements having been performed on single-crystal silicon spheres (silicon can be made in very regular crystals of very large size) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html"
] | [
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do we do everything consciously or unconsciously when playing sports? | i saw a documentary on how small of a percentage of our brain is conscious of the things we do daily, mostly it is automatic, but what about sports? | we start out doing things consciously, and it's a little awkward. but with practice it becomes routine and it becomes controlled by muscle memory. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do our eyes stay 'locked on' to a certain point? | if we point our eyes at a location, then move our head, our eyes can stay locked on to that spot extremely smoothly, with no jolting or anything. how does this work? is there some form of connection between the neck and eye-muscles, that coordinates their respective motion? | balance and general perception of movement is handled by the cochlea in your inner ear. the cochlea itself is a fluid-filled chamber that has 3 "loops" that more or less align itself with the 3 axis' of movement (x, y, z). each loop is also lined with thousands of very small hairs (not your typical hair on your body or head). when you move your head, the inertia causes the fluid to move and displace the hairs by a certain amount. when the hairs are displaced, ion channels on the tips of the hairs open and trigger a chemical pathway that ultimately causes a nerve signal to fire. the vestibular nuclei, among others, then perceives this movement and sends the appropriate motor signals to your eye that rotates the eye in a direction that counters the movement of your head. in this sense, nuclei refers to groups of cells in the brain that work together for a specific function(s). you can actually trigger this reflex manually and doctors sometimes use this test to determine if that ocular reflex is functioning properly. if you flush your ear with cold or warm water, convection currents cause the fluid in the cochlea to move ever so slightly (the hair cells are sensitive to fluid movement to about 1 nm if i remember correctly). your brain then thinks that your entire head is moving and it triggers the reflex in your eye muscles. an acronym that is used with that is cows: cold opposite, warm same. as in, when you flush a ear with cold water, your eyes will move in a direction opposite to that respective ear and vice versa. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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questions about the standing wave theory of matter | _url_1_ (representative page; goes into great detail) _url_0_ (more related links at bottom of this page) dear reddit, i would really like to know why this theory does or does not hold water and have been unable to get answers anywhere else. i understand it might be considered meta or fringe science, but before it's written off as such, can you please explain why? the first website above goes into great detail and seems to be quite rational. have there already been tests to discredit it? or has it just never been fully explored? this is a very difficult subject to obtain information on (not even a wiki page!) and my searches of peer-reviewed work came up mostly empty; most work in standing waves has been focused in acoustics or fluid dynamics. (example of using piezoelectric harmonics to create an acoustic standing wave: _url_2_) it seems to me though, that this (surprisingly intuitive?) theory may provide solutions to problems that other theories have difficulty with, such as wave-particle duality and even gravity. anyways, would greatly appreciate all feedback, thanks for any time invested in helping me with this problem. disclaimer: i do not in any way represent the websites above. | interestingly enough, we had a [thread](_url_0_) earlier this week on just this topic. not this particular theory, mind you, but "crackpot" theories in general. i'm going to say from the start that i'm not going to go through their website and try to debunk their theory. it's simply not a productive use of my time; i have students' homework sheets to grade and then, maybe, if i have time at the end, my own research to do. for any working scientist the situation is the same; there are too many of these theories, all or almost all of them hold absolutely no water, and it's not the job of a scientist to try to dig through them all and find out whether they do. it's the job of the people coming up with these theories to demonstrate that themselves, and to do it, as we do with our own theories, using the time-tested principles of the scientific method. this means that if you want to propose a new theory, it's incumbent upon you to show how it explains *all* existing data explained by the consensus theory, and preferably to show how it explains data which the current theory *can't* explain. in theoretical physics, this isn't particularly hard to do; almost every new theory we come up with ends up reducing approximately to the old theory in the situations in which we make our observations, so they automatically incorporate all the old data. for some bizarre reason, almost no crackpot theory i've ever seen - and i've seen plenty - tries to do this. for example, it's very common to try to come up with a new theory of gravity, but i don't think i've ever seen a crackpot theory try to show how their new equations of gravity reduce to einstein's equations of general relativity. i don't blame them, it's hard, but that automatically puts them in a huge hole because these theories, like general relativity (also the standard model of particle physics) are *extremely* well-tested. if these guys want to propose a brand-new theory, nothing like what we have now, which explains (among other things) cosmology, it's incumbent upon them to mathematically explain the great successes of relativistic cosmology, including primordial abundances of light elements, the cosmic microwave background, the matter power spectrum, weak lensing, supernovae data, and so forth. you can't just post a bunch of words on a website claiming to do all sorts of things without backing it up with *lots* of math. that's a sure sign your theory should be ignored. another sure sign is when the theory is presented in a completely different way to how scientists present theories to each other, like making a website or a youtube video. real scientific papers are posted on the arxiv and usually in peer-reviewed journals - that's where scientists look for new theories. if you're using youtube or your personal website to publish your theory, chances are you're trying to convince people who don't know science, and that's just dishonest. | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.spaceandmotion.com/science-physics-wsm-wave-diagrams.htm",
"http://glafreniere.com/matter.htm",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VytQzBsT26k"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/pn5k1/in_quantum_atom_theory_if_time_is_being_created/"
] | [
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is culling older bulls a valid conservation strategy for black rhinoceroses? | over in /r/worldnews, in an ongoing discussion about how a [permit to hunt critically endangered black rhino sells for $350,000 at dallas auction](_url_2_), the general consensus has been that the killing of older male black rhinoceroses is necessary to preserve the species. the rationale is that black rhinoceros bulls are "old, male and nonbreeding — and that the animal was likely to be targeted for removal anyway because it was becoming aggressive and threatening other wildlife." the claims about the necessity of culling these animals are made by the director of the dallas safari club that hosted the auction, and i am interested in learning about the scientific soundness of his position. from my own limited research, it appears to me that older male african rhinoceroses do remain a part of the breeding population: * in white rhinos, it has been found that [once males reach 15 years, they start to develop testicular fibrosis, this did not affect fertility] (_url_0_): > age related atrophy or atrophy due to breeding inactivity of the testis was not detected in any of the rhinoceroses. ... [i]n all white rhinoceroses older than 30 years, semen quality was high. * another study, on both black and white rhinoceroses, [also seemed to find no evidence of infertility in advanced age males](_url_1_): > advanced aged males ( > 25 years old) also produced androgens at concentrations comparable to younger counterparts, which supports studbook records indicating that animals can remain fertile until at least that age. i also could not find any data about older male rhinos requiring culling. although intraspecies aggression among rhinos seems to be fairly frequent, it does not appear that the retired, older males are the ones responsible -- but rather they are often frequent targets of this aggression. so can culling older male black rhinoceroses help the long-term survival of the species? and if so, how? | i don't know any specific details but there are some general points. given that excess adult mortality is the primary threat the likely strategy is to maximize populations growth rate (this might not be the case in a population in limited habitat and at carrying capacity or in a population threatened solely by small genetic population size). males contribute very little to population growth rate (1:1 sex ratios are not ideal for population growth and fitness when paternal care is not important). the maximal population growth rate would be achieved in a population with the most reproductively active females with the fewest males possible as long as there are enough to fertilize the females. this will not be ideal when taking into account the deleterious effects of small effective population size (which is maximized in a 1:1 operational sex ratio). however, in polygynous species, only a fraction of males are ever going to breed. excess males above this will simply compete with females and offspring and (depending on the strength of density dependence and pop size relative to carrying capacity) lower population growth rate. finally, excess males are likely pushed into marginal habitats (i.e. into more developed areas) and could be a source of human/wildlife conflicts (as in lions and elephants) which may be very bad for the long-term outlook. anyway, these are general points that would apply to many species. | 5 | [] | [
"https://docs.google.com/gview?url=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/127/1272377131.pdf&chrome=true",
"https://docs.google.com/gview?url=http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/124/1248802054.pdf&chrome=true",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/worldnews/comments/1v1347/permit_to_hunt_critically_endangered_black_rhino/"
] | [] | [
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what are the technical limitations of using a non-newtonian fluid in a traffic speed bump? | as title, how could you contain a fluid that gets harder the faster you impact it, so that it could be used on the roads as the basis for a speed bump? | i'm not entirely sure what you're asking. i think you're asking specifically about replacing current speed bumps with non-newtonian ones, rather than using non-newtonian ones to create bumps that would deform when you ran over them at 35, but give you a jolt at 45. i like the idea, but the main problems i see are in the implementation. 1) we'd need a flexible container for the fluid that could withstand being run over and deformed millions of times over the course of a few decades. even if it worked really well, it would be way more expensive than just pouring some extra asphalt. 2) you'd have to make sure the fluid didn't freeze in the winter, and the container didn't get brittle. 3) the bump would have to be soft enough to deform when a compact car ran over it, but strong enough to not break when a dump truck full of dirt comes along. essentially, if you use a non-deforming bump, you only have to worry about making the material as cheap and durable as possible. if you add in more constraints, like flexibility, then everything gets more expensive. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
could i use a small battery (physically small, such at 9v or aa) to power an electromagnet in a system? | i am currently working on a diy project with some friends and we were looking to use magnets to hold two objects together. one object is small and handheld and needs to be able to easily attach and detach from the base object. i was thinking of using a small battery powered electromagnet in the handheld portion with a momentary switch. i would use a more powerful permanent magnet for the base. my idea was to use the switch to reverse the polarity of the electromagnet. even though the magnetic force from the electromagnet would be very weak due to a small current from a small battery, this would, in theory, cause them to repel anyways. am i correct in thinking this? thanks! | if you want a no-electricity option, you might look at switchable permanent magnet fixtures. these use several magnets, half of which are mounted on a rotating shaft so you can turn them to either add to or cancel out the field of the other half. no wires, no batteries, but they do take a bit of force to operate. _url_1_ _url_0_ _url_2_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.grizzly.com/products/Magnetic-Base-Dial-Indicator-Combo/G9849",
"https://www.kjmagnetics.com/blog.asp?p=magswitch",
"https://buymagnets.com/shop/118/Magnetic-Tools/Magnetic-Chucks/Rectangular-Magnetic-Chucks/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electropermanent_magnet"
] | [
