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this is a stupid question, but why exactly can't we feel our body weight? (e.g. your head which weighs a roughly 8lbs) | because of [adaptation](_url_0_). same reason you can't feel your clothing on your body. if you were to put a heavy hat on your head, you would initially feel it, but over time you would notice the hat less and less. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_adaptation"
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|
what is the heart actually doing during a palpitation? | is it just beating faster but still normally and you just get the sensation of feeling a "thud"? or is it actually behaving differently just not necessarily bad? | it is not uncommon to feel palpitations. in some instances it can be just the feeling of of an odd beat, or the chest muscles quivering. however, the heart has regular arrhythmias (as contradictory as that sounds). things such as laying on your left side, lack of sleep, or drinking alcohol/caffine can cause palpitations. yes, palpitations can just be sensory, non-cardiac muscle movement, but they also can be non-normal (non-sinus) heart beats. there are a bunch of different heart arrhythmias (a-fib, a-flutter, a-vc, pvc, sv-tach). some are harmless, others are more serious arrhythmias). palpitations tend to be harmless. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[neurology] layman wants to know: why do games like portal give me motion sickness? and why doesn't this affect everyone? | in addition to portal, there are unity-based games [like this one](_url_0_) where wasd moves you laterally and the mouse turns you and looks around. i cannot play these games for more than a few minutes before i start to feel miserable: dizzy and nauseated. it takes me a long time to recover after i stop playing. what's going on inside my brain? is there anything i can do about it? thanks. | just a friendly reminder, please keep the discussion to the scientific phenomenon of motion sickness and avoid sharing your personal anecdote. thanks! | 3 | [] | [
"http://jayisgames.com/archives/2012/11/imscared_-_a_pixelated_nightmare.php"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_sickness#Simulation_sickness"
] | [
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] |
is it possible for their to be light of a frequency that would disrupt nuclear bonding? | ultraviolet light can break down ionic bonds (or was it covalent?). is it possible that a light of the correct frequency could break down the bonds holding the nucleus of an atom together? | theoretically, yes. the nucleus is a bound state, hit it with the right bundle of energy (a photon), and you can excite the weakest bound nucleon off of the atom. it's easiest to think of deuterium: it's an electron, a proton, and a neutron. knock off the electron with something low energy (an ultraviolet photon, only 15.5 ev). this leaves you with a bound proton-neutron system. theoretically, you can then zap it with another photon of the proton neutron binding energy (2.22 mev). the binding energy of the deuterium nucleus is thus greater than the energy output of most lasers (it's firmly in the gamma ray spectrum, which is expected, because nuclear transitions make gamma rays). so, in most cases, you'll find that to complete disintegrate your nucleus, you're going to need to do some careful thinking. deuterium is the simplest non-trivial nucleus, and already we'd need a second radioactive source producing the necessary x-rays. but, again, in theory, yes, light can break up nuclei. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodisintegration"
] | [
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can you create a server farm in space? | assuming current technology, can we create a server farm say the size of a small data center orbiting earth? also assume weight is not a factor, what are the limiting factors preventing a space server farm? is it cooling or something else? | the two biggest factors to consider for a project like this would be a) cost and b) utility. considering the massive costs that would be associated with putting together such a project, what would be the point? we tend to need to computational power down here on earth -- having it up in orbit doesn't really give us any advantages. from a technical angle, there would be several challenges. power a major challenge -- any significantly sized server farm requires a lot of power (both for computation and cooling), and we don't have any way to easily run power to such a station. solar is the usual solution, but the array size for even a moderately sized server farm would be pretty massive. nuclear power could be a solution, but then you have even more added cost (for no extra benefit), and you have the challenge of the potential for nuclear contamination of earth if/when the station de-orbits. in addition, how do you service such a station? are technicians expected to live up there? now you have the added cost of crew quarters. or do we send up manned missions when things go awry? now you have the added cost (and risk) of sending manned missions to the space data centre. on top of that, you have the issue of communications latency. geostationary orbit is just shy of 36 000 km. the furthest distance between two points on earth is just below 13 000 km. as such, virtually _any_ data centre on earth is going to be physically closer to where you need the computation than having a geostationary satellite data centre in space, and thus the communications latency will be much, much less. so to summarize, our hypothetical server farm in space is a) much, much, _much_ more expensive to operate and service, and b) and significantly higher communications latency. there are virtually _no_ benefits (at least not at this time -- things could be different if we had off-earth colonies on the moon or mars where we wanted to be able to cache data to _minimize_ latency where applicable). | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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regarding weather patterns/jet streams/storm development. | hello all. first post to askscience and i'm hoping someone/anyone can help provide me with more information than i've been able to find on my own. i've been trying to search for information on what role upper-level jet streams play in the development and steering of storm systems. i've been able to find definitions of the jet streams but am still in the dark as to how it is they play a role in developing and steer storm systems. any links to informative websites or personal knowledge would be greatly appreciated. thanks again. | the vertical structure of the atmosphere contributes greatly to the development of storm systems through a process called *baroclinic instability*. in a nutshell, baroclinity arises when pressure surfaces and temperature surfaces in the atmosphere aren't perfectly aligned. in terms of fluid dynamics, this produces a situation where wave-like flows can extract potential energy from the background state of the atmosphere and grow in magnitude. baroclinic instability is one of the most important processes driving synoptic weather in the mid-latitudes; it is also pivotal in establishing the mechanism for the poleward transport of heat from the equator through eddies in the general circulation. the upper level jet stream comes into play here because the jet can couple with and enhance wave-like flows in the lower atmosphere. a classic analysis of this is [the eady problem](_url_2_), which you can find discussion on in any atmospheric dynamics textbook (chapter 8.3 of holton? not 100% sure since i don't have it in front of me at the moment). but essentially, upper-level jet can couple with lower-level perturbations, causing both to rapidly grow in magnitude and develop cyclones. this is the sort of topic you'd study in a graduate level atmospheric dynamics course. [here are alan plumb's notes for his dynamics course at mit](_url_0_). something a bit more to the point on how this dynamical process is used to help forecast the development of weather can be found on [jeff haby's website](_url_1_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://eaps.mit.edu/~rap/courses/12810_notes/2012_5%20Instability.pdf",
"http://www.theweatherprediction.com/habyhints/101/",
"http://www.aos.princeton.edu/WWWPUBLIC/gkv/history/Eady49.pdf"
] | [
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do different language make lying easier or harder? | yes and no. even if you reduce it down to binary signals, one signal could be yes and the other could be no. sending an incorrect signal for any given situation makes it a lie. in the complexities of human language it is still no different. giving a false response is always still possible. the degree to which how "easy" or "hard" it is to lie depends on the multitude of meanings you can express. basically what that means is: it is possible for certain languages to make lying *easier*, but no laguage can really make lying any *harder* in relation to the most basic level of communication. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why isn't something like a magnetic motor practical? if it is practical, why aren't they used more? what are they used for if at all? | ~~an electric motor contains magnets so i don't understand your question.~~ edit: i see what you are asking. by placing magnets in a circle around another magnet, you hope to cause the inner magnet to rotate perpetually. [the museum of unworkable devices](_url_0_) has an explanation of why this device does not function. the short answer is that the combined magnetic field of the magnets is zero. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/museum/cheng2.htm"
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|
why is plasma opalescent? | so the cosmic microwave background is the furthest we can look back to the origins of the universe with a telescope, beyond which point primordial matter is a giant thing of plasma that light cannot escape. what exactly gives the plasma this property though? i have heard it explained as "plasma is opaque like the sun. we cannot see the light coming from the inside of the sun, but we can still study what's in there with other instruments." can the plasma of the sun be compared to the plasma of the early universe in this manner? why can't some % of photons randomly squeeze through an opaque object (or are they just overwhelmed by light from the surface of the [bright] object)? is all material evidence of the early universe behind the cmb curtain gone then? | plasmas can be described by their [optical depth](_url_0_). for a homogeneous plasma there will be some length over which 1/e of the light survives. for a plasma twice as thick, e^-2 of the light will make it through, and so on. i don't know the optical depth of the sun, but you can see that due to the exponential nature of this decay, it doesn't take much thickness to get effectively to zero transmission. e^1000 is larger than the number of photons in the visible universe. so as far as light the cosmic microwave background is the earliest info we have. however, there should exist a [cosmic neutrino background](_url_1_), which was emitted around 2 seconds after the big bang. due to the nature of the expansion of the universe between the emission of these two backgrounds the c`ν`b is now colder than the cmb, about 1.95 k. you've probably heard about how difficult neutrinos are to detect. well they get even harder to detect as their energy decreases. there is no technology i know of even theorized that can hope to detect the c`ν`b at a usable level, but maybe we'll come up with something someday. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_depth",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_neutrino_background"
