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what would food look like at each stage of the digestive system? | if i were to say eat brisket for dinner tonight what would it look like when hitting my large intestine, small intestine, stomach etc? | food that is partially broken down in the mouth is mixed with saliva and enters the stomach as a bolus, which is basically a mass of food that will look somewhat like a mashed up and slightly more liquid version of what you ate. after leaving the stomach the food is called chyme, which has more of a semiliquid state after mixing with the gastric juices in the stomach. macronutrients are absorbed in the small intestines, while water, fiber, and some ions are absorbed in the colon. the material entering the colon will more or less be in a liquid form as well. some metabolites (e.g. vitamins) are also synthesized by gut bacteria and absorbed by the large intestine. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes functions integratable or non-integratable? | in my math class we defined differentiability if it was locally linear. we said if you kept zooming in on a point (a,b) and the f(x,y) looked more and more like the tangent plane, it was differentiable. also, the distance between the surface and the tangent plane had to decrease faster than (x,y)- > (a,b). there was a more formal equation we learned involving partial derivatives we touched on. is there some sort of way to see if something can be integrate like you can for differentiablity, and if so, is it related to differentiability? | that zooming you talked about means that differentiation is a so-called "local property". it doesn't matter what is happening far from a point, as long as it looks nice "near" a point, we can differentiate. integration is a "global property". we necessarily have to look at what the function does over the entire domain that we are integrating over. functions can do crazy things over intervals, so this makes it a little harder to check that functions are integrable. what doesn't help is that there are multiple ways to integrate, there are functions that can't be riemann integrated by can be lebesgue integrated. so we need to specify how we're integrating. for instance, there is the [dirichlet function](_url_1_), which is 1 on rational numbers and 0 on irrational numbers. this is not riemann-integrable, but it is lebesgue integrable. there is a great and magical theorem that does help guarantee the integrablility of a large class of important functions. [the fundamental theorem of calculus](_url_3_) tells us that all continuous functions are integrable. this relates derivatives and integrals. there is a more general, higher-dimensional version of this theorem, of which this is a special case, called [stoke's theorem](_url_4_). in calc 3, this theorem takes the form of green's theorem and the divergence theorem. we can expand this a little. if there are not too many places where our function is discontinuous, we can just break up the integral into pieces that each cover the continuous parts and get value. this line of ideas leads to a necessary and sufficient condition for a function to be riemann-integrable called [lebesgue's integrability condition](_url_2_). this says that a function is riemann integrable if and only if it is bounded and continuous "[almost everywhere](_url_0_)". this is a global condition on the function. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_everywhere",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowhere_continuous_function#Dirichlet_function",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_integral#Integrability",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_calculus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokes%27_theorem"
] | [
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will a 20% chance become a 100% chance after five times in this situational? | hello, my friend and i have been scratching our heads over this for some time now. there are five cans on a fence and each round, 1 is knocked off at random. at the start of each round all cans get reset. if this continues for 5 rounds, will the chance for one can to get knocked off be greater than one that has already been knocked off? i know that in reality, there will always be a 20% chance amongst all of them but is there some sort of law or theory that i'm not considering here? thank you in advance! | if the cans are replaced, the odds are the same for each can each time. the idea that a can that hasn't had a "turn" yet is somehow "primed" or "due" is called the "gambler's fallacy". if the later trials are independent, then the past results don't influence it one way or another by definition. considering each round on it's own as you describe, though, is different from considering a group of rounds together. the odds that a given can makes it through a number n rounds without being knocked over is 0.8^n. if you decide to remeasure that after round 3, though, the odds of a can that hasn't been knocked down yet of being knocked down aren't closer to 1; the odds of it not being knocked over are even better now at 0.8^(n-3). | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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doppler effect, where does the energy go ? | hi, i have some questions about the doppler effect and was wondering someone could help me understand. with the phenomenon called the doppler effect, the frequentie of for example an electromagnetic wave (such as a lightbeam) will change due to the movement of the emitter or it being bounced of of a moving object. now the famous formula of max planck tells us the energy an electromagnetic wave equals the planck constant times the frequentie of the wave. now my question is, where does this energy, due to the change in frequentie, go ? | so, between two observers moving at different speeds, they disagree about the energy of different objects. we don't even need relativity or the doppler effect to tell us that: kinetic energy is 1/2\*(mv^(2)) in the non-relativistic limit, so if i think a train is at rest and you think it is moving at 100 mph, we have a very different idea of what the total energy of the train is. we can look at the doppler effect for a single observer though, like a cop with a radar gun. they shoot low energy photons at your car and measure higher energy photons reflecting back, and the difference in energy tells them how fast you were moving. where did that energy come from? your car. your car gave the photons some extra momentum/energy by reflecting them, and the photons therefore pushed back on your car a little bit, slowing it down. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/15279/conservation-of-energy-and-doppler-effect"
] | [
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] |
are scientists required by law to be honest in their investigations/studies? | [removed] | researchers who conduct research with government money (ex. nih) or at an academic institution (ex. university affiliation) are subject to oversight by their offices of research integrity which have the power to investigate allegations of misconduct, fire researchers, bar them from applying to future funding, and demand financial restitution (pay back the money). research that requires institutional review board (irb) approval can also be halted and never renewed if a researcher is not being honest or causing undisclosed and unnecessary potential harm to participants. see more from [the national institutes of health research integrity office](_url_1_). in very rare cases (just once?) a research academic has been jailed for fraud as the result of his misconduct: [eric poehlman](_url_0_). researchers working in industry aren't necessarily subject to ori, but can be held accountable criminally or in civil law (eg. class action) if their research lead to harm or lied about benefit. regulatory bodies can also impose sanctions and fines if misconduct and/or fraud is discovered. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Poehlman",
"https://grants.nih.gov/grants/research_integrity/research_misconduct.htm"
] | [
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i've heard that semi-conductors in some way are evidence or supportive of quantum mechanics. is this true, and why/how? | they are not only evidence, they are direct applications of quantum mechanics. it is difficult to separate the specific parts of semiconductor technology that are direct applications of quantum mechanics. in fact, one could argue that semiconductor technology isn't possible without quantum mechanics. your question is like asking "why/how are internal combustion engines evidence of thermodynamics?" in fact it is the other way around. semiconductors were made possible because we had figured out quantum mechanics, not vice versa, just as internal combustion engines are possible because we know thermodynamics. but i suppose this isn't the kind of answer you expected. this is sadly true quite often in science, but i'm not going to leave you empty handed. i am going to give you a quantum physics effect, and the application of it. electroluminesce is one of the phenomena in nature in which current is transformed into light: normally, the electrons of any material have separate energy states: that is the energy of the electrons of any atom cannot have any value, but can only have certain specific ones. each energy state can support up to a specific number of electrons. normally, the electrons are distributed in these states in such a way as to have the least total energy. lower energy states are filled up first, and higher energy are filled up last. but a collision with something (such as a freely moving electron in an electric current) can move these bound electrons into a higher energy state. this happens very briefly. after a short amount of time, the "excited" electron drops down again back into its normal lower-energy state. the difference in energy from the excited state to the normal state is radiated in the form of a photon. because each material has specific energy states, the energies of the photons it can emit are also specific. and because there is an equivalence between photon energy and frequency of light (e = h*f, where h is a constant and f is frequency), if one or some of these frequencies are in the visible spectrum, then this material emits visible light when current goes through it. this is how leds work but electroluminescence is just an example. my point is that the entire concept of semiconductors isn't possible without a quantum understanding of electromagnetic radiation and atomic structure. but you don't need to go into such an advanced technology to find applications of quantum mechanics. even an incadescent light is enough. without black body radiation, there is not sufficient explanation as to how old incandescent lights work basically my point is that quantum mechanics and physics are such an integral part of our understanding of reality that you can't separate the parts of reality where they apply and the parts where they don't. even the fact that when you push something, your finger doesn't go through the object you are trying to push cannot be explained without quantum physics if you dig deep enough. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
question about mussel seeding. | i work with eastern canadian inuit populations and in several locations, some of my contacts proudly told me they had introduced mussels from neighboring areas into their communities waters. i've heard this both in kangiqsujjuaq, salluit and kangiqsuallujjuaq. i was under the impression that mussels were extremely widespread (if not universal) in arctic waters, and that there was no way they were'nt already present at those localities. they certainly are quite plentifull in the waters surrounding those communities today. are my inuit friends deluding themselves? are there any consequences of note or measurable impacts one could expect of doing this, either in terms of genetic variability or biological productivity? | i may be wrong, but at least from what i've read blue mussels haven't been present in the arctic ocean for quite some time. they were found in svalbard in 2005 after not being present there for 1000 years. [ocean temperature oscillations enable reappearance of blue mussels mytilus edulis in svalbard after a 1000 year absence - pdf](_url_2_) [local adaptation and species segregation in two mussel (mytilus edulis × mytilus trossulus) hybrid zones](_url_0_) they are in the north atlantic, along with *mytilus trossulus*, but the shellfish of quebec website only lists the blue mussel. _url_1_ without any more details i would assume they are just introducing blue mussels into areas where they're absent to be easily harvested. in terms of downsides, if they're from a close by population they're likely extremely similar, and if the area isn't productive enough to support them, they won't grow, so the only downside would come from unintended introductions. if they're introducing blue mussels from a nearby population i don't see that occurring. do you have any more details? | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02379.x/full",
"http://www.mollusca.gc.ca/Mollusques_e.asp",
"http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps_oa/m303p167.pdf"
] | [
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why does the stacking order affect light throughput of multiple polarized lenses? | i recently saw a 3d movie and after leaving the theater, removed the lenses from my glasses. i was surprised when i stacked the films, they did not fully black out my view as i expected. when i then stacked the films differently, the other film on top, the films blocked almost all light as expected. what is going on here? how do the films know what order they are in? | the 3d glasses you used are circular polarizers, but unlike the simple linear polarizers you are familiar with, these are themselves compound objects. if you're wearing the glasses, the front layer of each lens is a quarter-wave plate, so it converts circularly polarized light to linearly polarized light. then the next layer is a linear polarizer, oriented so that, in one case, light that was initially clockwise polarized can come through, and the other so that light that was initially counterclockwise polarized can come through. so if you take two inner sides and place them one after the other, you will have two linear polarizers in sequence, and get the effects you are familiar with, but if you place the lenses other ways, you have to trace out the sequence of linear polarizers and quarter-wave plates to determine the final outcome. by the way, one reason for using circular polarizations is to prevent bleed through when you tilt your head. if the left and right eye had, respectively, a vertical and a horizontal polarizer in front of them, then when you tilted your head, some of the image meant for each eye would make it through to the wrong eye. with circular polarizations you don't have this problem. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/146dkx/why_do_polarized_lenses_change_colors_when_they/c7ab0y1"
] | [
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how much energy does a surge protector take up, considering that it's not technically an appliance but still draws power? also, if i push the switch to off, will it still consume energy and show up on my electric bill? | are there actually any benefits to using a surge protector other than having more outlets and protecting against a blackout? also, if i leave my surge protector plugged in with my pc plugged into it but the pc is powered off, will energy consumption be the same or more as opposed to not using the surge protector at all and opting to having a turned off pc in a wall outlet instead? | a surge protector is passive device. the protection components activate when the voltage gets too high. when that happens it either blocks the current or dumps it to ground. so no, it does not use extra power regardless of whatever is plugged into it is on or off. if the surge protector has a lit power button however it will use a tiny bit of power to illuminate the switch. also, if it's a newer one with usb charger ports those will draw a bit of power even if nothing is plugged in. other than give you extra outlets and protect against surges (not blackouts) all it does is give you a few extra feet of power cord. :) to protect against a blackout you would need a uninterruptible power supply (ups). those do draw power even if the stuff plugged into them is off. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you predict the signs of delta h and s for a reaction? | i've got how to find the sign of the change in entropy i believe, but what what about enthalpy? does it have something to do with the number of bonds broken? | the change in entropy (δs) is relatively easy to predict. remember, entropy is an indication of the 'disorder' of a system, and disorder is increased by several things: * a state change, either from liquid to gas, or solid to liquid, or solid to gas (ie h2o(l) - * an increase in the number of species present (ie n2o4 - * formation of a mixture (ie oil + water - take a look at your reaction, and consider which of these factors may be at play. you may have several, and they may all work in one direction, however this is not always the case. you need to weigh up what options you think might contribute the most. the change in enthalpy (δh) can be equally as easy to predict, depending on how you want to do it. you can simply count the number of bonds which are broken (b) and the number that are formed (f), then compare them. * if b * if f however there are several complications which arise in this. a double bond is stronger than a single bond but not twice as strong, and a triple bond is stronger than both, but not three times as strong as a single bond. this is perhaps an approximation you will have to deal with. if you want to do it the more accurate way, you might consider doing a [hess's law diagram](_url_0_). which option you should go for depends on what you've been taught. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/c120/hess.html"
