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there is a redditor who attended the cern opera briefing doing an ama. can we get a regular contributor to r/askscience to take a look and do a little peer review? (x-post link inside) | _url_0_ | his summary seems reasonable. he's likely some sort of physics student (possibly grad). the results are almost definitely an unknown source of systematic bias, and should continue to be assumed so (unless you are a particle theorist who wants something fun to ponder about) until more independent experiments confirm with more independent verifications. if it was a new effect it likely doesn't destroy relativity but is warped extra dimensions. | 36 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/ksv4l/iama_physicist_who_attended_the_presentation_of/"
] | [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=ftl-neutrinos"
] | [
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could somebody explain the disproof that in a right triangle, the two sides added together will never equal the hypotenuse? | my great uncle wrote a calculus textbook and taught at mit for many years. he eventually became head of the mathematics department before retiring. i recently made contact with him for the first time and he desperately wanted to send me a copy of his authored textbook. i was looking through it with my calc professor and we came across a question with no answer in the back that sort of stumped us. [here](_url_0_) is the link to an online copy i found (hopefully you can see it) for a more specific description. it's question number 9, but if you could explain the relation to figure 1.6 as well i'd be very grateful. i think it has to do with the fact that sin(a+b) =/= sin(a) + sin(b) but i still wouldn't know how to explain that in terms of the question posed. to those who think "why not as your great uncle?" he hasn't answered back since the day before thanksgiving. it seems to be a problem of it's own with an answer of it's own. to those who think i'm trying to get help on homework or doubt my story, my username is essentially the same as the man's last name. i don't go to mit and it's winter break. thank you everyone. | that two curves approach each other does not imply that their lengths approach each other. you can make a very small zig-zag that approximates a unit line-segment as well as you like, but wiggles fast enough to have an arbitrarily large length. when calculating the length of a smooth curve you need to use the *derivative* of the curve to do it. if the derivatives don't *also* converge to the derivative of the curve of interest then the lengths will in general have nothing to do with each other. another way of looking at it is just that infinite limits behave badly. this is true in a lot of respects, *especially* with function convergence. if you have almost any function property x (continuous, bounded, differentiable, analytic, integrable, etc.), you can make a sequence of functions with property x whose limit does not have property x. in this case, you have a sequence of functions, and a corresponding sequence of their lengths. the limit of the sequence of lengths does not have to be at all related to the length of the limit of the sequence of functions. take sawtooth waves of height 2^(-n) and period 2^(-2n) as steadily 'approximating' the line-segment [0,1]: the lengths will rocket to infinity even as the function itself converges at every single point. such is life. | 11 | [] | [
"https://books.google.com/books?id=E-__4PCIE-EC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=figure+1.7+motivates+a+false+%22proof%22+that+the+length+of+the+hypotenuse+of+a+right+triangle+equals+the+sum+of+the+lengths+of+each+side&source=bl&ots=N7cs_eLLPu&sig=gjWg3MbPpVt91mgylj-Zuc4x3bU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=O9SLVO6mJ5CKyASvroDADA&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=figure%201.7%20motivates%20a%20false%20%22proof%22%20that%20the%20length%20of%20the%20hypotenuse%20of%20a%20right%20triangle%20equals%20the%20sum%20of%20the%20lengths%20of%20each%20side&f=false"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_norm"
] | [
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evidence for chemical deficiencies in the brain? | it has become common for people to say "depression/bipolar disorder etc. is caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain." is there research that demonstrates that mental illness is the result of a chemical imbalance? | there has been studies where they have analysed the cerebral spinal fluid of suicide victims. they found decreased amounts of 5-hiaa, a serotonin metabolite, compared to 'natural' deaths [link](_url_0_). this on it's own is not very descriptive, does this show reduced serotonin levels resulted suicidal thoughts? or, is the lead up and planning your own death causing reduced serotonin release? also studies have been carried out with electroconvulsive therapy. which has demonstrated itself as one of the most effective methods of treating severe affective disorders - although not very popular for obvious reasons. electroconvulsive therapy has been shown to cause down-regulation of 5ht-2a receptors [link](_url_1_) . this ties in with the long term effects of ssri's, and may be an overlapping mechanism. there is also the argument for the effects of dopamine in schizophrenia and other psychoses: (1) most antipsychotic drugs, which were originally discovered serendipitously, were later found to block dopamine (d2) receptors. (2) brains of schizophrenic patients who received no anti-psychotic medication, have been examined post-mortem, and they found increased dopamine receptor density. (3) drugs that increase dopaminergic activity (amphetamine etc) can aggravate existing symptoms, or cause psychotic like symptoms in non-sufferers. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleid=159843",
"http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/196/6/474.abstract?ijkey=22af7290432ab383e8cba25ec51b6b763b945663&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-21613924"
] | [
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do some microorganisms live in cloud formations? | one study looking at micro flora in the air in the french city of marseille found average 536 bacteria per metre cubed and 92 fungi per metre cubed, and in the nature reserve on porquerolles island found 26 bacteria per metre cubed. there are microorganisms pretty much every where and the cdc has a page on the health risks of drinking untreated harvested rain water. so yes the air is full of bacteria, and the clouds too. whether there are microorganisms that live permanently in clouds or require clouds for life is another question. hope this helps. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how are petroglyphs dated? | i actually wrote a paper on dating rock art (both pictographs and petroglyphs) this past semester! there are ways to date rock art relatively through iconography (images), superimposition of designs, and associations with datable materials (such as a stone tool or a datable archaeological deposit) which only show whether or not one image is older than another. through this information a chronology can be made to provide a general idea of its age. chronologies, however, are often not backed by hard dates and can be incorrect or foreshortened (keyser, j. d., & klassen, m. (2001). plains indian rock art. university of washington press.). i'm a big fan of lichenometry, the study of lichen growth to determine the age of glacial deposits (within geology), rock art, rock rings, and walls (within archaeology), and headstones (within historic archaeology). to quote innes (1985): "lichens growing on a rock surface [...] can be used to obtain an approximation of the date of deposition of that surface. if the time taken between the exposure of the substrate and its colonization by lichens is known, and if the rate of growth of a given species at a site is also known, then a minimum date can be obtained by measuring the diameter of the largest lichen at that site and referring to this as a 'growth' curve for the species" (187). innes (1985) used the rhizocarpon subgenus (which is fairly widespread in north america) to date glacial deposits (innes, j. l. (1985). lichenometry. progress in physical geography, 9(2), 187-254.), and benedict (2009) has put the species to use in an archaeological setting dating rock rings and hunting blinds (benedict, j. b. (2009). a review of lichenometric dating and its applications to archaeology. american antiquity, 143-172.) lichenonmetry excites me more than mineral laminations or patinations (changes in color to a rock surface), because they are variable (bednarik, r. g. (2002). the dating of rock art: a critique. journal of archaeological science, 29(11), 1213-1233.). lichenometric dating provides a non-intrusive way of dating rock art which is potentially produces more absolute results (especially when used in combination with chronologies). and lichens are cool. wow. sorry for the wall of text... i'm a little passionate about the topic, and i truly could've written more. edit: attempted to make it easier to read... dunno if it helped at all. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how hard would it be to lift your arm inside an event horizon? | you would already be rendered into atoms, so it would not be possible. additionally since "up" is typically away from gravity and you would be inside of nearly infinite gravity you couldn't even if you were magically kept from disintegrating. also time would be dilated so much that it would take literally until the end of time to make the action even if those other things were not true. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does phase transition improve heat transfer? (heat pipe) | below is an portion from a wiki link. a heat pipe is a heat-transfer device that combines the principles of both thermal conductivity and phase transition to effectively transfer heat between two solid interfaces. due to the very high heat transfer coefficients for boiling and condensation, heat pipes are highly effective thermal conductors. _url_0_ | evaporation of a liquid drains a fairly large amount of heat from the liquid and any material touching it through heat conduction. a heat pipe makes use of this effect by evaporating a liquid on the hot component, extracting heat from it, and then moving the vapor to a different location where the process is reversed and heat is removed while the vapor condenses back into a liquid. part of this process also takes place when we sweat. the sweat on our skin evaporates, extracting heat from our skin and helping to cool down the body. to see why evaporation extracts heat, we can look at what happens microscopically. a liquid contains a large number of molecules that are moving around randomly, constantly colliding with each other and exchanging energy. the velocity of this random motion determines the average kinetic energy of the molecules and this is what we refer to as the temperature (give or take a proportionality constant). not all molecules will move with the same velocity, some are slow and others are fast. the fastest molecules that happen to be near the surface of the liquid may be fast enough to escape the liquid altogether. these end up as vapor. now with the fastest molecules having just evaporated, the average kinetic energy in the liquid has decreased. and that means the temperature has gone down in the liquid. but since the liquid is in direct contact with the hot component, heat conduction will transfer heat from the hot component into the liquid to equalize the temperature between the two, cooling down the hot component. the hot vapor moves to the cool side of the pipe where an opposite process lets the vapor shed its heat and turn back to a liquid. since evaporation extracts a relatively large amount of heat and because the vapor moves to the other end of the pipe relatively quickly, this process makes for a rather effective method to transfer heat between the two ends of the pipe. | 3 | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pipe"
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] |
after the question on random numbers (the bop it one), con someone explain what happens when you call on the random function in c++? | what exactly, happens when you call that function? | the standard c/c++ `rand()` returns an integer between 0 and some max value, on my embedded machine it's 0x7fff or 32,767. i expect on a larger machine that number will be just shy of 4.8 billion\*. exactly how it ensures the probability is even across that range isn't nearly as interesting as how it gets a random number from a deterministic process. that's accomplished by using a [pseudo-random number generator](_url_1_) (prng). basically you have a piece of code that accepts a first parameter (the seed) and then generates a string of numbers that's more-or-less totally random. the kicker is if you initialize the code with the same seed you'll get the same pattern, so in most cases you use the current time and that's good enough. this doesn't work well on a small microcontroller because it doesn't know the time and you have to do some tricks to get enough randomness. so basically after initializing the prng `rand()` just grabs the next x bits (exactly how many depends on the platform) in the sequence, possibly does a little manipulation to ensure uniform distribution, then passes them back to the caller. easy-peasy. all the hard work is in designing a prng function that isn't trivially predictable or exhibit some cyclic behavior like repeating the same sequence over a short run, which the wikipedia article and references cover to death. \*: that would be 2^32 - 1, as opposed to my little 2^16 -1. no idea if a 64-bit machine would return a full 64 bits. e: may as well expand on what kind of data is collected. turns out that most (all?) modern operating systems do all the hard work by collecting things like the time between key presses, mouse movements, network transfer statistics, disk access statistics, and other such variables that aren't predictable and expose that to programs by some means. this means if you *really* want something random instead of using the time to seed a prng there is a carefully curated source of randomness for you to employ. this type of randomness is sufficient for everything but the most sensitive of needs (cryptography) and it's better to draw from this then try to make your own because you *will* screw it up. of course this doesn't matter on a small system like that in a bopit because you don't have an os to help, you get to collect and process it all yourself. things like the number of milliseconds it took a user to press a button are very commonly used to re-seed the prng every time so you'll see a difference sequence every time unless the user replicates their button press times within fractions of a millisecond, and honestly who'd go through that much trouble for a toy? products with a serious need for real random numbers will have a little piece of hardware on board that uses some physical process to produce randomness. quantum mechanical noise (noisy diode) for simple things, time between bursts of radiation from a small radioactive sample for hardcore needs. e2: if you understand c then the [c++ reference for rand](_url_0_) is very informative about what it does, though exactly how is left up to the implementation. the call to `srand(time(null))` is where it uses the current time to start the sequence, but if you replace it with `srand(0)` you'd get the same sequence every single time you ran the program. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cplusplus.com/reference/cstdlib/rand/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudorandom_number_generator"
] | [
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why can’t or isn’t gaba administered directly? | gaba is an inhibitory transmitter. general anesthetics, anti-anxiety and sleep medication all affect how certain neuro-receptors react to gaba and their affinity for it. why can’t gaba itself be administered intravenously or orally? is it possible, but dangerous? would it possibly work, but be very short acting since you would just injecting gaba itself without increasing the affinity of the relevant receptors for it? or something else entirely? | as has been pointed out, gaba will not cross the blood-brain barrier if ingested. the supplements are probably mostly hogwash. there are substances which can be administered orally, cross the bbb, and then get converted to gaba. the reason other drugs are typically preferred is that they have more favorable side effect profiles. all neurotransmitters have many types in the brain. this is why neuroscientists feel ill when they hear someone refer to serotonin as the mood neurotransmitter, or when they hear someone say to little dopamine will keep you from feeling satisfied with things. this is much more true of gaba than other neurotransmitters. you probably have somewhere in the neighborhood of (educated guess) 100,000,000,000 to 300,000,000,000 gabaergic synapses in your brain. they come in many different subtypes. gaba is involved in everything. a tiny fraction of those gabaergic synapses have anything to do with anxiety. gabaergic drugs typically act on only some subtypes of gaba receptors. they still probably stimulate billions of gabaergic synapses that aren't involved in anxiolysis, which is why they will make you sleepy, foggy, and cognitively slowed. drugs are, by and large, a pathetic way to target specific symptoms / disorders in the brain. you have to get really lucky for a drug to work... you've got to happen across a drug that happens to act on a receptor (or receptors) that isn't too heavily used in unrelated brain systems that'll give you weird / bad effects... for example, some drugs used to treat schizophrenia can also produce lactation (even in men) because the pathway that controls that has a dopaminergic component, and those drugs affect dopamine signalling. sometimes, they're the best we've got so far. sometimes. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11084/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GABA_reuptake_inhibitor"
] | [
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] |
