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several questions on hand sanitization and the immune system | a few questions: 1. do hand-washing and/or hand sanitization either negatively or positively affect a person's immune system? i ask because people sometimes (perhaps jokingly) say that not washing their hands improves their immune system. 2. is there a functional difference between washing hands with soap and water and using hand sanitizer? 3. is herd immunity a factor here? meaning: do individuals (outliers) who either never or frequently sanitize their hands have an impact on group immunity to diseases? **edit:** oh wow. lots of disagreement in here on something that i (mistakenly) thought was a pretty simple question. very interesting stuff! | 1) you help it. your skin is a part of your immune system; barrier function. your hands are the primary vector by which pathogens broach the barrier function of the immune system by entering the nose, mouth, or a break in the skin when touched by the hands. by keeping your hands clean, you promote barrier function by reducing this risk to a degree. the hygiene hypothesis may play a role in some specific cases, but the only convincing stuff there has to do with kids and possibly certain types of asthma. 2) yes. hand sanitizer kills bacteria without really removing them. soap and water removes them without killing them. but this is a functional difference; as far as i am aware, there is no practical difference. 3) yes. someone that doesn't wash their hands gets sick more often. when they are sick, they increase the overall pathogen load in a group. this increases the overall exposure to pathogen of everyone in the group, handwashers or not. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=20429659"
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is quantum phenomena the only example of a truly stochastic system? | it seems to me that, at a macro level, if there is enough information about a system, that it can be entirely deterministic. i am aware of the "hidden variables" conjecture, and that it is countered by uncertainty and quantum mechanics. my lab mates have cited entropic systems as a macro-level system, but i (maybe falsely) see that as deterministic (apart from the quantum effects within the system). so a rephrasing of my question is: if the output of all quantum phenomenon in a system is somehow known ahead of time, can every system be determined from a starting state? | yes. let's say you assume the mwi of quantum mechanics, which insist the schrodinger equation is universal. the schrodinger equation describes change of a physical system as completely deterministic. there is no information loss here. knowing a system at any point in time will tell you the system at any other point in time. no matter how complex. there is no room for randomness. of course, we might still use probabilities to describe systems because it's impossible to know the exact state of the system. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theory"
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] |
why does the electrical resistance rise, when the temperatures rises? | electrical resistance doesn't always rise with increasing temperature. semi-conductors actually have *lower* resistance when they warm up because more electrons are in the conduction band. typical conductors have higher resistance when warm because the random thermal motion interferes with electron transmission. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
were trolls just mistaken neanderthals? | some mythic creatures probably were based on real animals. the greeks in particular may have found fossils and theorized what the animal looked like. for example, the griffin may have been a protoceratops fossils, and the cyclops may have been based on mastodon skulls. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can you have a kink in an electrical cord that slows electrical flow? | by which i mean is there such a way that a charger/electrical cord could be twisted or kinked that would slow down the flow of electricity through it and cause your phone or other electronics to charge more slowly or just receive less power in general. | if the 'kink' involved damage to the conductors in the cable, causing increased resistance, or damage to the insulation, causing a partial (unlikely) or complete short circuit, then theoretically, yes. a normal kink, or knot however, is unlikely to cause these problems. of the probable outcomes of destructive deformation of the cable, it is much more likely that a complete short or break in the conductor would occur.... causing a complete or intermittent lack of charging. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do we test for genetic predisposition? how do we test for any predisposition? | i'm interested especially in certain mental illnesses, e.g. schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder or bi-polar disorder. these were all initially identified as having only environmental ('nurture') causes, but have recently been pushed as originating genetically (nature). my question is : how do you test for something that can only happen- or not happen- once to a subject? are we really just talking about looking at genes that appear abundant among these subjects, and finding correlations? isn't that correlation, and not causation? do we ever do any better than that? if anybody has any good hard science (data, studies, or journal articles) to share i'd be interested. cheers. | a lot of the time, we work out what genes do by taking an animal and breaking that gene inside of then, and seeing what that breaks. we call those genes 'knocked out'. for obvious reasons, we can't do that for humans. so instead we try to take broad studies looking for correlations of disease with certain genetic traits and use animal models to investigate the actual mechanics and function of genes where we can. these are not perfect methods, and neurology is complex as heck, so there is not going to be an easy answer. everything, mentally speaking, is a complex and subtle combination of genetic factors and environmental stimuli. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=493345",
"http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=189697",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_study",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000632230800022X",
"http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=482476"
] | [
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at it's most basic form, isn't a curved line just a series of rather random, short, straight lines? | with more of the straight lines pointing horizontally or vertically, to form the curve? | sort of, but not really. first, the "sort of" part. if a curve is "nice enough" (discussed more below), then we can approximate the curve by a sequence of *polygonal curves*, which is just a fancy term for a chain of straight line segments. [see this picture](_url_1_) for what i mean. the curve is marked in red and the polygonal approximation is marked in blue. if the vertices of the polygonal curve are on the curve and the length between the vertices along the curve approaches zero (equivalently, if the number of vertices approaches infinity), then the polygonal curve better and better approximates the true curve. so the curve is a limit of a sequence of polygonal curves in that sense. in fact, that is how we define the length of a curve. we compute the length of each polygonal curve, which we can do easily since it consists of line segments. the limit of the lengths of the polygonal curves is then the length of the curve. now for the "not really" part. for one, the curve is a *limit* of polygonal curves. the curve itself does not have to be polygonal. just consider [a circle and a sequence of regular polygonal curves](_url_2_). the circle itself is a limit of polygonal curves but not the perimeter of a polygon itself. second, so far when we have been saying "curve", we have meant the *image* of the curve, i.e., the circle or the parabola or whatever. strictly speaking, when mathematicians talk about a curve, we mean a *function* γ from some closed real interval, which we can take to be [0, 1], to some topological space *x*. we only require that γ be continuous. so, for instance, a *circle* is not a curve, but the map γ(t) = e^(2πit) from [0, 1] to the complex numbers **c** *is* a curve whose image is a circle. this seems pedantic and, yes, it is true that we often just call the image of γ the curve since it doesn't cause much confusion. but there are curves that are not very nice where this distinction is required. for instance, [the peano curve](_url_0_) is a curve that fills the entire unit square. the *curve* is the map from the interval [0, 1] to [0, 1]^(2). the image of the curve is the square. calling the square the curve in this case sounds awkward and the real object of interest anyway is the specific map. (if you want to be even more pedantic, you can actually consider the curve to be some equivalence class of maps.) third, speaking of "not very nice curves", many curves are *not* limits of polygonal curves in the sense i described above. there are so-called *non-rectifiable* curves, which either have an undefined length or an infinite length. in the "sort of" section above the lengths of the polygonal curves were, at the very least, bounded. any such approximation to a "not nice" curve, e.g., the peano curve, will give an infinite length. any piece of the graph of f(x) = x sin(1/x) (with f(0) = 0) that includes the point (0, 0) is also non-rectifiable. [see this picture](_url_3_). | 18 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peano_curve",
"http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcII/ArcLength_files/image001.gif",
"http://5010.mathed.usu.edu/Fall2013/PClayton/method%20of%20exhaustion.png",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b2/Xsinoneoverx.svg"
] | [
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is there a theoretical limit for human performance? | this question is inspired by a roger bannister quote: it is a paradox to say the human body has no limit. there must be a limit to the speed at which men can run. i feel this may be around 3:30 for the mile. however, another paradox remains – if an athlete manages to run 3:30, another runner could be found to marginally improve on that time. is there any scientific evidence that there is indeed a performance limit for the human body as it currently exists? or is it that marginal improvements can always be made? | the answer would came from mathematics, specifically convergence of limits. long story short, there are two ways a series of numbers can go if you let it run a long time. stuff like: 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5... will keep getting bigger, and eventually reach infinity (or make a bloody good attempt, anyways). on the other hand, 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 .... will not. think zeno's paradox. no matter how much you keep running the series, it'll still be a tiny bit less then 2. you can track the improvements the athletes make to the record as a series, and it's quite likely that the bigger the record gets, the smaller the iprovements are, eventually leading to a finite limit. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can a solution be isoosmotic but not isotonic? | pretty dumb question i just can't find anywhere that explains it well enough to me. thanks! | a single solution at equilibrium is always isotonic and isoosmotic with itself. however, if you have two different solutions, one on each side of a semi-permeable membrane, each of which has the same osmotic pressure but a different solute, then you can can have a solution that is isoosmotic but not isotonic. as long as the molarities are different (not isotonic) but their osmotic pressure happens to be the same (isoosmotic) then you've got what you're looking for. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/howtosolveit/Solutions/osmoticpressure.html"
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why does the oxygen extraction factor (oef) decrease in brain activation? | in learning about fmri, i came across a few facts that spiked my curiosity. it is stated that in brain activation, all expected factors, such as o2/glucose metabolism and blood flow/volume increase, but oef decreases. as i understand, an increasing oef would be caused by low ph, which is caused by high co2 levels, but the reality is that during activation, oef decreases. does anyone have any insight into this counter intuitive fact that appears to underpin fmri? | a quick google tells me that the oxygen extraction factor is the arteriovenous difference in oxygen content. (let me know if this is correct--i worked on something similar, but in a different part of the body where we used different terminology.) does the actual uptake (blood flow * arteriovenous difference) of oxygen increase? (i'm guessing it does.) if blood flow is increasing more than oxygen uptake does, the arteriovenous difference will decrease to match oxygen uptake to oxygen consumption in the brain. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do certain textures bother me? | excellent question. i also hate some types of rubber, cardboard, and walking barefoot on really smooth concrete (think a completely smooth unfinished basement floor). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
intuition behind orders in a chemical reaction? | hello, in my high school chemistry class we have recently started looking at zero, first and second order reactions. it makes sense to me that increasing concentration increases the likelihood of molecules colliding, but why is it sometimes proportional to the concentration and other times to the concentration squared? furthermore, how does zero order work? does it mean the reactant is somehow not involved in the reaction? i find the calculations straightforward, but the logic behind it seems strange to me. thanks for your help. | ok so in chemistry we usually say for example a+ b - so let's say a can be in two different forms which are in an equilibrium, i call them a1 and a2. only a2 can react with b, a1 cannot. so now stuff gets more complicated, because we got a reaction like a1 < -eqilibrium- but for 0, 1st and 2nd order this is much more simple. 2nd order: a + b - so here a and b needs to meet (in a certain way) to react. if i got more a or more b or more of both the reaction will be faster. since you got two different concentrations multiplied the concentration will be squared if they are the same(!) first order: prime example: radioactive decay in this case: a- if we got starting material a and there is an x% change to react in a certain time you will get an first order reaction. in this case the half-life is independent from the concentration. zero order: example here: blood alcohol degradation zero order just means a certain amount reacts in a certain time, concentration doesn't matter. so how could this happen? let's look at the tsa at the airport. let's say they need 1min/person to check them. it doesn't matter how many people are waiting, they can only do 60 people/hour. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if we observe a single atom as it heats up, is it possible to tell what state it is in and whether or not it is changing state, or is there no difference at all? | i understand that the state of an object has to do with the bonds between atoms and their potential energy, but this is all between atoms. are there any differences in the way an individual atom behaves in different states? | the concepts of temperature and chemical phase (e.g. solid, liquid, gas) do not apply to a single atom. rather, they describe how multiple atoms are interacting with each other. in a loose sense, temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic energy of the atoms relative to each other. the "average" part of this description is important because it allows temperature to be linked to descriptions of heat flow. if you just have one atom, you can choose a reference frame where it has no kinetic energy, and so the temperature of an atom does not make sense. additionally, even if you forced some property of the atom to represent the temperature of the atom, it would not be linked properly to concepts of heat flow. once you are looking at the level of a single isolated atom, you have to describe how energy comes and goes using the exchange/creation/annihilation of quantum particles, not using thermodynamics. also, the chemical phase is a description of how atoms are to bonded to each other and therefore requires many atoms. a handful of carbon atoms bonded together by stable bonds makes solid graphite or diamond. a handful of carbon atoms bonded together by ever-changing bonds makes liquid carbon. a handful of carbon atoms that are not bonded but do collide into each other makes carbon gas. a single carbon atom is just a single carbon atom. it is not a solid, liquid, or gas. if i extract a carbon atom from a diamond and extract a different carbon atom from a carbon gas, being careful to hold everything constant, the two carbon atoms are chemically identical. a single atom can have its electrons excited to different energy level. however, this is a completely different concept from a chemical phase of matter. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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medical saw that can saw through a cast, yet doesn't cut skin. how does it work? | recently i had a cast on my arm removed. it was one of those lightweight one, made out of plastic. it was removed via a circular saw which amazingly would cut through the plastic but wouldn't hurt my skin even though it was pressing against it. how can it cut through something that's hard and rigid, yet leave no mark on something that is soft and squishy? the blade was metal, i inspected it closely as i was intrigued. if i remember correctly it was made up by a sort of very flat v shape flipped 90 degrees. with every other individual blade facing the other direction. | those cast saws reply simply on the difference in inertia of different materials (your skin, the cast) to function. when measuring in terms of the cast saw -- technically a reciprocating tool with a *very* short stroke length -- at the point of contact your skin is flexible and has a low resistance to change in movement (the tool can rest on your skin and everything just vibrates back and forth with it). the cast, on the other hand, is a large, rigid object and thus has a higher inertia. when the saw comes in contact with that it moves relative to the cast -- but not your skin -- and shears the material. i just got rid of my own cast this morning (had heel surgery back in december) and watched a similar tool make short work of it. (and it tickled like mad... but that's my feet. still, it made it really hard to hold still.) i would also make a point of the operator's technique. when the tech cut my cast she didn't slide the saw along the cast, she rolled and pushed it through the cast. lift - press - roll... move on to the next section. it was clear she was actively working to avoid contact with my skin, though not overly so. also, the layer of padding between the hard cast itself and my skin helped prevent any full, direct contact of the tool with my skin. (congratulations on your freedom, by the way. i know i was good and ready to be out of that bloody thing, i imagine you were too. now do your physical therapy exercises, you'll need to get range-of-motion back!) | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why was the gene for hayfever succsessful enough to have stayed abundant in the gene pool? | i hope i have phrased the question correctly! i am sitting here, suffering as many millions of people do, with hay fever - and instead of just being mad my mind has begun to wonder; at what point was it beneficial enough for the gene that gives hay fever to become so succsessful, and did it serve as some defense mechanism to something? | strangely enough, 'hay fever' was rare or unknown as recently as roman times, while other allergies (to animal dander etc) were well documented. pollen allergies appeared with the growth of industrialized cities in britain during the 19th century, so there has probably not been enough time for the relevant gene frequencies to be modified by natural selection... but i certainly feel unfit. what exactly caused the rise of hay fever remains unclear, and many simple explanations have failed to account for the epidemiological facts; a complex interaction of family size, pollution, parasites, population density, etc, may be responsible. search "hygiene hypothesis" to find the primary literature. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10963213",
"http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/408/1/Carsten_Flohr_PhD_final_document.pdf"
] | [
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answers for two questions regarding em-wave equations in fem simulations? | dear people, i have a set of questions to you regarding wave equations in fem simulations that you might be able to answer for me. q1. how in general is a perfectely matched layer boundary condition implemented in fem simulations? or are there any other ways of implementing material properties or terms that will allow me to dissipate energy without causing reflections? q2. is there are reasonably accurate wave equation equivalant that results in quasi-accurate solutions for light on large scale simulations? i want to implement a fem simulations for light but the frequencies are so high that my space (maybe a room or so) that my simulation domain would become way to high. or do i have to resort to ray tracing here? | in general no. there are complex methods for rapid attenuation ([perfectly matched layers and scattering boundary conditions](_url_0_)) but i'm pretty sure there's no way to have a perfect open boundary condition. if you find one, let me know because it would save me a hell of a lot of hassle (seriously). in general i think the solution is just to have an extra space outside the simulation, with some method of attenuation. i just used an increasing attenuation to kill reflections, although i can't remember the exact function. probably just an exponential. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.comsol.com/blogs/using-perfectly-matched-layers-and-scattering-boundary-conditions-for-wave-electromagnetics-problems/"
] | [
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election diffraction confusion. | i was curious to know whether or not the two angles produced when electrons are accelerated towards a crystal (of unknown material) are due to two separate planes (with 'n=1' substituted to the bragg equation nλ=2dsin(θ)) so there are two separate plane separations 'd'. or alternatively, it would be due to n=1 and n=2 producing different diffraction angles. i cant seem to find any mention of the integer values of wavelength in any documents online and i assumed that because the incident electrons have the same energy that the de broglie wavelength had to be the same. in which case, the first idea would be correct. | what do you mean by "the two angles?" electrons will be diffracted by a crystalline material at a number of angles, each corresponding to a certain crystallographic plane with a reflection allowed by the structure factor. so each diffracted beam is due to a different d-spacing. the different n values in the bragg equation correspond to higher order reflections, but these can generally be ignored. does this answer your question? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
if large concentrations of potassium ions in the extracellular space prevent contractile and nervous tissue from depolarizing does that mean you could inject table salt substitute, kcl, solution in your veins and not be able to move? | would also mean respiratory arrest and cardiac failure above all i would think? | an iv dose of greater than 30mg/kg of potassium causes cardiac arrest and is used as one component of lethal injections and for stopping the heart in bypass surgery. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_chloride#Precautions",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkalemic_periodic_paralysis"
] | [
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just saw the dark knight rises. i have a question (spoilers) | please note spoilers are in this question! now then, if you have already seen it, or don't care about spoilers, here is the question with a little background if you haven't seen it. the atom bomb that is in the movie is said to have a 6 mile blast radius. when the bomb is about to detonate batman flies it away from gotham and out over the bay. the bomb then detonates, but gotham is saved because batman flew it away. so here is my question: would the residents of gotham be saved? from my limited knowledge of atom bombs, everything in the 6 mile radius would be vaporized. assuming batman got the bomb farther than 6 miles out wouldn't the radiation from the atom bomb, with a 6 mile blast radius, essentially kill everyone in gotham? even assuming batman got it 20 miles out? and make it so that the fallout effected a very large area? meaning, everyone in gotham is dead for sure because of radiation and the surroundings of gotham are all in a lot of trouble from nuclear fallout. of course i have a very limited knowledge on this matter, so some enlightenment would be much appreciated! | from the movie, the blast certainly didn't seem to have a 6 mile radius. batman was flying out from the edge of the city for less than a minute, and he would have had to be going around 400 miles an hour to barely clear the radius. that said, the initial flash would have almost certainly permanently blinded everyone looking at the explosion. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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splitting the earth. | if we could create a satellite that could emit a laser powerful enough to vaporise enough material (in an instant) to split the earth into two pieces, separated by a meter, what would happen to things like earth's orbit and structural integrity? also if anything were to happen at all would these things be different if they happened at different latitudes such as from n. pole to s. pole, or at the equator? | well, you would essentially have melted the material at the edges. the two halves would be gravitationally attracted to one another, and the melt would re-crystallise to seal the joints. going anything beyond that is pure speculation. it's possible that you might genrate a spate of volcanism, but as the source melt would be so deep it is unlikely to be of a large scle. in fact most likely it will simply inject as dykes up the fracture zone, with the bodies sealing together before eruption can occur. tectonically things move on geological timescales, so an instantaneous effect like this may in fact be completely ignored. you haven't changed the mass of the earth so orbit remains the same. as for structural integrity, it's unlikely you're done anything significant; the earth is heterogenous in anycase. all you've done is created some extra igneous material. no reason that should be any weaker than what was there in the first place. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
my voice i hear in my head. | i am curious, when i hear my own voice in my head, is it an actual sound that i am hearing or is my brain "pretending" to hear a sound ??? | there was a study done that shows when you read silently you actually combine several different sensory systems, including your auditory system. the part of your auditory cortex that usually responds to speech also processes written words as if they were spoken. so that "inner voice" is actually something our brain "hears." while there are no actual sound waves, our brain responds as if there were. source: _url_0_ | 1,027 | [] | [] | [
"http://scientopia.org/blogs/scicurious/2013/01/23/silent-reading-isnt-so-silent-at-least-not-to-your-brain/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogical_self"
] | [
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what is it about stuff being really close together that makes the strong interaction strongest there? what is it about stuff being really far apart that makes gravitation the strongest? | it turns out gravity is the weakest of the fundamental forces at all distances, but yet the force of gravity does dominate dynamics at all long distances. this seemingly contradictory development comes from the fact that gravity is the only one of the forces in which there is only one "type" of. for instance, all mass attracts all other mass- no mass repels other mass. with electrical forces, however, there are positive and negative charges, and like charges repel while opposite charges attract. similarly, there are three colors of hadrons (not real colors, mind you, just a way to label them. think of colors the same way you think of "positive" and "negative" except now there is a third option (and it isn't neutral)). so, as it turns out, almost everything is electrically and color neutral. you have as many protons in your body as you do electrons, and as many red hadrons as blue. so, looking at you, as a whole, you are neutral in both charge and color, therefore you don't really attract or repel with electric or strong force. but to get a grasp of just how strong these forces are. a single proton, bound by the strong force, is held together with the force of 10,000 newtons. how much is that? that is the weight of a metric ton. so, imagine a bathtub full of iron. it takes the full mass of the earth, all of the gravity it makes, to pull on a bathtub full of iron (sitting on the surface of the earth) as hard as two hadrons are held together in a proton. electric force is less impressive, but still not bad. if we were to remove every electron from an average person's body, and then take that ball of electrons as far away from the person as the earth is from the sun, the electric force on that person would be about 1000x's greater than that person's weight on earth. so one person has enough electric force inside of them to provide 1000x's more force than the entirety of earth, from 1000's of times further away. all of that force is inside of you, it is just all balanced out, so perfectly, that you don't notice it at all. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inverse_square_law.svg"
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|
how would one hamster overtake another on the same wheel? | i was wondering. say there are two ideal (they will not lose balance, trip, etc) hamsters of the same weight. hamster a (let's call him alfonzo) is starting in front. hamster b (her name is bertha) is behind. alfonzo runs at a consistent speed of 15 mph. bertha runs at 20 mph. will bertha simply be able to overtake take alfonzo quickly and jump over him into the front position? or because they are in the same system (the wheel) will bertha's fast movements increase the speed the wheel is turning at and propel alfonzo forward? additionally, if alfonzo then had a large lunch and weighed twice bertha's weight would there be a difference? apologies if this is incredibly stupid and simple. i'm having a hard time visualizing it and my next step would be to buy a few hamsters. | your given speeds were pretty high btw, hamsters only run at less than about 5 mph. anyway, let's say the wheel radius is 20 cm, apparently hamsters like large wheels. with this size, alfonzo's speed (15mph) corresponds to about 320 rpm of rotation (if he were alone). bertha's would be 427 rpm. this means that if the hamsters never fell off the wheel bertha would pass alfonzo 107 times a minute. the problem is that for this to happen the hamsters would have to spend some time running on the ceiling, which they normally can't. if they weigh the same, alfonzo will move up the back of the wheel the same amount as bertha moves up the front (their weight will balance each other around the center/bottom of the wheel). when the angle becomes too great one of them would probably fall off. this was assuming that the hamsters always run at the same speed. it may be easier for them to run faster on a downward slope than an upward slope, it which case bertha may not be able to get far ahead. if alfonzo was twice as heavy, the angle of his displacement from the bottom would be related to bertha's displacement by 2sin(alfonzo's angle) = sin(bertha's angle). this would probably make bertha fall off faster as she would be higher up. or in the case of your speedy-gonzalez-like hamsters, [this would likely happen.](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXRH50fvHWA",
"http://i.imgur.com/Lng4i.png"
] | [