] | [
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] |
what would a very powerful electromagnet do to the human body? | this is a very interesting question that i have discussed with colleagues but i don't know if anyone has really tested since the ethics are a bit... unsettling. from what i understand, as long as you have no ferromagnetic objects in your body, even very powerful dc magnetic fields won't really affect you. but things change when you are dealing with dynamic fields, such as those used in mri imaging. [peripheral nerve stimulation in mri machines](_url_2_) is widely reported and documented, and increases in severity as field strength is increased. 7t mri are generally considered [safe for human use](_url_3_), with peripheral nerve stimulation minimal below 7t. 7t-15t are not used on humans, but are [sometimes used in research on animals](_url_4_). the thing is: the higher the field strength, the better resolution you can obtain. and therein lies the paradox: observing the brain in sufficient detail affects the brain's processes. | 29 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.aapm.org/meetings/04AM/pdf/14-2351-12342.pdf",
"http://www.ru.nl/hfml/research/levitation/diamagnetic/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_of_magnetic_resonance_imaging#Peripheral_nerve_stimulation",
"https://www.itnonline.com/content/mayo-clinic-installing-first-fda-approved-clinical-7t-mri",
"https://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/lab/15t-mr-laboratory"
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|
human migration -- confusion | from what i have read so far on the subject of human evolution i"ve seen that, as far as i understand, there are several views in regard to it. the one i am most puzzled about is this: there seems to be a consensus around the idea that human migration out of africa occured in to phases one with homo erectus and possibly habilis and another with homo sapiens. so is this position suggesting that different types of early humans evolved from independent origins? how could homo neanderthalensis co-habit with homo sapiens if they emerged at different times from different origins? is it because homo sapiens was just the most unusually smart of the bunch and was the one that outlived them all? bottom line is this. were there different branches of human evolution that appeared independently (seems highly unlikely given the very spontaneity of evolution as a process) and some simply died out in favor of others, or is there the so-called unbroken thread between our different stages of evolution that leads to us? i realize this may make no sense at all but it's a very confusing subject to study. | first i would like to point out that there really only is one human species, homo sapiens (us). when refereeing to other species within our genus, just call them *homo*, do not call them "humans". **where did we evolve and who did we evolve from?** humans and chimpanzees share a mrlca that lived in africa about 6 million years ago. this mrlca was not a human and it was not a chimp it was its own species. however, it probably looked like and acted more like a modern chimp then human. this mrlca would split into two groups, one lineage would give rise to the chimps and bonobos. the other would give rise to humans. but before humans evolved there were several other species that came before us in our lineage. here is an overview of the major fossil categories in our lineage, starting from oldest to youngest: 1. last common ancestor with chimps (it was neither a chimp, nor a human): ~ 6mya 2. the earliest fossil we have in our lineage is [sahel](_url_4_) ~5-6 mya. found in africa. 2. one of the earliest complete groups that we have the best fossils for are the [australopithecines](_url_2_): ~ 4 mya all found in africa. 3. the genus *homo* diverges from some australopithecine species: ~ 2-3 mya. the first homo species is [h habilis](_url_0_) although the placement of this fossil is debated (is it a true homo or is it just another australopithecine?). all *h. habilis* fossils are found in africa, there is no evidence to suggest that they migrated out of africa. 4. evolution of the homo lineage - our genus. the exact placement of these species is debated but here is one hypothesis that is a strong contender. * *h habilis* evolves into *[h. ergaster](_url_1_)* in africa. * *h. ergaster* (africa) migrated out of africa and became *h. erectus* in asia. we have fossils as far as china and java that indicate that *h. ergaster* was a very complex species, both behaviourally and in it's ability to adapt. they also used tools, although not as complex as later industries. they continued to live in asia for a very very long time, well after the arrival of h. heidelbegensis. *h. erectus/ergaster* evolved about 1.2 million years ago. * *[h. heidelbergensis](_url_3_)* evolved from either h. ergaster or h. erectus in africa or europe. nevertheless it did evolve, about 800,000 - 600,000 years ago, specimens are found in both europe and africa. so either it evolved all at once and the populations between the continents were congruent, or it evolved in one location and migrated to another. * *h. neaderthalensis* evolved from european *h. heidelbergensis* in europe. neanderthals never lived in africa, and never went to africa. neanderthals evolved about 400,000 years ago. * humans evolved in africa from a small population of african *h. heidelbergensis*. then we migrated out of africa where we encountered: neanderthals, *h, heidelbergensis*, and possibly *h. erectus* in europe and asia. these two species went extinct and we lived. anatomically modern humans (*homo sapiens*) appear in the fossil record about ~200,000 years ago. * neaderthals went extinct about 24,000 years ago. **eli5 version** * humans and neanderthals are sisters and we come from the same mom (h. heidelbergensis). neanderthals were "born" first in one place (europe) and we were "born" second (in africa). our mom continued to live even after we were born. our mom "died" first then our older sister "died" next, but not too long ago. * to take this further our mom had a mom herself, our grandmother (h. erectus). before they died, we decided to pack up our bags and move to our sisters and grandmothers "houses" (europe and asia), but we also kept our own house to ourselves (africa). our grandmother had other children besides our mom (our aunts - like h. floresiensis). h. floresiensis did not directly contribute to us being here but they are still part of our "family tree". our aunt died before she had children. * the further we go back the more our records become muddled. was sahel our great-great-great grandmother or just some random great-great-great aunt who died without children? in our giant family tree we are the only ones left alive. **why did the other homo species die out?** there are a couple of hypotheses, likely it is a combination of a few: 1. we outcompeted them. we killed them or extirpated them from their native habitat. we may have also monopolized their food resources. 2. they were unable to adapt to changing climatic conditions. behaviourally they did not posses the higher cognitive functions to adapt to changing climates. humans did and we survived. 3. we mated with them and they "blended" into our species. this one is less likely, while evidence suggests that we did in fact mate with neanderthals it is uncertain how frequent these interbreeding events were, how viable the hybrids were etc. moreover only a few single interbreeding events are necessary to produce the % dna we see in ourselves. likely, we killed them, outcompeted them and they could not handle the changing environment. **evidence that supports humans originated in africa** the earliest fossils of humans are found in africa not asia. the genetic diversity is highest in african populations indicating that they have been evolving for longer then populations which migrated outside africa. looking at dna from females (specifically through female lineage's - mother to daughter) indicates that humans share a first female ancestor who lived in africa. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_habilis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergaster",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopithecus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahelanthropus"
] | [
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panelists: which books have you found most interesting as a layman (non-expert?) | in general, what interesting books/movies or museums have piqued your interest as a layman, learning outside your field of expertise? | oh, there are tons of books. here are a few of my favorites: frozen earth by douglas macdougall at the water's edge by carl zimmer six degrees by mark lynas eternal frontier by tim flannery the map that changed the world by simon winchester pretty much any of stephen jay gould's books are great to check out. also, if you're looking for something a tad challenging/dense, origin of species is actually accessible. its dense, but well-written and no jargon to speak of. plus, i always think its great that a non-expert can read and grasp the material in one of the most important books written in any scientific field. for documentaries, check out brian cox's series on the solar system. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how long does your body take to refresh all its atoms? | extremely long time. no idea of the length of time but i'd bet much longer than a human life. i'll try to find the citation later for the details, but there have been studies on human brains looking at radioactive elements kicked up during atomic weapons tests. the bomb blew up radioactive elements, those elements were then taken in and incorporated into neurons born on the day they were inhaled or whatever, and then stayed for about 50 years. your dna there's some turnover, like when nucleotides get damaged, but most of it should not be in constant flux in your brain cells, which don't divide. changing the dna constantly would introduce a lot of mutations. so there's recycling, but it's extremely slow, to the point where most of the atoms are the same decades later. so i'm guessing you'd have to live thousands of years for the atoms to have all turned over. and you'd long be dead of cancer or something else. edit: [here](_url_0_) is a free review article that discusses the experiments and their significance, with citations to the primary literature. it was ^14 c, produced in abundance from nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s and 60s, they isolated brains from recently deceased people, purified neurons, isolated the neurons' dna, then measured the amount of ^14 c. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3075882/",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=volume+of+water+in+the+world",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=molecules+of+water+in+1l"