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how can something (like a a stun baton) be classified as "high voltage, low current"? | from ohm's law, i = v/r. therefore, current is a function of voltage and resistance. however, i've heard certain electrical devices, such as stun batons, be classified as "high voltage, low current." how can this be possible, when current increases with voltage? and while we're at it, why do nitpicky types insist "it's the current that kills, not the voltage," when high voltage = high current = who gives a damn, if either number is high, it's dangerous? | i=v/r. yes, that is correct for circuit analysis. let's say you charge up a metal plate to 100,000 volts then place the plate on a piece of non-conductive wood. what is the current? i=0. what is the voltage? 100,000 volts. how is this possible? because your equation applies to a closed loop in a circuit. let's say the plate is a small metal plate, and it only contains a limited amount of energy. what happens if you touch the plate while standing on the ground? your body is about 500 ohms, you are closing the circuit, so the equation applies. in theory, the current is i=v/r = 200 amps. enough to perform welding... so, obviously something doesn't add up. what about power? p=i*v, so therefore you have 200a*100,000v = 20,000,000 watts. this is basically on the level of a turbine for generating energy. so, whats missing? what's missing is the understand of the actual amount of energy available from the metal plate. it's pretty small (it's handheld, powered off a battery/capacitor). so, let's say there is actually 1 watt of power available in a taser, that means if you charge it up to 100,000 volts, you will have i=p/v = 1w/100,000v = 10 micro amps. therefore, they say, low current, high voltage. it gives a shock for a short amount of time. it runs out of energy so fast, it never reaches the steady state equation you mentioned. energy is conserved, but it's in a transient state, so it happens extremely fast. | 30 | [] | [] | [] | [
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lhc batting cage? | hello, r/askscience, recently i was a student teacher at a high school in computer science. in a discussion i was having with a student, the lhc came up. during this discussion, i gave the student a small factoid i remember reading that in a worst-case scenario problem at the lhc, the particle stream inside of the collider going out of control would be roughly equivalent to the uss enterprise carrier running aground at full speed -- hence the control center being off site. the student was surprised, especially when i had them consider that the collider is just flinging nigh-masseless particles around. what speed they must be going to still have so much force! so the question arose: what kind of force would we be talking about if the lhc wasn't flinging particles around, but instead every day objects? what about golf balls (45.93g) or as the name suggests, a baseball (148g)? how much force would an object with 'substantial' mass have if it were traveling that fast? what would happen if that were to collide with another object, like, say, the earth? i had to admit that i didn't know, but my curiosity was piqued at the thought. thanks in advance, r/askscience | at maximum power, protons in the lhc travel at 0.999999991 c, where c is the speed of light (thats about 3 m/s slower than the speed of light). giving this question a simple answer is difficult because at those speeds special relativity and the lorentz factor have to be taken into account, and kinetic energy calculations are less than simple. ignoring these factors however, we can give a small idea of the energy of these particles. assuming a baseball at the speed of light, its kinetic energy would be approximately 6.66x10^15 joules. (in reality it would be much higher due again to special relativity) this is the energetic equivalent of 1.6 megatons of tnt. by comparison, this is 100 the energy of the little boy bomb dropped on hiroshima. the mount st. helen's eruption was estimated at 24 megatons. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=kinetic+energy+148g+at+0.9999991c"
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] |
how can the casimir effect come from harmonic oscillator ground state energy if the latter is arbitrary? | in many explanations of the casimir effect (e.g. _url_3_ or casimir's original paper _url_0_) it is argued with the ground state ("vacuum") energy of harmonic oscillators. in fact the quantization of the classical harmonic oscillator has an ambiguity which leads to an arbitrary ground state energy (see e.g. _url_1_ chapters 6.3 and 6.4 or (if you're able to read german) _url_2_ chapters 4.4 and 4.5). for relativistic theories it is even necessary to have e_0 = 0. | that derivation of the casimir effect is simplified with the assumption that the fine structure constant is infinite, which allows it to be derived much more easily. a full derivation considers the relativistic van der waals attraction between two real plates, which is more complicated and less handwavy: _url_0_ | 14 | [] | [
"http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/toegangen/digital-library-knaw/?pagetype=publDetail&pId=PU00018547",
"http://www.itp.uni-hannover.de/~dragon/stonehenge/qm_eng.pdf",
"http://www.itp.uni-hannover.de/~dragon/stonehenge/qm.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_effect"
] | [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/hep-th/0503158.pdf"
] | [
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are we the next small step in evolution from our parents? | as far as i understand, there are dominant and recessive genes. most new life has more dominant genes from its parents than the recessive. but at the same time, it's still possible for a life to have more recessive, weak traits. the species as a whole, however, gets stronger (dominant) and more adaptive to the environment. does recessive always mean weak and dominant strong? are we more capable, in some way, than our parents? and basically what i'm asking, is this a small scale example of evolution or does the term "evolution" only apply to long term change over many generations? i should read more berks, but reddit won't let me :d | well, you have a pretty fundamental misunderstanding of how evolution works, and what dominant/recessive genes are. first of all, dominant genes are simply genes that are expressed physically when you have even one copy. a recessive gene requires copies from both of your parents. these terms have nothing to do with how "strong" or "weak" these genes are. for instance a common type of dwarfism is a dominant trait, but you wouldn't generally think of that as an evolutionary advantage. but of course that leads directly into some of your misconceptions about evolution itself. the thing is, maybe under some circumstances, that dwarfism gene might actually be an advantage. evolution does not make things *better* in any absolute sense, it just makes them better adapted to the *current* environment by selecting against those individuals who do not survive well in it. for example, we are on average smaller and weaker physically than our homo erectus ancestors, because that large size and extra muscle mass was simply too expensive metabolically for the food gathering strategies that we adopted. however, in some sense the answer to your question is yes, we all *are* the next small step in evolution. there is an unbroken line, child to parent, that extends backwards through time all the way from you to the earliest life on earth. every single individual in that chain was a tiny step from one form of life to another. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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toxicology/anatomy questions? | hey guys, i'm studying for a test in enviro toxicology and having a hard time with a couple concepts that my teacher is conveniently on a research trip the week before the test.. so i thought i'd ask the geniuses over here: 1. in the blood brain barrier, why is a low protein content advantageous? i thought proteins were the source of amino acids that act as neurotransmitters so they're needed? 2. why do lipophilic molecules diffuse better through the membrane? doesn't this make them unable to transport through filtration like polar molecules, which are hydrophilic and also lipophobic (i was taught that hydro/lipo properties were inverse in most cases)? will update with more questions as my studying goes on, but if anyone has any ideas i will give you my upvote and thanks :) | i'll try to answer q1, though i'm not sure what you mean by a 'low protein count'. the bbb selectively transports 'safe' molecules (ie glucose and other energy sources, amino acids, proteins) via active transport and facilitated diffusion, while lipophilic molecules diffuse through cell membranes and are not generally stopped by the bbb (as you mention in q2). it is advantageous for the brain to only take in what it knows is safe. this is largely regulated by the tight endothelial junctions of brain capillaries, as well as astrocyte foot processes surrounding these vessels. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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two objects, one accelerating, the other decelerating, in oposite directions | yesterday, i drove near an airport, i was driving at approx. 60 mph, and a plane was in its way to landing, i don't know its speed, but probably 160 - 180 mph. i was driving in the opposite direction the plane was going, at an angle of probably 20°. i had the impression the plane was **slow**, or anyway, slower that it should have been. can you explain this to me? i wasn't under the influence of any substance, i wear glasses, i had them. i don't think this is a mistake. tl;dr: me -------- > 90mph 180 mph < ----------- plane why does the plane appear to be slow? | my hypothesis is an optical illusion. a boeing 777 is around 61m (200ft) long, and when travelling at 260km/h (160mph) is covering only 1.2 times its length each second. a 5m car travelling at 100km/h (62mph), or 38% the speed of the plane, is covering about 5.6 times its length every second. we are far more accustomed to seeing a car travelling several times its length every second, so you equate a plane travelling 1.2 times its length per second with low speed. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a formula to find out at which distance (me-points) two points look like one? | hey, i have a question about the resolving power. at which distance (from the points) do two 5cm points, with 5cm in between them, look like one? is there some kind of formula to find out from any distance (me-points), that i could use like a cross multiplication? & #x200b; if there were two points on the moon, it would look like one seen from earth. but at what dimensions/distance etc..? & #x200b; thanks | so, in practice this depends on how good your eyesight is etc. but there is an absolute physical limit for how well you can ever resolve something with an aperture of some fixed size. this is the *~~diffusion~~ diffraction limit*, where the fundamental waviness of light means that you can't see an image below that resolution, regardless of how perfect the optics of your eye or telescope are. the formula comes out to: d/d = 1.22 λ/a where d is the minimum distance between the two points, d is the distance to the points, λ is the wavelength of light (lower wavelength = better resolution), and a is the diameter of the aperture you're using - basically, the size of your pupil if you're using your naked eye. taking d=5 cm, as you say, a=5mm for the pupil size (somewhat arbitrary), and λ=300 nm for some arbitrary wavelength of visible light, we get d=700 m. so, well below the distance to the moon. this is part of why we map the moon with lunar satellites rather than trying to just build a really big telescope on earth. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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consider a race between a runner and a cyclist, over a short (100 meter) distance, up a hill. it seems that as the hill gets steeper, the cyclist has less of an advantage. what physics principle accounts for this? | it's pretty straightforward actually. why does a bike have an advantage on flat ground? because it allows you to efficiently use your energy. once you pedal up to speed, you travel at a constant velocity (minus frictional forces). while running, you put energy into each stride, which is dispersed into the ground on your next stride. imagine: i've run ten steps, then stopped using energy. now i'm stationary. i've pedaled ten revolutions, then stopped. now i'm traveling with some velocity. uphill, you can't just coast on your bike. both the bike and the runner will have to expend at least energy e = m\*g\*h to travel up a hill of height h. on top of that, the cyclist has the added weight of the bike to deal with. so: the cyclist expends e = (m_body + m_bike)\*g\*h, while the runner expends e = m_body\*g*h to go uphill. edit: hoping that conservation of energy doesn't require a source article... | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is the juan de fuca plate disappearing? and, if it does completely subduct, what happens? | probably, but depends a little on the details. the complete subduction of the [juan de fuca](_url_3_) would be the logical conclusion to its prior history. in detail, the juan de fuca is one of the scraps of the much larger [farallon plate](_url_1_). as the farallon subducted under the western edge of north america, it was segmented into smaller plates, [e.g. this series of cartoons](_url_0_) or this [movie](_url_2_). the "probably" part of my answer is sort of a technicality, depending on the rates of subduction on the east side, the rates of spreading on the west side, and the strength of the lithosphere that results, you might not get complete subduction of the plate, but instead see something like what you have off the east coast of baja. there, subduction stopped, either because of subduction of a ridge and resulting detachment of the slab or slab detachment a little before ridge subduction, either way, you lost the slab and ended up with a fossilized subduction zone and the plate margin essentially 'jumped' to the east forming the transtensional boundary we see today (both extensional/spreading and translational/strike-slip). the area south of the juan de fuca (i.e. south of the mendocino triple junction) is a good analogue. if you watch the movie i linked to (or look at the stills if the movie doesn't work), you can see that the complete subduction of the farallon/juan de fuca basically leads to a transition from subduction to strike-slip motion (e.g. the san andreas becomes the plate boundary in simple terms). this is partially driven by the lack of a subducting slab (i.e. subduction is being driven by the 'weight' of the slab and it's associated pull force) and the difference between the juan de fuca-north america plate motion vs the pacific-north american plate motion. once the juan de fuca is gone, the expectation would be a cessation of cascade volcanism (like what you see in california, i.e. there use to be volcanoes in the approximately the same location, that shut off once you subducted the farallon/juan de fuca) and the formation of a strike-slip plate boundary. you would expect that it would be similar to california, where some portion of what is part of the north american plate today would be 'captured' by the pacific plate, but the exact location of the new plate boundary along with it's exact geometry and kinematics will depend on the detailed geology of the regions in question and exactly how the subduction ends (e.g. the discussion above about what happened offshore baja). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/graphics/FigS2-1.gif",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farallon_Plate",