can we use the speed of light to establish a universal rest frame? | since the energy required to accelerate is based on the current velocity could that be used to establish a universal rest frame? my thought process in case i am missing something: i am rotating around the earth, which is orbiting the sun, etc... since i already have a velocity would it not be easier to accelerate in one direction and harder in another? i understand that assuming the cosmic microwave background is close to this, the earth's velocity is only about 371km/s which is paltry compared to the speed of light but would this be theoretically possible? | no, there is no universal rest frame. if you don't like that, you can use the reference frame in which the cosmic microwave background has no dipole anisotropy, which is a reference frame that we are currently moving about 600 km/s with respect to. however, physics in this frame are not privileged. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment"
] | [
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has there ever been a comprehensive pain scale established. | the reason i ask this is because the age olde argument, of what hurts worse, came up with my girlfriend. we decided to turn to you for answers. nut shot vs. birth. go. | i pass hundreds of kidney stones a year, here is my rating scale: 1. noticeable pain 2. annoying/nagging pain (when you start complaining) 3. painful pain (when you start taking stuff, applying heat/ice) 4. excruciating pain (when you start screaming, crying, rolling on the floor, puking, etc.) 5. immobilizing pain (when the body starts shutting down) a long time ago i thought excruciating pain would get worse and worse but then i discovered number 5 where your body starts the heavy chemicals and begins to shut things down to save you from the pain. right now i am passing a kidney stone plus i have a toothache that is making my whole head throb and it's a weekend so i can't do anything about it. unfortunately it is still only excruciating pain, but i wish it would just get worse so my body would let me sleep. also a big factor is your fear of the pain. i have had so many stones and i know i just have to wait it out which actually makes it more bearable. so in nut shot vs child birth (which happens a hospital surrounded by doctors) i say nut shot is way scarier and therefore way more painful. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do statins work to reduce blood cholesterol? | there are two main sources of cholesterol in the human body: one is cellular production, the other is from food consumption. statins inhibit an enzyme called hmgcoa reductase that is is involved in building cholesterol in each cell. this leads cells to take in cholesterol from your daily food consumption rather than generating additional cholesterol in the cell itself. ultimately, this causes each cell and the body as a whole to reduce cellular production, lower overall cholesterol levels in the body, and just make use of the cholesterol from your food consumption. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does e-ink have any chance of becoming a dominant display technology (in the future)? | as it is currently probably not. e-ink is a physical medium versus electronic. what this means is the picture that is made is physical. it is literally millions of little balls. one side is black the other white. so to get millions of those little balls turning at a rate that would produce an acceptable refresh rate needs several steps forward. it is the same reason for no color screens. a two sided ball fliping is easy but for color you need at least 3 colors to get a color range. granted this may change by either coming up with a solution that is not e-ink or improving tech. after all about 2 years ago they said no e-ink touch screens because it makes images fuzzy. they solved that engineering problem. hope that helped, you seemed like you wanted general knowledge vs specific tech jargon. but if you have a follow up or i was unclear (been drinking) i will be happy to clarify. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i waved a clear pen in front of a projector and saw a rainbow suspended in place. stop waving, no rainbow. can someone help explain this optics phenomenon? [physics] | so, in high school i was really fond of these pens: [pentel rsvp](_url_1_). check out the pictures. most notable about these pens was that they had a clear, cylindrical main body. i played with my pens a lot in class, and i noticed something strange. if the room was dark, and i waved the pen back and forth in front of a light source (usually a projector displaying a powerpoint presentation with a white background) i would see a rainbow where i was holding the pen, sitting in place, across the arc of where i was waving it. what confused me about this most was that it only happened when the pen was *moving*: i could hold the pen up to the light all i wanted and i would see no colors. also weird was that the rainbow looked suspended, the colors were in consistent positions as long as i was consistent with the arc of my waving. i've been wondering what was going on here for a long time. i've taken college level physics courses but nothing about diffuse refraction i've learned involves the velocity of the object doing the refracting, so i'm baffled. if the details of the situation aren't clear, i could draw a crappy picture in ms paint to help visualize. if anyone can help, i'd be greatly appreciative!! thank you! edit: made the drawing. this might confuse things more...but hopefully not. [this is my perspective, sitting at my desk right behind the pen, looking through the pen at the projector](_url_0_). left shows the motion i was making, right shows what i saw. the colors are a complete guess. | the projector generates a full-color image by projecting each primary color one after the other (red, green, blue, and maybe white) the moving pen reveals the trick because it is revealing what is happening over time. | 11 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/ApnN47Y.png",
"http://www.amazon.com/Pentel-R-S-V-P-Ballpoint-0-7mm-BK90-C/dp/B00006IEAM"
] | [] | [
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how do convection currents affect how plates move? | this is partly to help my 8th grade son. he uses an "interactive notebook" which is the biggest piece of crap i have ever seen. the teacher puts random notes in the notebook without anything that clearly explains anything. this is not to be confused with how heat affects density, causing the heat to move up and then down (a separate concept that is clear). his science notes state the following: (1) "rising convection currents cause plates to separate"; (2) "sinking convection currents cause plates to converge". his notes also say that: (3) convergent convection currents cause convergent boundaries and; (4) divergent convection currents cause divergent boundaries. it seems to me that (1) works with (3) and (4) to either separate or converge plates (not just separate). however, (2) does not make any sense to me at all. are (1) and (2) correct? if so, how? the whole premise of tectonic plate movement is that the plates move and create boundaries based on the convection currents. if the convection currents sink, how can they affect the plates? if the convection rises, why would it only separate plates? what if the convection currents are converging or moving toward each other? does everything else seem to align correctly as proposed? it makes sense to me that the plates act like they are on a "conveyor belt", and that 2 conveyor belts can drive the plates together (collision) or apart (separation) depending on which direction the conveyors are running. or what are we not understanding here? | ok, so i'll preface this by saying i don't want this to turn into me, random dude on the internet (albeit random dude who has a phd and is a professor of geology currently teaching a senior level class on plate tectonics) telling you that the teacher and/or the notes are wrong, but they are certainly a 1) gross simplification that are easily misinterpreted and 2) are kind of mixing concepts (most likely to try to keep things simple, at an 8th grade level). my answer that follows is provided with the hope that it will help you understand the concepts better, and i'm not suggesting that you necessarily try to explain this to your son in as much detail or use this to stage some sort of grand challenge to the teacher. we can think about plate motion and what drives it from two end member scenarios that fundamentally differ primarily on how they treat the plates (plates here being defined as sections of lithosphere, so the crust and the very upper portion of the mantle, that behave as coherent, rigid objects that move horizontally along the top of the aesthenosphere, weak part of the upper mantle, and interact along their edges, i.e. at plate boundaries) and specifically whether we consider them to be an 'active' part of the process that drives plate tectonics or as 'passive' riders whose motion is totally determined by movement within the underlying mantle. let's first consider the 'passive' plate motion model, which basically states that convection in the mantle (i.e. the density/temperature driven roughly circular currents within the mantle) are the primary driver. in this model, divergent boundaries (i.e. mid ocean ridges where new sea floor is created and lithosphere moves away from the boundaries) are located in the upwelling regions of these convection currents and convergent boundaries (i.e. subduction zones, where an oceanic plate sinks beneath another oceanic plate or a continental plate) are linked to downwelling zones, with the basic idea that the mantle is sinking (because it's cooled) and it's pulling the plate down with it, basically causing subduction. this is usually illustrated with two convection cells sharing a downwelling zone (i.e. material is being pulled towards the downwelling zone, causing convergence at the surface). this 'passive' model has some issues though. if plate boundaries are essentially mapping out locations of convection cells upwelling and downwelling motion, this is problematic because [plates are irregularly shaped and variable in size](_url_3_) which would imply variable sizes for the convection cells. this model would also predict that there should be a relation between plate area and plate velocity (because plate velocity will be driven by the amount of 'contact' between the plate and the underlying mantle), but we've [known for a long time that this is not the case](_url_1_). the alternative is the 'active' plate motion model, where the dynamics of the plates (and mostly gravity driven processes related to variability in density, again driven by temperature) themselves are the principle driver for plate motion. for this model, we need to consider the [various forces acting on the plates](_url_2_). the two that we often discuss in detail are 'ridge push' (i.e. the force imparted on the plate by material being added at ridges) and 'slab pull' (i.e. the force on the plate from the sinking of old, cold, oceanic crust in a subduction zone, basically dragging the rest of the plate down with it). this [video](_url_0_) lays out some more basics of how these work. this is still discussed in terms of 'convection' in that it is still largely a temperature/density driven process with 'upwelling' of hot material and 'return flow' of cold material, but the chief difference being here that the plates are driving this convection and it does not require true convection currents (i.e. the cold material that sinks with the slab does not necessarily return at the ridge in a closed loop). this model seems to work much better with our observations (e.g. that classic forsyth and uyeda paper i linked to earlier) and is generally accepted (but the role of mantle convection, and mantle drag forces remains an active point of discussion, well beyond the level appropriate for a discussion with 8th graders). so, in reality, the plates mimic the motion of a conveyor belt, but using it as an analogy for the mechanism is flawed because the motion of a normal conveyor belt is driven exclusively by traction at the base of the belt from spinning rods (i.e. the mantle). a better analogy (but kind of complicated) would be a a strip of cloth laying on top of a tub of honey where one side is being 'pushed' as the cloth is woven and the other side is being 'pulled' because the cloth is getting heavier as it moves along and it eventually gets so heavy it starts to sink into the honey and it pulls the rest of the cloth with it. the honey (i.e. the mantle) could be moving and could be resisting the motion driven by the dynamics of the cloth or it could be reinforcing the motion. if the entire surface of the honey was covered in similar patches of cloth, the independent motion of the cloth patches would be evident at their boundaries where some would be 'diverging' away from their looms and some would be 'converging' as one end sank beneath other (in three dimensions, you also end up with boundaries that move side to side, or 'transform' boundaries). i hope this all helps... | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/animation/mantle_convection__plate_tectonics_basic_intro",
"http://keyhole.ucsd.edu/226/intro/papers/ForsUyed1975.pdf",
"http://umich.edu/~gs265/tecpaper.htm#PDF",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate_tectonics#/media/File:Plates_tect2_en.svg"
] | [
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] |
how large could a pile of spam get before it collapsed under its own gravity and formed a singularity? | would the answer be different if it were a pile of cheese instead? how about osmium, or aerogel? | in general, if you build a sphere of a constant density, there is some maximum radius that will cause it to fall within its own schwarzchild radius, and collapse into a black hole. it follows straightforwardly from science: r = 2 g m / c^2 r = 2 g (p v) / c^2 r = 2 g (p 4/3 pi r^(3))/c^2 r = sqrt(3 c^2 / (8 g pi p) ) where those letters all mean... things. anyway, this equation has only one input - the density. if i assume a density of spam of 1 gram/cubic centimeter (which is the density of water, and a good approximation for nearly every biological material, like food or human flesh), i find that the ball of spam would be about [500 million miles across when it collapses into a black hole](_url_0_). if you centered that at the sun, it would extended well past mars, but only about halfway to jupiter. spam probably isn't too different from cheese in density - i'd just use the 1 gram/cc approximation again and end up with the same answer. similarly, for osmium, it looks like that ball would reach about [halfway from the sun to the earth.](_url_2_) and for aerogel, which has basically the same density as air, i find the sphere is about [14 billion miles across](_url_1_). again, centering on the sun, this ball of aerogel/black hole extends about twice as far as pluto's orbit. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sqrt%283+*+%28speed+of+light%29^2+%2F+%288+*+gravitational+constant+*+pi+*+1+g%2Fcc+%29%29",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sqrt%283+*+%28speed+of+light%29^2+%2F+%288+*+gravitational+constant+*+pi+*+%28density+of+air%29+%29%29",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sqrt%283+*+%28speed+of+light%29^2+%2F+%288+*+gravitational+constant+*+pi+*+%28density+of+osmium%29+%29%29"
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what happens to a mammal after injection of proteolytic enzyme? | i've concluded brief search before asking and found only a few (seemingly) controversial reports about intravenous injection. in some cases it promotes blood clotting. in other, on contrary, their properties are described as fibrinolytic. does that mean that blood clotting cascade is their main (only) target in bloodstream? would the result of intramuscular injection be similar? | not sure what you're getting at with this question, but it would depend on which proteolytic enzyme you're talking about. any enzyme has a characteristic set of substrates that it accepts, while other molecules can't be effectively cut by that enzyme. this is why you are seeing that some proteases are thrombogenic and others are fibrinolytic, depending on which proteins the enzyme cuts, you'll get different effects. also, these effects are likely most discussed because it's the most common effects of proteolysis in the bloodstream. (with macroscopic results). no matter what, your results would probably be bad. introducing large amounts of any material into the bloodstream can upset the delicate checks and balances that are there. intramuscularly would also be bad, but harder to predict as there's a lot more stuff to interact with. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are ligo's arms 4km and not shorter? | i understand that the longer the path of the light the bigger the affect of the gravitational wave (within the limit of gw wavelength?) but couldn't we just have a shorter arm length and bounce it back and forth more times? | "ligo's interferometers are by far the largest ever built. with arms 4 km (2.5 mi.) long, they are 360 times larger than the one used in the michelson-morley experiment (which had arms 11 m (33 feet) long). this is particularly important in the search for gravitational waves because the longer the arms of an interferometer, the farther the laser travels and the more sensitive the instrument becomes to vibration. attempting to measure a change in arm length 10,000 times smaller than a proton means that ligo has to be more sensitive than any scientific instrument ever built, so longer is always better. but there are obvious practical limitations to how long one can build such a precision instrument. even with arms 4 km long, if ligo's interferometers were basic michelsons, they would still not be long enough to detect gravitational waves...and yet they are. how is this possible? this paradox was resolved by altering the design of the michelson to include modifications called "fabry perot cavities." ... the fabry perot 'cavity' actually is the full 4 km length of each arm between the beam splitter and the end of each arm. additional mirrors placed near the beam splitter are precisely aligned to reflect each laser beam back and forth along this 4 km length about 280 times before it merges with the beam from the other arm...." _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/ligos-ifo",