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in what ways does having more migratory species in a biome make the ecosystem stability more volatile? | i was thinking about the fraser river and salmon runs, and how any life along the river is affected by the salmon migration, even (especially!) if they are not migratory themselves. i was wondering, too, if there is a measure for how much of a given ecosystem is made up of migratory species and how much is of resident species. in general, how is this information useful? besides better ecosystem monitoring, of course. | i would imagine that this migration could be considered part of the ecosystem, and that the ecosystem will have adapted to the influx/efflux of individuals. in that sense, the stability won't be more or less volatile. what it will mean is that the ecosystem will be intrinsically linked to far away ecosystems. for example, imagine an anadromous fish such as a salmon. imagine in the open ocean there was a greater density of predators for some reason. there would be fewer salmon swimming up stream, and as such, fewer salmon for bears to eat. therefore the bears have been affected by the number of predators in a completely different biome. tl;dr - not necessarily more volatile, because the migration event is natural part of that particular ecosystem - however it does mean that otherwise "isolated" ecosystems now have effects on one another. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is psychological projection considered a real phenomenon in modern psychology? | i often see the concept being thrown around informally, one of the more common examples being that the most fervent religious anti-homosexuality advocates are actually projecting their own suppressed homosexual urges. it comes up in other situations too, sometimes. it just strikes me as a bit unintuitive, and the wikipedia page i've read likes to put it in freudian terms, which i've read isn't the most up to date way of looking at things. so i thought i'd ask here if there's any basis for it nowadays. | #short answer: yes. --- psychology owes a lot to freud, and it's kind of a shame how far the pendulum has swung. in his day, he was *the* man to talk to, the face of the still-very-young field of psychiatry. nowadays, he's almost vilified because most of his theories turned out to be incorrect. what actually happened is freud identified some key facts about the way the mind works, and then built his (incorrect, but fascinating) theories on those facts. one of those facts is that people react in very recognizable ways when presented with stress. freud called them "defense mechanisms," and he was certain they were the person's attempt to repress memories of sexual abuse. much of what we know about "repressed memories" has changed, but defense mechanisms have passed the test of time. * defense mechanisms are conceptualized as "experiential avoidance" in acceptance and commitment therapy (act), a common practice (hayes and wilson, 1994). * defense mechanisms are now considered active and conscious, rather than unconscious or subconscious as freud conceptualized (ellis et al., 2009). * cramer (2015) conducted a review of research into defense mechanisms associated with coping with stress, and found that: 1. utilization of defense mechanisms increases with increasing experimentally-induced stress 2. research supports the hypothesis that defense mechanisms assist in reducing psychological distress 3. use of age-inappropriate defense mechanisms (e.g., regression) is correlated with diagnosed psychopathology. so, as with so many things freud postulated, his basic assumption was correct, but his full theory has been shown to be incorrect: we do utilize defense mechanisms (including projection), but not due to unconscious ego-id-superego conflicts. it is important to note, however, that "projection" is not a diagnosis of any kind, nor is it a recognized symptom of any disorder. additionally, the use of "projection" as an insult or put down is not to be taken as psychological fact. rather, projection can be identified in a therapeutic setting and used to conceptualize how a person is reacting to stressors, which can lead to more effective therapy. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how many bodily function's does the brain control subconsciously? | it really depends on what you are considering as a "bodily function" and what you mean by "subconscious." through the [autonomic nervous system (ans)](_url_0_), the brain regulates basics functions such as respiration (breathing), heart rate, and digestion. however, it would be an overgeneralization to say that the brain directly controls all bodily function. the [enteric nervous system](_url_1_) which is found in the lining of our gastrointestinal system can act independently, coordinating reflexes and integrating information without input from the brain. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system"
] | [
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|
wiping up some spilled super glue with a square of toilet tissue today, the tissue started smoking in my hand. what's going on here? | ..and are there any other common materials with which i might inadvertently set my waste bin afire? | do not use superglue on or in any natural fibers if at all possible: paper, cotton, wool, etc. your super glue is most likely [cyanoacrylate](_url_0_), a monomer that starts polymerizing on contact with water or another nucleophile. generally it will get this water from the natural humidity in the air and that is enough to quickly push the reaction forward. natural fibers however can have a lot of -oh groups hanging off of them and if brought in direct contact with the cyanoacrylate monomer could potentially start the polymerization all over the place. unless you really care about the polymer chain length this shouldn't pose too many issues, but the polymerization is also pretty exothermic. this means if you push the reaction much faster than it normally goes and on a medium that is flammable you can actually start everything on fire. once the glue is dry there shouldn't be any extra fire risk. additionally, things like cotton balls and toilet tissues that are light with lots of surface area are the things most likely to cause issues. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanoacrylate",
"http://www.naturalhandyman.com/iip/infpai/inflinspontaneouscombust.html"
] | [
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r/cocktails needs your help!! can you "bruise" liquor. the opinions are out there, but we need science! | it is considered an old wives tail to some and snobbery to others, but in the cocktail world there is a term we use called "bruise". it can effect many drinks but what we are curious about is can you "bruise" straight liquor like gin? it is said the preferred technique for a martini is to stir, not shake, so you do not bruise the alcohol. sean connery in james bond did actually make a shaken martini popular. is there fact to this? will the liquor be different after because of the introduction of oxygen or the volatility of the shake with ice? we have already discussed texture and dilution, but what about the liquor? thank you!! | no. a simple google of the sentence i assume you meant to be a question will give you your answer. alcohol cannot be bruised, but the different methods of making a martini do affect how the drink will be perceived and tasted for several factors, none of which are because the alcohol is somehow "bruised" or otherwise damaged. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
my mercury-filled projector bulb exploded. will it kill me if i replace the bulb and use the projector? | a couple years ago my projector bulb exploded while i was watching a move (the dark knight). i'm talking really exploded; it sounded like a firecracker went off. for a year and a half i left the broken bulb pieces in there, rattling around. a couple months ago i put on some gloves, removed the bulb casing, and dumped out all the broken bulb i could, and gave it a good wipe-down on the inside with some paper towels. my question is twofold: * is there still mercury residue in the projector? * if i replace the bulb casing and bulb and run the projector, will it heat up the residual mercury, disperse it in the air with the fan, and poison me? | it was most dangerous in the seconds/minutes after the bulb exploded. mercury lamps produce mercury vapor at their operating temperature. the reason for an explosion is that the vapor was overheated and over pressured the bulb casing. inhaling that vapor in any large quantity would be bad. given time enough time it is possible that the mercury re-condensed inside the device (or escaped as a vapor), the small amount of liquid mercury left after a year is comparatively not that harmful. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.snopes.com/medical/toxins/cfl.asp"
] | [
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how close would thea have gotten to earth on their final pass? | so, as the title says. how close would thea have actually have gotten to earth, given that thea is believed to be around the size of mars, before they finally collided? would the have passed km's apart? 100's of km's apart? or could they have passed within meters before their next time round ended up in a collision? | if earth and thea got too close together, gravity from earth would start to pull thea apart. this is the idea behind the roche limit - basically how close a moon can orbit a larger primary before gravity pulls it apart. for the earth, the roche limit is around 10k km for the moon - somewhat bigger for comets which are not held together as tightly. _url_0_ - the roche limit is usually used for bodies in orbit but is going to give a pretty good idea for what would happen if something came close to the earth. if thea had been within 100 kms of the earth, substantial amounts of matter would be stripped off even if the bulk of the masses moved apart. i am not sure what the outcome of a near collision like this would be as this is starting to look like an inelastic collision - at the very least i'd expect massive amounts of debris to wind up impacting the earth or captured. i would expect that anything within 1000 km would stand a good chance of turning into a full impact. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_limit"
] | [
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] |
how true is the 10,000 hour rule? | too simplistic. time alone isn't sufficient for expertise, neither is time and talent. recognition of mistakes, motivation to improve, talent, time, and competition are all extremely important. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why don't we lap liquids? why don't many animals sip or slurp? | my hypothesis is that the lapping motion has evolved to minimize the excitation (or at least ingestion) of harmful underwater contaminants; furthermore, i wonder how intimately those who prefer to sip coincide with the ones who have developed instruments for drinking (such as humans using cups; elephants, trunks; hermit crabs, claws; mosquitoes, proboscises). i guess my real query is how some creatures have "gotten away" with such a drawn-out approach to quench their thirst! | sipping requires a very specifically designed mouth and tongue. if you look at most primates, they're capable of it. there's little evolutionary reason for the ability to sip to be predominant over lapping. with regards to ingestion of underwater contaminants, do you mean dirt? because many animals (such as elephants) gain minerals and nutrients they otherwise wouldn't from the mud under the water. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the perspective of scientists on nuclear energy? | i believe any potential source of power comes with risks. our job as scientists and engineers is to minimize those risks. i personally believe that the benefits of using nuclear power outweigh the potential drawbacks due to the advancements in computer control systems and an overall understanding of harnessing the power from a nuclear reaction. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when i jump my dead car, the order i attach the wires is my negative, his negative, his positive, my positive. would there be any difference at all if i did my positive, his positive, his negative, my negative? | well, the only difference is where you get the sparks. the "right" way to do it is positive, positive, live car's negative, then dead cars chassis. that way your sparks occur where it is unlikely to ignite the hydrogen gas that sometimes leak out of a battery. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
could you tell the phase of a single atom of an element? | if you have a single element of carbon and you are just looking at it, could you tell its phase? (solid, liquid, gas (plasma)) | single atoms don't have a phase of matter, phases of matter arise from interactions between particles. i guess if you just had one atom flying around that would be closest to a gas, since gases are made of particles that interact very little (an ideal gas is one with no interactions between particles, but that is just an approximation). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/jp960615b",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_seeding"
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when testing for p75 on oecs destined for implantation, do the tests distinguish between p75low and p75high subpopulations? | i am doing a research review at the moment for university. i am undergrad etc. it is all about olfactory ensheathing cells. i am meant to be looking at cell mixtures, cell types and cell preparation for implantation, comparing what was successful, what was stupid and whatnot. we have this paper from honoré saying that there are two distinct subpopulations of oec, which express genes differently. when later papers say that their cells test "92% p75 positive" (through immunolabeling or something), for example, does that 92% include the p75low population? note: you have probably noticed that i do not know a hell of a lot about what i am talking about. sorry for that.... edit: patent pending sources: honoré, a., le corre, s., derambure, c., normand, r., duclos, c., boyer, o., marie, j. and guérout, n. (2011). isolation, characterization, and genetic profiling of subpopulations of olfactory ensheathing cells from the olfactory bulb. glia, 60(3), pp.404-413. | check the methods section. are they using a p75 reporter? or is this anti-p75 antibodies to the surface receptor (p75 is a ngf receptor if i can dredge up that stuff from years ago.) they probably did flow cytometry with anto-p75 antibody and found above background signal in 92% of oecs tested. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what stops the successive hits and jerky movements of running and jumping from causing brain damage? | the brain is attached to the spinal cord by the brainstem, which anchors it in place. the brain and spinal cord are also covered in something called the meninges, a 3 layered protective material. the outside, the dura mater, is thick and serves to protect the delicate nervous tissue. between the inner layers of the meninges is the subarachnoid space, a cavity filled with cerebrospinal fluid (csf), which acts as a shock absorber. after a quick change in acceleration or a jerky movement, you'd expect the brain to bump against the inside of the skill but it doesn't. the fluid around the brain moves quicker, and accumulates on the side where the brain would make contact. as a result the brain is comfortably cushioned and doesn't get damaged. of course, this only works to a certain extent: hit your head harder or move it faster and it can get bruised. i remember reading something where some middle/high schooler studied this for a science fair by putting a balloon inside a mason jar filled with water, and filmed it as she threw it against a wall. of course thats an oversimplification, but it demonstrates the movement of the csf around the brain. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do clams maintain an open hole above them while buried, and why do they do it? | many clams extend a long, tubular siphon out of the substrate to exchange water and filter when they are buried. however, like you mentioned, it's possible that they may keep getting buried by deposition from tidal forces, tributary sources (in estuaries), and other mechanisms. for the most part, the siphon is extendable and prehensile (i.e., moveable). so they can move about to avoid getting buried too deeply. also, clams can and will shift up and down in the substrate to follow water if necessary. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a back and front in a 2d world? | this is sort of out there, but i got to thinking about changing and transforming shapes in a 2d environment, and it made me wonder, in a true 2d environment does the concept of back and front exist? if you picture a stickman on a paper, you can see his face, but not the back of his head, does his universe contain the information that makes up the back of his head? can you store information that is not visible, or does that then, by default, fall into a third dimension? | usually no, a 2d space with no front and back is easier and simpler to work with, so mathematicians use it a lot more often. of course, we don't know of any actual 2d worlds so i can't say which one is more "real" than the other. the only time this really becomes an issue is with one-sided surfaces like the möbius strip: if your stickman is on a möbius strip and walks around it once, he will be in the same place as he was before but he will find that he is reversed (his left hand becomes his right and vice-versa). if the möbius strip has a front and a back, he will instead end up on the back, which is a completely different place from the front and so there won't be any issues with people randomly becoming left-handed. mathematicians call this two-sided version of a one-sided surface the "orientable double cover". you would use it if for some reason you don't want your stickmen to be able to mirror themselves. topologically, the orientable double cover of a möbius strip is basically a cylinder. tldr: no, the stickman doesn't have a back of his head. as a 3d person, you can see everything there is to see in the 2d world in a single view. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.euclideanrelativity.com/idea/"