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] |
|
want to know more about naturopathic medicine | if you're interested in cam, i recommend you start with the [national center for complementary and alternative medicine](_url_4_). though it has its share of controversy, nccam's mission is to scientifically evaluate alternative medicines. they also have an [introduction page](_url_1_) on naturopathy where you can get started. if you are more interested in the science behind certain supplements, the [office of dietary supplements](_url_0_) provides very well written summaries of the current research. edit: i pulled a couple of specific studies from the nccam site. [here](_url_3_) is one on tmj and [another](_url_2_) on lower back pain. if you are interested in a specific area of naturopathy, i can find more trials. i'm not saying these are meaningful studies, but they are typical. a common theme will be effects on pain because it is so subjective. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/list-all/",
"http://nccam.nih.gov/health/naturopathy/naturopathyintro.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17878954",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18564953",
"http://nccam.nih.gov/health/atoz.htm"
] | [
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|
how does water between two electrified parallel plates heat up? | there is a type of water heater which consists of two parallel metal plates a few mm apart. each plate is connected to one pole of the mains supply. when it is immersed in ordinary water and plugged in, the water boils quite quickly. what is the principle in operation here? \- the device behaves like a capacitor with water as the dielectric - the alternating current causes the dielectric to heat up? \- the device behaves like an electrolysis cell with a very high alternating applied voltage? \- some other process? | i'm sure there is some capacitive current, but mainly this is simple ohmic heating. the water acts like a resistor, and passing current through it heats it up. water has a resistivity of about 100-1000 ohm.m. those plates probably have a surface area of about 10 cm^2 = 0.001 and a gap of about 0.01m which means the resistance between the plates is around 10 and 100 ohms. power equals v^2/r so for a 110 v rms circuit, these plates are a 121 to 1210 watt heater. let's call it 500 watts, or 500 joules per second. it takes 1 calorie to heat 1 ml of water by 1 degree c. if you want to heat water by 200 ml of water (a rough cup) by 50 degrees, you need 10,000 calories. there is about 4 joules per calorie, so you need 40,000 joules. if the heater is putting out 500 joules per second, it would achieve this much heating in 80 seconds. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
will painting a city in light colors cool it down? | when in tropical or warm climates the cities can be much hotter than the countryside. would painting the roads and buildings in light colors cool the city down? | yes. by maximizing the reflectance of urban surfaces, less light will be absorbed and thus contribute to an increase in local temperatures. this is in fact one argument in favor of using reflective surfaces for urban roofing, as these help not only to reduce the energy consumption needed to cool the interior during the summer, but also help to offset the "heat island" effect in urban areas. the [wiki article on the subject](_url_0_) has some pretty interesting additional information if you would like to read more about this. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflective_surfaces_%28geoengineering%29"
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is there anything biologically unique about humans which cannot be found in any other animal? | i am not aware of any other animal that sheds tears from emotion. another major difference is our ability to make complex vocalizations due to the descended position of our larnyx coupled with the descent of the tongue into the pharynx. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are there cases where a scientist might use a certain "magnitude" of degrees? | with other types of measurements (length, mass) you'll use prefixes such as - milli, - kilo. do scientists ever use 'milli' celsius or kilo-kelvin? | millikelvin is frequently used in low temperature physics. [random example](_url_0_). kilo, mega kelvin etc aren't really used. if systems have that high a temperature it's usually discussed in terms of energy. [actually, that's not true, i stand corrected](_url_1_) | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v395/n6698/abs/395148a0.html",
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004cxo..prop.1806T",
"http://prl.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v11/i1/p6_1"
] | [
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after the s phase, is a somatic cell technically quadriploid? | yes, it does have two sets of sister chromatids (per chromosome) and thus is "quadraploid" or 4n, but as far as i know there is no functional reason why this is important other than to divide and generate 2, 2n cells. the dna is so condensed and transcription is nearly halted during mitosis that having an extra set of chromosomes i do not think matters | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
determine size of object with webcam | this might just be simple geometry and my brain is not working right now, but thanks in advance for any help. i am trying to figure out the size of an object and how far away it is only using two pictures of it. in the first picture the object appears to be 61 pixels high. in the second picture the object is 84 pixels high. the only other known information is that the object is four inches closer in the second image. all camera settings are otherwise the same in the two pictures. is it possible to figure out how large the image actually is from these two photos? also how far away the object is? | unfortunately, you don't have enough information to determine how large the object is. you would need to calibrate using an object of known size at a known distance. you can, however determine how far the object was. let a be the angular span in the farther away image and b be the angular span in the nearer image. if d is the farther distance, then d\*tan(a) = (d-4)\*tan(b) (= the size of the object). also, f\*tan(a) = 61 px and f\*tan(b) = 84 px for some unknown f. so tan(a) = 61/84 \* tan(b), and you can use this to find d = 336/23 = 14.6 in. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is the period of sin intrinsically 2pi? | i'm mystified as to how the period of sine is naturally 2pi. if i build sine using the taylor series approximation, that uses derivatives and those derivatives can be created just using trigonometric identities. so you can create a function for sine without ever actually bringing any pi into the mix. but when you look at the taylor series function it still has the same natural frequency of 2pi. is there a way to show how that frequency is built into the function, or a way to understand the way mathematics defines sine that makes this less mysterious? | it is not obvious from a taylor series whether or not you have a periodic function, let alone what the period is. if you want to do it for sine, then you're going to have to just use the taylor series to recreate some fundamental properties about sine that we already know, and from these properties show that you get periodicity. to be able to say that the period is pi, you have to connect it to the circle in some way and there's no way around this because pi defines and is defined by the geometry of the circle. you can look at some of the responses [here](_url_2_) to see some strategies for this. but there is a basic pattern for the ones that don't use euler's formula. you first have to establish some version of the angle addition formula directly from the taylor series. you can do this by brute force to establish that * cos(a+b) = cos(a)cos(b) - sin(a)sin(b) as one person does, or you can differentiate and get that * d/dx cos(x) = -sin(x) and d/dx sin(x) = cos(x) these turn out to be, essentially, the same thing with the latter being the "infinitesimal" version of the angle addition formula. next, you need to establish the existence of some nice point that give nice values for sin(x) and cos(x). in particular, you want some nonzero value t so that either sin(t)=0 or cos(t)=0. an easy way to do this is to show that there are positive numbers r and s so that cos(r) so you basically need a nontrivial functional relationship between sine and cosine that amounts to the angle addition formula, along with a point that hints at a period in order to show periodicity. but this doesn't say anything about pi, just that sine and cosine have some period. in order to relate it to pi, you need to actually relate it to the circle and, in particular, the arclength of the circle. to do *this* from fundamental principle, you need to use the definition of arclength via the [arclength formula](_url_0_). we already know that sin^(2)(t)+cos^(2)(t)=1, and so (cos(t),sin(t)) is a point on the unit circle x^(2)+y^(2)=1. but this doesn't mean that the arclength from (1,0) to (cos(t),sin(t)) is equal to t. for instance, you can use hyperbolic functions to show that (sech(a),tanh(a)) is also a point on the unit circle, but the arclength from (1,0) to this point will not be "a" (in fact, they are related by the function called the [gudermannian](_url_1_)). so there is still work to be done. so let's say that sine and cosine have some period 4t. so a quarter of this period is t and we already know that sin(t)=1 and cos(t)=0. if we can show that the arclength from (1,0) to (0,1) along the circle is t, then we'll get t=pi/2 by definition of pi, and so the period will be 2pi. to do this, we use the arclength formula and integrate dx/sqrt(1-x^(2)) from x=0 to x=1. you can totally do this integral and get the result from the principles that we are using without circular reasoning (though we are reasoning with circles). if we set x=sin(t), then dx=cos(t)dt, as we've already established and since we also have sin^(2)(t)+cos^(2)(t)=1, the integrand turns into cos(t)dt/cos(t) (at least after reasoning that cos(t) in order to really demystify this for you, it might be good to go through all the details of this keeping in mind the big idea of what's going on. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_length#Finding_arc_lengths_by_integrating",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudermannian_function",
"https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/63102/how-to-prove-periodicity-of-sinx-or-cosx-starting-from-the-taylor-seri"
] | [