"http://www.ligo.org/science/GW-Overview/images/IFO.jpg"
] | [
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] |
the sudden realization of something being "forever" or a huge number. | alright, well the title didn't say much because i couldn't explain it in detail, but onto the question. it's very hard to describe and i really hope someone can understand. i was born and raised christian, my family constantly talked about heaven and hell (not a religious question, just easier to explain) and when they talked about hell they said that you'll be there forever. i didn't really think much of it at first, but when i took the time to think about it, i realized what really "forever" meant, like it was a sudden realization, it scared me, and like something was triggered in my brain, the moment i really understood "forever", the deepest though. the thing that really intrigues me is that this realization only lasts about 5-10 seconds and then like some sort of limiter stopped this kind of really deep thinking, like i can only do it for about 10 seconds at the longest, then it goes back to the normal thinking. i've asked some people and they said it's the same for them. my question is, what could possible be the reason for stopping these really extreme deep thinking? is it because our brains can't really comprehend something that complicated for a long period of time or some sort of evolutionary trait? this triggers on some really deep thoughts, things like understanding how big our universe is, i can be looking at comparisons online showing that our earth is like little pixel compared to our galaxy, i'll be amazed and really think "that's really huge" but when i take the time to think about it really hard, i get the "wow" trigger that will last for about 5-10 seconds, then go back to the normal thinking. | i am not sure if this is a troll or not, so i am just going to assume that it is not. i cannnot say with much degree of accuracy what manner of "deep thinking" you may be discussing that is so utterly stifling. but i can tell you that when it comes to things like infinite, forever, and the size of our universe, part of the reason that it is so impossible to grasp is to look at the framework with which you live in. you are born, raised, and bred into a particular culture. for the purposes of this discussion, we are looking into the culture of size. you simply do not experience anything even vaguely close to the massive size (and infinitesimal size in the case of photons, particles, and other components of quantum mechanics.) much in the same way that it is difficult to learn anything that you have not been exposed to previously. additionally, from an evolutionary standpoint, we have had no reason to require thinking beyond a certain size. in fact there have been a number of studies, [the links of which i do not have at the moment](_url_1_), of cultures whose number system was extremely primitive, as in to the degree of 100 numbers or less, because these people never required a number larger than this. i, like many other redditors, am a curious hobbyist, and have found that when you look into cosmological sciences, quantum mechanics, and other sciences that consist of the radically large or extremely small that looking into, and in fact understanding the math is often required to visualize many situations or scenarios. however this should never trifle your curiosity about the various "deep thought" experiments that you have mentioned. in fact [these thought experiments](_url_0_) just made the front page of reddit, and are some of the quintessential thought experiments in physics! edit: link added. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/videos/comments/mp290/six_famous_thought_experiments_explained_in_6x60/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_people#Language",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x0hALyh40xg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantor%27s_diagonal_argument",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11328359",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numinous"
] | [
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i'm doing a project on singularity... | i'm doing a project on the pro's and con's of technological singularity in one of my classes. i was just wondering if anyone could recommend me some sources or any new insights / information as to what's current in the subject matter? i've seen several documentaries about kurzweil, but i'm having trouble finding information about oppositions to the movement. | since this is askscience: applying scientific skepticism to the ideas behind typical conceptions of "the singularity" reveal numerous problems. two of the biggest ones (labeled a and b below) are: a. the idea that "intelligence" is some sort of linear scale which, as intelligence increases, tends towards perfect, maximally efficient problem solving and decision making, with no tradeoffs, costs, or limits. future machine intelligence generations are imagined to simply march their way up this scale into unimaginable realms. but all the evidence we have indicates that this notion of intelligence is simplistic to the point of absurdity. this absurdity is reinforced by the boiling down of the complexity of intelligence - a quality that humans really haven't yet understood well - into a single iq score. the fact that we give a single number to something we don't understand well says more about our poor understanding of the subject than it does about intelligence itself. (of course, the science in this area has moved somewhat beyond single iq scores, but singularity ideas are still stuck on this early 20th century notion.) the best one can do in defense of the singularity here is to claim that well, *machine* intelligences won't suffer from all the foibles that human intelligences do - but that's pure ungrounded speculation that a bit of reasoning can easily poke holes in. poorly-defined extrapolations of the poorly-defined concept of intelligence can't really be taken very seriously. b. singularity ideas tend to pretend physical limits don't exist, or will somehow be overcome by super-intelligence. in fact, with a few exceptions, physics over the past century has found the opposite: that there are many fundamental physical limits that cannot be overcome even in principle. one might speculate that singularity ideas are actually a reaction to and denial of these limits. in short, singularity ideas in their most extreme forms, including kurzweil's, more closely resemble quasi-religious pseudoscience than anything with a sound rational or scientific basis. this is all confused by the fact that it certainly seems possible or likely that as the human population increases, and our technology becomes more sophisticated, and if we don't destroy our civilization along the way, the result will be something that still looks rather like a "weak singularity". this is really just an extrapolation of the amazing technological progress we've made in the past century. most of the technology we rely so heavily on, like refrigerators, cars, and computers, are less than a century old. but in a world with physical and economic limits, extrapolating past performance only takes you so far. in fact, you might be on firmer ground predicting a great plateau which will come once we hit a point at which further technological progress has diminishing returns economically. the main question is how much further our technology will progress before we reach that point. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about gps antennas/ gps error | if you have two gps antennas/receivers placed 3 meters apart: the same model connected to the same satellites suppose. will they return approximately the same position or/with the same error? | the field that covers this subject is called geodesy and here is a list of common sources of error _url_0_ i would love to give a longer answer as i'm a ms student in this field, but i'm currently writing on a mobile phone. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_analysis_for_the_Global_Positioning_System",
"http://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/performance/accuracy/histogram.png",
"http://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/performance/accuracy/"
] | [
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how arbitrary is the current system of biological classification? | there are specific rules about what constitutes a species, but even at that level there are significant grey areas. and at the kingdom level, there are numerous smaller branches of the tree of life that cannot be cladistically sorted into any of the six (or is it five now?) kingdoms. are animals classified based on hard and fast rules like how many genes they have in common or how long ago their lineages diverged, or are the current classifications mostly arbitrary? also, i've heard it claimed that if we applied the same standards to ourselves that we do to other organisms, we'd be in the same genus as chimps and bonobos. can anyone comment on that? | simple measures like "number of genes in common" become very difficult to standardize across species that vary several orders of magnitude in genome size. reliable phylogenies may be constructed for many species using ancient genes or ribosomal rna. this kind of reconstruction is probably our truest recapitulation of the relationships between organisms. there are, of course, some ambiguities that are the subject of debate, but by and large you can see when particular groups diverged using this methodology and break them into natural-looking clades, which may then be labeled. this level of organization varies tremendously with the particular branch, and might involve particular features of gross anatomy, etc., that represent the defining characteristic of the clade (e.g., odd (perissodactyla) vs. even-toed (artiodactyla) ungulates). it is worth noting that this assumes that each clade had a common ancestor; in the case of prokaryotes and archaea, this relationship becomes confused due to horizontal gene transfer, and the standard hierarchical tree of life may no longer be an appropriate descriptor. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a significant difference, health-wise, in averaging 1 drink/day versus 7 drinks/week (but on the same day). | sorry if this has been asked before - i can't find any reddit posts on it through search. if anyone knows of a thread where this has been discussed, please shoot me the link and i'll just delete this thread. i've heard that about 1 drink a day (e.g. 5 oz. of wine) is at least somewhat associated with increased health. ignoring confounding factors (such as if the correlative relationship is not in any way causative...), would there be a significant health difference if an adult drank 5 oz. every day vs. 35 oz. once a week (say, on saturdays)? side question: i usually hear the alcohol/health link being discussed in the context of red wine. is that specific to red wine, and not other sources of alcohol? if so, do we know why (e.g. resveratrol... though i don't know what that is)? if not, then could people who don't generally like/drink alcohol simply take a small shot of liqueur every night 'for their health'? | yes. this is called binge drinking, and it is bad for you. it's a matter of dosing. if you have one alcoholic drink once a day, your bac will rise to a certain level and drop off. however, if you drink 7 drinks in one evening (say over the course of 3-4 hours) your bac will rise to a much higher level, and this will result in damage. it's associated with the classic alcohol injury stuff; liver damage, cardiovascular disease, etc. there are correlations of regular light drinking and increased health, primarily due to impact on cardiovascular function. i do not know of a causative link that has been demonstrated, but the correlation is well-documented. it is debated as to whether red wine has an increased benefit over other forms of alcohol. i personally lean towards the camp that says red wine does offer added benefit, but the argument can be made both ways. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the latest in addiction recovery, what is it and what does science say is the to getting people back on a long term, sustainable sober track? | not an expert here but a medical student during our medical psychology seminars we visited a "prison" for people with mental disorders, mainly addictions and discussed with them they were never sent back to the same cities they came from to discourage them from reviving old connections/getting back in touch with people having the same addiction almost all of the long term sober patients had families/children and said that having a purpose is what keeps them motivated sooo again maybe not an expert answer but i guess it's a combination of unknown environment, fresh life, and finding a family/greater purpose | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
in the following equation, how do you solve for x? (x^1)+(x^2)+...(x^52)=25,000 | i'm trying to find out how to calculate the formula in the title. it was a thought experiment that has gotten beyond my limited knowledge of mathematics. any help would be greatly appreciated! | so, there is no general way to solve polynomials of degree 5 or higher analytically (e.g. using algebra). this is the [abel-ruffini theorem](_url_2_). it might so happen that this polynomial is a special case which can be solved analytically, but it's not obvious to me that's the case, and figuring out how to solve it would likely be exhausting. so we've ruled out analytic methods, but don't lose hope! there's an entirely different way of solving math problems like this known as [numeric methods](_url_1_) which typically rely on numerical computation (e.g., plugging in a value of x into the left hand side of the equation and seeing what you get) combined with iteration (using what happens for each value of x to rapidly find a value of x which comes close to solving the problem). the solution will only be approximate but for a great many problems, an approximate solution is good enough (additionally, numeric methods generally work in such a way that you can get as much precision as you want, so long as you're willing to invest the computer time). so, now that you know you should solve this problem numerically rather than analytically, the next question is "what numerical method should i use?" this is a broad question as there are a ton of viable methods- a reasonable starting point for this kind of problem is [newton-raphson] (_url_0_). i'd recommend starting there if you want to read more about numeric methods and maybe implement something yourself. personally, however, i'm a fan of doing things the easy way when possible, and in the case of numeric methods there are already pretty good implementations in a variety of mathematics software packages. plugging the following statement into mathematica gives me a list of the complex x values which approximately solve the equation you posted ("approximate" in that they are decimal values rather than exact; they all solve the equation to extremely high precision). nsolve[sum[x^n, {n, 1, 52}] == 25000, x, workingprecision - i'd rather not list all the complex roots since there are quite a lot (52), but the real roots are 1.1708562644102110476 and -1.2289897411217587853. | 60 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_method",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel%E2%80%93Ruffini_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_series"
] | [
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why is bradycardia the same in endurance and non endurance athletes? | first off, why is it the same. secondly, what does this mean, is there any significance? or unrelated. | bradycardia just means you have a slow heart rate ( < 60bpm). in a non-athlete this usually causes dizziness and other symptoms that arise from lack of proper oxygen delivery to your body. if it's because of being in very good cardiovascular shape, it's still bradycardia by definition, but there's no cause for concern about it if you don't have negative symptoms. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how exactly do bones fuse when they're in a cast/splint? | what exactly happens to the bone cells as they fuse? | it's a pretty amazing process, and it doesn't necessarily require being in a cast or splint, that's just to make sure it heals straight and smooth. _url_0_ > next, osteoblasts move in and produce bone cells, transforming the callus into a bone callus. this hard shell lasts three to four months, and it provides necessary protection and stability for the bone to enter the final stage of healing. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/musculoskeletal/heal-broken-bones1.htm"
] | [