] | [
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with unlimited resources, how would you change and build our infrastructure, cities, and lives? | i thought this could be an interesting question, as it could draw answers from engineers, physicists, chemists, etc. if you had unlimited money and materials of your choosing, as well as not having to worry about deadlines, what would you build our society out of? what's a better alternative to asphalt for roads? could we have some crazy inductive surface to power electric cars? how would we generate energy? how would we distribute it? what about water? and buildings - they don't all have to be made out of bricks or cement, do they? what kind and size of skyscrapers could we build with advanced engineering and materials? i'm interested to see what experts have to say. feel free to go full utopian, and on any part of our lives, as long as the materials and methods are available, in some form, today (no teleportation, but you can use loads of carbon nanotubes, for example). | city planner here! lucky for you, city planners need to know a little bit about everything from economics to structures, and environment to industry etc. etc. after all, our job is to plan for the growth and development of cities. since there's an almost unthinkable number of combinations and situations which would need to be well-thought out and designed for city form and function, in addition to infrastructure and communications networks and so on, i'll answer the questions you specifically mention, for the sake of time. also, i'm going to answer from a relatively realistic perspective, rather than a completely fanciful one. 1) alternative to asphalt? depends on the roadway. asphalt and concrete are great for high stress applications. really some of the best materials in terms of durability and maintenance. however, for residential streets and parking lots, i would like to see more [permeable materials](_url_2_) used in construction. our cities have a side effect of not being able to handle storm water very well. we have lots and lots of non-porous surfaces from which water is drained, collected and redirected through a storm water system. this is partially why (though certainly not always or solely why) some cities with rivers and my experience flooding in heavy rain. the storm water systems could fill to capacity and overflow, or the river itself overflow its banks. porous materials allow for the rainwater to seep into the ground at point of contact and reduce the stress on these systems, allowing us to better mitigate storm water. because of the porosity of these materials, they're not great under high street conditions like roadways with exceptionally heavy or fast moving traffic, but they do help since a significant portion of the total road surface area in a city is low volume, low speed. 2) inductive surfaces for cars? sure, but it would be incredibly time, labor and cost intensive to implement on a city scale, let alone national or world. i would like to see some form of [mag lev](_url_3_), [personal rapid transit](_url_1_) system. (2 links there fyi.) that way, we still have the convenience of a personalized transportation option like a car, but its still a public transit service, not unlike a bus or train. 3) for electricity? depends on geography. wind and solar where ti could be used, natural gas or thorium reactors wherever else. natural gas burns cleaner and [thorium is apparently badass (from what i've read)](_url_0_). we could distribute this energy over an entirely below ground super cooled system in some way to make sure it's efficient and not unsightly. 4) water? the system we have in the us right now isn't so bad. we have clean water coming to the taps in our homes and offices. though perhaps some sort of method of preventing any biofilm buildup and a surefire way to make it as pure as possible before it enters the house would also be nice. perhaps a regulation that requires decent filters for any fitting that will dispense water that we will actually be drinking. (faucets, but not necessarily baths or toilets etc.) our water distribution systems in cities aren't too bad as it stands right now. though again, i suppose that depends on where you live. 5) building materials? if carbon nanotubes are easily and readily available for construction then yes, i would love to use them. our world's population is increasing quickly, and to accommodate these people, we need to build our cities more densely. this allows for more farmland to be preserved and therefore, an adequate amount of food to be produced, reducing food scarcity, ensuring food is affordable and accessible for most, if not all. that's not to say [vertical farms](_url_4_) are completely out the window either. it makes plenty of sense and will provide yet another purpose for our buildings. if every building had a secondary function as a food producer in addition to shelter, society would again be making a more effective use of resources. i'm willing to answer plenty of other specific questions, but knowing how intricate cities actually are, and over how many years and how many people it took to get them where they are today, it's entirely too complicated for any one person to fruitfully imagine how an entire city would function down to every detail like building materials haha. a collective of us, sure, but that's just too much for one person to reasonably handle. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_rapid_transit",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permeable_paving",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maglev",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_farming"
] | [
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how can a white blood cell, or any single cell creature follow prey? | i'm curious how single cells can "chase" prey/targets. for example in this video: _url_0_ it appears like the white blood cell is actively following the bacteria. how does the white blood cell "detect" its target? | the white blood cell has receptors that can recognize signals given off by the bacteria ([general wikipedia article](_url_0_)). for something like white blood cells, the signals given off stimulate movement by signaling to the actin cytoskeleton. these cells move up a gradient, that is, towards areas of high chemoattractant. since the bacteria is the source of the molecules they're following, white blood cells move towards bacteria. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jiru7B5PzZk"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotaxis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation#Plasma_cascade_systems",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotaxis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotaxis"
] | [
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] |
what's up with comet ison? can you guys help explain these three distinct pieces? | hey guys, so i've been following comet ison for a while, just being interested in it, mostly because of it's luminosity and hell, its a interesting spectacle! recently, some information has come out that has me very confused. **hubble pictures of the comet show nothing unusual- such as this beautiful picture** _url_0_ however, someone pointed out that this is a composite, and that the brightness (exposure) is turned up way high. **then i started to see crazy images of ison, images that looked like this-** _url_3_ i dismissed them, frankly because i hadn't hear anything about it in official channels. > but then somebody made a video, and showed how to get to this- > _url_1_ > once there- > if you pan about a page up and to the right, you'll be right at ison. > invert the image. > then lighten it a few times, keep going until you see the three distinct pieces. > it's there, it's real, and it doesn't look like any comet i've ever seen. **here it is from my computer, doing it myself** _url_2_ now, we can dismiss the notion of this being an artifact, **simply due to the fact that the coma is not a circular** (semi-circular? shape)- it looks like a peanut, and looks like how it would look if the mass is distributed unevenly. so if it's not an artifact, what the heck is it? is it three pieces of ice? why are hubble images (purposefully?) making bright composites that do not show this weird irregularity? | i don't think those two bars are real, i think they're just pointers to locate the comet which for some reason have been included in that image. although i'm quite puzzled as to why they were put into the .fits image, that doesn't really make much sense. here's a [hubble image](_url_1_) that is the same as the picture in question. the bars are clearly not present, and it's not a contrast issue, they just aren't there. the bottom bar points due southeast and the top bar points due west, for what it's worth, which reinforces the idea that they're pointers put on the image artificially. plus, if those were real, someone would have published it by now. being the first one to identify such an utterly bizarre structure would be a gigantic boost to anyone's career. more images: _url_2_ [video of its motion over a 43-minute period](_url_3_) (that's a relatively hi res quicktime, other formats [can be found here](_url_0_)). note that the tail points *away from the sun*, rather than away from the comet's direction of motion, which is a common misunderstanding. the tail is blown away by solar wind particles which is why it points away from the sun. | 3 | [] | [
"http://topnews.ae/images/Hubble-Space-Telescope-Captures-Comet-ISON.jpg",
"http://hla.stsci.edu/cgi-bin/display?image=hlsp_ison_hst_wfc3_130430_f606w_v1&autoscale=&title=Ison+130430+WFC3+F606W",
"http://imgur.com/gJFHTAj",
"http://imgur.com/rSnxBR5"
] | [
"http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2013/24/video/a/",
"http://archive.stsci.edu/prepds/ison/ISON-30Apr-sc-m.jpeg",
"http://imgsrc.hubblesite.org/hu/db/images/hs-2013-14-c-pdf.pdf",
"http://imgsrc.hubblesite.org/hu/db/videos/hs-2013-24-a-1280x720_quicktime.m4v"
] | [
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is there a relationship between miosis/mydrasis and treatment of glucoma? | mydriasis* *title* they say when giving a drug that cause miosis you are opening canal of schlemm and increasing the drainage of aqueous humour thus lowering the intraocular pressure how is that ? how is constrictor or dilator pupillae connected to canal of schlemm? thanks | after reading up on your question a little bit, i may have found some info to help clear this issue up for you. simply put, aqueous humor is drained through schlemm's canal, a vessel that is fairly similar to typical lymphatic vasculature. drainage through schlemm's canal is mediated by the [trabecular meshwork](_url_0_), which decreases or increases flow depending on the contraction/relaxaion of the ciliary muscle. the ciliary muscle inserts in the trabecular meshwork of the eye. therefore, when parasympathomimetic drugs (i.e. eyedrops that induce miosis) are administered, the ciliary muscle contracts and widens the intracellular spaces of the tm thereby increasing its permeability and facilitating drainage of the anterior chamber of the eye. heres a great write up on it: _url_1_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trabecular_meshwork",
"http://physiologyonline.physiology.org/content/18/5/205"
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is boric powder a useful substance to get rid of german cockroaches? | my house has been crawling with german cockroaches and i heard online that boric powder would work. i need a scientific explanation for this. | not in my exp. those little fkrs can breed so fast. i stopped an infestation from happening by going to my local diy pest control place. spent $50 on two products. a spray that kills the egg sacks that stay attached to the mothers. the other product was a poisonous gel that the roaches eat. the females who drop the dead egg sacks will immediately look for food and eat the gel. worked great in like 4seeks. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what's the deal with pheromone products? is there any science to back these up? specifically products from androtics direct. | hey folks, i want to the know the science behind these pheromone products. i'm interested in testing them out personally, since they are about fifteen dollars. my question in short: **is this possible?** and as a follow up question: **do these products work?** i watched this interesting [ted talk](_url_0_) on oxytocin, which leaves me to believe that products like this are apparently possible. i apologize if this has been asked, but this is really interesting me right now, and i'd like some opinions that aren't from [this forum](_url_1_), which is apparently controlled by androtics direct. hope this isn't against guidelines, and thanks in advanced. | there is no good evidence that human pheromones exist. it's still an open question, but it is safe to say that anyone selling products of this sort don't have any scientific backing. do they work? possibly, but i wouldn't bet any money on it. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.ted.com/talks/paul_zak_trust_morality_and_oxytocin.html",
"http://www.pheromonetalk.com"
] | [] | [
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why does my hand sanitizer expire? | i just noticed today that my hand sanitizer expires. it isn't for quite some time (july 2013) but i can't seem to understand why it would. is it purely "political"? as in, they make up and expiration date so that consumers will be sure to buy more when that day comes around or is it a chemical issue, as in the ingredients stop working as well after 4ish years of use. thanks! | i really hate that the top two responses link to a shitty 'explanation' for why hand sanitizer 'doesn't really' expire. [doctoreldritch](_url_0_) is correct in his/her explanation for how hand sanitizer works, with the key line in his/her link being "their cidal activity drops sharply when diluted below 50% concentration, and the optimum bactericidal concentration is 60%–90% solutions in water (volume/volume)." we clean surfaces with 70% ethanol in the lab. anything less than that is useless. anything more than that is kind of overkill and a waste of resources, as for most uses, 80% doesn't kill any better than 70%. so now the question is, if you leave your bottle of hand sanitizer open, how quickly does the alcohol evaporate, and is that lowered amount enough to still be effective? that is part of where the expiration date would come into play. but as to the issue how fast the alcohol evaporates, i don't have a clear reference to point you to. but i do know a fabulously easy way to figure it out using skills my basic microbiology students would know. | 30 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/kqva4/why_does_my_hand_sanitizer_expire/c2mh0m5",
"http://www.leonardchu.com/blog/index.php/2010/hand-sanitizer-doesnt-expire-so-why-do-they-have-expiration-dates/"
] | [
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does the absolute value of d(telomere length)/dt decrease with time as someone gets older? | the data is probably too noisy to measure that. [here's](_url_1_) a graph of telomere length vs age for 299 healthy subjects. original is [here](_url_0_). it looks to me that d(telomere length)/dt is constant with time, but this is measured in a population and not in a single individual. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.qiagen.com/literature/qiagennews/weeklyarticle/11_04/telomere/default.aspx",