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what's so great about the f-35? | [removed] | well is it fast and goes (classified) miles per hour air speed and it has a real high ceiling of (classified) feet up and it has an awesome climb rate of (classified) ft/sec and not to mention the weapons systems: (classified) so you can see, it is a real awesome plane. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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explosives as vasodialators? | i have noticed something odd. nitroglycerin and petn are both explosive substances, but they are also used as vasodialators to treat heart problems. i'm an engineer from a family of chemists, so i have a basic grasp of chemistry, but i don't know enough to really understand some things. are there certain chemical properties that make something explosive that also make it a good vasodialator? i notice they both have a nitrate group. is that it? | you're on the right track. nitroglycerin, petn, and other nitrate compounds like isosorbide dinitrate and mononitrate have vasodilation effects because they're all metabolized into nitric oxide, a potent vasodilator, by a mitochondrial form of the aldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme. so the nitric oxide is the molecule with the primary vasodilating effect, and all these other compounds simply serve to provide it to the body in a biologically available and relatively safe form. source (taken from wikipedia): _url_0_ | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1189320/"
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] |
does anyone know anything about the structural integrity of 3-d printed metal? | i watched a video on 3-d printed metal items. the video was fascinating, but it didn't really talk about the structural integrity of the items produced. i realize metal printing is in its infancy, but i don't see how any of these items can have any real strength. it just looks like someone hooked a wire welder up to a cad machine. nothing wrong with that for making models, demo pieces, or art. am i missing something? that many individual and tiny welds can't possibly be that strong. the process inherently creates too many stress risers. any thoughts or input from this fine community? | i don't know what video you saw, maybe the 'open source metal 3-d printer' stuff from michigan tech? while clever, that effort is very low tech, and not at all representative of whats happening in the industry today. here on reddit, the community seems to reside at [/r/additive](_url_0_). the many [laser-based machines](_url_1_) are now very sophisticated, with many now capable of building parts from stainless, cobalt alloys and titanium alloys. the e-beam machines from [arcam](_url_2_) are likewise very impressive. the strength of finished parts can vary, and will sometimes be less than what astm might specify for the same alloy in wrought machined form. there are [plenty of research groups](_url_3_) working on improving am processes and studying the effects of process variations on finished part strength. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/additive/",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jTjipJM8Bn0",
"http://www.arcam.com/technology/electron-beam-melting/",
"http://www.programmaster.org/PM/PM.nsf/UpcomingSymposia/8302A3871D37621485257A10001327C2?OpenDocument&ParentUNID=1C64FCABE1A1E644852576C30062C9E9"
] | [
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is it possible to demonstrate a googolplex with zeros? | i know that attempting to write a googolplex isn't possible, because there is not enough room in the observable universe. would it be possible to demonstrate via a computer, say with some manner of script generating zeroes to a webpage or word document? if so, how long would it take our current technology to generate? how much storage capacity might such a number require? | let's say we have a program fully optimized to produce 0's at 3ghz ... this is the "realm" of current technology though any real implementation would be slower. that would produce 10^9 0's per second. then it would take 10^10^100 / 10^9 seconds to run, in other words: 10^999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999999991 seconds. which is still much much much longer than the life of the universe. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run-length_encoding"
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what would happen / could we do - if we solved the navier–stokes existence and smoothness problem? | i assume this would mostly matter to the cfd / fluid simulation industries. what would solving it change? | probably nothing immediate for the applied fields. if you were sitting on a method that needs only a solution to this problem to work, nothing prevents you from using that method now and just seeing experimentally whether it works or not. applied mathematicians (generalizing here) are not above using methods with unverified but plausible assumptions so long as they can be observed to work well in practice. as is often the case, there is a chance that the mathematics *needed to solve it* provides unintended benefits elsewhere. but we don't know yet what those are, of course. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the angle of visual perspective? | what is (or how does it work in such a way that this isn't answerable) the angle of visual perspective? imagine the typical scenario of looking at a long straight set of railroad tracks. as they go on, they appear to converge. what [is/defines] the angle at which they appear to converge? is it the angle formed by the retina and iris sizes? is it a constant angle that can be defined? or, because they never actually converge to a point, is it somehow not definable? is it the same for everyone? initially, this seems like a really silly question. after much googling, i can't find an answer that i really like. thanks! | from photography we are told that the human perspective (average) is approximated with a 50mm lense. these have a view angle of 47 degrees at the diagonal. this refers to the field of view for each eye. however with binocular vision this expands. [humans have a field of view that covers 180 degrees, with 140 degrees being binocular.](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.owlpages.com/articles.php?section=Owl+Physiology&title=Vision"
] | [
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why is it when your given a distance of eye level to bottom of painting (z) and painting height (y) and you stand √z(y+z) units away from the wall, you will always be standing in the position that gives the largest viewing angle (a)? | my class was given an assignment one day to find the best distance to stand to view a painting to give the best (most) viewing angle of said painting. heres an example of what it looks like [here](_url_0_) so we were given a distance of eye level to bottom of painting (z) and painting height (y). with that we were supposed to find the distance from you to the wall (x) to the nearest hundredth meter that would give us the biggest angle (a) value. it turns out that if you stand √z(y+z) units away, you will always be standing in the position that gives the largest viewing angle (a). let me prove that by doing some examples... (a)=arctan((z+y)/x)-arctan(z/x) best (a)=arctan((z+y)/√z(y+z))-arctan(z/√z(y+z)) best x=√z(y+z) x | z | y | (a) | best (a) | best x ---|---|----|----|----|--- 1.413 | 1 | 1 | 19.471214 | 19.471221 | 1.414214 1.414 | 1 | 1 | 19.471220 | 19.471221 | 1.414214 1.415 | 1 | 1 | 19.471218 | 19.471221 | 1.414214 as you can see, the formula works, now lets try another... x | z | y | (a) | best (a) | best x ---|---|----|----|----|--- 6.262 | 5.3 | 2.1 | 9.517818831 | 9.517818872 | 6.262587325 6.263 | 5.3 | 2.1 | 9.517818852 | 9.517818872 | 6.262587325 6.264 | 5.3 | 2.1 | 9.517818634 | 9.517818872 | 6.262587325 it works here too, one more... x | z | y | (a) | best (a) | best x ---|---|----|----|----|--- 3.377 | √3 | 34/7 | 35.71147725 | 35.71147922 | 3.378286283 3.378 | √3 | 34/7 | 35.71147912 | 35.71147922 | 3.378286283 3.379 | √3 | 34/7 | 35.71147861 | 35.71147922 | 3.378286283 and of course it works... i don't understand why this works... could someone please explain? also, sorry for the long title, i am unable to think of how to word this question. | why was that other guys comment deleted? i was just about to reply to it. i didnt really check the math but it looked correct so at the risk of myself being deleted here it was in its entirety: and my response was: if you want a conceptual answer (which i doubt given all the math you did, but i'll give it anyway) then just look at extremes. if you are a very long distance away, then the painting will appear very small to you; at infinity its size will be 0. if you are directly underneath the painting, then its size will also be zero due to the 180 degree angle you are at. since it has a non-zero value for every distance in between those two, it logically follows that there will be some maximum viewing angle at some finite distance x. to find out exactly what that distance is, just listen to thebb up there. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/C0BwHFj"
] | [] | [
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what exactly would be required to live in the oort cloud? | like, if you were trying to terraform and live on a planet in the distant oort cloud, what special difficulties would be encountered? also, what is a good resource on this part of space (plus the kuiper belt) other than wikipedia? edit: it's been brought to my attention that this region is ice elemental, any tips related to that aspect of it are welcome. i will credit you in my novel unless i change the idea a lot. | you're talking about trying to terraform a ball of ice smaller than the moon, at a distance from the sun where it's little more than an unusually bright star. it's just not going to happen. maybe you could put a manned base there, but you'd need a hell of a good reason to even try. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i have questions about the scientific method and objectivims. | it's only been 40 minutes. anyway, there's nothing you can say that will change his mind. a person cannot be reasoned out of a position that they didn't reason themselves into. the truth is that science is extremely hard on new ideas. scientists do everything they can to poke holes in hypotheses, to spot problems in people's experiments, to think of other explanations that would fit the data. and things that actually are "the real truth" *can take it*. because if your theory is the way the world actually is, there won't be holes to poke, there won't be other explanations that explain the data as well. the idea is that the truth is the only thing that is able to get out of all that 'intolerance' alive. the reason that science does this is that it's extremely easy to fool yourself into thinking your theory is true. in past times when scientists were a little less intolerant of new ideas, we had things like [n rays](_url_0_). read that wikipedia page and it becomes clear why scientists deliberately try to knock down people's theories. if it's actually the truth, you can't knock it down. if you have a favourite idea, and when you present it to scientists they try to knock it down, and manage to knock it flat on its back without much effort at all, as they tend to with pseudoscience, it's very easy to say "oh they hate all new ideas, they are closed-minded". but if you want to play with the big boys, you need to have ideas that can stand up to the kind of beating that scientific scrutiny involves. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N_ray"
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|
while looking at an 'optical illusion', i noticed that the image had an effect like when you reduce the brightness of your monitors. what effect could have caused this? | [deleted] | naturally, your eyes are making many small movements per second called microsaccades to bring different parts or the image onto the same part of your retina. if you maintain fixation very steadily, the entire image will gradually fade. this is because your visual system is adapting to repeated identical stimulation. we can think of this as the system rapidly learning to ignore unchanging and therefore likely unimportant information. your other sensory systems do this as well. for example, when you put on your clothing in the morning, you can feel them against your skin, but then the sensation quickly fades and you don't feel them during the day (except maybe now when i drew your attention to them). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
does every line have an equation? | if i had a blank graph and drew a random squiggle on it, would that squiggle have a mathematical equation or function? | this exact question was asked four months ago [here](_url_0_) and there were several different answers. to sum up, it depends on your expectations : if the scribble is a physical imprecise object and you consider that a good approximation is enough for you, then the answer is yes. you can find a mathematical function/equation that will draw the scribble with the wanted precision. if you consider your squiggle as a perfect mathematical object for which you want an infinitely precise and closed formula for the squiggle, then the answer is probably no. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://fr.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2i305z/if_i_drew_a_random_scribble_on_a_set_of_axis_will/"
] | [
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how do scisntist decipher old texts? | so i always had that questions in mind. how do scientist and linguistics know the meaning of old texts? like for example, the hammurabi code? i mean is there a specific techniques or they just depend on old people who know part of the language and other old text that are similar to it? is there a specific type of science that delas with these issues? | often decipherments of unknown languages were started with bilingual texts, for example the rosetta stone had the same text in greek and two scripts of ancient egypt on it, which was used to decipher ancient egypt and for akkadian, the language of the code of hammurabi they used bilingual texts in akkadian and old persian & #x200b; | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is a practical clockwork car (or other, similar conveyance like a train/bus/scooter) mechanically or economically feasible? | could a spring drive of some sort ever compete with say, an nev? what would be the logistics of maintaining a vehicle like that? would the energy required to rewind it make the whole thing a bust? | the mass to energy ratio of spring energy storage system is too high. you're better off with a battery. that said, a crew at mit is working on carbon nano tube storage systems that would basically be a spring battery. there is potential but it's a long way off from being better than the car batteries we have now. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are broca's and wernicke's explained via evolution? | did they develop simultaneously because language was evolutionarily beneficial? | according to [this research](_url_2_) and [this research](_url_1_), there are bits of the brains in chimpanzees (and in other primates, like macaque monkeys) which look a lot like broca's and wernicke's areas - they're in the equivalent area of the brain, and do equivalent things. so the areas themselves were there in the primate brain well before language as we know it evolved. however, while other primates don't have language as we know it, they still communicate - macaque monkeys will make noises when predators come past, for example. broca's area has something to do with the production of these calls and gestures in macaque monkeys and of gestural hand movements in chimps. similarly, wernicke's area with the reception of these calls and gestures. so (as is very common in evolution) it looks like language was building on structures doing similar things to language that were already there. chomsky, hauser and fitch had an [influential paper](_url_0_) arguing that the difference between, say, chimp communication and human language is mostly *recursion*, but this is controversial. in any case, we have a much larger broca's areas and wernicke's areas than chimps, let alone macaques, because of our enormous brains, and chances are the increase in size has something to do with our language capabilities. the problem with language is that it requires quite a lot of brain power, and that requires quite a lot of fuel. it's hard for most animals to get the necessary calories to power a brain. at some point we began to be able to use language to get those calories ("right, you hide in those bushes over there and spear the antelope when we scare it into running towards you"), leading to a feedback cycle where we got better and better at language in order to get better and better and getting lots of calories. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.chomsky.info/articles/20021122.pdf",