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if blood loses oxygen along its circulation away from the heart, do cells that are further away on the circulatory path from the heart (ex: cells in feet) have more adaptations to allow for easier diffusion for oxygen as opposed to cells near the start of circulation (ex: kidneys)? | studying the circulatory system, wondered if cells receiving blood with lower concentrations of oxygen have to have better ways to get oxygen from blood. | great question. a few things: 1. blood doesn't actually lose a great deal of oxygen along the way until it reaches the capillary level so the distance travelled is less important than you might think. 2. related to 1. the volume of blood(and hence oxygen) is much more important than the distance travelled. having important organs closer to the heart allows you to move more blood through these organs with less resistance than you could pushing the blood through more vessels to get there. 3. as your blood travels through capillaries it not only loses oxygen but also picks up carbon dioxide. dissolved co2 makes a solution more acidic and haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen in lower ph environments ie. the more co2 in you blood the more your hb wants to offload o2. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the role of a neutral wire in an a/c? does the return current in an a/c pass through the live or the neutral wire? | the neutral wire is like a ground. in north america, where most household appliances and electronics are 120 volts, the cable coming into the house has three conductors and a bare ground wire. the red and black wires are live and and 180 degrees out of phase. the white wire is neutral. for the wall outlets and fixtures in the house, either the red or black wire is attach to the live side and the white neutral wire to the return side, providing a potential of 120 v. for clothes driers, electric ranges, and any other high voltage appliances, the red is attached to one side and the black to the other, providing 240 v. for 120 v fixtures, the live wire is the one that is interrupted by the switch. when the switch of off, no current can reach the socket because the white wire only carries current it receives from the live wire. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is under the beak of a bird? | is there skin under there or what? | what you’re referring to as the beak is technically called the ramphotheca. it’s made out of keratin, like hair or fingernails. it’s one piece of the larger structure of the beak. below the ramphotheca is skin (dermis and epidermis). it supports blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue, and also houses the cells that grow the keratin that makes up the ramphotheca. that layer is adhered to the bone of the beak. there is a lot of variety in bird beaks, so this is a general overview! source: van hemert, c., handel, c. m., blake, j. e., swor, r. m., & o'hara, t. m. (2012). microanatomy of passerine hard‐cornified tissues: beak and claw structure of the black‐capped chickadee (poecile atricapillus). journal of morphology, 273(2), 226-240. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it more efficient to have multiple grocery lines and people choose which to wait in, or to have one long "feeder" line and have a person wait until the next cash teller is available? | this is a thought experiment i've had for some time. consider two situations of identical grocery stores, with five cash registers available each. in store a, each cash register has its own line of customers in queue. an individual who wants to buy their items walks up and waits in a specific line for a specific cash register. in store b, there is one long line that people wait on for all five cash registers. as each of the five cash registers becomes available, the next person in line walks up to one available. assuming that people do not switch lines in store a (and an individual will always go to the line with fewest individuals), and that all other factors are identical between the stores, which store will have a more efficient check out scheme? will it even make a difference? | ignoring lading of groceries, the layout of supermarkets and the difficulties calling people to a register for a moment (which all complicate the problem): **the most efficient way to queue is single line, multiple servers.** this is called an m/m/c queue. _url_1_ in [queueing theory](_url_0_) (again, remember i'm ignoring the problems listed above) it is the most efficient (highest server utilisation) and the most equitable (consistent wait time) way to handle a queue under almost all circumstances. it is efficient because: * you don't have servers being idle because their queue is empty even though others are full. * you don't have stalls in service due to a single customer being slow * all customers wait approximately the same time. so why isn't this done in supermarkets? * physical space. single queue layouts take a lot of space and obstruct aisles. they require huge snaked queuing areas. this is less a problem for "12 items or less" areas (since customers don't usually have trolleys) so these often have single queue layouts. * people don't follow single queuing rules well. * with more than about 6 queues people can't always see all servers, you start needing start to dispatch queued shoppers (i've seen a few airport check-ins with dispatch staff for this purpose). again, this point is less relevant for small clusters of queues, like a dedicated 12 items of less cluster of servers. * humans do a little mental load balancing when choosing between queues which gives them a multi-queue advantage over theoretical random people. humans don't simply queue at a random line and do attempt to judge how many items each person has. we also switch queues if there is an obvious advantage. of course, it doesn't always save us (are we a subject to various biases that can make our judgment worse) but on the whole, we're not too bad. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queueing_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M/M/c_queue"
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in a packed grocery store with long cashier lines, is it better to choose one at random? | so i got stuck today for 20 minutes in a cashier line, and it got me thinking about the optimal way to choose a line. whenever a customer had finished shopping he would run through all the lines to find the shortest one. but here i was thinking, if every customer before me has searched for the better line, then the lines are more or less equally long. so the best option would be just to pick the nearest line and not bother looking for anything better. so i know this obviously has been thought about someone before. and while i know a little about game theory, i have no idea how i would search for such a concept. does anyone have somewhere to lead me to? could anyone explain under what area of economics/mathematics this would fall into? | personally i evaluate the amount of products in each persons cart, i'd rather get in the line with five lightly loaded carts than two heavily loaded ones. also i've found that younger to middle aged (20-35) cashiers seem to be a bit faster. several elderly persons in a line are usually a red flag as they tend to write checks which increases the wait time. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the body know the relative position of its parts (eg, where you arm is)? | the concept is called [proprioception](_url_0_). i'm sure someone will give a more in depth answer, but essentially there are multiple body maps in your brain, and these maps are used in conjunction with your peripheral nervous system in order to determine body position. for example, proprioceptors are found in skeletal muscles. the relative stretching/compression of these proprioreceptors gives information about the position of the limb. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception"
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|
if a body part is surgically moved, does your brain's sense of relative body part location understand that the part is in a different position? | basically just had surgery where things were shifted around a little and it got me thinking. if a body part is surgically moved and is then touched, would the brain correctly identify the location of contact? let's say (suspend some disbelief) i get an operation where my left forefinger is moved onto my right hand and my right forefinger is moved to my left hand. someone pokes the forefinger on my right hand with a pin, does my brain interpret that as pain in my right hand or left hand? alternatively if you moved a body part without severing nerves would that make a difference? if i cut up my arm to move the finger while retaining all of its connections to my nervous system and then just sewed it onto my hip or something... would my brain understand that when that finger is poked it's happening at my hip? silly examples but hopefully you get the gist of my question. thanks for reading :) | let's assume your right hand was attached to your left hip but somehow the original sensory nerves from hand to brain were undamaged. if you closed your eyes and someone poked your transplanted hand, you would still feel it in your hand, and not your hip. does [neuroplasticity](_url_0_) mean that the brain will eventually rewire itself so that the sensation will seem to be from the hip? nobody knows because it hasn't been tried yet, but it is definitely going to take some time. but you don't really have to undergo surgery just to confuse your nervous system. try this: cross the index and middle fingers of one hand, then touch the tip of your nose with the "v" between the two fingertips. because you have "transplanted" your index and middle fingers, it is going to feel like you have two noses. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticity",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilayanur_S._Ramachandran"
] | [
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brittle to ductile transition in fcc and bcc metals | hi folks, i am working on a university paper this weekend, with a section about the brittle to ductile transition that exists for mild steel, but not aluminium. we have done some charpy tests to get data for this. my major problem is that while i can find resources that state that fcc metals do not undergo this transition, i cannot for the life of me find any half decent online resources explaining why bcc metals (steel in particular) have a transition around 0 degrees celsius. and why aluminium does not. so what i am hoping to gain from this post is someone that happens to know where i could find some resources explaining this behaviour. anything relevant would be appreciated. cheers | the bdtt in steel has to do with the interstitial carbon atoms, i believe. below the tt, the interstices are to small to allow slip by the fe atoms along the typical bcc crystal system. the lack of strain accommodation leads to the brittle behavior. conversely, metals without interstitial solute atoms likely do not exhibit a dbtt (al). even at low temperatures, there is nothing to prevent slip. i can't, however, give you a paper citing this, i'm just not familiar enough with the metallurgy literature. you might consider looking in an intro materials science book, callister wrote a good one. a good way to test my thoughts above would be to compare the appearance of dbtt in both steel and virgin fe. i also can't connect my ideas more generally to bcc/fcc metals. are there other metals that exhibit dbtt? i hope that wasn't too much speculation. edit: i'm wrong, see below. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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windmill question. | near my location a enercon e-126 windmill has been built, it is huge. the enercon e-126, is the first wind turbine with 6 mw rated power, rotor diameter: 126m (413ft), hub height: 135m(450ft) impressive. ( _url_0_ ) since a while however i wonder why do all the windmills only have 3 blades?, there is a huge distance between the tips of the wings,.. i mean most of this space is not used. maybe you know the "american windmil pump" (_url_1_) that rotor is filled completely with blades. so my question, why do modern windmills have only 3 blades ? and also i be interested to know why the wingtips are so small at the end (i think from there the most force could be gained), old dutch windmill blades are long squares, and the american windmill is a rotor full a blade, i dont see why these current wings are optimal, maybe someone can enlight me here. | efficiency. adding an extra blade will not raise a 3-blade 3mw turbine to become a 4mw turbine. more likely, a 3.5. it adds weight, it increases the number of things that can go wrong, and increases expense. 3 is an optimum. you can get more power from more blades (up to a point), but with ever diminishing returns, and ever increasing manufacturing cost. | 3 | [] | [
"http://sciencestage.com/v/35525/enercon-e126-the-world-s-largest-wind-turbine.html",
"http://www.windmills.net/water_pumping.shtm"
] | [] | [
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when a fire detector's range is "greater than 200 feet to 1 sq. ft. heptane fire", what does this mean? | title. | heptane is a flammable gas (7 carbon chain of all single bonds). it's probably the conditions they used to experimentally determine the sensitivity. it can detect the exhaust from a 1 square foot heptane fire from at least 200 feet away. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
don't know if this is a stupid question but, what is the newest species of animal? | a virus can mutate into a new 'species' of virus within some months. i'd point to those first. i think it's the same for bacteria... not too sure though. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9269000/9269338.stm"
] | [
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|
question about majoring in science field... | if your goal is to build things, you want an engineering major. not that you *can't* do that with a pure science major, but it's not really what they're oriented towards. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
shimmering on roads. | when i drive on paved roads, occasionally there is this shimmering effect, like the road is made of some sort of liquid. it generally only happens when i'm changing elevation. what is this phenomenon? | it is caused by the refraction of light when traveling through a density gradient in the air. the air near the surface is being heated by the hot pavement, and therefore expands reducing the pressure, resulting in less density. light coming in from the sky is bends upwards when traversing from the colder and denser air above to the hot and thin air near the surface in a rather smooth arc and coming to meet your eye from a strange direction. you'll see more refraction when looking at pools of hot air from a shallower angle, hence why it's more apparent when you are changing elevation and can look along the tangent of a hill. here's a quick picture demonstrating this: [_url_0_](_url_0_) in fact, if you turn the picture upside down it resembles light bending downwards as it moves from less dense air, to much denser water (that is, each step is like an upside-down water surface, light doesn't arc like this when entering water). the deep reason behind this and other phenomena is the peculiar fact that light tends to go along paths that take the least amount of time. rather than trying to get to you by slugging along through the colder air, it would rather dip down and zip through the hot air. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/Giv0T.png"
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how do micro pipettes and pipettes function? | i understand it works by vacuum, but how did engineers figure the right amount of vacuum for each value?(e.g. how much vacuum is applied to each ml) | you kinda don't need to know it precisely. the answer lies in calibration. in order to suck up 5ml of fluid, you press out around 5ml of air, and then fill that cavity with your fluid. this won't get it *exactly* right, which is why pipettes need to be calibrated occasionally. you just test it with water, and if it doesn't suck up the right amount, you tweak it slightly. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is capacitive transduction, and how does it work in mems accelerometers? | typically, in a mems accelerometer, there is some cantilever-type configuration in which movement of the device would be registered through an electric signal via capacitive transduction. but how exactly does this work? | there are lots of different configuration that can make this work, but the basic principle is that the charge of a capacitor changes with the distance between its electrodes (c=epsilon*a/d, where epsilon is the permittivity, a the area and d the distance). with a different charge on the capacitor the electric field between the electrodes is also changed, which you can use for your electronic interface (c=q/v, with q being the charge and v being the potential difference). during acceleration air particles are pushed together, which in a given setup sets up a force acting on the cantilever, which in turn bends it and thus changes the distance between these two electrodes and therefore the charge. i'm not entirely sure about the specifics on a cantilever like device, but what i'm working with is a device based on a membrane, with ambient pressure on one side, and quite low pressure on the other, when acceleration occurs, the pressure rises on the ambient pressure side thus bending the membrane and therefore changing the charge and thus the electric field in a similar manner as i explained earlier. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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like how reflective index is c÷n, is there a formula which connects the gravitational field of an object and the time experienced on that object, for example in a black hole? | let's say we're in a black hole. massive gravitational field strength, to the point that even light cannot escape and time slows down. is there a formula connecting these 2 variables? edit: if it is as compared to in a vacuum with no affecting gravitational field for example | if you are *in* a black hole, you'll quickly hit the singularity. you cannot "stand still" and comparisons to other clocks become useless. if you are outside a non-rotating black hole and hovering you can express the time dilation relative to an observer far away as function of the gravitational potential. the ratio is sqrt(1-r_s/r) where r_s is the schwarzschild radius and r is your radius. as an example, for r=2 r_s, you get sqrt(1-1/2) = sqrt(1/2) or about 0.7: each second for an observer far away 0.7 seconds pass for you. if you are moving, or if the black hole is rotating, things get more complicated. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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reducing exposure from fallout | [removed] | nuclear fallout is, for the most part, ash and dust created by the initial explosion and irradiated by it. it can also consist of the materials used to generate the explosion but this isn't that big a factor. this radioactive material is pushed into the upper atmosphere and will fall gradually, depending on meteorological conditions. many people within buildings will be sheltered from the blast so long as they aren't too close to the point of detonation, saving them from very horrible burns. frankly the best way to endure fallout is to get ~away~ from the area if you have a rapid means of transport from rescue. if you are stuck? stay underground or in shelters. don't drink any exposed water, which can and probably is contaminated, and take shelter within buildings and basements, which will offer the most protection from gamma radiation. underground is best; the more material between you and possible fallout, the less radiation you are exposed to. in this situation, any well covering clothes will protect you from alpha radiation, which cannot penetrate far at all. gamma radiation is the more dangerous possible form of exposure. in nuclear facilities, any personnel who are at significant risk of exposure to radioactive material wear clothing that covers them fully and are thoroughly decontaminated-- this is really just a shower that washes off as much material as possible that may have got on you. there is no dietary or nutritional treatment for ingestion of radioactive material that will make any meaningful difference. fallout will decay rapidly, with the first several hours being the most intense possible radiation exposure. this is one of the reasons it's best to either not be there or be underground-- if you can minimise the exposure early on, you're in a much better condition. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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ligo gravitational observatory and nuclear bombs? | could a nuclear bomb trigger ligo? would we know what it was? | yes it would trigger ligo but they back check all their data with siesmologists because nuclear explosions will read on the richter scale like an earthquake. and fun fact even large trucks can set off ligo which is one reason they constantly check with each other to eliminate the possibility of false positives. | 604 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/ligo-detectors"