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the article about negative kelvin temperatures below; how much of it is groundbreaking science vs sensationalist crap? | article in question (found in r/til): _url_0_ let me preface it with the fact i have no physics education above high school level, and this is breaking some knowledge i thought clear. * is temperature really defined as they describe - via how outliers spread from the 'base' energy level? i always imagined it is connected to energy states and can be explicitly computed via energy conservation laws (in a closed system). * the > 100% efficiency engines - can someome check that bit and confirm whether it's bullshit or not? i feel it if were right we'd know about it worldwide the moment it's confirmed. * the association to dark matter - sounds like an off hand comment a researcher made that got spun into quite some text for the sake of doing so. or is it? in short, i smell bullshit but i'm not at all qualified to confirm if it is. | first of all, the article is describing work done by [immanuel bloch](_url_1_)'s group, and most of the statements made can be found in some form in their [original paper](_url_4_), which was published in science and already has over 150 citations. the main results of the paper are really very good. but scientists need to put bunch of fluff in the intros/outros of their paper to promote their work, and that fluff gets amplified in these sorts of press releases. the main result involves experimentally realizing negative temperatures, and this is very mainstream physics. a physicist will first encounter the concept of negative temperature in an undergraduate statistical thermodynamics course, and the concept has [a wikipedia article](_url_0_) and everything. negative temperatures had been reached before, but it seems like these researchers managed to achieve it in a new type of system than previous experiments. it's a very nice experiment, as with most of the work coming out of bloch's group. yeah, i don't like this. a quick google search found [this post on stack exchange](_url_3_) giving a quick and convincing argument for how the efficiency is still less than 100% (as usual in thermo, you just need to be very careful with minus signs). bloch's paper cites [this paper](_url_2_), which gives a dirty argument for efficiency greater than one in the introduction, but the process being described there does not sound like a reversible cycle, so defining an engine efficiency seems silly. in my opinion, it seems like a quick statement made in both papers which was not central to either paper's argument, so the referees just let it go. the authors could try defending the statement by using weird definitions of efficiency, but we certainly won't get perpetual motion machines out of these things. first of all, they mention dark *energy*, not matter (they are very different things). as far as i can tell, the only relation is that this system exhibits negative pressure, and so does dark energy. i kind of doubt that these systems will actually help in studying dark energy, but it's a technically correct statement they put in the paper which may help people get interested in their research and help them get funding. so i'd put the dark energy and "greater than 100% efficiency" claims in the fluff department. they only take up a tiny amount of space in the introduction of the original paper, and only exist to get laymen and funders interested in the main part of their work. everybody does this to different degrees in their papers - unfortunately science is still a bit of a popularity contest. | 13 | [] | [
"https://www.mpg.de/research/negative-absolute-temperature"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_temperature",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Bloch",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1008.0468",
"https://physics.stackexchange.com/a/38551",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1211.0545"
] | [
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what exactly happens when you're anesthetized? | [deleted] | i’ve been under general more than once. it’s not like sleep because it comes on very quickly and i didn’t dream. once, i asked the anesthesiologist, “is this when i count backward from 100?” he replied, “we don’t do that any more.” last conscious experience until i came to in recovery. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.who.int/medicines/publications/essentialmedicines/en/"
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] |
is there any legitimacy regarding "visually-mind" people? | i've made the observation about myself as a person that i am heavily reliant on visual learning and thinking (specialized maybe even), but i am wondering if there is any scientific merit, i've searched a couple times but found nothing, as in nothing for or against the idea. the wiki page is completely lacking of citations. is there any legitimacy to this? | i'm sometimes involved in curriculum and syllabus design and the question of learning styles is one that comes up frequently. the one i think you are looking for is called the vak/vark model popularized by neil fleming ([his site](_url_1_)). specifically, he aims to describe people's sensory preference when learning is the objective, and categorizes these preferences as: * visual learners * auditory learners * reading/writing preference learners * kinesthetic learners the way these are usually invoked are as a method that teachers can employ to maximize learning for individual students. as to the legitimacy of the idea, my understanding is that there is a significant lack of evidence that these learning modality preferences are a real thing. the only paper i could find that is not behind a pay wall basically says that so far there is no evidence that meets the standards necessary to validate the theory ([here](_url_2_) *warning pdf* or a light version from npr [here](_url_0_)). in practice people seem to benefit most from mixed-modality learning, regardless of their stated preference. edit: formatting | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2011/08/29/139973743/think-youre-an-auditory-or-visual-learner-scientists-say-its-unlikely?ps=cprs",
"http://www.vark-learn.com/english/index.asp",
"http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/pubs/Pashler_McDaniel_Rohrer_Bjork_2009_PSPI.pdf",
"http://www.danielwillingham.com/learning-styles-faq.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sIv9rz2NTUk"
] | [
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is there any scientific evidence for or against the sensa diet? | the manufacturer is claiming 30+ lbs weight loss without change in diet habits. this diet (also known as the "sprinkle diet") involves pouring a powder on your food before eating and claims to be backed up by a large (unpublished) clinical trial and uses theories developed by dr. alan hirsch (hirsch ar). [the powder contains:](_url_3_) "maltodextrin (derived from corn from the usa), tricalcium phosphate, silica, natural and artificial flavors. sensa® also contains soy and milk ingredients" [sensa website](_url_2_) [hirsch ar's published articles](_url_1_) [embedded nbc video on sensa](_url_0_) | i'll start by admitting that i don't know the supposed science behind this, but the fact that the trial is unpublished (especially given its dramatic claims) should raise red flags. i've checked out the information on the website, and it's really not complete enough to make a judgment. i've also emailed dr hirsch asking for a complete copy of the study. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.trysensa.com/dr-alan-hirsch.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Hirsch%20AR",
"http://dm.trysensa.com/dms2620/",
"http://www.trysensa.com/frequently-asked-questions.htm"
] | [] | [
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could an ancient coelacanth breed with a modern coelacanth ? | [i just picked coelacanth because i heard it is the oldest still surviving species (according to a source i have little faith in), and i understand they aren't 'unchanged', but just have a relatively stable body-plan.] basically, do we have any idea if an ancient individual from an enduring, relatively "unchanging" species, time-travelled to today, could breed with a modern version of that species? would all the millenia of genetic drift, etc prevent reproduction. and if it *would* prevent breeding, how does this affect our definition of 'species'? (thats what got me thinking; the question of how well linnaean taxonomy reflects nature- but i guess i went off on a tangent.) | no, it could (probably) not. the reason is that there is a bit of semantic confusion when we use terms such as "the coelacanth". coelacanth refers to all lobe-finned fishes to ever have existed when used in the generic sense, and to the few surviving species within that group. should you go back in time, the species of coelacanths you would encounter would not be the same which exist today, in the same way that you shouldn't expect to successfully breed a modern species of roach (say *blatta germanica* for arguments sake) with an extinct cretaceous one (say, *gondwablatta abrahami*). the cumulated genetic variation should normally exceed the ability to interbreed. yes there are rare exceptions (ligers, mules, and like that), but as a rule interbreeding gets more and more unlikely the further removed 2 species are from one another, particularly animals (plants are a different matter). there are currently 2 living species of coelacanth, *latimeria chalumnae* & *latimeria menadoensis*. they are the last remaining taxa of their subclass; both are highly endangered. to the best of our knowledge, these two species are not interfertile, although their geographic ranges do not overlap. genetic caracterisation indicated they last shared a common ancestor about 30 to 40 million years ago. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the maximum surface speed of a pulsar? | what i know: pulsars are (relatively speaking) small, incredibly dense, and rotate at speeds up to 1000 rotations per second (i think i saw that the fastest was measured at ~800). i realize the surface can't be moving faster than the speed of light, but how fast can it really travel in practice? limiting factors that i can think of would be 1) gravitational attraction, 2) radius, 3) density, 4) centripetal force. am i missing anything? and is there any other place in the universe where "normal" matter (i.e., matter within black holes, nuetrinos, photons, etc. excluded) travels at speeds this great? | [here](_url_0_) is an article (about a fast-spinning pulsar) that discusses this issue. it spins at 716 hz, and they say that this means it can't have a radius larger than about 16 km. at that radius, the surface speed (at the equator) is 72,000 km/s, 1/5 the speed of light. so, (as you say) other factors must be limiting the maximum speed. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nrao.edu/pr/2006/mspulsar/",
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn8576-fastspinning-neutron-star-smashes-speed-limit.html"
] | [