"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/277/1691/2165.full",
"http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/content/20/3/730.full"
] | [
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] |
is the blood vein "pathway" the same in all humans, or only similar to an extent? if so, is it like a digital print? | the major blood vessels(such as the vena cava) are preserved, however; when discussing the smaller blood vessels there is a ton of variability from person to person. even the brain has a wildly variable series of veins and sinuses: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.anatomyatlases.org/AnatomicVariants/Cardiovascular/Text/Veins/SinusesCerebralDural.shtml",
"http://www.patientsecure.com/palm-vein-recognition.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vein_matching"
] | [
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|
when doing cost-benefit analyses, what is the value of a human life? how is this determined? | depends on what you're analyzing and who you ask. the real question is how much are you willing to spend to stop a single person from dying. and that changes. a lot of times it's cultural, but i believe it's mostly done in reverse. come up with a proposal that can save lives, work backwards to figure out the cost per life, then decide if it's a good deal or not. _url_0_ it comes down to a cultural and economic decision, rather than scientific. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/business/economy/17regulation.html"
] | [
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|
if a person would be looking out the window, would he see an animation? | i would like to know if this is possible. so there is this subaru commercial: _url_0_ where they make a roadside animation and then roll the camera in the car at a certain speed to match the animation frame rate. my question is, would a person sitting in the car and focused on the wall see the animation properly like the camera, or would it be just blury and nonsense for the human eye? thanks in advance. | the human eye continuously captures light, so you would just see all the frames blurring together. the camera would also see the same thing, if they didn't use a very fast shutter speed. and even then, they also have to synchronize the frame-rate of the camera to the speed of the car, or the images will seem to scroll sideways. | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6ROaFrFQvs"
] | [] | [
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] |
what happened to the hypothesized ninth planet that everyone was talking about years ago? | a couple of years ago scientists hypothesized there was a ninth planet, but lately i haven't heard anything about it. | [they are still looking for it.](_url_0_) occasionally a new kuiper belt object is discovered whose orbital parameters strengthen the hypothesis. then there is the question: are kbos with orbits that strengthen the hypothesis simply easier to detect than those that don't? even accounting for biases like that, the orbits still suggest a large distant planet, rather than just coincidental alignment. but, sadly, still no observation. [here is a summary](_url_1_) of the evidence and motivation, from the initial proposers. | 37 | [] | [] | [
"https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aaae70/meta",
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1902.10103.pdf"
] | [
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in what instance would a positive feedback homeostatic response become fatal? | we are learning about homeostatic responses in physiology and the professor only discussed parturition (birth) as a positive feedback response. from what i understand, the positive feedback response stops when the stimulus is removed. in the case of birth, the positive feedback mechanism of releasing oxytocin would stop when the baby stops stretching the cervix. are there any instances of a positive feedback mechanism not being able to stop? edit: to clarify, i am interested in human homeostatic responses. | one thing that comes to mind immediately is [hemostasis](_url_2_) or blood clotting. blood clots are initiated when platelets are activated by damaged vessel walls. when activated, platelets release thomboxane a2, adp, and other factors that each activates more platelets causing a quick buildup of activated and adhesive platelets. there is a similar mechanism with fibrin, but i have never bothered to memorize it. the reason this doesn't begin clotting all your blood up is that physiologically there is a balance between coagulation and anticoagulation at the clot surface, such that positive feedback and clot growth prevails where the vessel is damaged and [negative feedback type mechanisms](_url_1_) eat up the clot as it grows distant. [a wide variety of diseases](_url_0_) interfere with this balance such that a patient is hypercoagulable and is prone to forming life threatening clots. on the other hand, this is a failure of a homeostatic response that causes morbidity. but because homeostasis kind of stands in opposition to death, i think all answers to your question are of this form. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/hematology-oncology/hypercoagulable-states/",
"http://ahdc.vet.cornell.edu/clinpath/modules/coags/introf.htm",
"http://ahdc.vet.cornell.edu/clinpath/modules/coags/coag.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokine_storm"
] | [
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if i drew a random scribble on a set of axis, will there always be an equation to define it? | if i randomly scribble on a graph, can it be defined by an equation? how about drawings, for example a house or smiley face. what about really really complex images, can they be graphed using an equation? | most of these responses are loose with assumptions, definitions and reasoning, so are not very good. this is a more subtle question than most realize. and honestly, i don't know what the answer is. it's most likely "no" but i can't think of a proof. but what we need to do is to say what we mean by "scribble" and what we mean by "equation". **scribble -** some people are using very physical or computer interpretations for this. i think that is incorrect. if you do take this to mean things that we can draw with a pencil and that an equation that draws this graph just has to be inside the lines of the pencil, then the answer is "yes." we can just approximate it with piecewise lines, like computers do, and get an equation. so, practically, you can make a decent looking graph on a computer of an equation that looks like most any picture you want. but that's not too interesting mathematically. we should define a "scribble" to be any continuous function from [0,1] into r^(2). this is essentially means using a pencil that is infinitely accurate. **equation -** so many people misinterpret "equation" and "function". an equation is just two kinds of expressions related by an equals sign. if we only included functions, then i could draw a circle and we're done. so we need the full power of equations. but what kinds of equations? * if we restrict ourselves to rational numbers, then the line "y=pi" does not have a solution using only rational numbers. so we should include irrational numbers. this right here breaks down /u/vietoris' argument, see my explanation in a reply to his post. * if we restrict ourselves to only using algebraic equations (equations with addition and multiplication of variables with real coefficients), then the line y=sin(x) does not have a solution and we're done. but it seems silly to exclude that, so let's go ahead and include all [elementary functions](_url_1_) into our equations. let's say we can use piece-wise functions too. * if we restrict to just those, then the graph of y=[gamma](_url_2_)(x), has no equation. that also seems silly, so let's just allow ourselves to use [special functions](_url_0_) as well. we might as well throw in all derivatives and integrals of whatever can too. so an equation can use any algebraic, elementary or special function, real numbers and piecewiseness along with integrals and derivatives. again, i think the answer is "no", but i can't figure out a convincing proof or find a decent reference. as someone else already quoted "engineers say 'yes', mathematicians say 'no'". but since this was asked as a math question, we should look at is as such. independent of ink, pixels, plank-length etc. | 89 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_functions",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_function",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=nicholas+cage+curve",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=scooby+doo+curve",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=kim+jong+il+curve",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definable_real_number",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone%E2%80%93Weierstrass_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_equation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_line_test",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piecewise"
] | [
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salt and it's effect on temperature | why does water boil more quickly when salt is added to it? why does salt help chill wine more quickly when added to the bucket it's in? | water shouldn't boil more quickly when salt is added, in fact it should take longer to reach a boil. salt is primarily added when boiling water for cooking (eg. pasta) for taste, and for reasons related to osmotic pressure. as for your second question, adding salt to ice water cools it below 0°c because it forces the ice to melt. melting the ice requires an input of energy to break the bonds between water molecules, which are very strong in the solid state (this is called the heat/enthalpy of fusion). this input of energy comes from the thermal energy of the water bath, reducing its temperature. in addition, some energy is also taken to break the energy of the na-cl bond as the salt dissolves, however this is less of a contribution than the bonds in the ice. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it “a university” and not “an university”? | figured scientists might know, since they went one. | the "u" in university is actually a diphthong. that is, it is two separate sounds. the first is "y," as in the color yellow. you've probably heard that in english there are five vowels, and sometimes y. well, this is because y is a semivowel. say the word "you." pretty hard consonant sound there, yeah? but wait. try holding the y sound for a bit. it turns into "i" as in "sing." in the word "university," this y sound is more of a consonant. if we were to pronounce the word without the y, we would probably say "an ooniversity." it's a common misconception to think that each letter is either a vowel or a consonant. in reality, "vowel" and "consonants" refer to sounds. if you haven't heard of it, look up the international phonetic alphabet. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it that one can "feel" another person watching them? | google "gaze detection". our ancestors apparently developed a specific part of our brain to detect movement out of our peripheral, originally for survival from predators or other threats and now that we're more social (however slightly) creatures its used more for communication. your eyes are the most powerful non vocal communicator we have so it stands to reason this "gaze detection" system would largely remain intact even as we worry less about predation. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnA8GUtXpXY"
] | [
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|
what causes that "being watched" feeling? | i can understand the likely evolutionary reason for it (your ancestors would have been more likely to survive if they were aware of predators), and i recognize it's often a false alarm, but what explains the times when you actually *do* notice being watched by someone who isn't even in your field of vision? what sense would alert you to that? have there been any good studies on the subject, considering it's difficult to properly test? | basically, when you are in a situation where your brain believes you may be threatened (night time, alone, in a dangerous area) your brain makes you think you are being watched in order to increase your alertness and responsiveness to your environment. it's a context sensitive response. sometimes people do happen to be watching you. semi-related, your brain is very good at distinguishing between when someone is looking directly at you and when they are looking past you (like directly over your shoulder). this isn't quite what you're asking since if involves actually seeing the other individual, but you might find it interesting. | 33 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do elektron-vector boson interactions work? | i am reading the book "facts and mysteries in elementairy fysics" by martinus veltman for a paper i have to write for school. i do understand most of what is explained in the book, but there is one thing that i just don't understand, the interactions between electrons, electron neutrinos and w-bosons. [here](_url_1_) is the relevant page. the shaded area refers to [this](_url_0_) image. it seems to me that these interactions wouldn't work at all without adding extra energy, as the mass of the w-bosons is so much bigger than the mass of the elektron and elektron neutrino, but veltman doesn't mention it. is it because it is expected to think of or is there something i just don't see? especially the second interaction (ve - > e- + w+) makes no sense to me as the mass of the elektron neutrino is very small compared to the other two. the other (and less important) thing i don't really understand is the last figure (the bottom right one). it seems to me that the w+ and elektron neutrino form the elektron, but that isn't the case when you look at the figures next to it. i may just be stupid and look at this the wrong way, but i hope someone can help me with this! | usually, the w boson is virtual. generally you have two of those vertices in a weak interaction, and the w spans between them (see [for example](_url_0_) . since the w is an internal line (begins and ends inside the diagram) it is a virtual particle. in particular it can have an energy much smaller than its own mass, because virtual particles do not satisfy e^2 = m^2 + p^2 like real particles. to see real w particles, you need a collider that can get at least up to the mass of the w boson, at 80-90 gev. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/3U64VHB",
"http://imgur.com/eHOyIPE"
] | [
"http://pfnicholls.com/physics/Feynman3.png"
] | [
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is it more beneficial to lay on your left side, right side, or back when you have a stomach ache? | if the stomach ache you're referring too is caused by a buildup of stomach acids, then lying on your left side might be beneficial. this is purely due to the normal orientation of the stomach (preventing acid reflux due to gravity). the best position would be to lay with your head elevated. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is it more difficult for our body to digest food if we are laying on our side as compared to sitting upright? | no. the digestive tract is a series of closed tubes that squeeze their contents tightly. they push their contents further down the tract according to regular muscle movement, and the way behind the ball of food is closed off by these same muscles. gravity plays no significant factor in the way food moves through your digestive tract. in fact, the intestines are so coiled that they point in every random direction, including up and sideways, regardless of how your body itself is oriented. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do "aeroelastic" phenomena occur for structures submerged in liquids? | i couldn't find anything on this subject after a cursory google search. basically i'm wondering if watercraft designers have to account for some liquid-specific version of flutter the same way aircraft designers do. it would make sense to me that some dynamic instability would arise from high speed motion of an elastic structure submerged in liquid the same way aeroelastic phenomena occur in air. any fluids experts care to weigh in? | as i was taught, all fluids are analyzed the same up to a point. gases like air are considered incompressible at low speeds but as things move faster the error becomes too large to ignore so they switch to the more accurate view of the fluid being compressible. as far as i know, water is always considered incompressible. i don’t know about the particular phenomena you reference so i cannot say if water would experience that but i would bet it’s constant incompressibility would have an effect. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when a baby is growing, is it the information about the human structure inside the egg or information about the human structure from the mothers body that controls how a baby grows. if the latter, when does control of the growth of the baby swap over? | all of the information is inside the baby's dna. there are a lot of genes that control the experession of other genes which are called *homeobox* genes and these genes are sort of architects which are responsible for organizing the body. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