] | [
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can a flash-bang grenade set off an epileptic fit? | from the flash of light? highly unlikely. those with epilepsy who are photosensitive (which is a pretty small fraction, actually) are typically triggered by patterns, like the patterns of light flashed by a strobe light, flickering fluorescent lights, or rapidly changing pictures on television. the seizures are triggered by a cycle or pattern, not a single bright light. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
what is the best data base to find satelital measures of precipitation? | i have heard of the trmm, but i want to know if there is a better source of information or other more used. thanks | there is a paper [here](_url_0_) from 2011 which reviews measurement of precipitation from space. apart from trrm there is also cloudsat's cloudprofiling radar though this may not be what you are interested in; it is higher frequency and so is only really sensitive to drizzle or light rain and snow. this makes it complementary to trrm which isn't sensitive to the smaller droplets. there is some overlap in their active periods. precipitation is also estimated with passive microwave radiometry from a variety of platforms some of which are detailed in the paper i linked. the global precipitation measurement [gpm](_url_1_) program is the up and coming thing. it has radar channels that should be sensitive to a wide variety of rain rates but i don't know much about it. the core satellite was only launched in 2014 so it doesn't have a long record yet. here is the paper describing [gpm](_url_2_) i hope that helps. let me know if you have any other questions. i might be able to help more if i know what your specific application might be. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/15/1109/2011/hess-15-1109-2011.pdf",
"https://pmm.nasa.gov/gpm",
"https://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00164.1"
] | [
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are there any biological/evolutionary advantages to modesty? | i've often wondered, just as the title asks, if there are any advantages to modesty or is it just a product of a puritanical society. so i thought i'd ask the experts here about why showers after gym class were so difficult in middle school. | well, probably the most universal item of clothing is the loincloth. this hides the genitalia. aside from the practical matter of protecting them from damage, i suppose it could also serve for males as a way of hiding sexual interest/availability. do you really want, eg, your group-mate to know your exact response to his wife? maybe not... it's interesting to note that female humans also hide their sexual receptivity, which is unusual for primates (most show visible changes in coloration), though this accomplished via direct biological means rather than cultural ones. i have no idea if this is related in any way. aside from that, clothing in general signals group status. strip someone of their clothing and you are stripping someone of all that. and group status is pretty important to surviving. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how accurate or even valid are those dna/paternity tests performed from cotton swabs? | it's not dna or science i'm doubting; i'm curious about the validity of these clinics that perform these dna test for $250. for example: _url_0_ they use cotton swabs and ask you to send it in by mail in a paper envelope. are they just hoaxes? | i cannot speak to the reputation of that particular company that you linked to, but yes, the cheek swab process is reliable and works just fine. [dna from buccal swabs suitable for high-throughput snp multiplex analysis](_url_0_) you can find cheaper options, by the way -- $250 is a tad on the expensive side. if you're actually considering taking one of these tests let me know and i'll elaborate. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.accu-metrics.com"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2777348/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental_testing"
] | [
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why does ftl/tachyons defy causality? | it is my understanding that causality, being cause and effect, would be defied by reverse-time-travel. if i know jim is going to die before he does, i can prevent it; causality broken. that being said, if i know he's going to die before the photons showing his death strike me, i am no more able to prevent it than if i find out by conventional means. no matter how fast you are, even including ftl movements and instantaneous reflexes, you can not prevent an event that has occurred. i have a redditor's understanding of why ftl is impossible for known-particles, keep in mind that this question is about causality specifically. edit: is it just because the object would also move backward in time? | suppose special relativity is correct in that the lorentz transformations are correct. (they are, but let's start there because that's all we need.) an event is specified by 4 numbers: the time *t* and the point in space (x, y, z). if we consider two events a = (t*_0_*, x*_0_*, y*_0_*, z*_0_*) and b = (t*_1_*, x*_1_*, y*_1_*, z*_1_*), then a very important quantity that characterizes the causal relation between these two events is the so-called *spacetime interval*, defined as where δt = t*_1_* - t*_0_* and similarly for δx, δy, and δz. (note that δs^(2) can be negative, positive, or zero!) the spacetime interval is very important because even though different observers disagree on the values of δt, δx, δy, and δz, all observers will always agree on the value of δs^(2). we say that the events a and b are timelike, null, or spacelike separated, depending, respectively, on whether δs^(2) is negative, zero, or positive. if *a* and *b* are connected by a light ray then it follows that δs^(2) = 0 since the speed of the light ray is always *c*. it follows that if *a* and *b* are timelike separated, then *a* and *b* are connected by a *subluminal* signal (i.e., a signal that travels slower than light). so timelike-separated events have a nice physical interpretation. what does this have to do with causality? well, it turns out that you can show that if *a* and *b* are timelike-separated then even though different observers will assign different values to δt, *all* observers will agree which event happened *first*. in other words, timelike-separated events give rise to a well-defined notion of cause and effect. if *a* happens before *b*, then *a* causes *b*, and this is true no matter what reference we are in as long as *a* and *b* are timelike-separated. (the invariance of the temporal order of events is true also for null-separated events.) what if *a* and *b* are spacelike-separated? it turns out that then *a* and *b* do not have a fixed temporal order. in some reference frames, *a* occurred before *b*. in some reference frames, *a* occurred after *b*. and in some reference frames, *a* and *b* are simultaneous! in other words, spacelike-separated events do not give rise to a well-defined notion of cause and effect because different observers disagree on their temporal order. okay, so what if it were possible to send superluminal signals? that is, suppose the event *a* is the emission of some message from some broadcast station and event *b* is the reception of that message at some other station. in my reference frame, i note that *a* occurs before *b*. okay, fine. but if that signal is superluminal, then there exists a reference frame in which *a* occurs *after* *b*, that is, the message is received before it is sent. this violates causality because the cause (the sending of the message) cannot occur before the effect (the reception of the message). imagine if that message is some automatic code that causes the receiving station to self-destruct! it's also important to note that these reference frames *do* exist. it doesn't matter that in your reference frame you see everything work out just fine. so if the lorentz transformations are correct (and they are!), they immediately imply that no signal can travel faster than *c*. that is, events separated by superluminal signals *cannot* be causally related. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity#/media/File:Relativity_of_Simultaneity_Animation.gif"
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] |
how can i work out the maximum agnle of curve in a tube/pipe with a projectile of length x? | i am sending beer bottles down a pvc pipe and was trying to work out the maximum bend i could have in the pipe, without the beer bottle stopping/clogging. things i know - the length of the bottle - the diameter of the bottle (at its widest point) - the internal diameter of the pipe - the external diameter of the pipe i haven't included the values above, becuae i would like to know how to work it out, not just recieve a number. thanks in advance! | external diameter of the pipe is irrelevant. [picture](_url_0_) assuming that the bottle is cylindrical, with length l and diameter d, and that you bend the pipe in a circle, then you have a right triangle formed by: * radius of the inside of the curve (purple) + diameter of the bottle (blue) * half-length of the bottle * radius of the outside of the curve (red) so (r + d)^2 + (l/2)^2 = r^2 and from that you can calculate whichever one of the four quantities is unknown. this is more useful if you express inside (r) and outside curve radius (r) using average curve radius (c) and pipe radius (p): * r = c - p * r = c + p so now you have: * (c - p + d)^2 + (l/2)^2 = (c + p)^2 * (l/2)^2 = (c + p)^2 - (c - p + d)^2 * (l/2)^2 = (2c + d)(2p - d) and finally: * c = 1/2 ((l/2)^2 / (2p - d) - d) | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/0CMGxd8"
] | [
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how long does it take my heart (on average) to circulate all the blood in my body? | 70ml heart volume, 72bpm = 5040ml per minute. this conveniently is approximately the total blood volume of a human giving us the answer of one minute. obviously this varies hugely depending on heart rate and could vary slightly based on your personal cardiac output : total blood volume ratio. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
anyone out there an expert in opiate pharmacology and physiology? | i am attempting to research the process that causes sugar cravings from opioid medications. specifically, methadone induces significant cravings for sugar and as a result causes a large amount of weight gain. many people on methadone say that these sugar cravings are so intense as to be irresistable. this is true of methadone both used for addiction and for pain management, so it isn't an addiction based problem. but, this effect isn't limited to methadone, it is observed in every opioid based medication. i myself am on fentanyl patches and have noticed a significant change in my food cravings, eating a lot more ice cream than i ever have in the past. so what is the source of these cravings? i know methadone has been shown to change the levels of glucocorticoids, specifically corticosterone in mice, but i don't know if that would lead to increased insulin production and sugar cravings through hypoglycemia. it could be another process like activation of the reward/motivation pathway in the "limbic system" of the basal ganglia, or due to decreased release of cortisol or norepinephrine. i can't find a single study on this particular phenomenon, at least not directly addressing the question. so does anyone know how the psychopharmacological impact of opioid drugs leads to cravings for sugar? and, a tangentially related question, what would be a way to reduce these sugar cravings and prevent weight gain and health problems? is there any medication, vitamin or herbal supplement or mineral that would satisfy the craving for sugar but not increase blood glucose levels and weight gain? so many thanks for any answers to this question. | i am. and i think i can answer your question, the other two guys have skimmed over one vital aspect of opioid pharmacology(not trying to be a jerk or anything, i'm guessing this came off as though i'm a dick), and there is a very good reason as to why methadone specifically seems to cause this more than other opiates. some opiates can, and will bind to other kinds of opioid receptors other than just the mu receptor. the main reason you become hungry for foods that provide a reward(taste really sweet, stuff you enjoy anyway, just maybe not to the same degree) does have to do with the mu receptor in that you're getting more reward out of something already rewarding(being on an opiate, be it for pain or recreation you are going to feel rewarded using the drug) but the biggest reason has to do with kappa-type 3 opioid receptor(also known as the nociceptin receptor) which actually increases appetite. methadone binds to mu, delta, and kappa opioid receptors as well as having, if very mild, some ndma antagonistic properties. also, some people on medications for chronic pain notice they gain weight more rapidly than before, and there is a reason for that too--they are chronic pain patients, they're using the drugs to treat pain, naturally they don't exercise that often or that well(which can be one of the root causes of their pain, specifically lower back pain). with regards to medications you could take to prevent this from happening, well only things that inhibit your appetite would really be effective e.g. ritalin. however, they aren't made for this indication and its really not a very good idea really, it would work, most likely that is, but i wouldn't really be willing to prescribe a stimulant this way(i'm not the kind of doctor who treats add/adhd either). keep in mind this isn't medical advice. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0024320582905392",
"http://ajpendo.physiology.org/content/250/3/E236.short"
] | [