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is the location measurement in the atlas detector mainly limited by the heisenberg uncertainty principle or the electronics involved? | as i was reading up on the atlas detector on [webpage](_url_0_) i came across this sentence: > typically for each track the pixel detector contributes three and the strips fours space points. at larger radii typically 36 tracking points are provided by the straw tube tracker. **the relative precision of the measurement is well matched, so that no single measurement dominates the momentum resolution.** does this mean that the measurement of the location doesn't influence the momentum too much by the uncertainty principle *or* does it mean that you can't put a lot of devices in it to measure the position without influencing the momentum of the particles directly? (or is it a little of both?) | no, what they are saying is that each "hit" where the particle traverses some detector element has similar precision to every other "hit". a good analogy would be driving a truck and recording position with some gps signal with an accuracy of 100 m. each measurement would help you determine the precise trajectory of the truck. now if somehow there was some sensor plate in the road that you drove over and measured your position accurate to 2 m, that one very accurate measurement would dominate your statistical fit of the trajectory of the truck. what atlas is saying is all their measurements are comparable. regarding the uncertainty principle, it does set a quantum limit for the precision of the measurement of a "particle" trajectory. for a particle with a momentum of 10 gev/c, today's lhc detectors can estimate the position to δx = ~20 microns and the momentum to 1% accuracy, or δp = 0.1 gev/c. multiply those together to get δxδp = 7 x 10^-6 ev s the quantum limit is δxδp = hbar / 2 = 3 x 10^-16 ev s. so the total position and momentum accuracy could each be increased by five orders of magnitude before hitting the quantum limit. this is actually a good reason why the field is called "particle" physics. at the momentum and position scales we typically consider with the technology available, both the momentum and position of a quantum object like an electron or pion are extremely well defined. so basically, the object behaves like a particle for the purpose of our measurement. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.atlas.ch/inner-detector.html"
] | [] | [
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are there distinct ways to comb a donut smoothly? | i came across the [hairy ball theorem](_url_1_) and noticed this picture of a [hairy donut](_url_0_). is this the only way to comb the donut smoothly? i was thinking of just arranging the hairs so they all line up in circles that go around the donut. is it distinct from the picture above? is there a clever way to tell? | the question we need to ask here is what it means for two combings to be distinct. if we just nudged one of the vectors in that wikipedia picture, would that be a distinct new combing? if so, then there are definitely tons of distinct ways to do this. you gave another one in your post. but a less trivial definition would be: "can we smoothly transform one combing into the other?". to give an example of what i mean by that, imagine taking your combing where all the hairs line up in circles that go around the donut and start rotating all hairs at the same rate in the same direction. if you see what i mean by that and you rotate enough, eventually you'll get to the combing from wikipedia. so in that sense, those two combings are not distinct. so are there any other distinct ways? i had a hard time coming up with any myself but thankfully could at least come up with the technical name of what we were looking for ("homotopy classes of non-singular vector fields on the torus") so i could google up an answer. [here](_url_0_) is a picture of two, where for each square you have to imagine attaching its top to its bottom (to make a tube) and then the two ends of the tube to make a donut. 3a is the wikipedia combing and 3b is a distinct combing though i'm having a hard time coming up with a cogent argument why. and in fact, i think that's enough to get you an infinite number of distinct combings. just smush 3b to half its width and put two copies side by side (so now you have a square with two vertical lines and four of those upside down us). i'm pretty sure that's distinct from the first two we had. do it again and you get something distinct from those three. etc. etc. | 7 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hairy_doughnut.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hairy_ball_theorem"
] | [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=MOfmCoyMJY8C&pg=PA320&lpg=PA320#v=onepage&q&f=false",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Rham_cohomology"
] | [
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is there any truth to the claim that there is a correlation between temperature and temperament? | this 2001 paper claims that violent crime increases where temperatures are high: _url_0_ have there been any further studies? has this hypothesis been discredited? | according to this [more recent work](_url_1_), weather does seem to have an influence, when taking into account time spent outside. [this modelling paper](_url_0_) also finds an association between weather and crime rates. sidebar: keep in mind that there are many other factors that influence these relationships, and that we don't know the true nature of these associations. | 4 | [] | [
"http://public.psych.iastate.edu/caa/abstracts/2000-2004/01A.pdf"
] | [
"http://sf.oxfordjournals.org/content/82/4/1333.short",
"http://pss.sagepub.com/content/16/9/724.short"
] | [
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] |
is an inertial dampener entirely science fiction? or is there a theoretical way to actually make one? | remember newton's second (and first) law, f=ma. changing the inertia (the resistance to acceleration due to a force) of an object is the same as changing its mass, so "inertia" and "mass" are basically two different words for the same thing. so, inertial dampeners are just a piece of [applied phlebotinum](_url_0_) to justify the enterprise and other starships working the way they do. when asked how the inertial dampeners work in an interview, one of the writers for st:tng responded "just fine, thank you." however, the point of an inertial dampener is to reduce the force the passengers in a vehicle are experiencing, and although we can't do that in real life by reducing the mass, we can do it by reducing the acceleration by increasing the time over which the change in velocity occurs. so an example of a real world "inertial dampener" would be a shock absorber. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/AppliedPhlebotinum"
] | [
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] |
|
can we create 4d representations? | since we can make a representation of a 3d figure on a 2d surface, can we make a representation of a 4d figure in a 3d space? | yes. here are several: different types of 4d torus, in [rotating 3d slices](_url_8_) 4d tori [passing through a 3-plane](_url_0_) in 3d slices [4d hypercone](_url_7_) (sphere pyramid) [4d hypercylinder](_url_5_) (sphere prism) [4d hypercube](_url_3_) [4d triangle x circle prism](_url_2_) , a cartesian product of a circle and an orthogonal triangle [4d circle,circle bipyramid](_url_4_) (similar to an octahedron, but with two orthogonal, intersected circles) [4d conic sections](_url_6_) , the two types of conics that are possible in 4d [a 4d hypercube array of 4d hyperspheres](_url_1_) , a different take on the hypercube animations, this is a 4x4x4x4 array of 256 4d spheres passing through a 3-plane at various angles. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/asnRZ",
"http://imgur.com/a/vAA3r",
"http://imgur.com/a/DvMEj",
"http://imgur.com/a/Frqrj",
"http://imgur.com/a/hcCXG",
"http://imgur.com/a/ORY5G",
"http://imgur.com/a/pgoAm",
"http://imgur.com/a/vv7fG",
"http://imgur.com/a/ZSTVs",
"http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/488880",
"http://www.fleischfilm.com/html/texts.htm",
"https://zaklynsky.wordpress.com/2013/08/06/construction-of-the-hyper-cube-tesseract/"
] | [
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when and how was the drift speed of an electron first measured? | hopefully someone who knows more about science history can come along with a more authoritative answer. however, drift velocity can be calculated both from: current = net charge x drift velocity, which is to say one only needs to measure current, which has been possible since as far back as the galvanometer, so the early 1800s.... barring the ones that used dead frogs...) and electrostatic charge (electroscopes have been around since the 1600s). alternately, one can use drift velocity = mobility x electric field. my guess is that one of the first mobility measurements was done through the same method that is used today, hall measurements: _url_0_ which hall did in 1879. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_effect"
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|
can anybody tell me more about this fossil i found. | _url_0_ i found this the over the weekend while rock hunting at a local river. it's sandstone, and has more holes on it's side witch i suspect are more traces left by these worms. i've would appreciate if you could point me in a direction where i can learn more about this fossil. thanks in advance. edit. html derp | where was this found? usually these sorts of trace fossils aren't from worms, but from corals or sea-floor dwelling plants. but there are a *ton* of different types of things that look sort of like this, so unless someone here is an extraordinaire in the subject, knowing where it was found and what mountains the local river drain from might help a lot. edit: though most of the corals and plant trace fossils i have seen are more aligned than that, so it's totally possible it's some worm remnants i guess. i would be only slightly surprised. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/vQRT3"
] | [] | [
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] |
reddit, what can you tell me about this fossil? | this was found in southwestern ontario, about a half an hour drive from guelph. any information regarding the organism that is fossilized or the rock in which it sits would be greatly appreciated! here it is: _url_0_ | looks like you have yourself a piece of [coquina](_url_0_). the larger fossils are either brachiopods or bivalves, as stated before, but i also noticed that there may be some smaller, roundish cylinder type things with a hole in the middle? like a donut? those are called crinoids, and are quite fun once you start looking for them, because they are everywhere. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/DZozK"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coquina",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalve",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachiopod"
] | [
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are you more likely to slip on a wet tile floor with a dry foot, or a dry tile floor with a wet foot? | call this something of a crazy shower thought. | i would think that a dry-foot wet-tile situation would be worse, because the effective lubricant effect of the water would not diminish as it would whenever your foot was wet but the floor was dry. what i mean is that, if your foot was wet and you were on a dry floor, each successive step (or slip) would reduce the amount of water in between your foot and the floor, and therefor your slip-factor would rapidly decrease. however, on a wet floor, you would (as another user pointed out) have a smooth (not prune-y) foot on a continuously wet surface. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen to a quadriploid human? | i know it cant occur naturally but what would be the after effects. considering all the variables and the five genotypic genders four of which would be viable what would happen phenotypically edit: so almost instant death ok thanks for the answers | death. tetraploid humans actually *do* occur naturally, relatively often, and they are almost invariably miscarried. from wikipedia: however [here is a case report of a human tetraploid who was born alive](_url_1_) even if died soon after birth. the malformations included: here is an abstract about [three live-born tetraploids](_url_0_), again the phenotype is quite seriously malformed: edit: [this one survived 15 days.](_url_2_) | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajmg.1320190106/abstract",