using water vs brine as a heat sink. | this is a general brainstorm into the suitability of both h20 and brine for thermal energy storage. i'm looking to make some sort of low-tech cold reservoir to keep my room cool through the mid-afternoon heat. i have a bachelors in chemistry, but my pchem, fluid dynamics and heat transfer is rusty. i'm thinking about using old 2 liter bottles filled with either water or brine, and either a freezer or simply the night air as a heat sink. the question is: how can i best cool a volume of air during the day using no, or off-peak-only, electricity. here's what i've got: water itself has a specific heat capacity of roughly 4.18 j/ gk, and freezes at 0 c. if i set a 2-liter bottle filled with water outside at night, i can assume that it will equilibrate temperature with the night air to, say, 13 c (~55 f). this mass of water will absorb (2000 g * 4.18 j/gk) = 8.36 e3 j/ k. if i bring that in to my room in the morning, it will at some point equilibrate to the new ambient, say 25 c. that means that over some time (t), the mass will absorb (8.36 e3 j/k * 12.0 k) = 1.00 e5 j. so if i take 2-liter bottles, filled with water at lower-than-ambient temperature, and bring them inside, they'll absorb energy from the room. i know that, because of the colligative properties of liquids, if i add solute to the water, the freezing point is depressed. but what happens to the specific heat capacity of the solution? if i make a 5-molal nacl solution, will it absorb more heat on its voyage from 12 to 25 c than pure water? i've had serious trouble getting that information. now, if i take the same mass of water, but have had it in a freezer (which isn't dumping its heat into the place i'm trying to cool), the water will absorb even more heat, and faster (thanks to the gradient). the water will, however, start off frozen, while a suitably strong brine will not. so there's significant heat absorbed in the phase change as it goes from frozen to liquid to consider. are there any reasons to opt for a liquid- phase brine heat sink over a heterogeneous, 2-phase sink like the water-jacketed-ice-cube design? finally, how is a thin layer of hdpe for conducting heat? i know that the rate of heat absorption is proportional to surface area, gradient, and a thermal conductivity. so i can optimize those parameters by switching to e.g. 1 liter bottles with greater surface area, or blowing air over them (to mitigate the development of a "cold film" at the surface of the bottle). thoughts? thanks! **tl;dr:** using plastic bottles filled with a working fluid to absorb heat from my room. wondering about brine vs pure water, and what rate of absorption i can expect. | third one down: _url_0_ specific heat decreases with increasing salt concentration, opposite from what you predicted. 100 kj (what you predicted for pure water) is just shy of 95 btu, the usual rating for a/c units. a small window a/c unit is rated at 5,000 btu/hr. unless you can start circulating that cool water inside - using a frozen 2l bottle of water will get you about 600 btu. still an order of magnitude shy. or you'd need to bring in 10 frozen 2l bottles of water every hour. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/sodium-chloride-water-d_1187.html"
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what do the symbols connecting the elements mean? | _url_0_ in this picture, there are three types of bonds. what should i search for to learn what they mean? | these bonds show the 3 dimensional structure of the molecule. the plain lines are in the plane of the page. the solid wedge shape signifies a bond coming out of the page towards you. the dashed line signifies a bond going into the page away from you. it's as simple as that. chemists use this to show a 3d structure in a 2d drawing. | 41 | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Nitrogen-iodide-2D.png"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereochemistry",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_formula"
] | [
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how do egg-laying animals obtain passive immunity? | or do they even have any passive immunities? i roughly understand how internally gestating animals get immunity through the placenta and blood transfer, but i wasn't sure if there was an analogous structure inside eggs. | it has to do with the animal's formation of the egg. when i get to work i will compound further with scientific texts. :) edit: creepy smile because this is a cool question. edit 2: when forming the egg, the mother's antibodies enter the yolk, allowing for transfer of immunity. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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nahco3 + hno3 → nano3 + h2o + co2 … but something weird happens to me in practique…! | bio major here, but i was in a chemistry fraternity in college and was responsible for demonstrations involving nano3, so i had to make it kind of like how you did. you're adding bicarb directly to concentrated acid. already this is a bad idea: the sodium nitrate has very little water in which to dissolve, so you're already making things difficult in terms of purity. i know evaporation will take longer if you added in water in the first place, but you just said you had access to a hot plate. anyways, you properly get the ph up to 7, indicating full neutralization. what's likely happening is that you have such a small volume of solution that the heat gets transferred very quickly to the liquid and heats the sodium nitrate to decomposition. or you may have significant quantities of nitric acid trapped in the crystal lattice of the nano3 that crystallized out. that nitric acid can easily decompose to h2o and no2, which would impart a yellow tinge to the solution first, then brown as the decomposition accelerates. tip: do the stoichiometry to find out how much nano3 you'll make, and then see how much water it takes to dissolve that, based off solubility charts. then add enough water to the nitric acid to make that volume. you'll avoid premature crystallization that may trap the acid inside the crystal, preventing your color change from happening. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does a snake's digestive system handle materials that range so widely in composition? | that is, how does it manage to break down another animal's body in its entirety? reddit post from which my question stems: _url_0_ edit: thanks for the feedback! | [this news release](_url_0_) explains that snake digestion has been speculation for a long time, but researchers now have evidence that the snake's intestine/liver/other digestive organs are dormant and "reduced" between meals. shortly after ingestion, they're activated and start producing mucosa, lengthening and increasing in diameter. digestion goes into high-gear, but everything else takes a backseat, with the snake becoming basically dormant as it digests. here's an exert from the above link: edit: formatting | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/pics/comments/o2fgl/my_brother_in_law_sent_me_this_series_of_photos/"
] | [
"http://www.interpack.com/cipp/md_interpack/custom/pub/content,lang,2/oid,3638/ticket,g_u_e_s_t/local_lang,2"
] | [
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why can't we see the em force? | the electromagnetic force is caused by the exchange of photons between charges. if i put my head (or some other detector) between two charged particles, why can't i see the photons flying back and forth between the charges? if i were to "see" these photons, would i disrupt the em force between the two charges somehow? | charged objects don't actually shoot photons back and forth. these "virtual photons" don't exist and it's not a good way to think about it. if you're calculating, for example, the angle that one electron will scatter off another it can be useful to treat the scattering as if photons are being changed, but it doesn't literally mean that photons are shooting back and forth. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
found bone in house, guessing skull? identification please! | complete amateur here - no, wait, less than that - chump with google access. look at this bone of an elephant bird, it has many similarities: _url_0_ this makes me think "large bird". | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.boneclones.com/images/sc-241-d-lg.jpg"
] | [
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|
how do the mechanisms for gag accumulation in grave's disease and hypothyroidism differ? | in grave's disease, i understand that tsh receptors on the fibroblasts in the eye and leg are activated and lead to the exophthalmos and pretibial myxedema. but, how does the myxedema occur in the case of hypothyroidism? | grave's disease is a case of hyperthyroidism in which you're making an immunoglobulin known as thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin (tsi) that overstimulates your thyroid gland and also activates those receptors you mentioned. thus, it's the tsh-like molecule, not thyroid hormone itself that's causing the myxedema. in hypothyroidism, you're not making enough thyroid hormone-this is sensed by your hypothalamus which will release more tsh in order to stimulate the thyroid to make more (as a result of the lack of negative feedback). so, if this cycle continues, you still get a build up of tsh-- basically, it's weird considering graves is hyperthyroidism and has the same effect, but those particular symptoms are a result of overproduction of tsh rather than thyroid hormone itself. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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at times, i see small patches on river surfaces that look different. they look more dense and wavey. any idea what those are? | i've seen such patches on beaches as well. | i'm not sure i know exactly the features you're talking about, but most of the different features you see on the surface of a flowing river are the result of different degrees of [turbulent flow](_url_2_) or transitions between portions of the river that are closer to [laminar flow](_url_1_) to more turbulent flow. within rivers, the amount of turbulence is usually related to topography on the bed of the river, either in the immediate vicinity or interaction with the farther field effects of topography elsewhere (e.g. things like [eddies](_url_0_) can have a large downstream effect, etc). turbulence can also develop in areas with contrasts in flow velocity (e.g. in bends of rivers where the outer and inner portions of the bend may end up flowing at different rates). other factors can be local variations in wind (e.g. the vegetation along different sections of the river may partially shield portions of the surface from wind) or water temperature variations as currents can develop if there are strong contrasts in temperature (e.g. at and downstream of a junction of two rivers with different temperature waters, etc). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminar_flow",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence"
] | [
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] |
what are the differences between the circulatory systems of large and small mammals? | are there even any? | the structures, such as a four chambered heart or valved veins, are the same. the only big difference i can think of is that smaller mammals have higher heartrates. as a comparison, humans normally have a resting heart rate of 60-80 bpm, horses 28-40, and small mice are between 450-750. i believe a human would die long before hitting 450 bpm, yet mice do it regularly. 200 is pretty extreme for a human. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you apply tension to a perfectly uniform string, what determines where it will break? | will it break in the same place every time? is it random? does it make a difference if there is critical tension introduced quickly vs. gradually? | just finding a "perfect" string doesn't stop it from failing at the largest imperfection. you have to somehow clamp the ends, and depending how you do so, it's likely to fail at one of your clamps. assuming you can find a way to clamp it that prevents weakening it, and there are truly no imperfections, then the point of failure will be where the tension is highest. in a slow-stretching experiment, this is at the higher end. in a fast stretching experiment, this is at the more rapidly accelerating end. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are scoville heat units calculated? | i have been told that the scoville scale is based on the concentration of capsaicin in the pepper itself. but concentration is in molarity, so how would you get from the concentration to scoville heat units? | it was originally a taste test where alcoholic extracts were serially diluted until a majority of tasters could no longer detect the heat. now it’s primarily hplc measurement of capsaicin. [wiki](_url_0_) has the exact formula for converting capsaicin ppm to scoville units. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scoville_scale"
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] |
what would happen if a tachyon collided with a bradyon? | firstly, there is no evidence that tachyons in any form exist. thus follows that we know nothing of them. secondly, even if they existed, it is strongly believed that they would not interact with matter through the traditional four forces, which would make a collision impossible. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how many layers are there in a modern integrated circuit? | i'm getting how the raster dictates density of elements in ic in the horizontal plane over the wafer. but as i understand, there's the third dimension - so far mostly untapped because of heat dissipation necessity; the bit of wafer in a cpu is a rather flat square, not a cube. still, if my understanding is correct, there's more than a single layer of the components on the wafer, they are stacked to a degree. how many layers though? and how thick such a layer is? | depends on the process, of course. the current state of the art is somewhere around a 14nm process with 13 layers. also, flash memory makers do "die stacking" where they take flash chips and physically stack them on top of each other, adding tiny wire interconnects later. they might do 16, 32, or more dies stacked on top of each other. that's one way the been able to achieve the ssd densities we have today. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes the opposite effects of size < -- > speed in gel-electrophoresis and size exclusion chromatography? | so i tried answering this with a google search but i didn't really find an answer that compares the two methods in regards to the aspect i'm confused by: so as far as i understand it, both separation methods use a porous gel to separate molecules by their size. the explanation for the sec that i found is, that larger molecules cannot fit into as many pores so they barely interact with the gel and pass through it faster through the paths that they can fit through. (so basically there are less “useless detours“ that lead in a direction lateral to the traveling direction/ spread out the molecules and increase its interaction with the gel) the explanation for the gel electrophoresis says, that the larger molecules will have problems traversing through the pores because they won't fit through most of them so it takes them considerably longer to find random paths through the gel. (so there are also fewer “good“ paths that allow large molecules to pass through the gel in the intended travelling direction) both explanations sounded intuitive until i read them at the same time. why does the effect that slows down larger molecules during electrophoresis not also affect them during sec and vice-versa (why don't they pass faster during gel electrophoresis). i think my problem/misunderstanding is kinda linked to understanding the key difference between what they refer to as “interparticle volume“ and the “pores“ in the sec. in the end it sounds to me like you have a gel/solid with tiny “tunnels“ inside of them through which the molecules can traverse. why does it matter if these tunnels are a) part of the small gel-beads/porous particles themselves or b)between individual beads/porous particles also i'm a little bit confused by how some explanations use the word “interaction“. because some of them use it as chemical/electrical interaction and say that “the analyte must not interact with the stationary phase“ in the sec so there is a separation solely by size yet sometimes “interaction“ was used in a way that to me sounded more like its ability to diffuse and spread out into the pores. thanks in advance for any input that might help understand these processes a little more and have a nice day. | watch these quick animations - should clear things up... (pulsed-field) gel electrophoresis (pfge): [_url_1_](_url_1_) & #x200b; size exclusion chromatography (sec): [_url_0_](_url_0_) & #x200b; in gel electrophoresis you're forcing all the molecules to go through the same (continuous) matrix (gel) by applying an electric current - think of the matrix as a bunch of different sized pores or holes, tunnels - smaller molecules can enter these pores and holes faster than bigger molecules that maybe need to find a bigger hole to progress in distance, finding bigger holes takes time, so bigger molecules move slower. in size exclusion differs in that you don't have a continuous matrix, in reality, you have lots of little beads that have pores of different size themselves; but between the beads there is much bigger space (than the size of the pores of the beads) for liquid and particles to flow - in sec you're typically not applying a current but you're using liquid flow. if you're a big particle you will not be able to enter the small pores of the beads and you fall through the cracks/space between the beads, so you're migrating faster than smaller molecules that can enter the pores (by diffusion) - so big particles come out first of the column of beads. & #x200b; "interaction" - bascially what's meant by this is the following - because you're resolving over time, anything (interaction) that affects the speed at which your particles migrate will change their apparent (observable) molecular weight - even though they might not be as small/big as their retention time would indicate. this is because for example hydrophobic patches on a macromolecule (e.g. protein) can stick to the beads (i.e. not enter the beads, but just cling to them for a little bit in time). hence these particular sticky proteins elute later as others, and will, therefore, appear smaller than their real molecular weight. hope this all makes sense. animations help here a lot, so maybe browse around youtube a bit :) & #x200b; & #x200b; | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oV5VB5kO3tQ",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-EqwWACfYXI"
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] |
is there any significant evidence that toxoplasmosis can actually alter behavior in otherwise healthy adults? | i've seen plenty of pop-sci articles about *toxoplasma gondii* and its possible effects on human behavior, including mood changes, increased reaction time, and schizophrenia. ([this](_url_0_) link, or [this](_url_1_) one, for example). the link between the parasite and rodent behavior seems fairly well-established, but how strong is the evidence that non-immunocompromised humans are psychologically affected by it? it seems like an easy topic to sensationalize. | in short, yes. these articles ([1](_url_3_), [2](_url_0_)) seem to indicate that toxoplasma gondii can actually alter behavior in mammals. and these two studies ([1](_url_1_), [2](_url_2_)) can increase the risk of developing schizophrenia and epilepsy. | 4 | [] | [
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/science-sushi/2012/07/04/toxoplasmas-dark-side-the-link-between-parasite-and-suicide/",
"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/01/220113-sneaky-cat-parasite-takes-over-human-brains-science/"
] | [
"http://schizophreniabulletin.oxfordjournals.org/content/33/3/752.short",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3035534/",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00436-009-1526-6",
"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/267/1452/1591.short"
] | [
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is there a disease/infection that is actually considered good? | as title pretty much says, is there a known disease or infection that actually improves your body or helps you in some way? i'm thinking like a disease that instead of say making your muscles die actually makes them stronger? | this isn't quite what you're looking for either, but having only one of the genes for sickle-cell anemia makes someone more resistant to malaria. having both genes, however, is not good. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v449/n7164/full/nature06244.html",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-15356016"
] | [
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with the millions of atoms streaming in and out of our bodies at any given moment, what keeps us together? | to hopefully clarify: we know that atoms are moving about constantly, and at any given time there are innumerable atoms leaving, and joining, our bodies. with this kind of constant change what mechanism allows our bodies to maintain their shapes, instead of slowly coming apart? is this simply a function of the body's ability to repair itself occurring at a rate well beyond any kind of atomic-scale losses? | well, on the cellular/tissue level we have cell adhesion proteins that adhere themselves to other cells via other adhesion proteins, and the combination of those proteins in three dimensions keeps our tissues and therefore organs intact. protein synthesis and turnover keeps replenishing these adhesion proteins among everything else, which allows for turnover of the body's molecular (and therefore atomic) composition. kinda complicated, but i hope this helps! | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law"
] | [
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what will change in the images taken by the jwst compared to the hubble ones? | will i be able to notice the differences? will it have more definition? what will change? thanks! | one of the most important aspects of the jwst is that it captures infrared rather than visible light, allowing it to view redshifted objects and [see through dust](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Carina_Nebula_in_Visible_and_Infrared.jpg"
] | [
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what exactly are scientists observing when conducting deep inelastic scattering, and how do they use this to understand the structure of sub-atomic particles? | so i'm familiar with rutherford's experiment and how dis is an extension of it, and the fact that we can't have free/bare quarks. but i'm curious about how the experiment actually works, and if we could ever detect sea quarks with it (as opposed to just valence quarks) | in dis, the scattering of particles und other particles is ovserved (d'uh). 'deep inelastic means', that the energy of the interaction is so high, that the scattering takes place in the 'parton level', meaning, that not the protons as a whole scatter, but the individual quarks. for a single interaction, you could never tell, what type of quark it was, but you can tell, which ones can have contributed, since all of them are present either as sea quarks or as sea and valence quarks. however, everything heavier than the s is usually negligible. measuring now lots of these events tells you, how certain combinations of quarks are distributed within e.g. the proton. comparing several different processes, all sensitive to other combinations of quarks, allows to disentangle them and learn the distributions of sea and valence quarks. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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now that we can save pictures online, how often can we find another almost identical person? | it may not sound science based. but i know a scientist will know this. how many facial distinctions can a person have? also since a hq picture is much more accurate then any old painting, how often can one find another face that is identical to their own? would we still have to wait decades or even centuries cause there are that many combinations? *side note. in the future, keanu reeves can't hide his immortality from us now... | i can't really give you a clear answer, but here's a an idea. let's assume we've created a filter to remove all the photographs of people that are not looking in the same general direction. it would then have to metatag by hairstyle, nose shape, eyes, mouth, facial hear, ears, and wrinkle characteristics. let's assume this generated a data index of 1 billion photographs of what we will now call 'face index'. let's say there's a total population of 5 billion people, excluding babies excluding babies is extremely important -- they all look the same. this would overstate the 'correct' answer. we now sort every datum on the index and find the 'best fit' datums per datum. for example, let's say the metatags are arrays like [3,2,6,1,390,656,2,6] after we assigned them to every person. we now need an algorithm to compare these arrays and group similar classes. an aside: this kind of algorithm is often used when analyzing remote sensing data to find patterns or similarities in the data, e.g. to find minerals types, vegetation types, etc. anyway, we now want to give a rough estimate of facial variations a person can have to the extent they will look 'different'. this is a very subjective part of the test and will be difficult to constrain. let's do this by order of magnitude number of combinations of hair: 10^5 forehead:10^3 eyes: 10^5 nose:10^5 ears: 10^3 jaw: 10^2 mouth: 10^5 chin:10^2 color: 10 so we have 9 categories with 10^31 options. this means there are 10^31 unique faces now, the odds can't be 1/10^31, otherwise nobody would look alike! thus, we allow thresholds for the categorization process; we lower the total number of 'bins' , then rerun the categorization. here's where a problem comes up, the lower we tweak this number the more 'false positives' we get. eventually, we end up with one bin of 5 billion people, and the program has concluded that we all look identical, because we are all human beings and we're all part of the same species! there's your answer, 1. qed | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone help me gain a better grasp on neurotransmitter excitotoxicity? | in researching excitotoxicity i find a lot of studies and literature involving glutemate, but not much on any other neurotransmitters. can someone explain if and how others can be excitotoxic? | that is because excitotixity is about glutamate. it relies on depolarization, and excluding anoxia/energy depletion, glutamate is the only common way to achieve significant depolarization. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the avengers movie [spoiler alert] | so in the movie when captain america and banner are on the aircraft carrier it sprouts some sort of turbines or some such and starts rising into the air. how much would a carrier weigh with aircraft, personnel, munitions etc and how much force would have to be generated in order to lift the craft from the water? | the apollo moon rocket (saturn v) produced 7 million pounds of thrust, a nimitz class aircraft carrier weighs 230 million pounds. disregarding the weight of the added propulsion systems, it would take 32 times the thrust of the most powerful rocket ever launched to get a nimitz out of the water. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about the avengers film (spoilers) | unless we are missing some other tech keeping the carrier up the movie grossly underestimates the size of the fans needed to keep the thing up. in the movie there are [four of them](_url_1_) and they, at a guess looking at the nearby planes, are about 150 feet across. pretty big but for comparison the rotor diameter on an [osprey](_url_0_) is 38 feet. so, 4 x 150 = 600 feet total for carrier and 2 x 38 = 76 feet total for the osprey. that is about 12.7% of the carrier. however, a nimitz class carrier is about 200,000,000 pounds. an osprey is up to 60,000 pounds loaded. that is 0.03% of the weight of the carrier. of course i am making lots of assumptions (all sci-fi and without specs there are only guesses). the rotors on the carrier have more blades than the osprey and so on. this is just meant to sort of ballpark it for you and you can see the differences are huge. in real life, lacking some weird tech we are not aware of, a flying carrier like that is staggeringly impractical. i will not say impossible, in the end it is an engineering problem, but i cannot imagine it being workable with today's tech. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-22_Osprey",
"http://www.innovationnewsdaily.com/images/i/1569/i02/helicarrier-deck-02.jpg?1336169132"
] | [
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|
vsepr, where does this number come from? | in vsepr theory, bond angles are determined by the orbitals' desire to maximize distance between bonds (specifically between orbitals). since electrons repel each other, bonds and lone pairs would try to get 'as far apart as possible'. as for water, keep in mind that it is sp^3 hybridized. so even though its geometry is 'bent', it still has 2 bonds and 2 lone pairs. since not all four of these hybrid orbitals are unique, so to most effectively spread themselves apart, they do not uniformly move to 109.5 degrees (as it would seem that the lone pairs repel each other more than the two sigma bonds do in this case). as for the series, i would guess that is is coincidence. if you consider an sp^3 d hybridized atom, you note that not all bond angles are unique. the bond angle between axial and equatorial orbitals is 90 degrees while the bond angle between two equatorial orbitals is 120 degrees. so it doesn't fit nicely into the progression. the other thing to note (as i mentioned earlier) is that water is 'tetrahedral' when you consider it's hybridization. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are these numbers i'm playing around with? (description inside) | sorry for the vague title, i wasn't sure how to briefly summarize my question. x^2 + y^2 = 1 defines a curve in the plane (the circle of course). the length of that curve in the upper half plane is pi. this is, of course, well known. so i started playing with x^2n + y^2n = 1, for integer n > 0. this also defines a curve in the plane, one for each n. (as n goes to infinity the curve approaches a square.) i thought it would be interesting to, likewise, try to compute the length of *these* curves in the upper half plane. my first attempt was to integrate ((y'(x))^2 + 1)^1/2 from -1 to 1. i don't know how to do this integral, nor do i know if it's even possible analytically. it looks pretty ugly. however i have a well-defined sequence {l_n} of real numbers starting with l_1 = pi, and converging (?) to 4. what are they? so i guess i have two questions: (1) can those integrals be computed analytically? if so, what are their values? (2) are these lengths also transcendental numbers like pi? are they known? and are they "independent" from pi (i'm not sure what i mean by this precisely, but intuitively perhaps something like they cannot be expressed in terms of other known transcendental constants). | you just reinvented [superellipses](_url_3_), first investigated by gabriel lamé in the 1800s. here's a [recent interesting video about them.](_url_0_) on to your questions. it does not appear that those integrals can be computed analytically. see [formula 6.5.1 in this paper.](_url_2_) it should not surprise us that there's no elegant solution -- the [perimeter of a regular ellipse](_url_1_) has no elegant solution either. | 37 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GznQgTdEdI4",
"http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/ellipse-perimeter.html",
"http://fractional-calculus.com/super_ellipse.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superellipse",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lp_space#The_p-norm_in_finite_dimensions"
] | [
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] |