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does the diffusion current have an upper limit? | what happens if i completly compensate the built-in voltage of a pn-junction? there should only be a finite amout of current, due to the finite amout of electrons/holes right? if anyone has a satisfying answer i would be much obliged. | if you completely compensate the built-in voltage i guess you mean you are setting the depletion region width to zero. ideally, that would mean you go from no current to a finite current, so that would be a step in a i-v plot. so yes, the current would be finite, like with any conductor. that's not the point of the pn diode, though. just the behaviour. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there scientific-based predictions on how the human body might change (morph) in the distant future? | what might be altered? will they have developed to live indefinitely (doubtful)? | there is a fallacy that the human body will evolve toward some streamlined ideal, but that misses the point of how natural selection works -- it only works if there is a correlation between survival (or fecundity) and some genetically linked trait. i.e. if some condition kills you (at least some of the time) or makes you less likely to have kids, that condition is culled. but most of the culling from natural selection is practically absent from modern "civilized" peoples. evolution by natural selection works very, very slowly in the absence of strong selection pressure. given the advances in hygiene and medical science in the last (say) 150 years, many, many people who would have died due to complications from a suboptimal roll of the genetic dice survive just fine. i am a minor example - as an asthmatic kid with lots of allergies, i would have been called "sickly" if i were born in reconstruction-era america rather than vietnam-era america. my brother would not have made it at all -- he was born with a protein coat over his alveoli and, for a few days after birth, could only absorb oxygen through his trachea. he owes his very existence to the invention of the oxygen tent. one of my colleagues has a healthy 2-year-old boy who shows every sign of being able to grow up and reproduce -- despite having had complete lung failure 6 months ago (he spent a while hooked up to an artificial lung machine that would oxygenate his blood outside the body!). even a decade ago, that boy would have died. likewise, although there are hungry people everywhere, the problem is less than at any other time in history (at least in the western world), so pure caloric intake no longer drives natural selection of humans in the kind of civilization that produces a lot of reddit readers. so the main variables for "reproductive fitness" in the modern advanced world are social: how many kids do you want? how about your spouse? do you have a spouse, or do you make children piecemeal? are you too incompetent to use a condom properly? if you do get yourself or someone else pregnant with an unwanted child, do you abort, let the child out for adoption, or marry and try to raise it? everywhere there seems to be an inverse correlation between affluence and fecundity. since affluence and intelligence are at least loosely correlated, there is some natural selection going on to encourage the growth of stupid people as a force in the population. that is the basis of kornbluth's story "the marching morons", which was made into a movie ("idiocracy") perhaps a decade ago. all this is a way of saying physical variation is no longer strongly selected for, so we should expect to see more variation in the body and in particular in health systems, and more dependence on medical technology to survive - but we should also expect that the average population will shift according to social, rather than strictly biological, selection. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much of what i think i see is real, and how much of it is my mind "filling in the gaps"? | you're mind doesn't so much "fill in the gaps" as it makes educated guessesthat are usually right, or keep you from seeing things that aren't really there. we've got alot of really good examples from vision, but similar phenomenon have been measured with all of our senses. one of the primary drivers of this is the fact that your eye is actually a pretty terrible camera. you only get a really good picture of what you are staring directly at. this is because there is a small region of your eye, called the [fovea](_url_4_), that has the highest number of photoreceptors. this point has really high (over relative 90% accuity) for less that 1% of your visual field. we put together the continouse image by haveing our eye dart around pretty rapidly. the largest of these motions are called [saccades](_url_2_), and can be volunatary or involuntarty. your brain than puts together all of your tiny accurate shots (and the broader, inaccurate view), into the crips view that you see. so in this case, it doesn't so much see things that aren't real, but sees things that are consistant with what you've seen at other times/part of your eye. another similar phenomenon is your [blind spot](_url_0_). basically, where the optic nerve meets the eye, you can't see anything. one of the collest parts about the blind spot is you can't see it...rather, you can notice when your eye is missing something because of it because it fills in the missing data. try the test in the blind spot link, and you'll see it. but beyond fovial vision, we have many different optical illusions..too many to count really. many, such as the [grid illusion](_url_6_) are believed to be physological and linked to just the way the human brain works. others, such as [geometeric illusions](_url_1_) seem to have both physological and mental components. but in general, these mis-conceptions actually exist to give you a more accurate view of the 3d world: the instances of the illusion giving you the wrong perception is the exception and not the rule. an interesting fact to note is that you often see more that your conciesness percieves. in fact, what you are percieving as "now" is actually happening in the past. (this video is a really good explination, [_url_5_]). this combines with your vision system to get one of my favorite illusions is the [stopped-clock illusion](_url_3_). this shows an example of how your brain filters out information that you actually collected but didn't actually percieve. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_spot_%28vision%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometrical-optical_illusions",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccade#Saccades_and_vision",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=nNBTLbw1_2Q#t=21s",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fovea_centralis",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BTOODPf-iuc&list=UU6nSFpj9HTCZ5t-N3Rm3-HA&index=51",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_illusion"
] | [
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|
let's talk about bacteria, probiotics, live cultures, yoghurt etc. what does and doesn't work? | i was really hoping someone could help me sort the pseudo-science from the science. | for an average healthy human, there isn't much work that's been done that shows a benefit or a detriment. most of the work has been done on prevention of allergies/asthma or in relation to treating diseases (crohn's, *c. diff*). anecdote of n=1: probiotics have historically helped my skin, no clue why, but it was the only variable i messed with that seemed to have any effect (i took a high dose with a diverse profile of bacteria). for someone who has been on antibiotics, they can be helpful. though if i remember correctly, it only cuts down on some symptoms by maybe a day. personally, i'll take one less day of loose bowels if it means taking some probiotics. for those whose microbiota (the entirety of the microbes associated with a given organism) have been incredibly disrupted, perhaps to the point of getting a *clostridium difficile* infection, a fecal transplant from a healthy individual (think probiotics in mega form!) can be life saving. there is also a reasonable body of literature that says that infants who get probiotics either directly or via the mother (as in the mother takes it and breast feeds her child) will develop less allergies and asthma later in life. this falls into the hygiene hypothesis and sadly is not something i've had time to follow up on recently. but the papers i read from the 70's through mid 2000's were pretty convincing to me. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what prevents "used up" trna to re-bind with another codon but without carrying an amino acid? | once a trna passes through a ribosome and gives its amino acid to the polypeptide chain, it floats off into the cytoplasm without an amino acid. what prevents it from re-attaching to a matching codon on another mrna strand empty handed (no amino acid) and disrupt the polypeptide chain? | i would've thought, as is the case with many enzymes, that aminoacylation of the relevant trna (with its specific amino acid) causes a conformational change within the trna that renders its anticodon able to bind to the specific codon within the mrna. thus, when the amino acid is removed to form part of the nascent peptide, the trna undergoes the reverse conformational change and is no longer able to bind to the codon. [here's a good, succinct review of anticodon-codon interactions that also discusses the role of post-translational modifications](_url_0_). hope that makes sense! | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pfb.info.pl/files/kwartalnik/1_2009/05.%20Olejniczak.pdf"
] | [
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] |
rushing in music? | anecdotal experience only, but as a musician it really depends on the tempo. in my experience there is a threshold between dragging and rushing, below which the tendency is to drag and above which, to rush. it really has to do more with the feel of the song, i.e. a slow tempo with a "swinging" feel will tend to drag, whereas a song with a faster tempo and a "driving" feel will tend to rush. i hope that makes sense. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do the "miracle berry" tablets work? | i've seen these miracle berry tablets that claim to turn sour things sweet, and on the [thinkgeek website](_url_0_) they claim "the truth is, science doesn't completely know (it has something to do with the protein miraculin that bonds to your taste buds, but the exact cause is still a mystery). but the berries work, and it's a miracle." i don't believe them. how do they work? | [source](_url_0_) tl;dr: we have a decent amount of evidence suggesting a mechanism, but there are many details that have not yet been filled in. | 26 | [] | [
"http://www.thinkgeek.com/product/ab3f/#tabs"
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i just watched a spacex rocket launch. what are the systems they are checking pre-launch and why is checking them important? | some of the systems they may check are: * gimbals on the nozzle for [thrust vector control](_url_0_). * turbopumps that send fuel to the combustion chamber, if applicable to that particular rocket design (in most cases yes). * gyroscopes, both [for sensing movement](_url_2_) and those used as [actuators](_url_1_). * all kind of on-board electronics. * communications with ground support systems. this is not intended to be a complete list, just off the top of my head. checking them is important not only because you'd lose the rocket if something goes wrong (we're talking about millions or hundreds or millions), but also because if those hundreds of tons of fuel fall and burn on populated areas.... it'd be a really really big mess. most rockets have a self-destruct mechanism so they can make them explode mid-flight to keep people on the ground safe. this has to be tested as well, of course not by detonating it, but at least by making sure the computer that controls it is running and communicating properly. edit: typo | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/education/rocket/gimbaled.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_moment_gyroscope",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_measurement_unit"
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|
why you shouldn't touch alone baby seals on the shore? | on the internet the explanation is not satisfactory, it says "the mother is searching for food in the sea... and ...touching a baby seal hurts the chances of it reuniting with its mother" | the calf is impregnated with human smell and the mother can reject it (even with a very small contact, her sense of smell has evolved for that). in addition, you could be attacked by the mother if she sees you approaching her calf. in short, it is not safe for both calf and human. edit: bad english | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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theoretically, how do you communicate with something very, very far away? | meti - _url_0_ alexander zaitsev has some great thoughts on this. most of the effort is going into creating a format for communication because the medium will almost certainly have to be radio waves as mcmxcii mentioned. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messaging_to_Extra-Terrestrial_Intelligence"
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|
can someone explain what is going on in this eye? | really cool picture of the eye of a lama. i was just wondering if anyone could explain the structure of this eye? edit: sorry! _url_0_ picture!! | the wavy structures seen on the dorsal and ventral part of the iris are called "iridial folds". horses and ruminants have similar structures called corpora nigra. the function of these structures is believed to help with blocking out glare from the sun. remember that horses, camelids (including llama) and ruminants are prey animals, so this is likely an evolutionary trait that has developed to help evade predation. you will also notice that the iris aperture is horizontal, which allows a very wide field of view (almost 340 degrees of vision). | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/BtZ2qQJ.jpg"
] | [] | [
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if one were to bring an open mason jar into the deep ocean and place an animal suited to a high pressure environment into it, what happens to the creature? what happens when you close the mason jar with the creature inside of it? what happens if you bring that jar to the surface? | assuming the mason jar is indestructible. sorry if this has been asked before, but i've searched and i couldn't find it. sorry i couldn't word it more eloquently, and i'm sorry if i missed any typos, i'm on mobile. edit: thank you guys for answering. honestly, i don't know why the answer wasn't obvious based on what i'd already known, and now i feel a bit silly. either way, thank you again for answering my question!! merry christmas and have a happy new year! | first up, water is close to incompressible, so there will be just as much water as if you filled the jar up on the surface. however! the gasses dissolved in the water are very compressible! and the amount that is dissolved in the water is directly related to the amount of pressure. so, in general, moving things from deep to shallow causes the dissolved gasses in the liquid to expand and form bubbles. in human scuba divers, if you go deep, extra nitrogen and oxygen is dissolved in your blood, and if you come up too fast, it rapidly escaped and forms bubbles that collect in your joints, causing the bends or decompression sickness, which can be fatal. so, your lifeform from the deep, when you brought it up, if you didn't let it slowly decompress, would explode from the rapidly expanding/escaping gas. tldr: pop! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the probability of each pocket in a pool table? | i'm curious if anyone has done a study as to whether people aim for certain holes and which ones get the most balls in them throughout a game. i'd also like to know if there is a big difference between "professionals" and "amateurs" when they play, in terms of the pockets. if not, is there a good place i could get data from about everything? (also, this is my first post here, so if i posted this wrong, i'd love some helpful criticism) | you mean pocket size? or just who aims for what more? also, what game? without having statistical prove, i'd say that the 2 corner pockets opposite the break line get a lot of use during straight pool. this is because in straight pool you should not actually break the balls up off the break. you play defense until you can sink a ball and break the balls (for sure). all the balls are positions at that end of the table, more than not. in 9 ball, since most players are right handed, they break from the left side of the table. if done correctly, you try to sink the 9 ball off the break in the right corner pocket, or right side (depending where you hit the 1 ball). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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tattoo and nicotine patches? | how is it that a relatively invasive procedure like a tattoo doesn't cause any ink to enter your bloodstream, but something like the nicotine in a nicotine patch does? | if you sit in a bathtub will you soak up all the water? no, because certain compounds can get through the awesome barrier that is your skin and some cannot. most "patch-style" medications use drugs that are (or are altered to be) lipid soluble. these types of compounds can pass completely through your skin layers. tattoo ink will not enter your blood unless it is injected too deeply (i'm sure some will enter tiny capillaries in your dermis). it sits where its injected because it does not have properties which let it cross cellular barriers into the blood stream. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how did they know that the neutrinos that hit gran sasso where from cern? (might just be a simple confirmation). | i asked this is eli5: [_url_0_](_url_0_). the most satisfactory response for me was: "...my guess is that cern sends a concentrated beam of neutrinos that is significantly larger than the normal amount coming from the sun. then any detection above the base 'noise' level would be from cern." can someone confirm if this is true? **edit: shit. i meant 'were'.** | lurker on reddit for 4 years and finally this made me create an account. cern does indeed send a beam of concentrated neutrinos directly to gran sasso (see for example the schematic of the accelerator complex: _url_0_). they collimate the beam as best they can but over 700+ km the beam does end up spreading out over a much wider area (don't know the size accurately but would guess order of a km). the intensity (i.e. number of neutrinos per second hitting the detector) of the neutinos from cern is much higher than the intensity coming from other sources (cosmic, earth natural radiation, etc). in this particular experiment, the apparatus can actually can see the direction of the particles in the detector (tracks). from those tracks one can reconstruct where the original neutrino came from. they are also looking also at neutrinos (tau neutrinos) that are very rarely produced 'naturally' so the background from other neutrino sources is very very low. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/ls9qq/eli5_how_they_knew_which_neutrinos_were_the_ones/"
] | [
"http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/research/AccelComplex-en.html",
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how do i algebraically balance this chemical equation? | my science teacher doesn't teach how to balance equations algebraically. honestly, it's easier for me to do it algebraically than using visual inspection. that said, i'm still trying to figure out how to balance cu+h2so4- > cuso4+h2o+so2. going left to right and in alphabetical order, cu is a=c, h is 2b=2d, s is b =c+e and o is 4b=4c+d++2e i let a=1, so c must be 1. i can't find the other variables.. what am i missing? should i treat these variables like linear systems to solve? should i look at the polyatomic ipns like a single element? edit: thanks, guys. i will definitely keep that strategy in mind for the future. | that's going to be the most general way to do stuff like this, yes. i'll re-write your reaction like so: x1(cu) + x2(h2so4) - so your unknowns to solve are x1..x5. now you can write out equations to balance all the elements, cu: x1 = x3 h: 2*x2 = 2*x4 s: x2 = x3+x5 o: 4*x2 = 4*x3 + x4 + 2*x5 moving them all to the left side: cu: x1 - x3 = 0 h: 2*x2 - 2*x4 = 0 s: x2 - x3 - x5 = 0 o: 4*x2 - 4*x3 - x4 - 2*x5 = 0 then you can write that as a linear system: a= [1 0 -1 0 0] [0 2 0 -2 0] [0 1 -1 0 -1] [0 4 -4 -1 -2] so the system is ax=0. the set of all solutions x for this is called the [kernel or nullspace of a.](_url_0_) putting that into matlab gives: a = [ 1 0 -1 0 0; 0 2 0 -2 0;0 1 -1 0 -1;0 4 -4 -1 -2] null(a) ans = 0.3015 0.6030 0.3015 0.6030 0.3015 or normalizing that, null(a) = [1;2;1;2;1]. you can normalize that cause the nullspace is just a vector, and you can multiply it by anything. so that gives you x1=x3=x5=1 and x2=x4=2. since you have only 4 linear equations and 5 unknowns, that answer of course is only unique to within a multiplicative constant, so it can equivalently be x1=x3=x5=2 and x2=x4=4 or x1=x3=x5=10 and x2=x4=20. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(linear_algebra\\)",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/quickstart/askingquestions"