"http://www.archivesofpathology.org/doi/full/10.1043/1543-2165%282003%29127%3C1612:ATLNCA%3E2.0.CO;2",
"http://jmg.bmj.com/content/18/4/309.short"
] | [
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how do theoretical physicists come up with their ideas? (possible spoiler references to interstellar) | saw interstellar the other day, and in that context the physicist who was trying to figure out gravity was working off data from the wormhole that they found. later on the main characters daughter was waiting for data from the other side of the black hole (even though she didn't know it yet). how do theoretical physicists come up with their ideas in the first place though? is it an attempt to explain some kind of unusual experimental results? | this might be better for /r/asksciencediscussion but i'll give it a chance here. there are many different "techniques" of theoretical physics. some are technical, like perturbation theory (taking a known model and and then seeing what happens when small changes are made). in my experience, the broadest way to "come up with ideas" is to think about a known solution to a problem and consider what assumptions were made that lead to that solution. then, seeing what happens if you don't make the same assumptions. some are more focused on experimental data, some are not. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what could happen if enough spacial matter was brought to earth? | if spacial mining industry starts to retrieve asteroids minerals and bring them to earth, the total mass will increase. what happens to rotation, gravity, etc? how much time until some problems arise? | the earth is really big relative to the asteroids. the mass of the asteroid belt is 4% of the earth's moon or 0.05% the mass of the earth. even if we stupidly brought all the asteroids to earth (and what would we do with all of that?) it would add a little over a kilometer of rock to the surface and the gravity would increase by maybe 0.05%. the rotation of the earth would slow down by about 0.05% which would mess up the clocks by about 1 minute per day, but i think the people would be more annoyed by the 1 km thick layer of asteroids surrounding them. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the difference between fisher information and shannon information? | tl;dr: fisher information is related with the uncertainty in estimating a certain value given parameters of this value, while shannon information is related with how many bits of information you may learn about some random variable given an observation. more specifically, fisher information requires some value you are trying to estimate, for instance the variance of a normal curve, and a set of samples you are using to estimate. clearly the sampled distribution actually changes based upon the parameter you are trying to estimate. each parameter (variance in the example), thus defines a different set of data we would expect to observe. what we would like to know though is how accurate our estimation is. clearly, if the distributions vary widely with the parameters then it should be easier to estimate because the sets are more distinct. indeed the variance of any estimator and the fisher information are related. the variance of any estimator must be greater than the reciprocal of the fisher information. thus greater fisher information, the smaller a lower bound. this lower bound is not always possible, but when it is the estimator in question is referred to as "efficient." for more see cover and thomas *elements of information theory* section 11.10. disclaimer, as an information theorist i have seen shannon information used to mean both entropy and mutual information. i am going on the assumption that you are using shannon information to mean mutual information, but my answer will by necessity discuss both. on the other hand, mutual information, can be viewed as how many bits, on average, our observation tells us about some process. to explain this a little deeper, i need to first describe what i mean by bits, and the concept of entropy. it will be helpful to define a few variables here, let x and y be random variables distributed p(x,y). the entropy of a random variable x, denoted h(x), is the sum -p(x) log (x), where the base is arbitrary. there are three important values to note about entropy which give it significance, first it can be derived from three axioms: * the entropy of a random variable which is equally likely 1 or 0, must have entropy 1 * the entropy must be a continuous function of the distribution * given a collection of possible values of x, if we were to group them into sets non intersecting sets v, then h(x) = h(x|v) + h(v), (in other words the entropy does not change based on grouping), and second that for any random variable x, the average length of any code used to represent x will be greater than h(x), and third there always exists a code to represent x with average length at most h(x)+1. thus, at least for discrete random variables, the entropy of the random variable can be viewed as the number of bits needed to describe said random variable on average. now that i have defined entropy, mutual information is the difference in entropy of x and the entropy of x when y is observed. we denote mutual information i(x;y), and mathematically the preceding statement is equivalent to h(x)-h(x|y). now, lets say that we can to estimate x from y with a probability of error p. well there exists this thing called fanos inequality which directly states that h(x|y) < p log|x| + 1, so thus for probability of error going to zero, the mutual information converges to the entropy. thus why we call it mutual information. so what happens when the probability of error does not go to zero? [well it depends on how x and y are related, but if x^n and y^n are such that p(x^n ,y^n ) = p(x^n ) prod p(y|x), then i(x^n ;y^n ) is still the average number of different states one would be able to distinguish, and thus still a good measure of information.](_url_0_) that was a shameless plug, and it is also a derived consequence of the work. [you can also obtain the same interpretation from information theory great te sun han's work](_url_1_). in either case though, the interpretation of mutual information as the number of bits one may distinguish is still valid. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1512.00824",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/0712.2959"
] | [
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|
how much experimental evidence do we have on the validity of the path integral formulation of quantum electrodynamics? | additionally, if we do have evidence, what are the main papers in which this can be found? | path integrals are a method of formulating quantum mechanics and quantum field theory which are mathematically equivalent to the "standard" methods. experiments cannot distinguish between the mathematical formalisms you may choose to use, because they lead to equivalent predictions. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how strong are the blood vessels, nerves and other pipe/thread like structures inside the human body? | i always have this bad feeling that nerves and blood vessels are thin and fragile structures which are very very easy to snap/tear/break. is that right? is there some easy to understand reference to compare their strengths to? | it depends on size. small blood vessels like capillaries can be quite fragile. heavy coughing, vomiting etc. can burst blood vessels in the eyes, face and upper chest just due to pressure. these small bleeds are called petichiae, you can get similar bruises carrying a heavy bag strap directly on skin, for instance. larger structures are quite delicate when directly manipulated but can still be handled softly by surgeons, e.g. with smooth metal or plastic loops, [for example](_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www2.aofoundation.org/wps/portal/!ut/p/a0/04_Sj9CPykssy0xPLMnMz0vMAfGjzOKN_A0M3D2DDbz9_UMMDRyDXQ3dw9wMDAx8jfULsh0VAdAsNSU!/?bone=Hand&contentUrl=/srg/76/04-Approaches/12-Dorsoulnar-MCP-JoinThumb.enl.jsp&segment=Thumb&soloState=lb&subStep=41"
] | [
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is there a favoured hypothesis regarding increased mortality rates and anxiolytics? | according to a number of articles i've read on the ncbi site, anxiolytic and hypnotic drugs have a [notable correlation](_url_0_) with increased mortality (apparently even after correcting for confounding factors). is this accepted as a likely causal link, and is there a favoured hypothesis as to what the specific cause might be? it seems strange/concerning that an entire category of drugs, some of which aren't chemically similar, has this correlation with increased mortality. | i checked out some other studies related to the use of benzodiazepines and z-drugs (the drugs the group of studies discussed) and found more information that *may* provide a *partial* explanation. after all, the link only provides the abstract and it's possible the full article might have said more. this study's [effect of anxiolytic and hypnotic drug prescriptions on mortality hazards: retrospective cohort study.](_url_1_) participants were 34,727 patients aged 16 years and older first prescribed anxiolytic or hypnotic drugs, or both, between 1998 and 2001, and 69,418 patients (controls) with no prescriptions for such drugs matched by age, sex, and practice. patients were followed-up for a mean of 7.6 years (range 0.1-13.4 years). results mentioned that **"physical and psychiatric comorbidities and prescribing of non-study drugs were significantly more prevalent among those prescribed study drugs than among controls."** this suggests that even matching other factors people prescribed benzodiazepines and z-drugs had other health conditions that could've affected their mortality. the use of z-drugs among older people has show an increased risk of fractures. it's understood that fractures in elderly people often have much worse outcomes than younger ones, especially hip fractures. that alone could cause an increase in mortality. another study from norway includes benzodiazepines along with z-drugs of increased [risk of hip fracture among older people using anxiolytic and hypnotic drugs: a nationwide prospective cohort study.](_url_0_) i only mention a couple of possible factors but looking at abstracts of studies usually doesn't explain enough except to whet our curiosity. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26590022"
] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24810612",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24647164"
] | [
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why would an individual phospholipid switch sides in a phospholipid bilayer? | apparently there are specific proteins that aid in this process, but why would it ever be necessary? | the two surfaces of a typical cell membrane have very different lipid compositions because they need to have different physical properties. for example the outer surface of a mammalian cell's plasma membrane has mostly charge-neutral lipids, and thus presents am inert surface to the outside world. good for preventing unwanted interactions, perhaps. the inner surface has many negatively charged lipids which are the site of interaction for proteins that need to interact with the inner cell surface. the proteins that flip lipids across the bilayer are called flipases (seriously). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why don't the negatively charged heads of a phospholipid bilayer repel each other, tearing the layer apart? | a phospholipid bilayer is two layers of phospholipids with their uncharged ends inbetween their negatively charged ends to form a hydrophilic outside and a hydrophobic insides. but, why don't the negatively charged ends repel each other and destroy the membrane? why do they stick together to form a barrier? like charges repel and the layer is a ton of like charges directly next to each other, so why do they stay together? the lipid ends are uncharged so they can't be holding each other together, can they? how does the layer stay together? | if you break apart the two layers in an aqueous environment, the hydrophobic tails will be exposed to the water, which is an energetically unfavorable situation. besides, the negative charges on the phosphate group at the hydrophilic heads are largely canceled out by the hydrogen ends of water molecules. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are some people more likely to be asymptomatic carriers? | is this a genetic or lifestyle thing? is it on a virus by virus basis or are some people asymptotic for many different viruses? does the health of your immune system make a difference in your symptoms or does that just determine if you become infected or not? | due to the breadth of this question i don't think many will respond but genetic regulation of immune cell levels and implication thereof are largely not yet understood. genetics may play a factor, lifestyle (anything that may depress or alter the immune system) may play a factor, the specific genetics of the pathogen may play a factor specifically inter-species discordance (resistance, etc...) and intra-species discordance or overt immuno-modulating mechanisms (like tb purposefully sealing itself in granulomas, etc...), site of infection (may play into local health of immune system in the tissue). a more specific question will have a more specific answer, like say type of disease, otherwise the short answer would be: it depends. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes someone to be an asymptomatic carrier instead of experiencing diseases full-on? | is it a strong immune system? a genetic or physiological component? or just plain luck? | if you are interested in the genetics piece of it, basically each gene has two copies. they can be both dominant, both recessive, or one of each. if it is one of each, the dominant gene is expressed and the person carries the recessive one; they can pass it onto their children, and if their child also gets a recessive gene from the other parent, the child will have the disease. here's a simple example. the gene for blue eyes is recessive, and the gene for brown eyes is dominant. if your mom and dad both have brown eyes, they could be carrying a recessive gene for blue eyes. if they both pass on the recessive gene, you get blue eyes. for diseases, think about cystic fibrosis. in cystic fibrosis, cells can't excrete chloride well due to lack of a transporter to take chloride out of cells. this is recessive, because if you have at least one copy of a gene that can make a transporter that is functional, you won't have the symptoms that come along with cystic fibrosis, which are primarily lung-related. but if you get both copies of the gene, you can't make any transporters and you get sick. this is how parents can be carriers of diseases and two healthy parents can pass on a debilitating disease to a child. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you "add" the wave functions? | i've been trying to do some reading on how wave functions actually work and i'm just not getting it. i was told here that polarization and spin are the same thing, but it seems like you add polarization while multiplying spin and squaring the real components. reading about the pauli exclusion principal isn't proving helpful either since i don't understand how you're supposed to scale it up beyond two particles is there at least a somewhat simple way of thinking of this? | so you’re asking how to add the spin contribution to the total state of a particle? generally whenever you want to combine two hilbert spaces in qm, you take their tensor product. this is basically an operation which staples together two vector spaces. if you have two vector spaces u and v, their tensor product space is w = u⊗v. in your example, u would be the space of states of the particle in coordinate-space (represented by its spatial wavefunction) and v would be the space of spin states. the basis states for w are just written as products of basis vectors in u and v, for example |w then you have to define how operators act on these product states, and it’s done in an obvious way. for example if you want to apply a spin operator to this state, it will be something like σ = i⊗σ, where i is the identity operator acting on the first vector space, and σ is the spin operator acting on the second space. so you have an identity operator which leaves the spatial state unchanged, and a spin operator which acts only on the spin subspace. these combine to form the spin operator in the combined hilbert space. now you asked about multiple particles. for multiple particles, you just staple together their hilbert spaces like above. however there is a complication if you have any sets of identical particles in your system. if you have identical particles, your observable quantities must take into account the fact that it’s impossible to tell “this one” from “that one”. in order to do this, you can just symmetrize (bosons) or antisynmetrize (fermions) the state vectors in whatever composite space they live in (space ⊗ spin ⊗ isospin ⊗ ... ). and the states must be totally (anti)symmetric under exchange of any two identical particles. we have mathematical techniques to do this for states of arbitrarily many identical particles (see slater determinants) although it’s horribly ugly to look at for more than three particles or so. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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colour wheel - > white. how fast, and optimal colour pattern? | questions: * when creating a colour wheel, (in my application it will be a ring...) how fast does it need to spin in order to create white? * if the wheel (ring) was as large as a tyre on a standard car or bike, what pattern of colours would best give the effect? * do certain colour patterns work better at different speeds? my application: i have a motorcycle that i take to the racetrack and think it would be really awesome and sciency (i'm a nerd at heart) to have the rim of the motorcycle be colourful at rest, a mix of colours in the slower turns and white on the straights. does anyone know if this would work. i wasn't sure myself, and it would only be the outer, circular part of the rim, not the spokes. in the application of it, i wasn't sure if it would work best to segment the wheel into 6 bits with a different colour in each, or a recurring pattern of colour segments. if a pattern, how large should each be? hope you guys can help :d no urgency, just a project that i think would pay off well. | such an interesting problem! i pre visualized 8 variations on the idea at 8 different speeds. here's a link to the video: _url_0_ look for my other post to see the math i did. i was a little off. it only takes 13-15 groups of 3-6 colours (39-90 stripes in total) to make it work. too few and the colours don't blend. too many and they blend too soon. oh, and patterns make it really cool. i went with wavy. please pm me a video of the bike in action if you go through with this. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mediafire.com/download.php?rqkrme5j058k32q"
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what is the difference between a sine wave and trapezoid wave controller for electric motors? | some electric motors use different controllers and i would like to know the difference beteeen them. thanks | trapezoidal commutation is the most cost effective way of controlling a brushless servo motor. it is perfect for higher speed applications and applications where the motor and mechanics will eliminate the torque ripple that occurs during switching current from one phase to the next. hall sensors are required for trapezoidal commutation. in the specific setup in the link sinusoidal commutation is great for lower speed, direct drive or linear motor applications where the torque ripple of the motor phases needs to be minimized. since the current to the motor phases are weighted as sine waves, the torque going through the motor is smooth and has minimal ripple. it also allows the mechanics to be simplified because hall sensors can be eliminated in the setup in the link. source: _url_0_ edit: misinformed over hall sensors | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.galilmc.com/news/drives-motion-controllers/trapezoidal-vs-sinusoidal-brushless-servo-amplifiers"
] | [