jump starting a car... | why do you not connect the second black cable directly to the battery? what exactly causes the explosion that sometimes occurs? | when car batteries charge they emit oxygen and hydrogen which is highly flammable. if you connect the positives last they will spark and the last place you want spark is near a battery that is charging. putting the black lead on a body part away from the battery keeps you relatively safe while doing the same exact thing as hooking it right to the battery. just remember: make and break with negative. black should be the last one connected and the first one disconnected. remember that and you should never have a problem. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes fluid more or less azeotropic? | a zeotropic compound is one where the individual fluids separate at their individual boiling points for example, alchohol distillation which is done by heating an alchohol/water mix and then condensing the vapor into an alchohol water mix with a stronger concentration of alchohol. an azeotropic compound is one where the compound acts as a single fluid with a single boiling point. there are also near azeotropic compounds, for example the refrigerant r-410a has a range of around .3 degrees fahrenheit between the temperature it starts to boil and the temperature needed to completely convert it to vapor, but around a 5 degree difference between the boiling point of the two component fluids. other refrigerants, like r13, are totally azeotropic, once mixed properly r13 won't separate at all during evaporation. | first just a brief note on terminology, what you are discussing are diffrent behaviors of mixtures, not of compounds. an azeotrope is a mixture with a specific composition that remains constant upon distillation (boiling). as for why azeotropes form in the first place, [wikipedia](_url_0_) has a pretty good answer: > when the deviation is great enough to cause a maximum or minimum in the vapor pressure versus composition function, it is a mathematical consequence that at that point, the vapor will have the same composition as the liquid, and so an azeotrope is the result. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope"
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how do those glass balls with plasma on the inside work? why is it attracted to your hand? | i know the basic explanation, it is due to electric polarization of the glass due to the differences in charge between the inside of the glass and the outside of the glass, but i was hoping for a more advanced answer. how is the plasma generated, why does glass polarize the way it does? etc. | the voltage between the electrode inside the ball and the ground, which is tens of thousands of volts, is enough to breakdown the resistance of the air inside the bulb, creating what's called [streamer discharge](_url_0_). the streamers ionize the air inside the globe, creating blue/violet jets of plasma from the combined atomic emission spectra of oxygen and nitrogen. the reason the streamers are attracted to your hand is because the electron flow escapes to the ground through your body, which is a better conductor than the air. edit: the, not they. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamer_discharge"
] | [
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best supported hypothesis/theory for human bipedalism? | i am aware that there could be a multitude of advantageous reasons to evolve to bipedalism, but me and a friend were chatting about it and he brought up how a professor of his (physiology) mentioned the main advantage of walking upright is so we could eat/drink and walk while hunting, yet i've read from many sources that it could also be likely contributed to walking upright being less energy taxing than four-limbed walking or knuckle-walking (at least at lower speeds). are these both valid hypothesis, and are there more? | [there are at least twelve distinct hypotheses as to how and why bipedalism evolved in humans.](_url_1_) this is all from the linked article. bipedalism allows for a greater field of vision and improves detection of distant resources or threats, allows for wading into deeper water and reaching higher food sources. it also leaves the arms free for non-locomotion uses such as carrying infants, food, tools and weapons. the ability to carry meat/food over considerable distances and the ability to carry infants are both considered major driving forces in original bipedalism. the most simple viable theory is the thermoregulatory model: bipedalism raises the body surface area higher above the ground reducing heat gain and aids heat dissipation due to increased exposure to favorable wind speeds and temperatures. it also reduces direct exposure to the sun than quadrupeds. in terms of respiration while running, the bones and muscles of a quadruped's chest cavity act as shock absorbers and also expand and contract continuously, limiting them to a 1:1 strides per breath ratio. this forces them to coordinate respiration with running gait resulting in a specific running speed being most energy efficient. bipeds don't experience this direct chest compression during running, allowing them to vary their breathing patterns (4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 5:2 etc). this is all part of the [endurance running hypothesis](_url_0_). so bipedalism is actually more energetically favorable, especially in terms of scavenging. endurance running allows for more effective long range strategic scavenging, such as seeing birds circling overhead and running directly to the carcass, rather than relying solely on opportunistic scavenging or just stumbling upon a carcass. bipeds can spot the long range cues and run directly to a carcass, reaching it before competitors like lions, hyenas etc. that are much stronger and thus harder to drive away. long story short, there are numerous supported theories on human bipedal evolution and they're not necessarily mutually exclusive, any number of reasons could have acted together forcing bipedal evolution. also the theories state that adaptations for running clearly came after bipedalism and metabolic rate is fairly similar between quadrupeds and bipeds so energy efficiency wouldn't have driven original biped evolution. endurance running may be more energy efficient but walking on two legs doesn't conserve enough energy to drive the numerous muscular and neurological changes required to stand and walk bipedally. edit: spelling | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endurance_running_hypothesis#Increased_efficiency",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipedalism#Evolution_of_human_bipedalism",
"http://www.indiana.edu/~origins/X-PDF/Potts98.pdf"
] | [
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can "event days" have a biological effect that lowers the chance of birth on that day? | looking at the recent posts of the rank of each day of the year in terms of number of births has obviously involved a lot of people noticing that certain event days, especially the 4th of july, have much a much lower number of births than the days around them.(the data set is usa 1973-1999) (_url_0_) the 4th of july is most interesting because it is an otherwise common period and because, unlike christmas, it stands out much more than the days either side of it. this suggests to me that people consciously avoid conception aimed at christmas (hence the +2/-2 day margin), but that they are not doing so for the 4th of july. so my question is, can the date of birth be altered by hormonal changes (or something similar) caused by emotions about an event day? (stress/excitment, anything) or is it purely because of target conception and not having induced pregnancies (or similar) on those days? | since some percentage of all births are c-sections, and those procedures are typically scheduled by appointment (in a narrow range of a few days, but still scheduled) it follows logically that slightly fewer babies are born on holidays. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/dataisbeautiful/comments/tu1oe/as_promised_heres_an_interactive_version_of_how/"
] | [] | [
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my biologist friend claims we're born with the same number of adipose cells we die with. to what extent is this true? | there are two ways for fat stores to grow: adipose cells can increase in number, or the individual cells can increase in size. it used to be accpeted in the scientific community that the latter was always the case, but new research has shown that it's a little more complicated than that. if you are under 20 and you are exposed to excess calories: adipocytes increase in number and grow in size. if you are over 20 and exposed to excess calories: adipocytes increase in size. if adipocytes grow too big, they will burst, releasing harmful substances. there is adipose cell turnover in adults, but it is very slow (8-10 years). the rate is the same whether the adult is lean or obese. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does real-time ray tracing work? | so i know the basics of real-time ray tracing. but i was wondering what effects this can have on rendered environments and if like motion blur, there are a multitude of ways this can be achieved. and besides that, can it be used for other purposes? like moving the camera when it comes too close to an object. | ray tracing has a pretty specific meaning, but its often used more colloquially to refer to a family of interrelated techniques. for instance, this [cute video by disney about path tracing](_url_0_). is a kind of monte carlo ray tracing. it's not like motion blur, though. motion blur can be done in a ton of totally different ways- ray tracing algorithms are all similar solutions with different approaches. ray tracing is a specific subset of solutions to the global illumination problem in the same way that temporal blur is a solution to motion blur. i do not know what you mean. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=frLwRLS_ZR0"
] | [
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i have been watching carl sagan's cosmos and enjoying it immensely. what other science documentaries should i watch? | although this is by no means a documentary, i've noticed many echos of carl sagan in the tv show babylon 5. the blue planet and planet earth documentary series are also very good. they have a higher emphasis on cinematography and not quite as much on explaining the concepts of science, but they're a great insight into the workings of life on earth. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do particles in unmeasured states have multiple potential locations as shown by their wave function, but h2o molecules (which are made up of these particles) in my glass of water have defined locations? | when you have a very large number of quantum-scale objects, they work together in aggregate to act like a classical object. obviously that would have to happen, otherwise we'd never have seen classical behavior in the first place. so why does it happen? let's talk about probability a bit. imagine flipping a coin. you've got 50/50 odds of hitting heads or tails. so if you flip a bunch of coins, the 'expected' result is half heads half tails. but of course, you won't get exactly that result every time. it's just the most likely result. but, how likely is it? we can find the answer with a binomial distribution. let's look at a few graphs. if we flip 10 times [this](_url_2_) is the distribution. scroll down a bit to see the graph. we see that 5 head (and thus 5 tails) is the most likely result with just under 25% probability (it's the peak of the graph) but other results are still relatively likely, so we won't be surprised if we see something other than 5 and 5. now flip the coin 100 times. [here](_url_3_). see how much tighter that peak is, and how much higher? that means that 50 heads will happen 80% of the time and other results are a lot less likely. in a glass of water there are something like 20 [avogadro's number](_url_1_) molecules of water. so let's see what that distribution would look like. well, wolphram alpha won't seem to give me a graph with more than 10^5 coin flips, which is [here](_url_0_). but if we did avogadro's number of flips, you can imagine what would happen; the peak would basically only exist at that 50/50 mark. so, when you take a huge number of random things together, the total result of their behavior ends up being very close to the 'expected' value every time. and when the number is giant, like it is in a glass of water, then 'very close' means 'so close that the difference will never be observed in the lifetime of the universe.' | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=binomial+distribution+n%3D10%5E4+p+%3D.5",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro_constant",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=binomial+distribution+n%3D10+p+%3D.5",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=binomial+distribution+n%3D100+p+%3D.5"
] | [
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|
how do doctors weigh a fetus in the womb? | seems like there's a lot of factors going on like the weight of the placenta and whatever else is going on. do they somehow measure the dimensions and assume all babies have the same density? | the doctor will measure the size of your baby's head, the length of her femur (the bone between the knee and the hip), and the circumference of her abdomen. formulas then convert those numbers to a size and weight. it's really inaccurate though. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is aerobraking feasible? | yes, it's from a science fiction book, but i was reading red mars by kim stanley robinson, and they describe a way of slowing down a spaceship via aerobraking, basically bringing the spaceship in a trajectory that will have it skim the atmosphere of a planet and then hop back out, slowing down the spacecraft and using substantially less fuel than by slowing down the ship with rocket boosters, is this actually possible? because it sounds really cool. | absolutely. every entry vehicle that has ever made it to the surface of a planet that has an atmosphere has used aerobraking. that's obviously not what you mean, though. even some planetary orbiters have used aerobraking to get into orbit. see, for instance, the [mars reconnaissance orbiter](_url_0_), which used aerobraking to get into its final orbit. the thing with aerobraking right now is that we're not quite comfortable with our understanding of the atmospheres of other planets to bet the capture of a spacecraft on aerobraking. if mars' atmosphere, for instance, was slightly more dense than we expected, the probe might have too much drag and enter into a too-low orbit, or worse, disintegrate and fall to the surface. if it's slightly less dense, the probe would wind up leaving mars at a slightly lower velocity than it arrived with, but still a higher velocity than the escape velocity. so aerobraking on mars is generally limited to lowering the orbit of an already-captured probe. this is pretty safe. the aerobraking takes months to accomplish and is done by just barely skimming the upper reaches of the atmosphere. because of the vagaries of orbital mechanics, this ensures that only the apoareion (highest point in an orbit of mars) is lowered, while the periareion (lowest point in an orbit of mars) is virtually unchanged. this allows a highly elliptical, high energy orbit to be lowered to a nearly-circular, low mars orbit in a matter of months. it's not quite as sexy as an arthur c. clarke depiction of aerobraking through the atmosphere of jupiter, but it still saves propellant. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter"
] | [
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how are operating procedures developed? | hello, i just watched some videos of probably the most basic operation ever: appendectomy. still, the amount of stuff you have to do to do it properly (not even talking about doing it endoscopic) is pretty astonishing. how do procedures like this get developed? after all, there is always a 'first time'. so how do you realize 'yeah we have to cool the patient down to 20 °c, stop the heart, attach a lung machine here and here..'. it surely cannot just be trial and error.. | i am a final year medical student attempting to become a surgeon. if you are really interested, i highly recommend watching michael mosley's 'a history of surgery' - it is available in its entirety on youtube and will likely answer most of your questions. the first thing to realise about surgery is that we have been cutting people open for a really really long time. there are mummies from egypt and the andes with evidence of trepanation (burr holes through the skull). we don't necessarily know why they did it, but they survived long enough that the holes closed up. later we have historical evidence that barbers would cut people open. a reason for this would perhaps of been for removing kidney stones. this was incredibly dangerous and the hippocratic oath includes the line *'i shall not cut for stone'* - this is in line with the principles he established of *'first do no harm'.* (so, barbers became the first surgeons, and it is partially from this origin that a surgeon in some countries becomes 'mr' after becoming a dr) the hippocratic oath also includes other beauties such as *in every house where i come i will enter only for the good of my patients, keeping myself far from all intentional ill-doing and all seduction and especially from the pleasures of love with women or men, be they free or slaves.* very high surgical mortality persisted until the 19th century (and was hence only done when there was no other option) until the adoption of listerian techniques - hand washing and sterilisation etc. another great advance was the development of anaesthetic because now the patient wasn't in immense pain and moving around so much. the first surgical anaesthetic was delivered in 1847 at mass general hospital in the 'ether dome'. i visited there in january this year and it was almost a religious experience for me. even as late as the 1900s, surgical mortality remained high though. at one melbourne hospital, the law dictated that 3 surgeons must be consulted before opening the abdomen, as mortality was 80% [briliant reference well worth reading](_url_0_). however much of this was probably due to the slow adoption of sterile technique. so how did they work out what to do? it wasn't all trial and error, but certainly it played a part. before a surgeon performed a procedure, he would likely have trained on many cadavers, have a very good understanding of the anatomy, and perhaps have operated on animals. this is certainly true of cardiac surgery in the early days, as you will find if you watch the series. after successful operations, surgeon would often lecture on it, teach other surgeons, who would evaluate technique, perform their own procedures, and find things that made it simpler/less blood loss/faster recovery etc. studies would be published detailing morbidity and mortality on various techniques, and in this way it continues to disseminate. sto how we get to the point of chilling bodies and attaching them to heart lung machines before operating for extensive times on the heart, it was an iterative and evolutionary process which developed with a clear focus on what had worked in the past, a deep understanding of physiology and anatomy, a steady hand, and extensive training of not just a dedicated team of surgeons but also other or support staff who play a crucial role in a good outcome. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://mlsv.org.au/files/1994-2002/4th%20March%202000,%20The%20History%20of%20Plastic%20Surgery%20–%20The%20Australasian%20Connection%20By%20Professor%20Wayne%20Morrison.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1356187/"