"https://www.e-education.psu.edu/earth520/files/earth520/image/sm02Pac-NoAmflat.mov",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_de_Fuca_Plate"
] | [
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|
if you're stranded at sea with a 50ft roll of tin foil, can you spread it out or some other arrangement to make you radar visible? | just curious as i was reading about modern stealth warships and radar tech. also watched castaway recently and being stranded is a fear of mine! can tin foil save your life at sea? if so, how much would it take and how would you have to set it up? | you can make corner reflector _url_0_ . corner reflector is just three planes at right angle to each other, it will work if created from tin foil. you should also put it high if possible, so it is visible from under horizont. radar reflectors are actually used on boats to enhance visibility on radars. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corner_reflector"
] | [
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] |
what is carpeting in the field of rocket propulsion? | i fell into a wiki vortex earlier and came upon the article on the challenger disaster. in [this diagram of the external fuel tank](_url_0_) it lists carpeting as the innermost layer of the wall of the tank. google wasn't much help! thank you. | it appears to be something called a "propellant relief flap" (see: _url_1_) which appears to relieve stress between the solid propellant and the casing: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zlacze_miedzysegmentowe_rakiety_SRB_promu_kosmicznego.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.spaceatdia.org/uploads/luca/Solid%20Propellant%20Rockets%202010.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RogersCommission-v1p57.jpg"
] | [
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what advice do you have for high school students interested in careers in science? | when you start looking at colleges **go somewhere with lots of opportunities for undergraduate research.** undergraduate research is important for two reasons. first, it allows you to see whether or not you like *working* in a certain field as much as you like *studying* it. second, it definitely helps when applying for grad school or jobs. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
askscience ama: ask a volcanologist | **edit - ok ladies and gents, 10 hours in i'm burnt out and going to call it a night. i know the us is just getting their teeth into this, so i'll come back and have a go at reposnses again in the morning. please do check the thread before asking any more questions though - we're starting to get a lot of repeats, and there's a good chance your question has already been answered! thanks again for all your interest, it's been a blast. zerocool1 is planning on doing an ama on molten salt reactors on friday, so keep your eyes out!** **fyi, the pee and vulcan questions have been asked and answered - no need to ask again.** i'm an experimental volcanologist who specialises in pyroclastic flows (or, more properly pyroclastic density currents - pdcs) - things like [this](_url_1_) and [this](_url_0_). please feel free to ask any volcano related questions you might have - this topic has a tendancy to bring in lots of cross-specialism expertise, and we have a large number of panellists ready to jump in. so whether it's regarding how volcanoes form, why there are different types, what the impacts of super-eruptions might be, or wondering what the biggest hazards are, now's your opportunity! about me: most of my work is concerned with the shape of deposits from various types of flow - for example, why particular grading patterns occur, or why and how certain shapes of deposit form in certain locations, as this lets us understand how the flows themselves behave. i am currently working on the first experiments into how sustained high gas pressures in these flows effect their runout distance and deposition (which is really important for understanding volcanic hazards for hundreds of millions of people living on the slopes of active volcanoes), but i've also done fieldwork on numerous volcanoes around the world. when i'm not down in the lab, up a volcano or writing, i've also spent time working on submarine turbidity currents and petroleum reservoir structure. | here's a question you probably get a lot- any truth to the yellowstone or other such supervolcanoes? is there any specific risk we are at on a day to day basis from them? | 115 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7h5XOS7uaWA&t=4m53s",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cvjwt9nnwXY"
] | [
"http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/yaoki/2007EPSL.pdf",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rPSPTVxLFTE&oref=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DrPSPTVxLFTE&has_verified=1",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbre_Vieja#Future_threats",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1m-SuGmUaY4",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NZ_faults_.png",
"http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Volcanoes/Sci-Media/Animations-and-Interactives/Volcano-map-of-New-Zealand",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krakatoa",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sI7XiJgt0vY"
] | [
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what stops a steel screw being drive into steel from bonding to that? | is there a reason the steel won't bind to the same element? and is that part of the reason why old relics and the such have a hard time coming apart? | what keeps pieces of metal from bonding together is a thin layer of oxide that forms on their surface. if we scrape that layer off, in an environment with no oxygen, the pieces of metal will meld together, and we get [cold welding](_url_0_). that's because of the way electrons are pretty much free in metals, and thus the boundaries of metal pieces are not very well defined without some change of material (like the oxide layer). materials with other types of bonds (like covalent networks) don't have this interesting behavior, because the electrons are confined to some specific places (the bonds are set in place). i don't know specifically why metal pieces that have been held together for a long time get stuck, but i would think it is either because of friction removing the oxide layer in an airtight space (effectively cold welding) or because of [rust or oxide](_url_1_) growing from piece to piece, essentially making them a single piece, and weakening the whole thing. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_welding",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galling"
] | [
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does anaphylaxis to dilantin imply the same reaction to lamotrigine, or vice versa? | i know both drugs are anti-seizure medications and that lamotrigine (and other anti-seizure medications) are called "mood stabilizers" when prescribed for mental health issues. i know that the medicines are similar, but i don't know enough chemistry to understand what the similarities are. i'm wondering those similarities can be pinpointed with enough precision to predict an allergic reaction to one medicine based on a previous allergic reaction to the other. the answer is also a general one that could apply to similar anti-coagulant medications as well (for example, heparin and warfarin). i never hear doctors or pharmacists talk about this, and am wondering if it's because it's impossible or if it's because it would be too time/cost-intensive to implement widely. | first: if this question is applying to you or someone you know, then you should be asking your doctor or pharmacist. reddit is good for general information but very bad at medical advice. that said, here's the general information. just because medications have the same effect, does not mean they are chemically similar or that the body will react the same way. a patient allergic to one anti-seizure medication will not necessarily be allergic to all others. it's always *possible* that a patient will have an adverse reaction to many different things, but if the drugs are chemically unrelated, being sensitive to one does not increase the chance of sensitivity to another. for example, if a patient is allergic to [warfarin](_url_0_), the physician will usually order a form of heparin ([enoxaparin](_url_1_)) instead. these are both anticoagulants, but work in different ways. if you follow the links to their wikipedia pages you'll see that their chemical structurs look completely different. similarly, my drug reference does not show a reported incidence of cross-reaction between dilantin (phenytoin) and lamictal (lamotrigine). a patient with a reaction to one could be put on the other. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warfarin",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoxaparin"
] | [
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where on the standard model would the graviton go, were it discovered? | i. e. on the graphical representation of it | it would be an addition to the standard model, not a part of it. the reason is that the standard model, as it stands, is self-consistent; the standard model plus a graviton would not be self-consistent, and so there would be other modifications needed as well. the graviton would be most like the photon and the gluons and the w^(+), w^(-), and z^(0), but not quite as much like them as they are like each other. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.physi.uni-heidelberg.de/~bachmann/Lehre/particle_chart.jpg"
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would this fall be fatal? | hypothetically! if a person weighing approximately 160 lbs fell from a 100-foot cliff onto sand, (a) how fast would they be travelling when they hit the sand, (b) how much force would be exerted on their body at contact, and (c) would/could the impact, from force alone, be fatal? i promise i'm not killing anyone. i'm a writer who has only the vaguest memories of high school physics. edit: secondary questions: (d) how long would this fall take, (e) how do i use the term velocity to talk about this fall (i'm clearly not a science person), and (f) if anyone knows, what sort of shape would a body be in after a fall like this (i.e. are all bones crushed, mostly just bruising, etc.)? | assuming a point-mass person falling off a cliff located on earth, they would hit the sand at 24.5 m/s (which is 55 mph), and the fall would take 2.5 s. interestingly, given the stated assumptions, it does not matter how much the person weighs. - you could imagine the effect would be similar to the effect on a person standing in the road, hit by a mack truck traveling at 55 mph (with sand bags tied to the front bumper). - the term *velocity* refers to a vector quantity that describes both the rate and direction of motion of the falling person. given the direction of the fall is mostly in one direction (downwards), you are better off referring the the *speed* (which is the magnitude of the velocity vector). you could also use language such as "downwards velocity of 55 mph", which would be acceptable short-hand for the downwards (vertical) component of the velocity vector. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a few questions on electrodes and the neural system. | future evil overlord here. theoretically speaking, is it possible to control the behaviors of an organism with a neural system through electrical impulses? perhaps administered by micro electrodes in the brain? also, i have read that a monkey has been trained to operate a robotic arm via a neural implant. have there been any recent developments along this line of investigation? also, is anyone here selling a monkey? | brain electrophysiologist and implant specialist here. it is not just theoretically possible, it is demonstrably possible, to control the intentional behaviors of an organism by microstimulation. simply, stimulate the ventral tegmentum and the human will do whatever you ask it to do in order to get you to stimulate the ventral tegmentum again. for animals we condition these responses (google "robo-rat"), but for humans we could simply tell them what to do. it would have more controlling power than crack cocaine to a junkie in withdrawal. otherwise, you will be stuck with stimulating motor outputs (posterior frontal cortex), and sure enough, you can cause movement, but current efforts are clumsy. monkeys and humans have been trained to operate robotic arms with cortical implants. however, the movement is pretty slow and the implants are pretty short lived. many of us doubt they will ever be commercially viable for that reason - although a breakthrough in their durability would change that. i am selling a monkey, provided your institution has an olaw assurance number and you have an approved aup to receive it. for you we make good price! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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heat loss from the head | they say we lose 70-80% of our heat through our head, is a large portion of that lost through breathing, or are they talking about loss through our skin/scalp? | you don't lose anywhere near that much heat from your head. [here.](_url_0_) the face, chest and hands are the *most sensitive* when it comes to detecting change in temperature, but they are not the majority of body surface area. if you covered your head, and went outside with no pants on, you'd be more susceptible to hypothermia than with an uncovered face or head. that said, breathing is a huge energy and water loss for the body when inhaling cold air. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.healthline.com/health-blogs/fitness-fixer/do-you-lose-most-your-heat-through-your-head",