"http://imgur.com/0ALUs"
] | [
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|
weird spoon reflection phenomenon question. | today as i was sitting in a restaurant, i picked up my spoon and looked at the reflection on the *back* and it was just a normal reflection as i expected, right side up and completely normal. but when i flipped the spoon around (i was now looking at the reflection on the front), lo and behold, the reflection was flipped. as in i was upside down. i tried it with all the spoons i could find on that table and it worked with everyone. completely mindfucked. what the hell happened? | the inside of a spoon acts as a [concave mirror](_url_0_) so if you are far enough away from it the reflected image [appears upside down](_url_1_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/refln/u13l3c.cfm",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/geoopt/mirray.html"
] | [
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] |
when a shooting star goes across the sky, can a person on the other side of the country see it as well? | shooting stars occur at above 50km above the earth's surface or so. d=3.5sqrt(50,000) so it would be on average visible within a circle with a diameter of about 2,000km. obviously the distance it traveled would be key as well. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is lux or candela/m2 a more appropriate unit for quantifying the amount of light that reaches someone's eye? | i am a little confused about which unit is most appropriate for my purposes. i am measuring pupil diameter using a remote eye tracking device mounted to a computer monitor. i am adjusting light via changes to computer screen luminance via adjusting the colour of the screen (e.g. white – grey – dark grey). there are going to be other lights in the room as well which will stay constant. my main goal is to measure how much light that reaches a person’s eye in a given condition. is it most appropriate to measure candela/m2 or lux in this case? i have found so many conflicting points about the differences between luminance and illumination, regarding which is more appropriate for my purposes. my thinking is that i would want to measure lux because i am not only interested in the amount of light that is emitted from the computer screen, but all of the light in the room that reaches a person's eyes. i just happen to be manipulating this via the computer screen. i am still left with a bit of a nagging feeling though as i am not 100%. any help is greatly appreciated. | depends on what you're interested in. lumens are a unit of power, they're useful if you want to know the total amount of light hitting the whole eye (per unit time), or the total amount of light emitted by an object (per unit time). lux is a unit of flux. it's useful if you want to know the amount of light hitting the eye per unit time *per unit area*. that is, power in lumens will increase if your eyeballs is bigger, but flux in lux stays constant. candela/m^2 is a unit of intensity or radiance, depending on who you talk to. astronomers like to call this "intensity", but some people use "intensity" to refer to flux, so i'll call it "radiance" here. radiance is the flux *per solid angle of source*. in astronomy terms, the light you might receive from a nebula is a number of watts of power per square metre of telescope, *per square degree of nebula in the sky*. this is useful because it's related to the human concept of "brightness", because both "brightness" and radiance do not change with distance, for a resolved object. you increase the *total flux* as you get closer to an object, but that object now takes up a larger *solid angle* of your vision, which cancels out and means that radiance is constant. this is why a wall doesn't suddenly get brighter as you get closer to it. but it does look like what you want is flux, which is in units if lux. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in season 1 of breaking bad, walter blows up a guy's car by putting one of those gas station window squeegees across the battery. would this really work? | after years of watching mythbusters, i know that making a car catch fire or blow up is actually far more difficult than tv and movies would like to make us believe. while i am reasonably certain that it probably wouldn't actually make a great big orange fireball, i just want to know if the wet squeegee would actually do anything like what the show portrayed. | while cannot say that it would cause the car to explode, it certainly could easily cause a fire, which could lead to the car exploding. shorting the battery terminals with the metal squeegee (doesn't matter that it was wet, just that it was metal) will create a lot of heat as a very high current flows through the squeegee. the squeegee and battery will heat up a lot. they can certainly heat up enough to start a fire. once a fire starts... well, you can guess the rest. how walter did it didn't seem quite realistic to me. he would have to make sure that the squegee stayed in contact with bother terminals for a while. i *suppose* closing the hood may have kept the squeegee in place, but i don't know. but yeah, that could cause a fire. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aOEL9mfdsZ8"
] | [
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marketing people still put aloe vera in everything, but does it have any actual uses? | from "natural medicine" to soaps to health drinks and food, it is everywhere, but are any claims about it actually proven or is it all pseudoscientific nonsense? | there's a large swathe of scientific literature regarding aloe vera (do a google scholar search for it - you can read the abstracts). iamnota medical scientist, but a perusal of those results suggests it's an effective anti-inflammatory, and also good for a number of skin complaints including psoriasis. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do capillaries line up again after a cut? | i wondered about this after a severe cut on my finger yesterday, i am guessing all the blood (there was a lot!) came from severed capillaries.. it all looks quite messy now so how do capillaries line up perfectly during the healing process after they have been severed? | they don't! when a capillary is first severed, circulating clotting factors begin the cascade that walls off that vessel with fibrous material in an attempt to minimize blood loss. a protein called vascular endothelial growth factor (vegf) stimulates a process called angiogenesis, which is the process of new vessel growth off of an existing blood vessel. here's a decedent [video](_url_0_)! | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/LwAiyDUgALk"
] | [
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the angler fish attracts prey, but, does it attract predators too? | i imagine angler fishes are easy to find in the deep ocean, and i don't think it is the biggest fish around, so, does it also attract predators?, how does it manage to attract prey more than it attracts predators? | anglerfish are [near the top of the food chain](_url_1_) despite their size, so attracting predators is not much of an issue for them. i suspect that most animals that *could* eat them simply don't live in the same depth of water as the anglerfish do. the obvious exceptions are humans and [that tiny fish from finding nemo](_url_0_). | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v_angsUAuZY",
"http://www.gwinnett.k12.ga.us/CooperES/Teacher_Websites/Watson_Web/fifth_tuesday_marine_biology_site/jared.html"
] | [
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] |
how does hypothermia kill? | so how exactly does hypothermia kill? is it something like enzyme reactions getting out of their 'operating temperatures', or the body's temperature-regulating mechanisms spiraling out of control once they get too far out of wack, with fatal effects? | below 34c the heart tends to stop beating properly. we cannot accept any rhythm an ecg provides when the body is below this temperature, they're simply not appropriate rhythms and require treatment, we wouldn't declare someone dead on the basis of an ecg finding while they're cold (not that an ecg alone is ever enough to declare death). it's why the phrase "no one's dead until they're warm and dead" is popular in medicine. once the heart stops beating cells begin the apoptosis and necrotic processes that lead to tissue death, but this can be slowed by the decreased temperature. beyond temps of 0c the freezing can mechanically lyse cells and tissue due to the expansion and crystallization of water as it transitions to ice. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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to what degree can physical exertion prevent hypothermia? | i frequently run at night and am not bothered by the cold at all. in fact i am sweating bullets when i get back and need a cold shower to cool off, but if i were to loiter outside for an equivalent amount of time i would freeze my ass off. is exertion comparable to voluntary shivering taken to the extreme? would moving around increase overall heat loss to the environment to the point it's ultimately better to just sit still and shiver? how cold of an environment could a person standing still survive versus the same person doing simple exercise? what role would fatigue play in this scenario? | exercising and moving around cause higher heat production in your body. that said, eventually bodies run out of fuel, and can no longer maintain the rate of heat production that is caused by exercise. so, for short periods of time, exercising would stave off hypothermia, but after an hour or two, depending on level of fitness, diet, temperature, etc, it isn't a realistic way to keep warm. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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given a point set, what are all the ways i can regress it to a function? | what are considered to be the "best"? does it depend on what data i'm regressing? | yes if i have n points i can create a polynomial that is guaranteed to hit all those points, as long as no two points have the same x value. (given that by having the different ys assigned to the same x by definition makes it not a function) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there games similar to foldit designed to aid other fields of science? | [eterna](_url_1_)- researching rna design to make things more predictable/improve computer models there is also [boinc](_url_0_), a collection of projects that run as a sort of screensaver. uses up your "unused" processor cycles to do crowdsourced resources for different projects you can choose from, like atlas@home, einstein@home, and seti@home. not really a game but something you can passively be involved in. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://boinc.berkeley.edu/",
"http://eterna.cmu.edu/web/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESP_game",
"http://labelme.csail.mit.edu/Release3.0/"
] | [
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] |
|
what makes the "physics is cool" photo possible? | for those of you who haven't seen it: _url_0_ | basically, it works like this: the water *should* be moving upward - if the plane and everything around it suddenly vanished, the water would have an upward velocity. but the plane (and the pilot, and the cup) is accelerating downward faster than gravity, so the water gets driven upward into the cup. the acceleration downward of the plane is *larger* than the acceleration the water would experience in freefall. | 3 | [] | [
"http://redd.it/1z3spe"
] | [] | [
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] |
is it possible for a stadium crowd (in particular a college football's stadium) to cheer so loudly it registers on a local seismograph? | in october of 1988 the famous "earthquake game" occurred in lsu's death valley where - according to legend - the crowd erupted at one point so loudly that a local siesmograph registered a minor earthquake. while the validity of this story has been questioned is it even possible for this to take place in any college football stadium across the us? if more people were required how many would it take? wiki link to the game - _url_0_ wiki link to stadium capacities - _url_1_ | yes. it happened during [marshawn lynch's run in the playoffs for seattle](_url_1_) and during [a foo fighters & tenacious d show in new zealand](_url_0_) to name a few. | 10 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_Game",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_football_stadiums"
] | [
"http://www.neatorama.com/2011/12/15/rock-concert-rocked-so-hard-that-it-set-off-seismographs/",
"http://seattle.sbnation.com/seattle-seahawks/2011/1/9/1925874/marshawn-lynch-seahawks-nfl-playoffs-earthquake",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madness_(band)"
] | [
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] |
what causes the scars on the ocean floor? | for clarification, i followed an /r/internetisbeautiful link to [this page](_url_0_), and saw what appeared to be scars on the ocean's floor. in case the view has changed and you can't see them, i took a [screenshot](_url_1_) | the long linear irregularities in your image look image look like what we call "artifacts", a direct result of the mapping techniques. most of what we have for the vast ocean floor bathymetry is fairly low resolution, thus there is a lot of smoothing. when a ship makes a single pass through a poorly mapped area and gathers higher resolution data it creates what looks like a more rough strip. there are plenty of natural processes which create seafloor lineations. [the mid-ocean ridge system](_url_2_) is composed of off-set linear segments. at [oceanic core complexes](_url_1_) you get striations in the seafloor. [ice](_url_0_) can scour the seabed in sometimes straight lines. i really think what you are seeing is an artifact of merging data sets though. | 3 | [] | [
"http://iss.astroviewer.net/",
"http://imgur.com/0ToDmZ0"
] | [
"http://www.csr-marine.com/pages/marine_ice_scour_studies.html",
"http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/ex1104/background/tectonic/tectonic.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge",
"http://goo.gl/maps/3Re53",
"http://goo.gl/maps/YINZO"
] | [
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i'm colorblind and would like to see what a rubik's cube looks like to normal people. is there any way to adjust the color wheel so this can happen? | [i saw this diagram](_url_0_) and i happen to be the most common type of colorblind. it astounds me to think that from a normal person's perspective, my reds and greens are so closely matched. i try thinking of how things should look, but i end up going cross eyed from confusion. the normal version i can differentiate red from green whereas the colorblind version i see two greens, but everything is tainted from the beginning, so my red isn't the same as your red as i'm colorblind and can't view the red as well as you fine folk. yep, just went cross eyed. can anyone with an understanding of colorblindness alter the rubik's cube to appear "normal" to me? i was thinking maybe increasing the color saturation of the red might do the trick, but i lack the background in optometry to know if that would be accurate. just for the record, i sometimes daydream about one day being cured through genetic therapy and suddenly discover the world is completely off - the sky turns out to be what i considered green, the grass is red, and i slowly go insane like something out of the twilight zone. | this just came up in an article in nature methods a few months ago. the issue is how to make sure that colorblindness doesn't change how people see your figures in a paper, talk, etc. see here: _url_0_ it's common to use red and green as opposing colors in an image, but is not distinguishable for protanopes and deuteranopes. using magenta instead of red fixes this problem. _url_1_ the above link shows a set of 8 colors (add white for 9) and you get an unambiguous color set for a rubik's cube that everyone can see. | 28 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/EgBUf.jpg"
] | [
"http://jfly.iam.u-tokyo.ac.jp/color/index.html#stain",
"http://jfly.iam.u-tokyo.ac.jp/color/index.html#pallet",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/j29gm/im_colorblind_and_would_like_to_see_what_a_rubiks/c28oapm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatland",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachromacy#Possibility_of_human_tetrachromats",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/09/090916-color-blind-gene-monkeys.html",