] | [
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] |
is there any merit in claims of lenr or "cold fusion"? | with [andrea rossi recently claiming to have a working, commercially viable cold fusion reactor](_url_1_), but not producing any convincing evidence to back it up, everyone seems convinced that the field of lenr in general is pseudoscience. however, i recently found [this video](_url_3_) from the us navy's space and naval warfare systems command. the evidence they produce looks pretty credible to me, but i'm not an expert, so i'm not really sure if there's a fundamental flaw that i'm missing, or whether the field isn't getting the attention it deserves. [**edit: link to the lecture slides for those who don't want to sit through the video.**](_url_0_) **edit 2:** list of replications and publications for spawar research linked above. > **replications:** > • heat and radiation > > – dr. melvin miles, navy laboratory in china lake > > • tritium > > – dr. john bockris, texas a & m > > • energetic particles > > – dr. fran tanzella, sri > – dr. winthrop williams, uc berkeley > – dr. ludwik kowalski, montclair state university > – 2006, 2007, and 2008 undergraduate chemical > engineering senior project groups at ucsd > > **peer reviewed publications:** > 1. “on the behavior of pd deposited in the presence of evolving deuterium", s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, and j.j. smith, j. electroanal. chem., 302, 255 (1991). > 2. “electrochemical charging of pd rods”, s. szpak, c.j. gabriel, j.j. smith, j., r.j. nowak, electroanal. chem., 309, 273 (1991). > 3. “charging of the pd/ nh system: role of the interphase", s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, s.r. scharber, and j.j. smith, j. electroanal. chem., 337, 147 (1992). > 4. “absorption of deuterium in palladium rods: model vs. experiment", s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, c.j. gabriel, and j.j. smith, j. electroanal. chem., 365, 275 (1994). > 5. “comments on the analysis of tritium content in electrochemical cells", s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, r.d. boss, and j.j. smith, j. electroanal. chem., 373, 1 (1994). > 6. “deuterium uptake during pd-d codeposition", s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, and j.j. smith, j. electroanal. chem., 379, 121 (1994). > 7. “cyclic voltammetry of pd/d co-deposition'', s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, s.r. scharber, and j.j. smith, j. electroanal. chem., 380, 1 (1995). > 8. “on the behavior of the cathodically polarized pd/d system: search for emanating radiation", s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, and j.j. smith, physics letters a, 210, 382 (1995). > 9. “on the behavior of the cathodically polarized pd/d system: a response to vigier's comments", s. szpak and p.a. mosier-boss, physics letters a, 211, 141 (1996). > 10. “on the behavior of the pd/d system: evidence for tritium production", s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, r.d. boss, and j.j. smith, fusion technology, 33, 38 (1998). > 11. “on the release of nh from cathodically polarized palladium electrodes", s. szpak and p.a. mosier-boss, fusion technology, 34, 273 (1998). > 12. “calorimetry of the pd + d codeposition", with s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss and m.h. miles, fusion technology, 36, 234 (1999). > 13. “the pd/ nh system: transport processes and development of thermal instabilities", p.a. mosier-boss and s. szpak, il nuovo cimento, 112, 577 (1999). > 14. “ thermal behavior of polarized pd/d electrodes prepared by co-deposition”, s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, m.h. miles, and m. fleischmann, thermochimica acta, 410, 101 (2004). > 15. “the effect of an external electric field on surface morphology of co-deposited pd/d films”, s szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, c. young, and f.e. gordon, j. electroanal. chem., 580, 284 (2005). > 16. “evidence of nuclear reactions in the pd lattice”, s szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, c. young, and f.e. gordon, naturwissenschaften, 92, 394 (2005). > 17. “further evidence of nuclear reactions in the pd/d lattice: emission of charged particles”, s. szpak, p.a. mosier-boss, and f.e. gordon, naturwissenschaften,, 94, 511 (2007). > 18. “use of cr-39 in pd/d co-deposition experiments”, p.a. mosier-boss. s. szpak, f.e. gordon, and f.p.g. forsley, epj applied physics, 40, 293 (2007). > 19. "triple tracks in cr-39 as the result of pd–d co-deposition: evidence of energetic neutrons," pamela a. mosier-boss, stanislaw szpak, frank e. gordon and lawrence p. g. forsley, naturwissenschaften, doi 10.1007/s00114-008-0449-x > 20. "reply to comment on 'the use of cr-39 in pd/d co-deposition experiments': a response to kowalski," mosier-boss, pamela, szpak, stan, gordon, frank, and forsley, lawrence p.g., european physical journal, applied physics, vol. 44, p. 291–295 (2008) > 21. "comparison of pd/d co-deposition and dt neutron-generated triple tracks observed in cr-39 detectors," mosier-boss, pamela a., dea, j. y. and forsley, lawrence p.g., morey, m. s. , tinsley, j. r. hurley, j. p. and gordon, frank e., european physical journal, applied physics, vol. 51 (2), p. ???, (2010) > [*source*](_url_2_) | really the short answer to "how much credibility does this cold fusion experiment have" is always none. no matter how much you want to touch two hydrogen nuclei together, you need to slam them together with massive force to overcome the repulsive electrostatic force. no chemical reaction currently known can produce anywhere near the energy to overcome this barrier. more specifically for his experiment, based on a very brief read of that article and some of the ones it links to. where is the radiation, a fusion experiment should be emitting gamma rays which as far as i can tell were not present, bear in mind that you need about a foot of lead to prevent the death of the observers. on the other side of radiation the spent fuel should be radioactive after use. on the academic side, so far every journal has refused publication of his paper, his university has insisted they have had absolutely no part in his experiments, just some staff have been there as observers. there are [questions raised](_url_0_) over the content of the spent fuel. for example, there is mysterious copper appearing with exactly the same isotope ratio as natural copper (so unlikely to be a fusion product). if you want to know more about all the problems with the relative abundances of the spent fuel elements then that link is very good. basically, when you see a claim of cold fusion, assume it to be false. you need a large input of energy to slam two nuclei together. you also need a high density to get a decent reaction rate (remember that the conditions of the centre of our star are not enough for an earth based fusion experiment, we need to go hotter and denser). these conditions are obtainable in the centre of fusion reactors, not in a shipping container at room temperature. | 7 | [] | [
"http://bisbee.net/wp/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/SPAWAR-MAY-9-2009.pdf",
"http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2011-10/29/rossi-success",
"http://newenergytimes.com/v2/reports/SSC-SD-Refereed-Journal-Articles.shtml",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VymhJCcNBBc"
] | [
"http://aleklett.wordpress.com/2011/04/11/rossi-energy-catalyst-a-big-hoax-or-new-physics/",
"http://physicstoday.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_58/iss_1/31_1.shtml?bypassSSO=1"
] | [
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how is it possible to get the right phase when using intermetallic phases for 3d printing? | so today i heard a talk about new methods for the productions of prototypes which are used at bmw and it was told that also 3d printing of metals is used. so now me as a chemist thought that most the time actually inter metallic phases are used for airplanes and cars(i think so?) and so i thought that they would also use those intermetallic phases for 3d printing but i think a big challenge would be to get the right phase how is it achieved to get the desired phase? or maybe it is pretty simple but i imagine it to be quite difficult because for the 3d printing process the used material has to be a fluid for a short time,right? | i think you're confusing alloys with intermetallic phases. im phases are usually brittle and hard. they start with powder or wire that's already alloyed to the composition they want. the phases are basically just determined by the composition and cooling rate. getting the right phase isn't that hard, the difficult part is getting the right microstructure - getting the phases to be the right shapes and sizes. not many metal parts are made of as-cast metal. anything that comes as sheet, bar, rod, or formed shapes like i-beams has had some sort of deformation, which effects the structure. since the whole point of 3d printing is that the printed part is already the shape you want, you're never going to deform it. so simply using the same alloy as you would use for a conventionally machined part may not work the same. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the effects of compression at the atomic level? | what is happening at the atomic level when compression is applied to something? what processes are happening that cause most things to eventually snap/shatter/break? it puzzles me, for example, that diamonds don't seem to shatter under the extreme temperatures and pressures of their formation. | atoms get closer, bonds get less stable because the elections push each other away as the counter force for the pressure being applied, eventually microscopic imperfections being the weakest point have enough force behind them to break bonds. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can a person develop a resistance to excess heat and humidity? what physiological changes are actually taking place? | humans get used to high heat through a gradual process called [acclimatization] (_url_0_). the salt content of sweat and urine decreases as people acclimatize to hot conditions. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acclimatization#Humans"
] | [
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|
what is the most precise measurement ever taken? is there a general rule regarding the precision of an instrument and it's corresponding size. | i saw a informative video of the ligo setup and got to thinking about precise measurements in order to reveal fundamentals of universe. is there a maximum (minimum?) precision value .000...nth that can be reached. other then canceling noise interference what limits current detectors? can machines like ligo or even the lhc be made smaller assuming better sensors or is there a theoretical maximum? | griffith university claims to have measured the interference between two out of sync lightwaves so percisely, that the only thing limiting the measurement from perfection is heisenbergs uncertainty principle. whether or not this is griffith's only obstacle, heisenberg's is one of the biggest hurdles that causes alot of grey area when it comes to measurement within the realm of quantum mechanics/physics. lhc is 28km at a smooth curve, if it were smaller the turns would be sharper and synchroton radiation lost would drop the collision energy. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do heat waves and air quality alerts often seem to happen together? | i think a significant factor for this is a temperature inversion. normally, air temperatures decrease as you increase in altitude. this causes warmer air close to the ground to rise, and cooler air at higher altitudes to sink, and that convection moves particulates and pollutants and disperses them. when it's very hot, however, air at higher altitudes is much warmer so the convection slows down trapping particulates and pollution closer to the ground. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.time.com/2011/07/22/why-bad-heatbad-air/"
] | [
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] |
|
how quickly does motion travel through an object? in other words, if i pull on one end of a taunt rope, how long does it take for the other end to start moving? | i pretty much asked my question and gave an example of what i mean in the title. just in case my question isn't clear do the following: 1. pick up some object, doesn't matter what it is 2. hold both ends of the object with your hands 3. keeping a firm grip on the object, pull the object with your right hand, allowing your left hand to be pulled. now, when you pulled the object with your right hand, the left followed (hopefully). my question asks how long it takes for your left hand to move from the pull of your right hand, providing you pulled something solid/taunt. | a similar question was asked a few years ago i believe - they asked that if you had a long stick that could reach the closest star from earth and you pushed on the stick - would it touch the star immediately or would there be a delay. i can't find the post anymore, but let's hope i remember everything correctly: motion (a tug or a push) through a solid object will travel at the speed of sound for that object. sound travels at 343 m/s in air - but through a diamond it will travel at 12000 m/s. [source](_url_1_) no idea what speed it would travel through a rope, but probably somewhere in between. rope is also elastic so it is probably variable depending on how taught you are holding it, the type of rope etc. so if you had the length of the rope and the speed that sound would travel through your piece of rope, you could work out how fast your tug would travel from the one end to the other. edit: also found this: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/hnkfc/the_mechanical_propagation_questionagain/",
"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/sound-speed-solids-d_713.html"
] | [
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] |
what science is there on fishing lures? | i made a search on google scholar and found next to nothing. i feel the some lures are made to bait fishers rather than fish. would be nice with some solid science! | when fishing lures are designed, there's a lot of fisheries biology being considered and experience on part of the designer him/herself. the running paradigm of fishing lures is to make it look like something the fish will eat. that's why it's a "lure" (yeah, lame). there are indeed some studies out there but not as exact as you were thinking. google "catch efficiency fishing lures angling" and uncheck "patents". that should help. here's a couple things i found: [using chemical baits](_url_0_) [hook types and efficiency in landing](_url_2_) [fishing gear and selection for angling](_url_3_). [government report on evolution of saltwater fishing gears](_url_1_). so, stuff like this is available. you just need to dig deep. however, there are few studies on the actual efficiency of specific lures because then you get into complicating factors like fishing experience, fish you are going for, time of day issues, and many other confounding factors. so, it's tough to simply do a study on a jig versus a spoon for bass. especially when the real objective is to make the rigs of interest applicable for a wider variety of fishermen with varying experience. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-2332-7_14",