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/dec/17/medicalresearch-humanbehaviour"
] | [
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how much energy does it take to break down complex carbs? | i had an (apparent) argument with a coworker the other day about bread and bread related products. i'm interested in finding out who was correct, because science (she only seems to care about people just agreeing with her and her beliefs). she said that complex carbs just turn right into lots of sugar and are therefore super bad for you. i disagreed, stating that processing those carbs consumes energy, and therefore consuming more simple sugars was of a larger dietary concern. so, how much energy does the body have to expend to process the various carbs, from simple sugars to complex carbohydrates, into their usable forms? is the net energy gain greater when consuming 1 gram of complex carbs or 1 gram of simple sugars? sources would be amazing. thanks! | complex carbs are in fact better for you that simple sugars. however, the overall amount of calories ingested will be the same given equal portions of each. how are the complex carbs better then? the answer is in the glycemic index (gi) which describes how quickly the blood sugar levels raise and lower after eating. complex carbs have a lower gi, meaning they cause a slow and steady upswing in blood sugar and a slower taper down. high gi foods cause a high spike in blood sugar and a sharp drop. the rapid changes as well as the high peak of sugar can cause over-production of insulin, leading to higher levels of insulin in the body leading to insulin resistance. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does stadium layout affect noise level? | 9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9tshlgae4otaepkflpvpknjlu5v9xfeozsf6gxgno94vwosknjlc1dqcd87mfb9t | there actually is quite a bit of science behind it. there is a whole engineering field based on negating the affects of sound (acoustic engineering) [which you can read more about here.](_url_0_) basically sound is a wave and how that wave bounces off of walls and other obstacles will affect decibel level. [here's a link which goes through some of the basics of how a stadium would be designed to increase the noise produced by fans.]( _url_1_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustical_engineering",
"http://www.insidescience.org/content/stadium-acoustics-pump-volume/1609"
] | [
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what's the most fascinating scientific breakthrough or a new technology that will likely come within the next 30 years? | i'd say really a cost-effective breakthrough battery technology. the shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy is going to be a really important step for us as a society and a revolution in battery technology is a major stepping stone. it allows so many other technologies to work more efficiently: solar energy, wind energy, electric vehicles... | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=249738",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Short_History_of_Nearly_Everything"
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how does the human heart form from the mass of cells present after fertilization into the four chamber heart present at birth? | very complicated-ly.... so i might do a little bit of a cop-out and give you the short version and a link to a youtube video if you're more interested. it is actually very complex, and i could dedicate a chapters worth of explanation to it, and many have. so here is a great video, detailing in painstaking detail how it happens (_url_0_). but essential the heart is original a tube. with a venous end, and an arterial end. this tube ends up undergoing some folding, which basically separates it into an ventricular half (in front), and an atrial half (behind). however it is still a tube, and there is a single opening between the ventricular and atrial halves. then it gets tricky. a series of septa sweep down towards the center of the developing heart, and partition both the atrium and ventricle into left and right halves. however, this whole time blood is flowing through the heart, so a series of holes are gained, lost and divided to ensure that blood can still get where its going. eventually the septum dived the heart into something that we would recognize in shape as a human heart. but the final problem is that in a fetus, oxygenated blood comes from the mother, not the lungs. so there actually exists a little shunt in the heart thats used to allow oxygenated blood into the heart in such a way that it can get to the aorta and bypass the lungs. when the baby is born, the shunt is closed, and blood flows the normal way. so thats what happens in a nutshell. it is very complicated, so let me know if you want clarification on any of the stages. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5DIUk9IXUaI",
"http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Cardiac_Embryology",
"http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/images/4/4b/Heart_Looping_Sequence.jpg"
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|
are we sure that si units are sufficient? | for example, in the past, people can know and measure quantities like time, mass, length. and it was sufficient, but they didnt know about electricity or didnt know how to measure temperature. today we know. but is it possible in the future we will have to "invent" new quantity/ies because si units wont be sufficient? some quantities we even dont consider today? | what you're really asking is, do we think that our existing science is complete enough that we have adequately characterized the metrics by which things can be measured? i think if you asked most scientists they would range from, "definitely not" to "probably not" depending on their field. most scientists are either aware that their field is still making fundamental leaps and bounds, or optimistic that there may be leaps and bounds still to be made even if there aren't as many being made today as there were a few decades ago. the interesting question to ask, from a philosophical-historical perspective, is, will there be a point where scientists will say, "there is nothing fundamental left to discover?" when will we know if we've hit that point? will past pronouncements on the "finality" of science (there are some famous ones from 19th century physicists, just before relativity and quantum behavior were discovered) continue to haunt such views? if you are curious about these topics, john horgan's _the end of science_ is a full engagement with such ideas and takes the philosophy and history seriously. one doesn't have to agree with horgan's conclusion (that no fundamental breakthroughs are likely to be coming again), but it is an interesting question to contemplate and he does the ideas behind it justice. most scientists do not agree with horgan's conclusion, i think it should be noted, even though many do believe that someday science may know all of the fundamental details about the world (so the question again becomes, when might that be, and how might we know if we were "there" or not?). (i am a colleague of horgan's and i respect him asking interesting questions even if i don't think his conclusion is right. he is a good enough sport to be a good friend anyway!) | 23 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_units#Electromagnetic_unit_names",
"http://www.npl.co.uk/reference/faqs/what-is-the-minimum-number-of-base-units-that-is-required-(faq-quantum\\)"
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a question about common ancestors and to some extent, abiogenesis. | from my understanding of evolution, all humans share a common ancestor (although i'm unclear as to whether it is either as an individual or a single group of the species), and all the great apes share a common ancestor. does this chain of common ancestors continue through all mammals and on a far enough back in the past, through all life on earth? if we follow the lineage of common ancestors back ~3.5 billion years to the formation of life on earth, does this mean that all of life could be traced back to a few mol of atoms that would become the first prokaryotes? or is it possible that life arose separately, yet (relatively) simultaneously in multiple locations? however, i've never heard of any non dna/rna organisms or of an organism that uses a different set of nucleotides (actually, i have no idea about the genetics or biology behind fungi or viruses, so i may be completely wrong here). could this be taken as evidence towards a single origin point? | in evolutionary biology there is a hypothetical creature called [luca](_url_0_) (last universal common ancestor). this organism is the most recent common ancestor of all present life on earth. yes data so far (16s sequencing) indicates all current life on earth shares a common descent from luca. luca was not a few mol of atoms, but an independent living organism. what we call life is actually a series of complex chemical reactions. there was no lighning strike or breath of god that defined the start of life. rather it was a process of hundreds of thousands to millions of year of autocatalytical chemical reactions under going natural selection for ability to replicate. there were likely other protobiont experiment with other biochemistries all competing, eventually it was luca who proliferated into the multitude of lifeforms we currently see. it is indeed a sign that there is some selective pressure for the use of these biomolecules. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_universal_ancestor",
"http://news.discovery.com/animals/life-single-common-ancestor.html"
] | [
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is there any evidence of ancient human beings "working out", and how does their fitness level compare to people today? | define ancient. milo of croton was an impressive physical specimen in the 6th century bc. if you mean prehistoric, life was "working out." chasing a large quadripedal herbivore off of a cliff, or stabbing it to death with sharpened sticks is much more exercise than your modern person gets. so average fitness was likely quite a bit higher then than now. where it gets a little more interesting is the elite athlete level. current elite athletes are light years beyond ancient people. this can be evidenced by the pattern of world records being broken. in the early 1900s, athletes played many sports and were their own coaches. modern athletes work with personal trainers, professional dieticians, coaches, etc and are incredible compared to previous athletes. so, current man can be way more fit than our ancestors, just because technology and research into fitness is amazing now compared to then. however, average fitness is likely quite a bit lower now than back when you had to kill dinner before eating it. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/modern-man-a-wimp-says-anthropologist-1802501.html",
"http://www.npr.org/2012/10/12/162795379/prehistoric-kennewick-man-was-all-beefcake"
] | [
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|
why is the type ii secretion apparatus in bacteria considered a pseudopilus and not a real pilus? | i'm refering to the secreton for bacterial type ii secretion, often used by gram - bacteria for secreting toxins and adhesins. | wow, i'm surprised to see a question that is right up my alley! so, "pilus" exclusively refers to those projections that allow for dna transfer between cells. "pseudopili" are those structures that bear a remarkable resemblance to pili in terms of their composition, but are used for excreting other compounds such as the proteins you have listed. this is evolution's way of diversifying the role of an established structure, leading to speciation! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much of the failure of the helicopter in this video is by design? | _url_0_ the tail seems to come off pretty easily, and it seems like the rotors separate from the engine pretty easily too - is that intentional? how does the tail breaking off help? | it seems to me that when the blade caught on the cable it dragged it clockwise across the tail and that's what snapped it off. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5aMT9MBfZI&feature=player_embedded"