"http://www.vischeck.com/daltonize/",
"http://dankaminsky.com/2010/12/15/dankam/"
] | [
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considering the swiss basic income initiative, and the us food stamp cuts, would giving food stamps to all and expanding current limits be a bad idea? | assuming current no warm prepared food requirement or even a stricter wic-approved food list. | generally, raising a minimum wage of a capitlist society increases the productivity of that society. despite what most people believe to be intuitive, prices generally do not rise to match increased wages. you will hear 2 different reasons why prices inevitably go up, but let me counter them. one is that the price of labor going up means the production costs go up, therefor prices must go up. this logic has two flaws. first, it forgets labor costs are fixed costs, not costs per item. second, it assumes that all companies hiring minimum wage workers are working off razor thin margins... that simply is not the case. a few are, but most are making healthy profits per item. with minimum wage rising, over all economic activity raises as well, because minimum wage workers spend their money faster. this means they buy more. since most minimum wage workers are in retail and food industries, and these are where lower class people tend to spend their money, these companies get increased sales to match the raise in labor costs. this brings us to the supply and demand problem. people will tell you that since demand is going up, prices must increase. this again relies on faulty assumptions. see, when working supply and demand, you assume supply as the amount that can be produced reasonably, not the amount that is. take a lemonade stand. i buy some mix, water, ice, and cups. but i make each lemonade to order. one day i get 7 orders, so make 7 cups. the next i get 25 orders, so i make 25 cups. is my supply 7 then 25? no, my supply is how much i could make if i used all of my most scarce supply. now real world economics are vastly more complicated but it remains- if supply is making at demand level, then increases in demand don't really affect prices. more importantly is historical example. there simply does not exist real world examples of prices rising when minimum wages rises to a reasonable level. you can take federal minimum wage examples, state, or even other nations. the one thing that does seem to rise is housing costs, but that rise is a small % of the wage rise. the fact is, we don't even have to discuss economic theory, we can look at real world examples. now there are a few cases where an increase does lead to prices going up, as in true inflation. this usually happens when one of two (or both) factors happen- 1. the wage goes up too quickly. going from 7.25 to 15 in a single year could devestate an economy with inflation. doing the same thing over the course of 10 years would probably give the economy a boost. 2. the wage goes up too high. the question of what is too high is an important one, and one an economist is more qualified to answer than me (i am a political scientist), but its clear there is a point when the wage becomes too high to sustain industry. now, all that said, thats not even the real question here. the vast unknown- is giving foodstamps equivalent to raising wages? my gut says no, because you are increasing demand only on a specific good, which won't follow the same model as raising wages. really the swiss thing is not directly related. it comes from the same basic idea as food stamps, but does it a different way. i'm really not sure how to answer your question specifically, because you can't really, scientifically speaking, consider a program that hasn't actually be tried when trying to judge the outcome of a different program. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are jugular veins redundant, or feed one side of the brain each? | and would death be experienced differently depending on which side of the brain loses blood first? bonus question: if you fall asleep with one jugular compressed, can you die from it? | the jugular veins drain the blood from the brain, they don't supply it! the blood supply of the brain is mainly provided (in normal individuals) by the two carotid arteries (and a small amount by the vertebral arteries). the blood flow in the brain is special, because it is architected to prevent the case you described (one side being compressed and not letting any blood through any more). this special arterial construct is called the "circle of willis". [circle of willis](_url_0_) you would not die from one compressed jugular vein, though it might get uncomfortable after a while, and usually you would roll around in your sleep atomatically to reduce pressure on that vein! & #x200b; there was an interesting case where a woman in the uk had almost no blood flow through both carotid arteries and only lived with blood supply to the brain from the small vertebral arteries, i will try to find it. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_of_Willis"
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i am new to evolution, and have some questions. | it seems like so many people are trying to save animal and plant species from each other or from the environment changes. but isn't that a bad thing to do? isn't the point of evolution natural selection? so if you save a species of fox from a natural predator, or save all the animals in the everglades from the newly arrived pythons, wouldn't that in turn halt natural selection from doing its job? granted, we are apart of the chain also, but isn't limiting population growth also limiting the chances of evolution to take place in that species? | natural selection doesn't have a job. it isn't goal-oriented. it's just a name we have for the fact that populations change based on environmental pressures. perhaps we save a species of fox from its natural predators. perhaps a disease evolves that kills all of its natural predators. the result is the same, and one is not somehow "better" than the other. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
another evolution question. | ok, so my dad and i always argue about this. we both obviously believe in evolution but one thing always stumps me. he tells the story of an experiment in a lab somewhere where they got a couple of frogs and put them in a tank with not very much land for them to mate on (they prefer to mate on land). so after many generations of this frog mating and reproducing, the female frogs start to develop suckers on on their backs for the male frogs to be able to grab onto in the water for mating. so my question. evolution supposedly comes about through random selection right? but surely, this development in the frogs is not random? this is clearly deliberate no? my dad shouts at me saying it can't be random and that darwin has it wrong. (he has no degree in anything). am i wrong in defining terms? i could be completely chatting crap i have no idea. is it random or what?? | a good question would be "dad, could i please see this study?". [seems frogs tend to do this when mating anyway, so grabbing on isn't much of an issue.](_url_0_) not always; eg. see [artificial selection](_url_1_) if this actually did happen, it would have been random. the frogs don't decide "we need our offspring to develop something to grip on", the opportunity presents itself (in the form of a mutation), and the mutation increases the fitness of the individual (in this case, fertility - ie. the gripping helped ensure better chance of passing on their genetic material). what you need to understand is; **there is just as much chance that the frogs could have had mutations that weren't beneficial**, but what separates this particular trait, and the reason why it was passed on, is because having this trait is more beneficial. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplexus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_selection",
"http://richarddawkins.net/articles/2141"
] | [
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is it possible to accurately predict traffic using mass transfer and the navier-stokes equations? | if you modeled each car (or person on a walking path) as, say, an atom of air ( lets not get specific here i know air isn't an element) could you accurately predict traffic flows using fluid mechanics? how do they do traffic engineering anyway? it's always interested me. | where traffic differs from water is that roads do not have a steady response to increases in traffic. with water, if you want to push more gallons through a pipe you just increase the pressure difference. there is a diminishing return with increasing pressure, but you'll never get less discharge from higher pressure. roads, on the other hand, have a critical capacity where adding any more cars to the road actually lowers the throughput of the road. this is what causes traffic jams. i believe that at low traffic densities ([level of service](_url_0_) a), you could accurately model traffic densities along parallel paths from one destination to another with navier-stokes equations. i think this would break down rapidly once los b-f traffic is reached, because of the cars interactions with each other and the increased risk of traffic jams. disclaimer: i've never used the full navier-stokes equation. in civil engineering we only use bernoulli's energy equation, which i understand is derived from navier-stokes. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_service",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=GH-9YTvny9gC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA265#v=onepage&q&f=false",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=GH-9YTvny9gC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA280#v=onepage&q&f=false"
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why do some con trails(the clouds planes leave behind) last much longer than others? | i live just a few miles from tampa airport(tia). sometimes the trails last forever, but most times they go away quick. what causes it to to linger. its like it's making it own cloud. | they are precisely clouds. jet exhaust is made up of hydrocarbons when one kg of jet fuel is combusted with atmospheric oxygen the result is roughly 3 kg of co2 and 1.5 kg of water. the co2 remains gaseous, of course, and diffuses quickly. the water is also initially gaseous in the form of water vapor. however, at a jet aircraft's cruising altitude the temperature is between 25 and 60 degrees below zero celsius. at these temperatures the atmosphere doesn't have much capacity to hold a lot of humidity so the water vapor in the exhaust rapidly condenses and then freezes. the presence of soot and sulfates in the exhaust facilitates the freezing greatly by providing nucleation sites for the formation of droplets and ice crystals. contrails can last a varying amount depending on the conditions where they exist. they can become dispersed by high altitude winds or they can sublimate into atmospheric moisture. that sublimation will occur more rapidly at higher temperatures and lower humidity levels, so the local conditions where the contrails exist can impact how long they stick around. stable, cold, humid air will preserve contrails for much longer than windy, warmer, drier air. edit: fixed a huge units error. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do we know what makes up the center of the world? | the primary way that the different layers of the earth were discovered was through seismology. an earthquake creates a wave that begins near the earth's surface and propagates outwards in all directions, all the way across the planet if it's strong enough. with sensitive detectors you can feel earthquakes from all over the planet. these waves don't just go out in a uniform circle though, at the interface between two layers the wave is refracted and reflected, like light hitting water. by carefully studying how seismic waves travel through the planet's interior, we can infer the density and thickness of the layers. as for the actual composition of the layers this can be more difficult, the density can be relatively straightforward but then you still need to know exactly what materials are down there. once we know the temperatures and pressures to expect at different layers we can perform experiments on materials to see how they behave under those conditions and determine what makes up each layer. the mantle also comes out of the surface every once in a while as lava, so that helps. the core is the least well understood simply because it's so far down there, but the idea that we have an iron core is supported by the presence of a magnetic field, meaning there's gotta be something conductive moving around down there. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the absolute maximum current that is able to flow through a conductor? | assuming a conductor has a resistance of 0 (no heat is generated, yes i know that's impossible) and the current supply is infinite are there other limits to the maximum current it could handle? for example a solid core 30awg wire. | assuming that the "resistance of 0" implies the wire is a superconductor, then a critical current would exist and provide an upper limit above which the material would revert to a 'normal' conductor. the critical current is just the current necessary to generate an internal magnetic field in the conductor which equals the [critical magnetic field](_url_0_). once the conductor leaves the superconducting state, a normal state resistivity would generate heat and further drive the conductor away from the superconducting phase by raising its temperature. the details of how this transition occurs would depend on the specific material (including some aspects of micro-structure and alloying), heat transfer, the initial temperature, and conductor geometry (e.g. coil inductance, etc.) . | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Solids/scbc2.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/scbc2.html"
] | [
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] |
why was persistence hunting so effective for bipeds? | i learned recently that humans were very effective persistence hunters and can walk 4.5 kilometers per mj. i don't really understand why this is and why being bipedal is so much more efficient than a quadruped. from what i found online it has something to do with torque and leaning but nothing comparing the two. so what specifically is more efficient about bipeds? | i've read articles both for and against this thesis. some articles compare energy efficiency between humans and chimps and claim that humans use only a quarter of the calories that chimps do for locomotion. but the same studies show that chimp locomotion is highly variable, and the same individual chimp can vary tremendously in energy efficiency depending on gait. and different chimpanzees can vary significantly too, calling into question the "one quarter energy used" figure. other studies which use measures such as oxygen consumed show that humans are about 25% more efficient than chimpanzees at locomotion, but **only** when walking. they are not more efficient when running. some people point to studies like this and go "aha, that's why we're persistence hunters, we don't chase them down because we aren't great runners, but we can outwalk any other species under the sun". but other scientists say this is jumping to conclusions because of the inherent variability in locomotion. 25% more efficient may sound like a lot, but it still falls [within the 95% prediction interval](_url_0_) for mammals as a whole. so perhaps it's something else, or maybe a combination of things. our lack of body fur and upright postures make us particularly good at evaporative cooling, so maybe we were persistence hunters because we could go for a long time without overheating in the hot grasslands of africa. or maybe it's because we're not very powerful, we don't have huge sharp teeth and powerful jaws, we don't have claws. maybe catching up quickly with your large prey isn't the best option for us, maybe it's safer to exhaust your prey before you catch up and smash its skull with a large rock. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/energy-efficiency-doesnt-explain-human-walking-39161215/?no-ist"
] | [