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] |
in correlation to the "launch a satellite" question, if i wanted to drill to the center of the earth, what legal and scientific challenges am i up against? | i was reading [this](_url_0_) and i started wondering "what would it take to do the exact opposite?" what would it take to drill a hole through the crust, mantel, and into the core? how big would the hole have to be so that it would not collapse in on itself? legally, is this feasible and what kind of legal loops would a person, company, or group would have to go through? what kind of negative effects would this have on our world? | i'm not an expert, but regardless of the type of drill you used, it would just compress and melt itself under the intense heat and pressure of the core. we could use some unobtainium right about now. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/wbyp0/if_i_wanted_to_launch_a_satellite_myself_what/"
] | [] | [
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question about light: what happens to it? (see inside for more explanation) | so i was just thinking about this. so light comes from a source (e.g. the sun), reflects off of something, enters your eye, hits light detecting so on and so forth. but after that, what happens to that light. does it just disappear? basically, this is my question: what happens to all this light? does it just disappear? does it bounce off of objects forever? if it's absorbed by something, does it just "go away?" | it can be absorbed, bounce off or be absorbed and a new photon emitted. if it is absorbed it adds energy to the thing absorbing it (the object heats up a bit). the law of conservation of energy says that all energy in a closed system can be accounted for. it can not be destroyed. it can change forms but in the end it is all accounted for. this will bake your noodle though: from the perspective of the photon (if it had one which it doesn't) they are absorbed as soon as they are emitted. even if they cross the universe. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is gravitational information passed from one object to another? | i understand that gravity moves at the speed of light. i don't understand what is actually moving at this speed. is it the curvature of space time or is there some type of gravitational particle, like a photon, that is carrying the information? what is actually moving through space that allows object to be affected by other objects? | this is actually a big debate in modern physics. the standard model, in its current formulation, says there should be a graviton, or quantized excitation in the gravitational field. however, general relativity says that the gravitational "field" doesn't really exist, and replaces that notion with space-time curvature. in gr, the curvature of spacetime is what sends the signal. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the outer barrier of our atmosphere work? | as in, what is the containing force that prevents our atmosphere from dissipating into 'deep space?' | it's mainly gravity that keeps our atmosphere "down". you could also say that it's our magnetic field, which prevents solar wind from blowing our atmosphere away. but the atmosphere is dissipating anyway, only very slowly. it is continually replenished by various gaseous sources (stored in the earth's crust, under the oceans, volcanoes etc.) | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the equations governing a coupled oscillator system, i.e. one where the energy contained within each of two states oscillates for most initial conditions? | a while ago i witnessed a machine that consisted of a mass hanging from a weak spring. one could pull it down a little bit and twist the spring too (torsional pendulum style) and it would oscillate between 2 modes—springing up and down and acting like a torsional pendulum (energy goes back and forth). at a certain initial energy, each mode has a certain energy that doesn't change with time. how does this work (i.e. which equations govern it)? my feeling is that the spring constant k depends somewhat on the torsion of the spring, but i'm not sure. | this is a great question, unfortunately "coupled oscillators" typically takes up an entire chapter in advanced classical mechanics textbooks. to give a complete description in a reddit comment is a daunting feat. the key point is that sufficiently close to **any** stable equilibrium, a mechanical system will undergo [simple harmonic motion](_url_1_). in simple harmonic motion, the restoring forces are linear in the displacements from equilibrium (**f** = -k**x**, hooke's law). so you essentially turn your system of differential equations governing your system into a *linear* system, which can be solved exactly (whereas the more general motion will have a more complicated, nonlinear, set of differential equations which may not be solvable analytically). so you write your system of linear differential equations as a matrix equation, then following the standard procedure in linear algebra, you find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the appropriate matrix. these are your [normal modes](_url_2_). the eigenvalues are the frequencies of the normal modes and the eigenvectors are the normal modes themselves. the normal modes form a complete basis, so any general motion of your system (in the small oscillation approximation) can be expanded in normal modes. you can even define [normal coordinates](_url_0_) which uncouple your system of differential equations. then instead of working with a system of coupled oscillators, you can treat it as a system of uncoupled oscillators (just remember that you made a coordinate change when you interpret your results). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://web.uconn.edu/~ch351vc/pdfs/osc.pdf",
"http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~djmorin/waves/oscillations.pdf",
"http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~djmorin/waves/normalmodes.pdf"
] | [
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] |
is there an upper limit to how fast a fluid can saturate paper through capillary action? | i dropped a thin sheet of paper into water and noticed it was almost immediately saturated. has anyone studied different fluids in different types of paper to see how quickly capillary action operates? | the washburn mothod, as outlined [here](_url_1_), is widely used to measure surface energies of powdered materials. as can be seen by the given definition in the link, the time taken for a given mass of liquid to uptake into a porous column of material is dependent on many properties of the system under study namely the surface energy of the solid (or liquid, as expressed by simga*contact angle), the capillary constant which takes into account the (average) pore size of the material, the viscosity of the liquid and finally the liquid's density. the amount of liquid taken up by the column of powder does reach a limit in a given amount of time. this gives good approximations and [can be used to work out the surface energies of different porous papers](_url_0_). edit: i wasn't happy with giving company white papers so [here's](_url_2_) the original paper. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.kruss-scientific.com/fileadmin/user_upload/website/literature/kruss-tn302-en.pdf",
"https://www.kruss-scientific.com/services/education-theory/glossary/washburn-method/",
"https://journals.aps.org/pr/abstract/10.1103/PhysRev.17.273",
"https://journals.aps.org/pr/abstract/10.1103/PhysRev.17.273",
"https://aip.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1063/1.1722370"
] | [
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the god gene? | i've seen worse hypotheses but still not a good one for the reasons listed in the criticisms. it doesn't feel all that well thought out and seems to go against [a lot of other evidence](_url_0_). i also doubt that a _single_ gene is responsible for something like this simply because even something as relatively basic like eye colour has at least 16 genes implicated. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://plus.google.com/u/0/106518527963990415042/posts/TmubXxLme2s"
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|
if the force required to compress a spring is f=kx, does that mean it would require less force to compress a spring one segment at a time than to try to compress the entire spring at once? | and if so, is it possible to engineer a mechanism that will do this? | no. cutting a k₁=1 n·m⁻¹ spring in half (or thirds, or *a* pieces) produces two springs with a k₂ = 2 n·m⁻¹ (or k₃ = 3 n·m⁻¹, or kₐ = a·1 n·m⁻¹). therefore, although you are compressing the spring a shorter distance, this is compensated by a higher spring constant. compressing a segment can be thought of as compressing a shorter spring. [source](_url_0_) | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/17076/is-the-spring-constant-k-changed-when-you-divide-a-spring-into-parts"
] | [
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] |
why do smaller bodies of water (e.g. streams) unfreeze quicker than larger bodies of water (e.g. rivers)? | volume increases at a faster rate than surface area, so as you increase your dimensions you gain way more volume to hold your low net heat than you gain surface area to absorb it. as you double the dimensions of any 3 dimensional object you increase its surface area by a factor of 4 and its volume by a factor of 8. bit mathy for an earth science question but that's the answer. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if current actually flows from negative to positive, how do electronic components built and placed with respect to a positive source work? | for example, a resistor is connected to a positive source. the resistor is then connected to an led, which is then connected to ground (the negative side of the battery). in reality, the negative side of the battery provides electrons, which flow through the led first and then through the resistor. what prevents the led from being destroyed if the resistor is after the led using electron flow? why do all electronic devices work if conventional current is technically wrong? this [website](_url_0_) provided great information, but the concept still seems...strange to me. | when we analyze dc circuits, we usually assume that they are in a 'steady state', meaning that the currents and voltage drops in the circuit stay constant in time. in the steady state, switching two components connected in series as you wrote about won't affect things, as the electrons will undergo the same voltage drops across the same components. to go with the flow analogy, i think that the situation you are thinking of is water filling an empty canal, whereas the canal is actually already full when you flip on the switch. i also wanted to mention that conventional current isn't 'wrong'. almost all metals carry current with electrons, but many semiconductors carry current with both electrons and holes (positive charge carriers created by the absence of an electron). the battery pushing electrons around in the first place often involve ionic motion which can be both positive or negative depending on the details of the chemistry. in this light, it would become more confusing if we identified positive current with electron flow. in my opinion, the unfortunate convention is that the electron is negatively charged, since it is the more common carrier. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_1/7.html"
] | [] | [
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is there evidence that markets without strong intellectual property laws produce fewer creative goods? | i have heard that places like china often ignore copyright and patents on products. is there evidence that shows that these countries produce less original work? as an example, do countries without strong copyright enforcement write fewer books? do books that are written still make any money? is there production of music, film, computer programs and inventions equally affected? | [this ted talk](_url_0_) discusses evidence from the fashion industry regarding creativity without strong intellectual property protection. fashion is still a highly creative industry despite lacking strong intellectual property. but once consequence of the lack of patents is that designers plaster their logo all over their products, because the logo is one thing that can't be legally replicated (due to copyright). so you see both sides of the issue: one the one hand, fashion is highly creative without patents, but on the other, designers have exploited the little ip protection they have probably to a point most would consider it detrimental to their art. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ted.com/talks/johanna_blakley_lessons_from_fashion_s_free_culture.html",
"http://www.cippm.org.uk/downloads/Symposium%202009/Hoffner%20-%20vortrag_eng-10_min.pdf",
"http://www.spiegel.de/international/zeitgeist/no-copyright-law-the-real-reason-for-germany-s-industrial-expansion-a-710976.html",
"http://wiki.mises.org/wiki/Copyright#Germany_without_copyright",
"http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/copyright/en/performance/pdf/economic_contribution_analysis_2012.pdf"
] | [
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how far around the world today are the atoms distributed that will become part of a child born in 100 years time? | not an answer for your questions, but you might be interested in the [last breath of julius caesar](_url_0_) question asked by enrico fermi. he asks "when you take a single breath, how many molecules of gas you intake would have come from the dying breath of caesar?" it has some of the estimated figures for things like density of molecules in the atmosphere, etc. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.hk-phy.org/articles/caesar/caesar_e.html"
] | [
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|
on "family guy", brian shows peter how fat he is by placing an apple in orbit around him. realistically, what's the smallest object that would have an apple be able to orbit it? | the key here is whether or not the object-to-be-orbited (which i'll call p for peter) is isolated or not. if p and the apple are well separated from anything else, then there is effectively no lower limit to the mass of p for p and the apple to orbit. there is a semantics caveat: when the mass of p becomes comparable to the mass of the apple, then you'd see that the apple and p would orbit their common [barycenter](_url_1_), like the pluto-charon system. if p and the apple are not well separated from everything else (like, say, p is standing on earth), then the apple will not orbit p since it will feel the gravity of the other thing(s) (i.e. earth) much more than it feels the gravity of p. ok, so what is 'well separated'? - > to have nice regular orbits the apple must be well within p's [hill sphere](_url_0_). if p is on earth, it's hill sphere has effectively zero size and the apple can't orbit p, if p is isolated then it's hill sphere will be large enough for the apple to be able to make orbits. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barycenter"
] | [
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|
dr. seuss question can a pool be elevated in the air? | so i was reading "oh, the thinks you can think" to my daughter tonight and one page has a girl in a pool high above her house. my question is how much helium (or other, better element) would it actually take to float a pool of water to swim in? sorry if this is a dumb question but i thought it would be interesting | you would need a really big balloon. the lifting force of helium is about 1 kg/m^3 which means you can lift a liter of water per cubic meter of helium (ignoring the material holding both, and at sea level). that comes out to 1000 times the volume of helium needed to lift a volume of water. i'm going to say a pretty small swimming pool, but one big enough for a kid, would be about 10' x 20' x 3'. that comes out to about 17,000 l of water and so you would need 17,000 m^3 of helium to hold that up. that is 1/12th the size of the hindenburg or about 3 goodyear blimps. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
can yogis really control their heart rate ? | nothing special about "yogis" doing this, if they are doing it. nothing mystical about it. nothing about chakras, meridians, rooting, or any of that other bs. [here's an article you can read online](_url_0_) learn biofeedback. there are tons of research articles on the voluntary control of brain waves, heart rate, breathing, skin conductance, perception of pain, etc. [list of references from wikipedia](_url_1_) | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/content/40/3/216.full.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofeedback#Footnotes",
"http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/04.18/09-tummo.html"
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] |
|