] | [] | [
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why is it, in movies and such, that when the character is really tiny (i mean shrunk down tiny) that everything around him (or her) moves slowly? does this actually happen? | as we can't experience the life of an ant and it isn't physically possible to shrink down somebody, you can't get a really scientific answer. but when we manufacture computer chips, we can notice that then we make two circuits that is identical except for size, the smaller one will be faster. this is because the electrons transmitting information in the circuits have a shorter route to travel. if we could shrink down the synapses of the brain you could assume a similar effect. and of course, the experience of your mind being faster would be the same as experiencing the rest of the world being slower. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how did the convention of the 365-day, 12-month year spread to almost every country on earth? | the 30th of september this year will be a monday here in australia, the 273rd day of the year. if i'm not mistaken, people in america, russia, china and so on would say that this is also true in their countries. how is it that the world at large came to agree on this convention of dates, when so many other conventions change nation-by-nation? | 1 month is the amount of time it takes the moon to complete a [lunar phase cycle](_url_0_) around the earth, while 365 days is the amount of time it takes for earth to rotate around the sun. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunation"
] | [
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] |
if you cut a flat spiral coil into sectors, do the pieces together still act like a flat coil? image included. | [here](_url_0_) is an illustration of my question. if a flat coil is cut up into sectors, does it still act as an uncut coil (with reduced effectiveness)? or, by cutting it, does it become completely useless? can it still interact with an electromagnetic field in a meaningful way? | what happens if you cut a light cord? if you cut a wire (coil or not) anywhere, you've created an open loop. since no current can flow through the gap in the wire, whatever the wire was a part of has lost it's function. very high voltages would arc across the gaps, but it would rapidly wear the surfaces where the arcs begin and end. | 4 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/bCJY8jP"
] | [] | [
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why does pericardial effusion cause electrical alternans? fluid is a better conductor of electricity than the rest of the human body, so shouldn't the amplitudes of the r waves be more, not less than normal? | the amplitudes of the r waves on an ecg are affected by the distance of the impulses to the leads detecting them. a reasonably large pericardial effusion allows the heart to [physically swing](_url_0_) within the increased volume of fluid in the pericardial sac, and as it oscillates with the cardiac cycle, so will the amplitudes of the r waves. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/shrkhwgBHko"
] | [
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|
do humans even have working pheromone receptors? google says yes, maybe and no. | the title pretty much says it all. some websites say that around 70% of people have pheromone receptors but they're dormant. other sites say that we have many receptors use for everything from finding a partner to changing hormones that regulate our bodies. i'm hoping there are people who actually know whats going on here? do humans have any working pheromone receptors and if we do, what is their exact function and how to they work? thanks so much in advance. | there's not a lot of great evidence supporting the existence of human pheromones. it looks like we have some similar homologous but vestigial structures, but i don't think any solid studies have demonstrated that pheromones actually do anything in humans. *barrett ke, barman sm, boitano s, brooks hl. chapter 11. smell & taste. in: barrett ke, barman sm, boitano s, brooks hl, eds. ganong's review of medical physiology. 24th ed. new york: mcgraw-hill; 2012.* *mauro tm, goldsmith la. chapter 81. biology of eccrine, apocrine, and apoeccrine sweat glands. in: wolff k, goldsmith la, katz si, gilchrest ba, paller as, leffell dj, eds. fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine. 7th ed. new york: mcgraw-hill; 2008.* *cole p, heller l, bullocks j, hollier lh, stal s. chapter 16. the skin and subcutaneous tissue. in: brunicardi fc, andersen dk, billiar tr, dunn dl, hunter jg, matthews jb, pollock re, eds. schwartz's principles of surgery. 9th ed. new york: mcgraw-hill; 2010.* [this paper](_url_3_) shows that the proposed mechanism for human pheromones is not at all common in the population. [this paper](_url_2_) from 1991 is often cited as evidence that pheromones do affect physiology, but i don't find it that compelling due to the small sample sizes, subjective reporting, and presence of confounders. [this paper](_url_0_) from 1998 is another commonly referenced one, and also suffers from small sample sizes. it is also based on the premise that menstrual synchrony occurs (via pheromone action), which has not been [demonstrated well](_url_1_). it's also a 'letter', not a full-on academic paper. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Regulation%20of%20ovulation%20by%20human%20pheromones",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11334217",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1892794",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10744216"
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what would be the future timeline of events for the himalayan mountains be like | so from my basic knowledge i know that india is basically ramming into asia, which is creating the himalayan mounts. given thousands of years, or million of years, what will happen in regards to these two tectonic plates and the himalayan mounts? will the indian plate just stop moving forward, will the himalayan mountains keep growing until what? how much time do they have left roughly (if not measured in time, at what maximum height would they reach first) and what exactly does happen to extremely old mountains in such conditions? and it was a little implied at the start, but i'm also curious as to what will happen with the tectonic plates. will the indian plate simply come to overlap or submerge under the asian plate? will they simply combine into one over time, or what? edit: sorry i butchered the title so much, i rewrote the latter half without thinking of the first half. | the indian plate is actually subducting a little under the asian plate. i don't know about a time-frame, but [this diagram should be helpful](_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewImage.do?id=5758&aid=2510"
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] |
are there delocalised electrons in our muscles? | from what i know, to create an electric current through a medium, delocalised electrons need to be present. seeing as muscles use electrical currents from nerve endings to respond to electrical signals, are there delocalised electrons in your muscles to carry the nerve impulse? | signals are created in neurons through the movement of ions, not electrons. for more information, see [this section of the wikipedia article on neurons](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron#Mechanisms_for_propagating_action_potentials"
] | [
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why does raising e to an imaginary power give you a circle ? | is there some intuitive explanation for this or is this one of those things you just have to accept ? | consider a body that moves along the path of f(t)=e^(it). the body's instantaneous velocity is given by the derivative of f, which if i is constant, is: i*e^(it). thus, velocity = i * position = position (rotated by π/2 radians). visualise this on a 2d plot to see why. edit: _from the above, you may notice that velocity is always perpendicular to the vector from the origin to the position of the body, and is always applied on the body, leading to a circular motion_. we see that f(0) = 1, and v(0) = i (v for velocity), changing position and velocity we see that |f(t)| = 1, and |d/dt f(t)| = 1. thus, for any t = θ, the body has traveled θ radians around the unit circle. this is supported by euler's proof that e^(it) = cos(t) + i*sin(t), meaning that |e^(it)| = sqrt(cos^(2)(t)+sin^(2)(t)) = 1 and assigning coordinates to the real part (cos(t)) and complex (sin(t)) leads us to the parametric equation of the unit circle. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if a man and a woman knew nothing about sex, would they rediscover it on their own like in the movie the blue lagoon? | look at it this way: do you think most animals "know" anything about sex? or is said knowledge intrinsic/instinctual? fundamentally, humans are animals, we just have a very complex social structure. long story short, if a man and woman had no social instruction on sex, they would still figure it out (probably fairly quickly, it's not that complicated, tab a in slot b, etc). understanding of pregnancy and birth is probably less intrinsic than sex though. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if there is a fifth fundamental force, what evidence points towards it, what does it do, and what carries it? | there is presently no convincing empirical evidence for anything like a fifth force -- i say convincing because occasionally such claims have been made but have failed to be corroborated independently so the scientific community is generally skeptical of those claims. as for some theory-motivated hypotheses, here are a few examples: * [quintessence models of dark energy](_url_1_) which purport to explain dark energy by introducing an additional scalar field (similar to the higgs field) that allows dark energy density to vary with location and time. currently the best-fit to observations matches no variations so this model seems to offer no advantages in explaining observations over general relativity so far. * the [axion](_url_0_) from the hypothetical [peccei-quinn mechanism](_url_0_) which adds a scalar field in the strong interaction sector in an attempt to explain why a certain parameter is measured to be approximately zero. * [grand unified theories](_url_3_), almost all of which demand the introduction of additional fields of various types to fill out an accompanying symmetry that gets spontaneously broken into smaller symmetries corresponding to the particles we see today. many versions of these introduce heavy x and y bosons or variants of them, associated with electrostrong symmetry breaking. and really in models you can add additional fields of any type, and there are many models with different assortments in types. there are alternative models of gravity that so far seem to be very contrived and in conflict with some observations, which add vector and/or tensor fields, possibly together with scalar fields, to gravity in an attempt to explain dark matter and/or dark energy. * another kind are [leptoquarks](_url_2_) that mediate hypothetical interactions between quarks and leptons. really there are quite a lot of possibilities and no great evidence for any of them. :p | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axion",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintessence_(physics\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptoquark",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory"
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|
what, if any, are the differences between a man-made vaccum and the vaccum of space? | not many, but there are a few. first of all, it's never a perfect vacuum, just extremely low pressure. humans can't breathe, water can't be held in a liquid state, but a few air molecules are still bouncing around. the vacuum of space is exposed to uv rays from sunlight. these have a ionizing effect that can break molecular bonds. as a result, oxygen molecules are broken into lone atoms (often called "atomic oxygen"). these aren't stable, so they will try to recombine with the first thing they find along their path to make a molecule. engineers designing satellites must be aware of this and make an appropriate choice of materials that won't degrade when exposed to atomic oxygen. plastics are particularly vulnerable. glass fiber, which is naturally an oxide, and aluminium, which forms a thin layer of oxide in the surface that protects the rest inside, resist quite well. this isn't a problem in a vacuum chamber on earth. the other difference is thermal control through radiated heat. this isn't a property of the vacuum, but of the chamber you're in. the walls of the vacuum chamber will radiate heat to the inside, from all directions, at a moderate power determined by their temperature. in space, you'll receive a lot of power from sunlight, some power from earth or whatever planetary body you're close to, and almost nothing from deep space. satellites and probes must be properly designed to maintain a controlled temperature in this environment. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is the definition of the boltzmann factor, exp(-e/kt) the ratio of the numbers of particles in energy states e joules apart? | from what i know, for the boltzmann factor exp(-e/kt), kt is approximately the average energy per particle, and e is an energy level above kt (for example, an activation energy of some sort). however, would this not mean that the boltzmann factor is the ratio of the numbers of particles in energy states e-kt joules apart, instead of e joules apart? | if *e* is the energy separation, and *kt* is a measure of the thermal energy available for excitation, then *e/kt* is a measure of the energy required for excitation, expressed in "thermal" energy units. the exponential function arises from a consideration of the statistics of the excitation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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yosemite super volcano. hype or fact? | how big of a threat is it? the stories sound like sensational hype but where is the nugget of truth? | if yellowstone were to have a full super-eruption, it would be reasonably catastrophic. it has smaller eruptions relatively more frequently (about 80 known since the last super-eruption), and those wouldn't be nearly as devastating. but that's just one side of a threat - any threat assessment has to include the chance something will happen. and it is very, very unlikely yellowstone will have a super-eruption anytime soon. there are no signs of imminent super-eruption, and it is observed very closely by volcanologists. i've seen varying estimates from my volcanologist friends, but most agree the earliest we should reasonably expect a super-eruption to occur is at least tens of thousands of years into the future. many sensational sites/people, [like this one](_url_1_), will claim "we're overdue" by pointing at the time between the last few eruptions; but if anything the opposite is true. the previous two eruptions occurred ~.66 million years apart. the time span before that was ~.8 million years. it's been .64 million years since the previous eruption, so just looking at that data we would expect another 20,000 to 150,000 years before the next eruption. the usgs very roughly estimates this at about 0.000014% chance of eruption each year. much more realistically, that just isn't near enough data points to predict when the next eruption will occur with any confidence. so if a site claims we are overdue, it's a huge red flag. back to the worst-case-scenario - a full yellowstone eruption would be quite a bit stronger than anything humans have seen in recorded history - but not amazingly so. the 1815 tambora eruption was about 1/20th as powerful as the last yellowstone super-eruption. that's a big difference (and the tambora eruption did impact climate and crop harvests) but it's not doomsday big. a large region of the western us would be impacted, and global climate would take years to decades to recover. the social impacts of that are difficult to predict, but it could put dangerous amounts of strain on struggling regions, especially in regards to food production. but life on earth has seen many super-volcano eruptions, and not one of them is associated with one of the massive extinction events (basalt flows, another type of magma eruption, are). as a reference, humans were around for the mt. toba super-volcano eruption about 70,000 years ago, and while many think it may have put a great deal of strain on our species (how much is debatable), it was also several times larger than the last yellowstone eruption 640,000 years ago. if you weren't a geologist you would have a hard time ever noticing the mt. toba eruption occurred at all, [even if you were standing right where it happened](_url_0_). lake taupo, another supervolcano, erupted about 26,000 years ago and was also stronger than the last yellowstone super-eruption. but again, the possible social impacts of such an eruption are difficult to predict - it would definitely be bad for a great many people. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://tobaexplorer.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/toba-explorer-ii-tuktuk-samosir-island-lake-toba.jpg",
"http://www.rense.com/general31/overdue.htm"
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possibly stupid question - if for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, how does anything happen in the first place? | is every action just the next event in a chain of events since the big bang? | that statement applies specifically to newton's laws of motion and it simply means that when you push something, you get pushed backward too as you do so. normally you don't notice this because you have something big like the earth to anchor yourself against, but if you were to throw a football in space you'd find yourself heading the other way. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do we know that the brain uses a significant amount of energy? | additionally, how do we how how much energy any part of our bodies use? is it an estimation? is there a physical experiment or calculation? | one method is to measure the oxygen content before and after the organ in question. that is, measure the arterial oxygen content and then measure the oxygen content in the vein that that organ empties into and only that organ empties into. there may be some imagine based methods too (e.g. fmri, but i am less familiar with that method). | 37 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a meta material of silver and silicon nitride interact with light so that the phase velocity becomes zero? | a recently submission to /r/science: _url_0_ from here: _url_1_ talking about this paper:_url_2_ permittivity of light in materials is a strange concept that i don't feel like i have a strong grasp of. why does silver have a negative permittivity and silicon nitride positive? is this related to the optical rotation of light? how are the photons interacting with the material's electrons? | i studied optical metamaterials at norfolk state university a few summers back, so while i'm a bit rusty on the subject, i can take a crack at it. first, let's start with the concept of permittivity: in a physical sense, it's dependent on the polarizability of a material: how much of a dipole moment the electric field of an incident light wave can excite. in a dielectric material (like sin), all the electrons are bound up in strong bonds, and are quite polarizable. however, as our incident electric field passes through, these excited dipoles spring back to their equilibrium unpolarized state. this is why light can pass through the medium with little to no attenuation, albeit at a slower velocity than in a vacuum. the magnitude of this response is expressed by the permittivity. in a metal, on the other hand, there are lots of free electrons that are not trapped in a bonding state (which, incidentally, is why they conduct electricity so well). this also means that, when an incident electric field is applied, instead of exciting temporary dipoles, these free electrons simply move with the electric field: the electric field does work on the electrons, and is subsequently absorbed. in the language of optics, this leads to an evanescent (exponentially decaying) electric field within the metal, rather than the propagating wave we see in a dielectric. mathematically, this is equivalent to having a negative permittivity. in a metamaterial, you specifically build structures that are considerably smaller than the wavelength of light. in general, most of the optical physics we discuss in everyday terms (permittivity, index of refraction, etc.) only apply to bulk materials, structures larger than the wavelength of the incident light, and far away from any strong resonances in the materials. in metamaterials, all of these assumptions go out the window, which is why the physics gets confusing at times. here, the authors have built subwavelength structures, which results in the light interacting with the medium as if it were a homogenous whole with properties somewhere between those of silver and sin. in this case, they are trying to get the permittivity as close to zero as possible for a particular wavelength of light. the permittivity of a metamaterial can, in this case, be described simply enough by the effective medium approximation: \epsilon_{tot} = \rho\epsilon_{ag} + (1 - \rho)\epsilon_{sin} wherein \rho is the metal filling fraction along the optical path length. the phase velocity is directly proportional to the effective permittivity, so if the permittivity becomes zero, so too does the phase velocity. (qualifications: grad student studying optical materials, including one summer's research on optical metamaterials under m. noginov at norfolk state) | 59 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/1oewpk/new_material_gives_visible_light_an_infinite/",
"http://phys.org/news/2013-10-material-visible-infinite-wavelength.html",
"http://www.nature.com/nphoton/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nphoton.2013.256.html"
] | [
"http://optics.hanyang.ac.kr/~shsong/27-Metals.pdf",
"http://physics.aps.org/articles/v6/1"
] | [
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can someone explain mass deficit curves to me like i'm 8 years old? | i'm talking in the context of supernovae. why is it that the star will explode once fe stars being formed. i see that when iron is formed that's when the graph starts to head back down but why does that cause the whole star to explode in mere moments once this starts to happen? | fusion can occur in stars because it releases energy. hydrogen at the high densities and pressures in the center of a star can fuse to helium, because energy is released. this repeats up the ladder, with carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon, and iron being the most notable products as the lower atomic number elements fuse. fusion is important for stars because it creates an outward pressure that counters the inward pull of gravity; it is the balance between this outward pressure and gravity that determines the size of a star. (if the star were a little smaller, the center would be denser and the fusion rate would increase, so the outward pressure would go up, causing the star to expand a little; if it were a little larger, the fusion rate would decrease, and gravity would dominate, shrinking the star a bit.) but once you reach iron, further fusion cannot occur spontaneously, because it would require an input of energy to make it happen. so you hit a point where the fuel for fusion is getting used up, and no new class of fusion reactions can commence. so the outward pressure can no longer hold the star up against gravity, and so the star simply collapses due to the effects of gravity. this collapse is very rapid. the inward-moving stellar material is moving very fast, and so this gravitational provides additional energy to the interior of the star. because this excess energy is now available to the star, the core undergoes a huge amount of fusion all at once, which produces the explosion. the energetically-forbidden fusion reactions from before are now possible, because the collapsing material provides energy that can be used, and so fusion of elements past iron on the periodic table can happen. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would be the effects of creating a room temperature super conductor? | i've heard that a super conductor that can operate at room temperature is a sort of "holy grail" in physics, but what ramifications would it have on the world if one was to be made? | it would pretty much revolutionize science and engineering as much as the discovery of electricity. room temperature superconductors have applications almost everywhere in the realm of electricity. some of the advantages would be: **power transmission-** we would have zero losses in power transmission. this would eliminate the need to convert low voltage ac from generators to high voltage ac thats suitable for transmission. with a significant decrease in vampire power wastage through resistance and transformer losses, our current energy sources would be able to sustain us much longer than usual, thus preserving the environment (provided the energy is from fossil fuel sources). so, in a way, we can say that room temperature superconductors help save the environment. **transportation:** with room temperature superconductors available, all of our railways, including public transit systems would be able to convert to magnetic levitation rather than electricity or coal powered. they would save energy during functioning and eliminate the need for fossil fuel powered vehicles. **manufacturing electronics:** if room temperature superconductors are made on an industrial scale, they would replace all wires in electronic circuits. electrical resistance would undoubtedly be necessary in certain electronic components such as transistors and resistors, but if all wires were replaced by room temperature superconductors then power losses would drastically fall. engines would become more efficient, computers, phones, motors and all other electronics would consume far less energy, and we'd be saving up a lot of energy if we invented room temperature superconductors. **huge strides in alternative energy:** with so much extra electricity on our hands, we would now be able to harvest resources more efficiently. hydrogen economies would be possible, where we use the extra electricity to extract hydrogen from sea water and use it as a fuel, thus almost eliminating the need for fossil fuels. research into other alternative forms of energy such as solar or wind would also become more viable, now that we have high efficiency generators and wires that have no electrical resistance. **scope for scientific research would increase:** modern day science experiments consume huge amounts of energy and are thus quite expensive to maintain. sure, the lhc costed many billions of dollars to build, but every time the lhc runs, it uses enough energy to run a small town. with all this extra energy, scientific experiments wouldn't be as expensive as they are today, and scientists would have enough energy to carry out their experiments. plus, the energy saved could be used for other research as well, such as harvesting rare elements from deep within the earth's crust, designing and building space technology and finding out new methods of space propulsion. **nuclear fusion as a viable power source would become a reality:** if we had wires that could carry practically infinite amounts of current without heating up we would be able to build incredibly strong magnetic fields, much stronger than those created by the liquid-helium-niobium-titanium-superconducting-magnets that are used in tokamaks or experimental fusion reactors. with this level of initial energy density we would get a self sufficient thermonuclear reaction that could power the earth for generations to come. **jobs and employment:** if all what i said was true, then we would have a huge market for superconducting magnets, starting from mining their respective ore, processing the minerals, manufacturing them on an industrial scale, selling them to the public and managing the whole process. it would create a huge demand for engineers, scientists, technicians, geologists, metallurgists, mathematicians, construction workers and people involved in management and business. ***cons*** if whatever i mentioned above truly works, then we'd be left with gigantic piles of old electric devices, ranging all the way from transmission wires to transformers to motors to generators to electronics. recycling companies would make a killing, but throwing away 200 years worth of electrical equipment would undoubtedly make the problem of safe disposal of waste a nightmare. **another con** would be that if all of the above were to happen, massive fossil fuel conglomerates would go utterly and truly bankrupt. except for plastics, cosmetics, tar, fertilizers and running old machinery, companies such as shell or bp would lose all of their profits. they would either not allow this to happen by pressurizing governments to cut research and stop supporting the above developing industries (which is the more likely option) or they would try to adapt with the changes and go with the flow. however, all in all, the invention (or discovery) of room temperature superconductors would truly **revolutionize** our way of life today and would be a change for the better. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do drink rings get stuck in wood when it's just cold, condensated water? | i left my drink sitting there for about 40 minutes and i came back to find a ring of water left behind, i tried to wipe it off but nothing happened. i tried scrubbing and still nothing happened. why does this exist? water has been sitting on this table before for a short amount of time before but doesn't cause the same effect. pic: _url_0_ | because wood is porous, and the water has absorbed into the pores of the wood. the process is slow though (especially against the grain which most wood furniture will be), which is why you don't see anything if you've only left it for a few minutes. eventually it should diffuse and evaporate back out, but if too much was absorbed it can cause the wood grain to swell, permanently warping the wood. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/jerzDTf.jpg"
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strange light on the horizon? | on the beach in oregon, facing the west coast and there is an extremely small, dim, red light. any idea what the hell it might be? i was thinking maybe a ship or a lighthouse? any theories? (: | being as you are on the beach facing straight out at the ocean, i doubt a lighthouse. most likely a ship of some sort i would imagine. (assuming it was below or right on the horizon, which your question seemed to imply) edit - realistically, there is no scientific answer to your question, just speculation. i won't downvote, but i'm not entirely sure your question is in the right subreddit. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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something to remove iron particles from magnets without dissolving nickle? | i have a set of about 8,000 [nickel plated spherical magnets](_url_0_) that are lightly contaminated with iron particles at the poles. i need something to remove the iron by making it non-magnetic so it could be washed off. the trick is that the nickel must not be affected in any way. i have tried just oxidizing the iron into feo3 by leaving them in water for a while but this leaves a white residue on the nickel finish. is the white residue calcium carbonate from my extremely hard water? in which case i would just need to use distilled water. or is is something else from the process of oxidizing the iron while it is in contact with the nickel? rolling them around individually on duct tape also works but as you can imagine it takes far too long for 8000+ magnets. tl;dr how to dissolve iron and not nickel? | i googled it, and there was a yahoo answers that suggested potassium permanganate. no idea how well this would work, but it's a lead for you. might be best to not do all 8000 the first time... hopefully a proper chemist will be along shortly to refute, or suggest a better chemical to use. | 2 | [] | [
"http://zenmagnets.com/"
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is there a difference in the weight of the two boxes? | lets say you start with two identical boxes in a room, same mass, temperature, everything. for a moment, you open one of the boxes and light shines into the box. you then close the box so it was just as it was before. is there light now trapped in the box? because of energy and mass equivalence, does this mean the box that was open is now heavier? have any experiments been done similar to this? | not in the sense that there are photons in the box. what happens is the following: the photons are being absorbed by the walls of the box and their energy is transformed into heat. thus the temperature of the box increases. since thermal energy is a form of energy, and energy is equal to mass, the hotter box will now indeed have an infinitesimal amount of mass more than the cooler box. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is electrical energy? | in a circuit electrons are flowing through a wire from the negative pole to the positive pole. in this process they transfer a certain amount of energy to whatever consumes the energy in this circuit. my teacher pictures this energy as backpacks worn by the electrons, which are full before the energy is consumed and then emptied by the consumer after which the electrons move on to the positive pole of the battery. i would like to know what this energy actually is. thanks in advance! | this energy is potential energy. at the negative end of the battery it's like the electrons are at the top of a hill, and they roll down the hill to the positive end. the backpacks are full of potential energy, and the trade this for a backpack of kinetic energy. the trade happens many times through the circuit as the electrons accelerate and hit bumps (thermal vibrations, other electrons, defects in the wire) on their way down the hill which is what resistance is. | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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who actually uses the candela si unit? | an internet search certainly throws up many definitions of the unit, but i am interested in specific applications: an example of a technical manual, published papers etc that use this unit. | we use it in vision science to describe stimulus or monitor or environment luminance. usually in cd / m^2 . many labs have a photometer for this purpose. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://blog.1000bulbs.com/home/whats-the-difference-between-candela-lux-and-lumens",
"https://www.mouser.com/datasheet/2/445/150060GS75000-368921.pdf"
] | [
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electricity and water | this is a little embarrassing to ask as i am in the electrical industry but i was wondering about when voltage is applied to water and the effect of someone coming in contact with that water. i understand how electricity works but i was wondering how if their is no path for the electrons to follow to ground why do we still get shocked. we aren't allowed to engineer a 32v pool light any more even though it being extra low voltage and their nowhere for the current to go but still we can get a zap from it. so why is this a problem to touch electrified water even if we are not creating a shorter path to ground, if the water creates a short in the circuit do we still get a shock and finally if it isn't passing through us does that mean that our muscles absorbed it. thank you in advance. | there's an old saying "electricity follows the path of least resistance." this old saying is not correct. at least, it is imprecise. electricity follows all paths, with more going along lower resistance paths. (there's also a limit imposed if all of the available charge carriers are depleted.) so what happens if you are swimming in a pool that has a defective light fixture? if the breaker doesn't trip, or something else happens that prevents the fixture from being energized, there's a voltage (potential difference) across the fixture, and the pool water is exposed to that voltage. keep in mind that the current doesn't *have* to flow to earth ground, it will flow from high potential to circuit ground just as easily. or to both earth ground and to the circuit ground. will that hurt anyone? well, water is a lousy conductor of electricity, and pure water is a very lousy conductor. pool water is not very pure, though. it usually contains things like cl ions that will improve its conductivity a bit. and of course it isn't completely clean like purified water. the result is that the pool water will conduct electricity, just not very well compared to things like metal wires. but since it does conduct, electricity will flow between the terminals of the defective fixture. most of the current will take a very short path through the water, less will take a longer path, even less will take an even longer path, etc. this means that if you are in the pool, some of the current can take a path through your body. if enough takes a path through your heart muscles, that can be fatal. likely, with a low-voltage fixture? no. but possible? yes. most likely, the current would be so low that you wouldn't notice it unless you got very close to the fixture, and even then it probably wouldn't kill you. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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engineering - could a pretzel or other dense bread product be used as an effective makeshift air filter or respirator? | while partaking of some pretzel rods today (snyder's old fashioned, i believe), i realized that i could breathe through the pretzel. these pretzel rods were about the size of my finger, and i noticed that by removing a small piece of the glazed coating on each end, my air intake improved. it seems that if the pretzel could be prevented from getting soggy in the mouth, the porous nature of the bread could provide particle filtration at least as good as a fiberglass household air filter (albeit for a much shorter and more delicious time). could a pretzel or a dense bread product (like a bagel) filter stuff out effectively? | of course, for some applications. i don't know the pore size of a snyder's old fashioned pretzel, but i doubt that it goes down to the 1 micron range. but it could do some filtering. unfortunately, being a pretzel it not only has the sogginess problem to worry about, it has the crumby problem too. in some applications it doesn't help to filter out a lot of stuff but at the same time add little bits of baked dough into the airstream. or possibly the occasional large chunk that could choke a president. for example, i would not use one as the air filter on a car engine. the minor benefits you'd get from filtering out some dust particles would be overwhelmed by the risk of getting a chunk stuck on a fuel injector or turned into a carbon coating on a valve. but as a temporary air filter for the passenger compartment it might be a suitable choice. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in patients with dextrocardia situs inversus totalis is the brain mirrored as well? | for instance, with unilateral functions like speech where they are normally on the left side, are they now on the right? | situs inversus is often due to primary ciliary dyskinesia (e.g. kartagener's syndrome), which is a congenital defect in function of cilia. during embryologic development cilia help internal organs position properly, so dysfunction of cilia leads to improper orientation of internal organs. i think the brain is not commonly believed to rely on cilia to orient itself, so it should not be affected. functions dependent on lateralization of the brain, including language function and handedness, would thus also not be expected to be different. however, there are a few interesting observations made in the literature: * the normal brain has [some structural asymmetry](_url_2_), but a small number of studies on a few subjects with situs inversus do seem to show a reversed pattern of this structural asymmetry. [1](_url_1_) [2](_url_4_) [3] (_url_5_) * it's hard to say whether language lateralization is different, again because of small numbers of subjects studied. one of the above studies found normal (left-sided) language lateralization in all subjects. [1](_url_1_) another found 2 of 3 subjects with reversed (right-sided) lateralization. [2](_url_4_) * handedness also correlates to some extent with hemispheric dominance. studies tend to conclude that subjects with situs inversus have the same rate of left- and right-handedness as the general population, suggesting there is not a functional reversal of brain function. [1](_url_1_) [4](_url_0_) [5](_url_3_). as you can see, it seems they are mostly the same as the general population. may still be a difference, more studies needed, etc. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15615683",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10522882",