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how was the length of one second/minute/hour first determined? | i suspect "degrees" of a circle may have a correlation? | from a search of wikipedia: early definitions of the second were based on the apparent motion of the sun around the earth. the solar day was divided into 24 hours, each of which contained 60 minutes of 60 seconds each, so the second was 1⁄86 400 of the mean solar day. however, 19th- and 20th century astronomical observations revealed that this average time is lengthening, and thus the sun/earth motion is no longer considered a suitable basis for definition. with the advent of atomic clocks, it became feasible to define the second based on fundamental properties of nature. since 1967, the second has been defined to be the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom. additional info: _url_0_ _url_1_ | 40 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hour",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minute",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_time#France"
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] |
why does the winter cause so many potholes? | two major effects cause this. one is simply thermal expansion and contraction. the other is called "frost heaving". this is what happens when water is allowed to get below the road surface, freeze, and expand. it tends to occur on low cost or poorly engineered surfaces. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
questions about cme's | are coronal mass ejections visible to humans from space in the light spectrum, and what would be the effects of being exposed to a cme in deep space? | cme's can be seen from space soon after their ejection from the sun, provided the solar disk itself is occluded and other direct sunlight reflections are blocked from view as well. once the cme reaches the vicinity of any reasonably distant observer, however, it would be far too diffuse to be visible. an observer near earth could, however, see its effects on [aurorae](_url_0_) near the earth's poles. the primary effect of exposure in deep space would be irration by cosmic rays, which is potentially fatal. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy\\)"
] | [
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adhesion causes water to wet a glass container. if there were no forces acting in opposition, the water would creep higher and higher on the walls and eventually overflow the container. would the water that overflows creep along the outside of the container? | [i love getting to link to stuff like this!](_url_0_) what you have described is sort of like what happens to a super-fluid in the linked video. you can see near the end of the video that there is super-fluid helium flowing up the walls of its container and dripping off the bottom. a liquid tries to maximize its surface area because it has a surface tension, this force is 'counter-acted' by the viscosity of the fluid, which is the amount of energy you have to put in to make the liquid flow. if the viscosity drops to 0 the fluid will flow to maximize its surface area. this leads to the super-fluid helium flowing up the sides of its beaker and down the edge until the droplet forms. this droplet will eventually fall off (because gravity will overcome the surface tension), at which point a new droplet will begin to form. this process will continue until the beaker is empty. adhesion doesn't play much of a role in super-fluid helium because it is a very non-interacting liquid; it doesn't gain any stability by interacting with the solid. in water adhesion certainly would play a role; the adhesion force of the surface acts with the surface tension, the viscosity acts against it. adhension to a glass wall is what causes a meniscus to form around the edge of your water glass. it is possible now to modify the surface properties of glass to change the strength of this adhesion (which we measure by using the [contact angle](_url_1_)) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Z6UJbwxBZI",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_angle"
] | [
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|
relative time question. | disclaimer: i am a complete layman in regards to the matters i am inquiring. i am having problems with a rather unintuitive (for me) problem. say for a moment that there are two inhabited planets, who's movement through space is a significant fraction of c relative to wach other. two people, one on each plannet, perform similar tasks requiring identical amounts of time; say baking some muffins. when person a's muffins are done he/she will observe person b's muffins as still baking; and when person b's muffins are done he/she will observe person a's muffins still baking. assuming observation is possible, who's muffins finish first? also would there be any difference to a third party observer on yet another planet with an independent relative speed. related question: do planets often have relative velocities large enough for relativity to cause problems. | the thing is, the two people don't have to agree on the order in which the events happened. loss of simultaneity is one of the more important but also more complicated implications of relativity. as to your followup question, the fastest gravitational system i know of, the hulse-taylor binary system, has objects going at about 1/1000 the speed of light. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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any truth to this psychology anecdote? | is there any truth to this anecdote, or sound science behind the implications drawn? once upon a time a car ferry sank. it sank slowly, one end down, giving the passengers time to raise a fuss. video taken from helicopter, of panicked people, came into the hands of psychologists. what they saw, at first, confused them. many people milled about uselessly. about a quarter moved away from the danger of the sinking end and made preparations to swim/float in the sea. but it was the smaller number of people who actually moved *towards* the danger that caught the shrinks' attention. some of these did survive, in spite of their actions, and were interviewed for an explanation. what they said was remarkably similar, to the effect: *i thought if i could just get there, the accident couldn't happen.* the psychologists proposed that these people had got their instinctive strategies mixed. instead of running from physical danger, they had treated it as a social danger. as if faced with gossipers, they had approached feeling that it should stop in their presence. the psychologists speculated that safe, modern society had over promoted this reaction at the expense of the instinct to flee. | i have heard no such anecdote, nor know of any sort of behavior quite like you described. there is a phenomenon that involves people basically going towards disease outbreak sites... many times for curiosity's sake... and then leaving again, many times spreading the disease further. there was an incident involving world of warcraft and an in game disease called "corrupted blood" that accidentally glitched and spread to characters outside of where it was supposed to, involving the death of characters, which actually modeled the real life behavior of people with epidemic breakouts. _url_0_ during a high stress, trauma incident such as a ship sinking, i wouldn't put it past people to react seemingly irrational. sometimes normal rational thinking can break down, but again, i have never heard anything quite like what you described. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrupted_Blood_incident"
] | [
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] |
how does a body detect that an organ is not its own? | not sure about grammar, english isn't my 1st language | every cell in our bodies have mhc i proteins that tell our immune system self vs non-self. there are millions of mhc i sequences so each and every person has a different mhc i. the more different the cells/organ is the stronger the response would be against it. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
asked in an interview for spacex | this question was asked in an interview for spacex: why is it that a tape measure easily buckles one way, yet resists buckling in the other? my friend who was being interviewed made a comment about the tape measure's moment of inertia. however, the question seems to be pretty open ended. any thoughts from someone with a lot of experience in structural analysis? thanks. | tape measure is not flat thats why. [pic](_url_0_) if it was completely flat it would buckle as easily either way. take a sheet of paper, shape it similarly to tape measure then try to bend it, it will behave the same. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://onefatfrog23.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/tape-measure2b2525281252529.jpg"
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around what voltage is needed for you to actually feel yourself being shocked? | [deleted] | it's not really as simple as a voltage measurement to determine sensation; voltage is a measure of electrical pressure (which will help to overcome the skin barrier), but amperage -- the measure of current -- plays easily an equal part in determining shock sensation. ac or dc current will also play a part, as will resistance; dry skin is more resistant (measured in ohms, or ω) than damp skin. at 120vac (regular us household current) with dry skin (roughly 100kω), the threshold for sensation is about 1ma. that's the point at which you'd feel a tingling sensation. if you were to have very damp skin (say, 1kω) you could experience this tingling sensation at just over 1v. the threshold for sensation on dc is usually a bit higher than ac, and begins around 5ma. further compounding the issue is frequency. in the us we use 60hz ac. as frequency increases, so does the threshold for sensation; for the same voltage, at a higher frequency you would require more current to feel a shock. so, in summary, voltage isn't exactly immaterial in this question but it's also not enough of a determinant to provide a complete answer in itself. for reference, georgia state university has an informative page about this topic: _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/shock.html#c1"
] | [
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could an endothermic chain reaction rob a hurricane of its ire? | my understanding of hurricanes is that the largest source of their destructive energy is from the evaporation of warm water in the tropical areas of the ocean. would it be possible to initiate a cooling chain reaction to destroy a hurricane, and if so, how? | you may be interested in reading about [bill gate's plan](_url_0_) to stop hurricanes. (sorry about the usa today link, i couldn't find the better story i had read about it). but his idea was to primarily drop long tubes into the ocean with ridges on top, which would allow warm water to fall in via waves, which would fall to the bottom, pushing up colder water from down below. then, with the water colder, the hurricane's strength is at least diminished, if not eliminated. this is all very theoretical, of course, but it must be good to know other people are sort of thinking along the same lines as you. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.usatoday.com/weather/research/2009-07-15-gates-hurricanes_N.htm"
] | [
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] |
why do the texts in this picture seem to be in 3d? | i saw [this](_url_0_) and the red text seems to be 'nearer' than the green and the blue seems to be 'further' back. why? **edit :** changed to the png from opcow (thanks) and thanks for the reassurance that it's not just me!! | i think it has to do with the values of the colours. the blue has a darker value, pushing it back behind the brighter red and green. if you have ps or illustrator it's pretty easy to play around with this. it's a pretty common graphic design principle. my only source is my experience, but try this for more info: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/SGwoz.png"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightness_(color)"
] | [
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[mathematics] is it possible to find the volume of revolution of a polar function? | i'm sorry, this was on my calculus final and i can't seem to find a direct answer anywhere, so reddit is my last resort. the equation was r=2+cos(θ), and the instructions were to revolve whatever is above the x-axis around the x-axis utilizing the disk method (the only method we were taught). | your best bet for this problem is to use spherical coordinates. your *θ* ∈ [0, π] will be the inclination, there will be a *φ* ∈ [0, 2π] (the azimuth—this is the variable that describes the actual rotation), and as usual a radius *r* ∈ [0, 2 + cos *θ*]. the volume element in spherical coordinates is d*v* = *r*^2 sin *θ* d*r* d*θ* d*φ* i just did a quickie and found 40π/3. the integral looks a little complicated but you can use substitution at one point to resolve it. edit: i just saw your note about the disk method. i don't know what that is exactly, but if it is what i think it is, it involves converting to cartesian coordinates, and i will vehemently claim that my solution is simpler. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is going on chemically when i get that feeling of guilt? (if i don't buy something after getting a free sample or not tipping) | there is a lot of research on brain activity associated with emotions like fear, happiness, sadness, but much less on guilt. from a psychological perspective, guilt is thought of as a more complex, morality-dependent emotion, along with emotions like shame and embarrassment. this is because the experience of these emotions is in response to a moral transgression or a violation of social etiquette. they require an ability to process the mental states of other people, in order to understand how ones actions affect the opinions of other people. they call this ["theory of mind"](_url_1_)-- an ability to represent the mental states of other people. (theory of mind, by the way, is impaired in people with autism, and consequently [there's evidence](_url_2_) that children with autism also have difficulty recognizing emotions like guilt and embarrassment, which rely on theory of mind). so [evidence suggests](_url_0_) the brain areas that respond when a person feels guilt, then, are the same ones that are responsible for theory of mind and social cognition (e.g. medial prefrontal cortex, superior temporal sulcus). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811904004288",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind",
"http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~keltner/publications/heerey.emotion.2003.pdf",
"https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/01/110125103825.htm"
] | [
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does an amputee's necessary daily caloric intake lower? what about a paraplegic? | if they live a similar enough lifestyle as a normal person an amputees necessary caloric intake would lower as there would be less tissue that they need to supply energy and nutrients for. a paraplegic may experience a milder version of this as the tissue is still there and must therefore be supplied with nutrients and energy to stay alive, and most of the work originally done by the legs must be taken over by the hands but over time muscles atrophy and there is essentially less tissue that needs to be supplied with energy. (i am using energy and nutrients interchangeably here as they are very closely related). edit: i should clarify that i based this as if there are no variables in energy used per cell following amputation or prosthesis usage. there would obviously be changes in energy usage in certain parts in an amputee or paraplegic, prosthesis/wheelchair or not but i don't know enough specifics to calculate or speak to that level. | 68 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.bodyrecomposition.com/research-review/dissecting-the-energy-needs-of-the-body-research-review.html/"
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|
can someone explain lupus to me? | my mother has it and i have all the symptoms she has but have not been diagnosed, yet. i understand that it affects the immune system, but i do not understand why it is so hard to diagnose and why it is so hard to get rid of. can someone give me something on it? i tried wikipedia but it talks in circles. | aeina has a great explanation, so i won't retread any ground. i'd just add that in lupus it's specifically diagnosed by the presence of a antinuclear antibody (ana), meaning there's an antibody targeting the nucleus, or part of the cell that contains dna. while there are actually a few variations on this disease, and ana is associated with diseases other than lupus, ana is among the more common and important findings. if you're concerned, i would highly recommend making an appointment about seeing your pcp/gp, and asking about it. the good news is that lupus can be fairly well controlled for a long time using non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (nsaids), and earlier detection can help avoid a lot of the complications like arthritis or renal failure. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