how are the values for electro-negativity determined? | for example: the pauling scale. how did pauling find the values of the electronegativities of each element? | pauling's scale is based off of experimental bond energies. he realised that the experimental bond energies for a heteronuclear bond a-b was always greater than the average of the homoatomic bond energies for a-a and b-b ( 0.5[e(aa) + e(bb)] ) he concluded that this difference was due to ionic character in the heteronuclear bond. e(ab) = covalent bond energy + ionic bond energy e(ab) = 0.5[e(aa) +e(bb)] + e(ionic) the above expression gives e(ab) in electron volts. he then defined electronegativities as : e(ionic) = e(ab) - 0.5[e(aa) +e(bb)] = |x(a) - x(b)|^2 here, x(a) and x(b) are the electronegativity values for a and b in the pauling scale. defining fluorine as 4.0 (it is the most electronegative element - unsure why a value of 4.0 though :/ ) , you can then work out all of the other values. other electronegativity scales such as the allred-rochow scale or the allen scale are more theoretical, although their values are scaled so that the values are in the same sort of range as the pauling scale. apologies for typos/formatting - am on phone | 255 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativity#Pauling_electronegativity"
] | [
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when was the last point in history that had no wars or conflicts in the world? | there must be a point in history when the world was at peace, even if it was for one day. or is there no hope for us? | it all comes down to your definition of "war". does 10 people fighting make a war? 100? 1000? we need precise definitions before we can provide an answer. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.discovery.com/animals/chimp-war-behavior.html"
] | [
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is collaborating with other humans native to our instincts or is this a modern behavior? | i'm interesting in the subject of collaboration and mutuality. i've heard the argument for morality, but am wondering if as a species, if collaborating is native, when did it start? obviously in the present, we share so many different ways of thinking with eachother, we find it hard to get along with some people. is there a scientific reason for this other than environmental effects? | it is a fundamental part of us written into our dna, it's not actually a cultural trait. as you might expect this is because it's a core requirement for mammalian societies - we can't function in groups without it. - _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.physorg.com/news192693376.html"
] | [
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are there diseases that can pass from yaks to humans? | my wife and i went to a touring/petting zoo with some kinda unusual animals, including some yaks. one of the yaks sneezed on her and at the time it was pretty gross and kinda funny. while i am not concerned for her, it just got me wondering if there is any type of disease can be pasted from yaks, becuase if so, i wonder how parks like that can stay in business. | not likely, most viruses are host specific. even lice (or pediculosis) is host specific. meaning that you won't get lice from a dog, or vice versa. even bacterial infection is unlikely, because nasal mucus should have antibacterial qualities | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[x-post from ask reddit] question on human evolution | hello, it was suggested i post this here. i've since done a little searching on reddit and no previous threads seem to address what i'm driving at; ok reddit; you seem to know way more about science than me and i trust that a lot of you can answer this question to your own satisfaction but you may not manage to educate me if you assume that i have the same scientific education as you. my formal science education stopped 11 years ago when i was 16 years old. since then it has been what i happened across and conversations with scientists. (i love learning through conversations). please go slow explaining this... here's my understanding of the principles of evolution theory; if you live to make babies who live, well done your genes are passed on. if you don't, sad times mr, your genes are no longer contributing anything. if a certain gene gives you an advantage over your competitors for a mate or for a dwelling or for surviving a winter etc then they will help you to survive and make a baby or two. this way the genes that are helpful slowly are preserved whilst the genes which do not help or even hinder slowly get weeded out. it's good it's logical and i'm happy. until... i'm considering the final stages of human evolution; at some point we got quite ahead of the curve. we're much more intelligent and adaptable than our closest evolutionary relative right? we have developed technology like weapons and clothes. we can adapt much better. so at some point our competition stopped being with the other species i think and was only down to who got to sleep with yonder hottie and who survived that snow storm last winter. perhaps it was also to do with fights over who get's to sleep in this part of the valley. my point is. there's a huge amount of lovely inhabitable fertile world out there. once we beat the apes even by 25% of the advantage we have over them now, why did we continue to evolve so far in advance of them? our competition with fellow humans is surely not fierce enough? only now are we really in a place where the population is unsustainable. why would we have evolved before now? i apologise if this is long and meandering. i wish i knew the short hand for explaining these ideas. tl dr; oh man, how to succinctly ask? why are humans so far in advance of other species? what was the evolutionary motivation or necessity after securing ourselves at the top of the pile? thanks! edit 1; i aoplogise for oversimplifying the truth by saying we're at the top of the pile. my (now) more refined question is... i'm unaware of the timescales involved but let's talk about the half way point from the previous homo-species to the current homo-sapiens, how and why did we get there? and how and why did we get to be homo-sapiens? | stephen jay gould wrote about this. we evolved survival skills that apparently required our large brains, the ability to write symphonies and do quadratic equations was a byproduct of this large brain, not the purpose of it. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does competition for resources ("survival of the fittest") lead to the evolution of cooperation? | how is it that the competition for limited resources that darwin described could lead to large populations of humans and other animals cooperating? i understand kin selection, but this only applies to those that are related, and the amount of cooperation between individuals should decrease proportionally with decreasing relatedness. yet, if i go to a foreign land where no one is related to me, i still don't have the urge to steal, cheat, or go around stabbing people in the back. and it's not just humans. many species of animals manage to cooperate even in the absence of genetic relationship. but if everyone cooperates, doesn't the one guy that cheats or steals (the cuckoo that kicks out another bird's egg and tricks them to raise its own young) benefit so much more than all the individuals cooperating? why wouldn't the entire population of a species turn into selfish cheaters? | this has been a popular topic of research for a while now, and the answers are fairly interesting. i recommend picking up *the selfish gene* by dawkins (it's one of his books where he doesn't talk about religion) and check out his discussion of game theory and altruism. one way that cooperative behavior is maintained through evolution is punishment of cheaters. a wolf pack that cooperates will bring down more game then they would bring down separately. if a wolf tries to take a pack-caught kill for himself, he will "win" in the short run, but in the long run, the other wolves will either attack him (for the food) or exclude it from the pack. it will suffer as a result. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
i grew up hearing that one should never eat the first snow. is there any truth to that statement? what's the science behind it? | a girl in a class of mine was talking about eating snow ice cream. i understand that snow develops around a dust particle and could very well be filled with toxins, but could the second or third snow really be any cleaner than the first snow? could the first snow act as an air cleaner? | there is no scientific difference between the first snow of a season or any subsequent snows. this is purely a myth. it should become clear that the idea of "cleaning your air" is ridiculous just by learning where your snow comes from: the weather that affects you from day-to-day doesn't come from anywhere near you; the air you're breathing today was mostly thousands of miles away last week. the water vapor and dust ([ice nuclei](_url_2_)) that eventually became the snow that is falling on you did not come from anywhere near you for the most part. [here's one specific example](_url_0_) tracking where the air came from that eventually came together in the same place. air that ended up in the same place started out thousands of miles apart just 48 hours earlier! in addition, most of the dust that can seed snowflakes [is only in the air for about a week](_url_1_); they probably weren't even in the air *anywhere* during the last snowstorm. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.atmos.albany.edu/student/kgriffin/itsfriday/20111111/traj_ens2.gif",
"http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/mineral-dust-cycle",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_nucleus"
] | [
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can academic papers performing statistical analysis with small samples still be of value? | [removed] | it depends on the size of the effect you are measuring. if your aim is to "prove" that a large effect exists then a quite small sample size may be suitable. there are risks involved when sample sizes get too small though as the sample may represent the population really poorly. this size will depend on the method. how small are you talking about? what type of statistical analysis? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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higher energy radiation and body penetration | the probability that a particle will interact with matter is called its cross section, and in general, the higher the energy of a particle, the lower its interaction cross section will be. so while it's true that a higher energy particle is capable of causing more biological damage, it's less likely to actually interact and cause the damage. i believe that their reduced cross section isn't enough to make them less harmful however, since the ones that do interact have such violent interactions. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what's on my kale? | made a sandwich. found this while washing. _url_0_ what is it? safe to eat? | they are insect eggs, possibly from mamestra brassicae, the cabbage moth. caterpillars of this species are common pests on cabbage plants including kale. they are safe to eat but if you do not like the idea of eating insect eggs you can simply remove them from the leaf. | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/IG3srrQ"
] | [] | [
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what don't we understand about water? | i was just watching a television show on the science channel called "wonders of life." the host of this show was talking about how life on earth depends on water. (duh) but then he said something like, "i've heard it said we can never understand biology until we fully understand water." which got me wondering what we don't understand about water. i mean it has a basic molecular structure, we understand hydrogen bonds, we understand how this makes it a polar molecule and why that makes it an excellent solvent etc. etc. so what are the remaining mysteries of water we have yet to work out? | one thing thing that was being researched at least recently is the hydrophobic effect- the repulsion between water and non-polar substances such as oil. in chemistry they say "like dissolves like", but the actual dynamics of substances mixing or repelling at the molecular level is more complicated. important questions are, for example, how to measure the strength of the hydrophobic effect and what its dependence on temperature is. the hydrophobic effect determines how proteins fold, so it turns out to be relevant to understanding biology. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
would it be possible to measure hemoglobin levels with a spectrometer? | i want to try to create a device that uses a portable, cell phone-based spectrometer (of my own design) to measure hemoglobin levels through a finger. first of all, does anybody know if this can be done? i have been able to find research of what wavelengths hemoglobin absorbs, but would a light source penetrate all the way through the finger to the detector? would it be affected by the fat cells at all? thanks, and sorry if this is the wrong subreddit | there appears to be some research on this area of science already however they also say its a start and needs more work. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/12641612/"
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is it possible to fertilize back a land which was constructed/artificialized? | i mean, is it possible for a land where a house or whatever was built, to destroy the house, and make the land fertile again (for agricultural use) ? | yes. we are staring to learn that real fertility has to do with the microbiology of the soil. one of the purposes of roots is to transport sugars into the soil to feed the microbiology which in turn release acids that make nutritiants available to the plant. here they used mushrooms to reclaim toxic soil. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/lJHXkfNCl5E"
] | [
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] |
are light-bulb companies screwing us over? | do (incandescent) light bulbs really have to break after a month or two? i know there is a [famous incandescent light bulb](_url_0_) that hasn't burned out in 110 years. why aren't we able to buy such bulbs today, with our level of technology? i just want to hear it in a forum which doesn't normally jump to conspiracy theories. | keep in mind that the bulb in question is only drawing 4 watts and isn't being turned on and off constantly so there isn't the thermal expansion/contraction cycles that a typical light bulb goes through. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.centennialbulb.org/photos.htm"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centennial_Light"
] | [
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] |
is rayleigh-taylor instability the main reason flames are turbulent? | i'm a visual effects artist who does a lot of flame/smoke/explosion effects. as with all effects, i like to know what actually happens physically so that i can have a better knowledge on how to replicate the effect. it's hard to find all information on the subject in one place, but what i've been able to piece together is that the licks of flames are created by a collision of hot air (fire) hitting cooler, more dense air (atmosphere). this then creates rayleigh-taylor instability, and therefore turbulence on the leading flame front. if this is not accurate, what is the main cause of turbulence in flames, and why are flames not instead laminar flows? thank you. | kind of. fluid flows like flames are really damn complicated, and fluid dynamicists like to pick out the "simplest" aspects of a flow to assign a name and analysis to (like rayleigh-taylor instability), but in any given real life flow there's a lot of different phenomena going on. [reference this picture from the wiki on rti](_url_1_). say you have a heavier fluid on top of a lighter fluid in a gravitational field. if everything is perfectly symmetric, this situation is actually an *unstable equilibrium* -- like a ball sitting perfectly on the top of a round hill -- and nothing will move until there is just the tiniest perturbation. in some situations this is actually relatively stable, say if you have enough surface tension between the two layers. the rayleigh-taylor instability is an analysis of that initial perturbation effect that starts off some movement, the first 1 or 2 panels in that graphic. long story short, this isn't directly related to turbulence, because one can set up a situation where you get the rayleigh taylor instability but very laminar (not turbulent) flow -- say very viscous fluid on a small scale, honey in a straw or something. in panels 3-4 of that graphic, you get what's called a "shear layer", fluid moving in opposite directions to one another, which induces vorticity and subsequently turbulence, which brings you into the realm of the [kelvin helmholtz instability.](_url_0_) in this instability, the unstable equilibrium is two fluids sliding past each other, and the instability has to be triggered for it to start rolling up into vortices. that's awesome. i'm an aerodynamicist that dabbles in making pretty pictures/videos =) i *highly* recommend you pick up a copy of van dyke's "an album of fluid motion". should be pretty cheap -- it's a picture book of a very wide range of fluid flow phenomena, comprised of experimental images from very legit researchers. i actually found it essential for learning intuition about fluid motion when i was first studying it, and i regularly refer back to it. [the national committee for fluid mechanics films](_url_2_) available on youtube might look a little dated, but they're awesome. check em out. [at 19 minutes in this video of instability they actually show a rayleigh-taylor instability getting triggered and resulting in laminar flow... holy shit that's awesome.](_url_3_) *aside: when you watch a movie with special effects done with miniatures and your eye can immediately tell it's fake but you're not quite sure why, it's almost always because the reynolds numbers are all wrong.* | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_instability",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh%E2%80%93Taylor_instability#/media/File:HD-Rayleigh-Taylor.gif",
"http://web.mit.edu/hml/ncfmf.html",
"https://youtu.be/yutbmcO5g2o?list=PL0EC6527BE871ABA3&t=1124"
] | [
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just found huge thing of mold in my basement. is this causing my massive headache i've had for 2 days? | black toxic mold can kill you. i would seriously consider getting someone down there to evaluate your basement and take air samples. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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