"https://swfsc.noaa.gov/publications/CR/1979/7935.PDF",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165783602002448",
"link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02391626"
] | [
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how can we see through all the stuff in the air? | for instance today i'm dealing with 75% humidity, record grass pollen levels, and a host of airborne microbes. yet through my eyes the air is crystal clear and i don't see any water vapor or airborne particulates. how is it that we perceive the air as clear yet it is measurably filled with 'stuff'? | because what's considered "high amounts" of things in air is actually quite a tiny amount. for example, pollen count is measured in grains of pollen per cubic meter of air, and the websites that i see to track it have "very high" pollen levels at around 10. that's 10 grains of pollen per cubic meter. hardly something that's going to block your vision. similarly, humidity is *relative humidity*, so relative to the maximum for the air. that's still a pretty small amount. microbes you just plain can't see with the naked eye. you'd need a microscope. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is a stick of writing chalk really just calcium carbonate? | so i have started keeping snails, as i think they're cute. i have them a terrarium set up, and they're eating and behaving normally, but i want to supplement their calcium intake, for their shells. i know normally you buy cuttlebone from a pet store for this purpose, but i have a stick of chalk handy. i know chalk is calcium carbonate, but do you guys think it has anything else in it? any reason why it wouldn't be snail safe? thanks for your time! | standard chalk is powdered calcium carbonate bound with an oil, or resin, or perhaps some clay or even sulphates depending on brands. perhaps make sure the chalk you use is child safe and uses only food grade ingrédients as these minerals may contain traces of heavy metals since they are not normally intended for consumption. an alternate cheap source of calcium carbonate you might consider is pulverised seashells - just keep a few of the cleaner ones from your next meal of oysters, clams or mussels and grind them with a mortar and pestle. you can look up the industrial process for making commercial chalk here: _url_0_ | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Chalk.html"
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what determines/effects the probability of a decay schema? | if the question isn't clear an example of what i want to know is why for a given radioactive isotope 95% of the time it will decay with a beta particle of x energy and the rest of the time it will decay with a beta particle of y energy plus a gamma of z energy and what determines this? i wasn't able to find much on my own. thanks! | when a nucleus beta decays (or really any kind of decay), it doesn't necessarily go to the ground state of the daughter nucleus. it can go to excited states as well, which will generally subsequently decay by emitting a gamma ray. what determines the branching fractions to various states in the daughter is nuclear structure and conservation laws. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is electricity apparently so difficult to store effectively? | in my environmental science class, we're currently discussing alternative energy sources such as geothermal, wind, and solar. the professor explained that, while clean and effective, wind and solar do not have a 100% uptime capability that other energy sources do. i asked why we don't just store the energy and he said that we can't, but when i asked for clarification he didn't respond. is electricity just inherently not really storable, or do we just not have efficient batteries, or is it something else? | it's not quite right to say electricity is harder to store. energy is hard to store, full stop. we tend to think of oil and gas as an energy source, but oil and gas are much more like a battery - they're a very convoluted method for storing solar power, more or less. that's why we can't synthesize it effectively - it's even harder to make oil than it is to make a good battery. gas and oil get a pass in our mental map of energy storage mediums because *we* didn't make it. it was made a long, long time ago very, very slowly. it seems inexhaustible because there is a lot of it out there, but there is a very real, hard limit to how much of it is available, and we can't make more by any human-scale process. | 13 | [] | [] | [
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what would be the effect of a relativistic object or ship as it passed earth? | i was thinking about this the other day and was wondering what a ship might look like as it approached or passed earth, especially at near light speed and decelerating. i was thinking that light emitted by or bounced off the object would be extremely blue shifted, which made me think of gamma ray bursts. if its engines were pointed towards us the effect might be more intense. i came to the conclusion that it would make a cool element in a scifi story where it turned out many or most gamma ray bursts were actually ship fly bys. but i wonder if that is what it would really look like. | we can consider the two cases you outlined here. a. ship passing by earth, at constant velocity (near the speed of light), with a relatively small impact parameter (the distance of closest approach to earth). when the ship is far away and travelling toward us, it will appear almost as a single spot, with all light emitted from the ship blue-shifted. wikipedia says, gamma rays typically have energies of so we'd see a streak across the sky that at one end was very blue-shifted and near the point of closest approach was not blue-shifted at all. a similar effect would occur as it moved away, except with red-shifting. b. if the space ship was headed directly toward earth, but decelerating (hopefully so it wouldn't crash into us!) the ship would never have an angular velocity across the sky, so it would always look like a point. when it was far away and travelling fast (again with gamma unfortunately if this ship then landed on earth, it'd be pretty clear that it was not a grb just due to observatories at different points on earth reporting different declination and right ascension for the object, enough so to pin point about how far away it was when emitting. with enough artistic interpretation though, this could be a very interesting sci-fi element. source: grad school and worked on fermi : _url_2_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
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would this led blow up? | in my example notes theres an example that says: how to make an led turn on: 10v -+---------l > |------/\/\/\/----... best i could do on a keyboard. so its basically 10volt power supply right into the led. from what i learned, an led only requires 1.7v-2.1v and up to 4.3v in some leds (though we dont use those). could anyone explain why this would work? | you will probably want to add a series resistor to limit the current that flows through the led. if you plot the current as a function of the applied voltage for a diode, it looks something like [this](_url_1_). if you forward-bias the diode, the current which flows through it will be essentially zero until you hit some threshold voltage, denoted in the picture by v*_f_*. once you get above that threshold, the current becomes a very rapidly increasing function of the voltage. in most circuits, you don't want unnecessarily large currents flowing around. adding a resistor in series like [this](_url_0_) prevents a huge current from flowing through your circuit. | 8 | [] | [] | [
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speed of light question ... | if person a is traveling 3/4 the speed of light opposite person b who is also traveling 3/4 the speed of light, isn't each of them traveling faster than the speed of light relative to each other? | velocity is not additive at relativistic speeds. well, technically it's not additive at *any* speeds, but the closer you get to 0, the more accurate of an approximation you get by adding up the two velocities. [here's a page on wolfram alpha](_url_0_) where you can plug in various numbers to see how it works. in your specific case, each person moving at 3/4 c would see the other party as moving at 0.96 c. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=relativistic+velocity+addition"
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why does rope kink? | when twisting a rope (or wire or hose or even strands of hair) or even when uncoiling it, somtimes the rope will curl up on itself. this is known as [kinking.](_url_0_) why does it happen? | it's because the rope has some torsion in it. it's trying to straighten itself out. when you have a torsioned rope on a loop, the two sides of the loop will have opposite directions so the torsions go in opposite directions. each side of the loop will try to move against each other when those bits of rope are trying to remove that torsion, so you create a kink. this property is actually used in manufacturing rope, as that effect is what keeps all the multiple strands of rope stuck together. all the strands have a torsion to them, but in order for them to remove that torsion they need to rotate against each other. friction keeps that from happening. the total torsion of the rope depends on the torsion of each strand, so the ropes are made so that these cancel out and the total rope has no net torsion. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.splashmaritime.com.au/Marops/data/text/Seamantex/Riglifttex_files/image020.gif"
] | [] | [
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how do they manage to get the different waves on the electrity network to sync up? | so the power on the electricity network is generated at multiple facilities. but it is made out of waves. how do they manage to get these waves synced up from different power sources? | before a generator is hooked up to the grid, it must first undergo a process called [synchronization](_url_0_ ). this matches up the frequency (and other things) of the generator to that of the grid. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronization_(alternating_current\\)"
] | [
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what's the typical human number transcription error rate? | i've recently automated a process of finding prices in pdf invoices and typing then into a spreadsheet. it is a lot faster than humans, but also is more accurate. it's there an estimate for error rate of humans when doing this type of reppetive work over thousands of iterations? | although there is probably some research on this done (mostly by corporations i'll guess), you seem to be in a perfect spot to experiment and determine this answer yourself. you could re-run a set of pdf files through your software and see how the humans fared in the past. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how many times can we randomly see someone in day to day life before they start looking familiar? | we see thousands of people a year. every once in awhile though that one person looks familiar. is there any science behind this feeling? | a lot of factors come in to play when it comes to recognizing someone. if somebody has a defining feature such as pink spiky hair then you are much more likely to recognize them (obviously). other factors such as making eye contact with somebody can also make it easier for you to recognize people. if we are talking about just walking past random "normal" looking people then it would depend on the time in between seeing them. if you are commuting every day at the same time then you will begin to recognize people, if you are doing something like once a month then it is much less likely you are going to remember what somebody looked like and if you have seen them before. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/002210319290055O"
] | [
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what is the volume of an "average" event horizon? | we often see these artistic renderings of a black hole floating in space with the light from distant stars warping around it. the problem is the lack of bananas in space for scale. i think the common image people have is the event horizon being nearly as big as the star it started as. but if i imagine a star slowly shrinking, the dencity slowly increasing, there will be a point where the light can't escape creating the event horizon; the volume at this point surely is a fraction if the original volume. tldr: would the volume of an event horizon of an average black hole be closer to a planet or a beach ball? | there's an equation for that. actually there are a few equations for that. for a non-charged, non-rotating singularity (a schwarzschild black hole) it is: r = 2gm/c^2 where r is the radius of the event horizon, g is the gravitational constant, m is the mass of the singularity and c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v = 4/3*pi*r^3. keep in mind, a schwarzschild black hole is the "ideal;" most black holes formed in nature would be rotating at least, so would use the kerr (rotating) or kerr-newman (electrically charged and rotating) metrics and volume equations for ellipses. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much would the laws of physics change should you round to zero on numbers that are incredibly small (10^-10 or smaller) | it has popped up in my head many times when doing physics problem. faradays constant? 0. epsilon naught // permittivity constant? 0. etc. would this give us any general insight on how particles behave? say we have a force of 2 electrons that are 1 meter away. the charge is so small compared to that, you can pretty much call it zero. this could simply meaning that the closer the electron bond gets, the greater force of repulsion. | those aren't numbers, they are dimensional quantities, so the decimal number you write down for them is essentially arbitrary. that means that you can't just "round them down to zero" without changing to a wrong version of physics. typically the only time it's acceptable to treat a small quantity as equal to zero is if it's added to or subtracted from a much larger quantity- in your example, (2 electrons interacting) the net force is (more or less) the force due to gravity plus the force due to coulomb interaction. the gravitational force between them is so small beside the electrostatic force that you can neglect it (essentially claiming it's zero.) | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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earth's formation: violent collisions or gradual accretion? | i've watched a lot of documentaries about earth's formation and planetary formation in general and they often have these exciting and constant violent impacts occurring between similar sized asteroids. however, accretion disks are very slow and gradual...its just gravity slowly building up clumps of dust over millions of years. also, a recent probe (can't remember the name) studied an asteroid and despite its fairly congruent appearance, underneath it appeared to just be a clump of smaller rocks that stuck together. a violent early impact would surely just blow it apart. i'm not saying violent impacts didn't occur, but these numerous representations seem to be sensationalized and misleading according to my understanding. tldr; are violent impact planetary formation visualizations bullshit? | there was a recent paper by yu and jacobsen that has a nice diagram of how earth accreted but basically the first 10% of the mass or so comes from frequent small collisions in a stage called planetesimal formation (think km sized objects or so). however, the bulk of the mass comes from 5-10 giant impacts (something about the size of mars). the last 10% then comes from the moon forming impact which happened sometime after the rest of accretion slowed down. it depends on which images you are talking about the ones that show the moon forming impact with a glowing red earth (or worse one covered in magma) is probably incorrect but accretion of large objects is a violent process. it should be noted that this entire process was probably finished within 10 million years or so (except for the moon forming impact). that might be slow on a human scale (5-10 mars sized impactors over 10 million years or 0.5-1 per million years) but on a geologic scale that is essentially instantaneous. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what common household items, when combined, would create a stable light source? | i have read this: "cut about 20 matches at the top to get only the match heads. throw them in the jar and mix in 3 cap-fulls of hydrogen peroxide. one more cap-full of bleach will do the trick. put the top back on the jar and shake. this setup will stay lit of hours! watch the simple directions in action below." now, i've only got similar anecdotal evidence that it works (i.e. internet search results) and this video which seems to describe the same activity _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.metacafe.com/watch/757249/make_a_glowing_tomato/"
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