this question about gravity has been bugging me for a long time. | is the pull of gravity affected by time? as in do we rotate around were the sun was 8 minutes ago? and even larger do we rotate around were the center of the galaxy was 30,000 years ago? | we orbit around where the sun is **now**. more precisely, we orbit around where the sun's momentum 8 minutes ago predicted it would be now. change in gravity does take time to spread, but it doesn't change due to velocity. see: _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/knlzm/do_we_orbit_the_sun_where_it_is_right_now_or/c2lp6ge"
] | [
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since plaque buildup in one's coronary arteries are a primary cause of heart attacks, can this buildup be measurably reduced? | i understand that cholesterol testing can measure the content in one's blood, but i don't know if the plaque buildup is itself measurable without surgery. i also don't know if the buildup can actually *decrease*. so my question is actually twofold. edit: looks like part of my answer is found [here](_url_0_), though i am happy to hear from others who are describing the cimt and other tests. thanks everyone! | its best measured during an coronary angiogram, which is a test where you can injected dye directly into the coronary arteries via a long tube you insert at the wrist or groin, and measure how much of a blockage is present as a % of a non blocked part by looking at this dye with an xray machine as it flows through the arteries. its not as accurate as post mortem but still very very good. it can be decreased, by following the usual lifestyle modifications ( exercise, stop smoking, healthy eating, lose weight ) and with drugs ( statins mainly ) - repeat angiograms in people who have successfully tackled their unhealthy lifestyles often show improvements. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/lkors/do_arteries_unclog_eventually_or_is_plaque_build/"
] | [
"http://www.carotidthickness.com/our-services/",
"http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2003-11-23-plaque-usat_x.htm",
"http://www.themedicinescompany.com/products_MDCO216.shtml",
"http://pipeline.corante.com/archives/2010/01/04/remember_apoa1_milano_pfizer_does.php",
"http://www.themedicinescompany.com/products.shtml",
"http://www.webmd.com/cholesterol-management/news/20090116/synthetic-hdl-cholesterol-in-the-works"
] | [
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how is it that some days cold and the very next day it is really hot? | your question is based on a confusion of scale. life on earth lives within a very sensitive, and relatively narrow temperature range. the most extreme temperatures between night and day or between seasons even is orders of magnitude less than the temperature changes which occur on other planets. in other words, our hot and cold days are not so different relative to actual extremes in other places. we just perceive the changes as massive because they quickly span the temperature climate that we have evolved to here on earth. it is because of all of the water on earth and our atmosphere that we are able to enjoy our very narrow range of temperatures that actually occur here. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
flawed science regarding rates of creation/degradation vs concentration measurements? | hi, recently i’ve been on a conference and the host said a couple of things that keeps mi mind thinking about it (although he didn’t say any of this explicitly). if i have two states, a and b (could be hard and soft, juicy and mealy, healthy and disease, whatever) and state b shows a higher amount of a specific transcripts respect to a, then we usually say that this transcript is related to the develop of the phenotype since is statistically higher in condition b. but we actually don’t know if the system in b state is producing more of this transcript leading to a higher concentration of it or if the system isn’t using it. this means that, while the transcript is higher in b it could be because the system isn’t using it because is useless or there’s a problem of other kind. a higher concentration in b doesn’t mean a higher rate of production, thus, the assumption that this specific transcript is important for the phenotype is essentially wrong. the same logic works for transcripts that shows no difference between these two states. the rate of transcription could be lower in a but the system in a is using and degrading these transcript at the same rate that is being created, while in b the rate of transcription could be way higher than a’s but the rate of degradation is the same too, so we effectively see no difference in concentration but in b this transcript is more important because the rate has increased respect to a. what does this mean in terms of current scientific investigation? is everything wrong (well, not everything but a part of it) or i am missing a key point here? pd: i work as a bioinformatician but i’m no fan of reading papers, maybe i’m missing a basic thing? pd2: sorry for my english, non-native here. | hi, 1. in a broad sense, there is only so much information you can get out of looking at transcript levels, and at some point you need to look at protein levels. i don't know of many biologists that think that looking at transcript levels is good enough to call it a day. researchers in this field know that more mrna != more functional protein in every situation. 2. transcripts don't get 'used up' when they get read by ribosomes, so that appears to be a misunderstanding in your post. 3. transcripts *do* get degraded, sometimes very specifically through mirna/risc, so an elevated amount of transcript **could** be due to a decrease in degradation, rather than an increase in production. this is already known, so researchers that are experienced in this field know that it is a possibility. 4. because it is possible to have a change in the amount of protein without affecting the transcript levels (of that protein), it is already known that b:a transcript ratios won't capture *everything* that could matter for a phenotype. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[meta] a legal response to "medical advice on askscience: the guidelines" | thanks for the opinion. i'm not an affected party, but i can't let this slip by without comment: translated: "this is not legal advice, but...". lol? does the same principle not apply for legal advice? since we're on the topic, what about accounting advice (cpa's) etc.? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
wireless power questions | i was looking at new incoming nokia 920 with some wireless charging technology. it got me thinking about whole system, how it's mostly tiny mat on the table. why it isn't a huge mat on the floor? or hell, replace whole plug system with wireless transmitter inside the floor of every single room on the construction process? won't it have the same efficiency? will it have problems charging a phone or a laptop on the table, will it waste more electricity? or are the costs too high to manufacture them? if it's the distance between objects, why not make some futuristic tables, which extend the induction from the floor-level to table? | cost and efficiency. cost and shockingly large drop in efficiency. the efficiency is mostly related to the distance between the mat and the device, so unless you like placing all of your devices on the floor efficiency will take a huge hit. this is assuming the system can actually scale that high and that's not exactly a simple question in and of itself. yes. you burn through a huge amount of power for that little bit of convenience. not too high to manufacture, but it would certainly be too high to get into residential homes when you consider real-world economics. not many people would plunk down the tens of thousands of dollars to outfit their home with a system that's guaranteed to cost more than conventional wiring for that kind of convenience. the same reason we don't just make a cure for cancer or anti-gravity propulsion systems. the million-dollar question is *how*. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why this exception to the ionization energy trend? | in group 13, the order of decreasing i.e. is- b > tl > ga~al > in why is this so? according to the usual rule shouldn't it be- tl > in > ga > al > b ? | you’ve got the last bit the wrong way round. boron has the highest oxidation energy as it’s electrons are closer to the nucleus and thus harder to remove. the only one out of trend is thallium, not sure exactly why, but i think it’s got something to do with it being more stable at +1 oxidation. so b > al > ga > in, with tl in the middle somewhere. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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way of measuring pre-historic wind speeds? | perhaps striation on rock surfaces or through modelling based on previous temperatures?it’s been windy lately in my area, how bad can wind get? were there hurricanes in the past that reached above level 6? tornadoes above f-5? | the only way i'm aware of is via calculations related to the size of particles transported by wind. [this article provides a lot of detail on the transport of material by wind](_url_1_), but if you browse through the math bits you'll see that generally you can work out an approximation of the wind speed necessary to transport sediment grains of a given size. the caveat here is that this is really only applicable in places where we have preserved eolian dunes, so in rock formations like the [navajo sandstone](_url_2_) which is an ancient version of an [erg](_url_0_). the vast majority of the rock record either records deposition by water (i.e. most sedimentary rocks are from fluvial or other water mediated processes) or other processes (e.g. metamorphic or igneous rocks), so there are kind of limited places where we could estimate paleo-wind speeds. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erg_(landform\\)",
"https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1201/1201.4353.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navajo_Sandstone"
] | [
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would i be able to hear myself chewing in space? | yes; chewing sounds are transmitted to the inner ear not through air but through bone (mandible to jaw joint directly to the fluid in the cochlea, no air involved). there is a common experiment we do in physiology labs where you can put a vibrating tuning fork, that is not making any detectable sound va air conduction, in direct contact with in a person's jaw. the jaw owner will hear a loud sound but another person who is seated inches away will hear nothing. (the point being that the sound is not being transmitted through air.) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are some adaptation hydrophytic species have developed in response to fluctuation of water levels of river and wetlands known to flood significantly on a regular basis? | some characteristics of hydrophytes include: rapid growth of shoots (to guarantee that the shoot can be above the surface of the water even during flooding) lack of turgor in the stem (this allows flexibility for the plant, therefore giving it adaptability to water level changes) reduced roots (often the root is simply absent; when it is present, it typically only serves as anchorage for larger plants that lack the ability to float) large air chambers in leaves (provide buoyancy and improve gas exchange, which is very important for hydrophytes) heterophylly (also known as leaf dimorphism, the presence of 2 different types of leaves on one plant. the submerged leaves typically are dissected and lack developed mesophyll, while aerial leaves are broad, with a waxy cuticle. the plant is able to switch between the development of these 2 different types of leaves in accordance to changing water levels.) more here about heterophylly: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://5e.plantphys.net/article.php?ch=&id=16"
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|
what causes the shape of pilot wave in quantum mechanics? | i can not picture the definition of the "event" that caused pilot wave's shape exactly in my head. is it about fabric of space-time? is it because of gravity? or something else that we don't know yet? what causes the "randomness" of the wave? | pilot-wave theory is just a rejiggering of the math of regular quantum mechanics and the two can be shown to be mathematically identical. quantum mechanics is neither special relativistic (space-time) nor general relativistic (gravity) so neither is pilot-wave theory. in other words, pilot-wave theory has nothing to do with either of those concepts. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone please answer some questions re nuclear physics in general, and little man in particular? | non-scientist here (though that will become readily apparent i'm sure). in a spherical critical mass of say, u235, with no neutron reflectors, etc, roughly what percent of neutrons would hit another nucleus? and is there a way to estimate roughly how many fission generations would have taken place in little boy, and i guess ancillary to that (or perhaps required to know), how many nuclei would have split from the supplementary neutron source? thanks! | little boy contained 64 kg of uranium-235, or about 1.64 * 10^26 atoms. each nuclear fission released 3.24 * 10^-11 j of energy, and the total energy released was 6.3 * 10^13 j. so we can calculate there were 1.9 * 10^24 fission events inside little boy. most of these fission events created barium-141, krypton-92, and 3 neutrons. 0.4% of these neutrons went on to split another nucleus. i'm not sure what you mean by supplementary neutron source - little boy did not have a fissionable tamper or a spark plug, although it did have a neutron reflector surrounding the core. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how dangerous are lead glazes, really? | this question is specifically about glazes on ceramic mugs. is there a stable way manufacturers can use lead glazes that doesn't lead to leaching of the pb into liquids? what factors influence leaching? | the factors that influence leaching are a combination of the relative solubility of lead in the glaze versus liquids in contact, and kinetics. relative solubility tells you how lead would be distributed between the glaze and the liquid if the liquid were left in contact for a very long period of time. however, it is possible to develop systems that will trap ions or molecules. one example is polymer networks that can be synthesized with pore sizes too small for a protein to squeeze through, with the protein trapped inside until the polymer network degrades or swells. another example is a set of molecules known as chelators that can bind with coordination sites on metal ions. these could be used to trap something like lead inside of a material. judging from a public health advisory (_url_0_), leaching rates vary. it is almost certainly possible to develop lead-containing products that would be of minimal health risk, but why would you want to? | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/lead/doc/Porcelain%20and%20Ceramic2.pdf"
] | [
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is there a way to tell if an economy has a supply vs. a demand bottleneck? | it's been awhile since i've studied any economics, so this question might not make sense, but to illustrate this point, imagine two economies - one with a bunch of people with lots of money (and lots of demand), but no businesses at all - no where to spend the money; this would be a supply bottleneck. similarly we could imagine a scenario with lots of businesses with lots of goods, but no people with any money - a demand bottleneck. it's easy to identify that these economies are out of equilibrium, but in a more advanced economy, like that of the us, is it possible to tell? | so in your scenario you are talking about a country that only deals with domestic trade aye? generally you can tell based upon pricing, but it's hard because most countries are in the global markets now so it doesn't take long for a supplier to see a demand for product and ram product to fill the hole rapidly. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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