"http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v4/n1/abs/nrn1009.html",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16741872",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19897211",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12592571"
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are all turtles tetrachromats? | is every species of turtle a tetrachromat, or just some? | it would appear that all species of turtle are indeed tetrachromats.^1,2,3,4,5 that is, i have been unable to find any mention of trichromatic turtle species. it has been suggested that turtles have pentachromatic vision^6 , although there is no evidence of this at present. trichromatic animals possess three different types of cone-shaped cells (colour-receptors) in the retina of their eyes. note that this doesn't mean that all trichromatic species see the same colours as receptors can act on a variety of absorption spectra. tetrachromatic animals have a fourth cone type, enabling them to perceive additional colour spectra. the fourth cone in turtles allows them to perceive ultraviolet (uv).^1,3,4 some species of turtle differ in their spectral sentivities,^2 . such variations are likely to be adaptations to differing life histories and ecologies. ***** 1. arnold, k. and neumeyer, c., 1987. wavelength discrimination in the turtle pseudemys scripta elegans. vision research, 27(9), pp.1501-1511. [link](_url_5_) 2. horch, k.w., gocke, j.p., salmon, m. and forward, r.b., 2008. visual spectral sensitivity of hatchling loggerhead (caretta caretta l.) and leatherback (dermochelys coriacea l.) sea turtles, as determined by single-flash electroretinography. marine and freshwater behaviour and physiology, 41(2), pp.107-119. [link](_url_2_) 3. rocha, f.a.f., saito, c.a., silveira, l.c.l., de souza, j.m. and ventura, d.f., 2008. twelve chromatically opponent ganglion cell types in turtle retina. visual neuroscience, 25(03), pp.307-315. [link](_url_4_) 4. ventura, d.f., zana, y., de souza, j.m. and devoe, r.d., 2001. ultraviolet colour opponency in the turtle retina. journal of experimental biology, 204(14), pp.2527-2534. [link](_url_3_) 5. zana, y., ventura, d.f., de souza, j.m. and devoe, r.d., 2001. tetrachromatic input to turtle horizontal cells. visual neuroscience, 18(05), pp.759-765. [link](_url_0_) 6. perlman, i., kolb, h. and nelson, r., 2011. s-potentials and horizontal cells. available at: [link](_url_1_) | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/visual-neuroscience/article/div-classtitletetrachromatic-input-to-turtle-horizontal-cellsdiv/8CBBBE267FE7DF8F5ED2FA6ADA6FFFAE",
"http://webvision.umh.es/webvision/HC.html#Introduction",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10236240802106556",
"http://jeb.biologists.org/content/204/14/2527.short",
"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/visual-neuroscience/article/div-classtitletwelve-chromatically-opponent-ganglion-cell-types-in-turtle-retinadiv/8BAAD099A2B0B62BA448550A0B36CC61",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0042698987901593"
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how significant is effect of friction losses in fluid transmission lines? | in comparison to other losses in the system, e.g. consider a simple circuit of a pump and motor connected how would this change with line length? | i know this one!! friction is very significant in pipe design. for straight pipes you can use a [moody chart](_url_3_) to calculate the friction factor. i'm not sure how familiar you are with fluids, but the [reynolds number](_url_2_) there is the (density of fluid * flow velocity * the pipe diameter) / ([dynamic viscosity](_url_4_) ) you can use that frictional factor in the [darcy-weisbach equation](_url_0_). pressure loss per length would be given by (frictional factor from moody chart * fluid density * flow velocity^2 )/ (2 * pipe diameter). you also have pressure losses due to whatever valves, expansions, or bends you have in your fluid circuit. the chart in the wikipage about [minor losses](_url_1_) can get you a rough idea, but i seem to remember elbows being slightly more complicated than a single number look up. i'd have to check my textbook. also note that the darcy frictional factor is not the fanning frictional factor in that last wiki page. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darcy%E2%80%93Weisbach_equation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_losses_in_pipe_flow",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynolds_number",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Moody_EN.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity#Dynamic_viscosity"
] | [
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] |
how does peltier cooler transfer heat? | i know it has something to do with electron gas difference in semiconductors, but still, how does junction suck heat into charge carriers? | thermoelectric heating and cooling is not really what i'd a junction effect. the temperature gradient is created over the bulk of the material, and thermoelectric stuff happens in a wide variety of conductors - not just doped semiconductors. if you imagine electrons in a conductor as behaving, roughly, like a charged gas with potential differences analogous to pressure differences, then thermoelectric effects align very nicely with the typical thermodynamics associated with gasses. (there are some wrinkles because - for example - some conductors act like the 'gas' has negative charge, and others act like it's positively charged.) _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect",
"http://imgur.com/xlDkRzE"
] | [
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is there something about the wavelengths of red that makes us think stop/bad and green good/go, or is purely social? | red and yellow are strongly associated with caution. this is probably because bright red and yellow organisms are generally not safe to eat (they develop the colors as a warning). they may have developed these warning colorations as something different than green (which doesn't stand out against plants as much). | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there such a thing as someone having a sexual attraction to themself? | i'm just curious because there are many unusual orientations, such as people who are turned on by cars, but this is one that i've literally never heard any mention of. so, is there an entirely infallible failsafe in a person's brain to prevent this or is it just extremely rare that the mental block is absent? | i can't answer this question but i found [this \(**nsfw**\) art site](_url_0_). go to projects then selfkiss, click on the picture that pops out and there are 27 of them. it is like being attracted to an extremely close identical twin, which is possible. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pupsam.com/"
] | [
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] |
when a small body of water dries up, where do the aquatic animals go? | specifically the fish and the frogs, you never see dead creatures in dried up creek beds for example. | it really depends on the body of the water and the animals living in it. in some small bodies of water that dry up annually but refill in the rainy season the fish can lay eggs that survive in the mud or small leftover puddles until the hole is refiled in the rainy season, letting the eggs hatch and life goes on. in other regions some fish survive by burring themselves deep in the mud and going into a kind of hibernation until the water returns. if it is a genuine lake drying out permanently, the fish and frogs die and are quickly devoured by the land wildlife. as for in dried up creeks, the fish and frogs go with the flow, so if they realize the water flow is weakening, they will swim upstream or downstream to find the biggest body of water they can. hope this helped. | 50 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/11fwfk/when_a_small_body_of_water_dries_up_where_do_the/c6m3r2j",
"http://thatdarkkidkevin.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/fish-01.jpg"
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what does the process of becoming entangled look like? | what i say look like i mean mathematically. my understanding is two particles are entangled when their wave functions can't be factored into a product of the wave functions of each particle independently. but how does such a situation come into being through time? is it a discrete step, where one moment they're not entangled, and the next they are? or is it a transition, so that there are degrees of entanglement? | it is not a discrete step - the entanglement is a continuous process. if a composite system is initially unentangled, i.e. it's state or wavefunction is factorable, it will smoothly become an entangled state when undergoing normal time evolution due to a *hamiltonian that couples the two subsystems*. for example, for two spins initially unentangled, if the hamiltonian is of form h=h1 + h2 where h1 does not contain any operators that act on the particle 2 hilbert space, and h2 does not contain any particles that act on the particle 1 space, then the system will remain unentangled. however, a hamiltonian like h=h1+h2+h12 where h12 contains some products of operators over the two spaces will generally lead to an entangled state. the general idea is interaction leads to entanglement, which occurs smoothly since hamiltonian evolution according to schroedinger's equation is continuous. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to have enough light particles to create a physical barrier? i was intrigued by the song "walking on sunshine" and was curious. | light does indeed [exert a force](_url_2_) on anything it hits, but to exert enough force for you to feel would involve so much light it would vaporize you quite quickly. for example, sunlight at the earth exerts a force of about 5.3 pounds per square mile. to support one's feet at say, 150 pounds on half a square foot, would require light [1.6 billion times brighter than sunlight](_url_1_), or about 1.6 terrawatts/m^2. that could raise your whole body to the boiling point in about 15 microseconds. in astrophysics, there is something called the [eddington luminosity](_url_3_), which is the brightest that an object can be without blowing itself apart from radiation pressure. if the sun were 32,000 times brighter it would start to completely blow its atmosphere off for this reason. edit: [obligatory xkcd](_url_0_) | 31 | [] | [] | [
"http://what-if.xkcd.com/13/",
"https://www.google.com/#hl=en&sugexp=les%3B&gs_rn=1&gs_ri=hp&gs_mss=150%20lbs%2F&tok=9VACSCpGsyGrW7ZUyJmEQg&cp=41&gs_id=1hz&xhr=t&q=150+lbs/%280.5+feet^2%29+/+%285.3+lbs+/+mile^2%29&es_nrs=true&pf=p&tbo=d&biw=1244&bih=709&sclient=psy-ab&oq=150+lbs/%280.5+feet^2%29+/+%285.3+lbs+/+mile^2%29&gs_l=&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_cp.r_qf.&bvm=bv.41018144,d.aWc&fp=269cab3f92e9a839",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_pressure",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_luminosity"
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|
dentists; how does a precision apex locator (pal) work? | i had a root canal today and this was used. it looks like it may need to complete an electrical circuit for it to operate. when i asked my dentist about the mechanics behind it he said, "i don't know how it works, i just know it works". | there is a difference between the electrical charge of tooth's pulp and the tissue at the root apex beneath the root canal. when the tip of the apex locator contacts foramen apicale it simply connects the circuit and the device alerts you with a beep or lighting. source : 4th grade dentistry student. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
sex based question about pain. | i can't speak to testicular pain specifically, but of course any pain response is diminished during sex - as it is during a race, or a fistfight, or an argument. common advice is to sit for a minute after getting in a bike accident, because otherwise you can easily pedal off with a broken wrist without noticing. _url_0_ | 55 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenaline_Rush"
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] |
|
is interval training the most efficient means of building muscle and reducing fat? | is high intensity interval training the most efficient means of building muscle and reducing fat? if so, why? thanks. | as i've understood 4x4 is close to "the law" among people training more than average in norway, because research done by [olympiatoppen](_url_1_) has had so much positive to say about it. the only things i've read in protest to this specifically are other forms of interval training, mostly because variation became a problem among the unprofessional to semi-professional. [short video in bad english from a good university](_url_3_) that explains 4x4 and intervals. so building muscle seems to be a clear "yes", what about reducing fat? [seems to work](_url_0_), with [other benefits over regular training](_url_2_) from the second to last link (with aided google translation): as to why/how this all happens, i don't know, but a *guess* would be that it makes the muscles work the hardest because of the breaks you provide, which allows oxygen to be replenished so that a high intensity training can be continued. i would love to get all this explained from someone who actually has some hard knowledge in this. -from someone who is just slightly in sync with what the scientists are saying. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=no&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forskning.no%2Fartikler%2F2011%2Fmai%2F289895",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiatoppen",
"http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=no&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forskning.no%2Fartikler%2F2008%2Fjuli%2F188411",
"http://www.ntnu.edu/cerg/advice"
] | [
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