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where does asymmetry come from? | ok so hopefully i can make sense with this question. it's pretty obvious to everyone that things are asymmetrical, people are all different, planets are all different, galaxies are all different. my question is why would this happen? from what i understand of physics all reactions (collisions, explosions etc.) have an equal opposite force. why then during the big bang did the universe not expand symmetrically? if you need me to clarify what i mean please ask and i will try! thanks. | quantum mechanics. at least, that's our best guess. quantum randomness in the early universe, during a period of accelerated expansion called *inflation*, would do a very good job of explaining the exact pattern of galaxies, etc. that we see in the sky. the idea is this. in the very early universe, everywhere was (more or less) the same. at some point extremely early on, there was a period of inflation during which the expansion of the universe accelerated, going faster and faster. what this did was blow up the quantum fluctuations on tiny scales, magnifying them to cosmic distances, so that quantum randomness became very real, cosmologically important fluctuations in the density of the universe. many millions or billions of years later, these fluctuations started to grow under their own gravity - the slightly denser regions started to collapse, forming galaxy clusters. the incredible thing is that the mathematical predictions that inflation makes for how many galaxies should be where, and so on, agree quite well with the data! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any lithotrophic eukaryotes? | there are lot of bacteria and archaea that can use the oxidation or reduction of inorganic compounds as their sole energy source. can any eukaryotes do the same? | there are euks that are completely reliant on endosymbiotic chemoautotrophs for their nutrients. the most famous example are the deep sea hydrothermal vent tube worms of the order vestimentifera. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone explain about the ebola virus's use of the "zinc finger" for replication and answer if zinc supplementation might affect replication (see comments for more detail and article.)? | curious about this "zinc finger motifs" and wonder if it means that more or less zinc in the body inhibits the virus replication. i ask becuase ionized zinc has been shown to have an inhibiting effect on the cold virus. from this article quote "so when ebola gets into the cell it first needs to transcribe itself. to accomplish this, it uses its nucleocapsid protein vp30 which activates transcription of the virus. the protein works by binding to rna through a zinc finger cys-his motif. the zinc finger can actually be used to interact directly with rna. interestingly, the virus can’t actually transcribe itself without an intact zinc binding. " the article link _url_0_ | [zinc finger motifs](_url_0_) are very common, and aren't unique to viruses. a very significant deficit of zinc could, i suppose, inhibit viral replication, but not without inhibiting a lot of cellular functions first. | 5 | [] | [
"http://conorhearn.com/the-deadly-ebola-virus/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_finger"
] | [
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what does the resistance of lead wires need to be relative to a resistor heat element to not get hot? | when you have a resistor as a heat element, the resistor heats up, and the wires touching it do not get hot. i am wondering if there is a % or relative value that would ensure the lead wires did not heat up. for example... if you have a resistor that is 1000ω, how high can the resistance be for the lead wire so they do not also heat up? this may be a multivariable question, but it is something that i cannot figure out. any ideas? | the joule heating is i^2 *r, so given the wire and the heating element are in series the same current will pass through them and the ratio of the heat output between heating element and wire will be r_heater/r_wire. the heating element and the wire will have different heat dissipation values, so the ratio of actual temperature increase will be approximated by: (r_heater x h_wire)/(r_wire x h_heater) [here](_url_0_) is an awg table, showing recommended current limits and resistance per unit length of different awg values. the current limits in the table are designed to avoid excessive wire heating. a lower awg(thicker wire) will have lower resistance and also higher heat dissipation per unit length, making the current limit higher. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.powerstream.com/Wire_Size.htm"
] | [
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what is the physical reason for the "heart in the throat" feeling? | you know, the feeling when you go over a steep hill in a fast car, or a roller coaster? what is actually happening when that occurs? | all of your internal organs are being pushed up (i.e. they aren't being pulled down) into your body, and you aren't used to the feeling of it all moving upwards, so you get the sensation of it rising into your throat. in other words, it feels like your heart's in your throat because it almost is. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what did man do on the moon? | i even looked on the nasa website and the only information i got was that they walked around a few hours, collected some rocks and conducted some experiments. what experiments? i have so many questions. | i googled "apollo experiments", and found a couple of pages: [brief description of experiments viewable at the smithsonian](_url_1_) [apollo 17 experiments](_url_0_) with that last url, just edit the mission number to see the experiments on all 6 lunar missions. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.lpi.usra.edu/lunar/missions/apollo/apollo_17/experiments/",
"https://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/apollo-to-the-moon/online/science/scientific-experiments.cfm"
] | [
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how do you know your multi-billion ship is not going to sink the moment you put it in water? | how would one even calculate this? | a ship displaces a certain amount of water, as per its volume. if the weight of the water exceeds the weight of the ship, it will be buoyant. so the only real calculation is figuring out the volume and weight of your ship, and the weight of a correspondingly volume of water. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will breathing in pure oxygen before running increase speed/distance and/or reduce lactic acid? | no. you need to breathe *less* oxygen, so that your body will adapt to low-oxygen situations, so that when you then go running with a normal amount of oxygen, your body will use it more effectively. this is why athletes train at high altitudes. and it takes days to weeks for this to take effects. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
a boy was badly injured in a 'salt-and-ice' challenge. what is the mechanism that causes this sort of extreme injury? | [as reported in this news story](_url_0_). with a single awful photo. > *the unidentified youth lay on his stomach during a sleep-over at his house as his brother and a friend put salt in the form of a cross on his back, then put ice cubes atop the salt before applying pressure. the process causes almost immediate pain. the ill-advised challenge is to see how long you can withstand the pain.* > *ariel aballay, director of the burn center, held a news conference today to alert parents of the serious injuries the challenge can cause, noting that videos of people taking the challenge are well represented on you tube. in just moments, the challenge can cause first-degree cold injuries of redness that can take a few days to heal. the pittsburgh youth's injuries caused severe blistering and require drug treatment with a lotion that must be applied four times a day for months. he is lot allowed to swim or go outside without a shirt and even must have his back washed if he sweats for the rest of the summer.* > *"the injury is similar to frostbite that can result in mild cold injury but it also could increase in severity based on the time the ice is applied," dr. aballay said. "the longer, the more serious the injury. this patient went for a few minutes, but there have been cases that went for six or seven minutes that resulted in third-degree injuries* how the heck does this happen? | how are they able to publish so much information about the patient including a photo? isn't this a hipaa violation? from the article i know the patient's age, has a twin brother, and has a cross shaped wound caused by cold. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/local/neighborhoods-city/boy-12-badly-injured-in-salt-and-ice-challenge-642561/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing-point_depression",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn"
] | [
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a couple of questions about nuclear science. | 1: why does uranium-235 fission when hit with a neutron? 2: why doesn't a fission reactor explode violently, like a fission bomb? edit: neutrons, not protons. | people are missing the mark on your second question. a reactor is not always exactly critical, and is often supercritical. there is plenty of material present in a reactor to undergo runaway criticality. in a bomb, you are operating under what is called "prompt criticality". it only takes a few microseconds for a neutron emitted during fission to cause another fission. if each generation produces 110% of the neutrons it started with, then your power output will increase by a factor of 1.1 every few microseconds. if we have a multiplication factor of 1.1 and a timescale of 10 microseconds, then our output after 1 second has increased by 1.1^10e5, a [huge number](_url_0_). in a reactor, there aren't enough "prompt neutrons" to sustain the reaction. each generation produces, for instance, 99% of the neutrons it started with. but there are other, slower sources of neutrons in a reactor. for instance, many fission products release neutrons when they decay. this slower source of neutrons operates on a ~1 minute timescale. as a result, a reactor operates under conditions called "delayed criticality". if we had a multiplication factor of 1.1 and a timescale of 1 minute, then after 1 second our power has increased by 1.1^1/60 , or about 0.15%. by reducing the rate at which power levels change in the reactor, it is much easier to control. a reactor is also controlled through negative feedback. "weapons grade" uranium has only a very small proportion of u-238. one reason is because when u-238 increases in temperature, it tends to absorb more neutrons. reactor fuel is *mostly* u-238. when a reactor increases in temperature, this negative feedback causes the power level to stabilize. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=1.1%5E%2810e5%29"
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what are those squiggly heat waves that sometimes radiate off hot stuff? | what is happening when those squiggly "waves?" appear? for example, when grilling and you shut the lid, you can see these things radiate off the top. | that's because the item under the squiggly lines is hot. air (and most materials and fluids) expand when heated. so the air touching the grill gets very hot and rises (because it's less dense, which is why hot air balloons work), mixing with the less-hot air above (this mixing is what causes the lines to be squiggly). but if that's all that is happening, the squiggly lines would be invisible. but light [refracts](_url_0_) when crossing between two volumes with different densities, so the light bends a little as it passes through the heated air. this causes the squiggly lines to appear, like the picture of the water glass in the link for refraction. this phenomenon is also what's responsible for mirages of water in the desert, where light from the blue sky looks to be coming from the ground, looking a lot like water. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refraction"
] | [
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is starlite a hoax? | hi everybody, i just learnt about starlite and i cant believe inventor didnt share how it was made and died with his secret. starlite: "a plastic with incredible heat resistance, starlite’s quality as a thermal insulator is actually so staggering that for a while people just assumed its inventor was deluded. then, following the above tv spot, the british atomic weapons establishment (awe) got in touch. they subjected it to nuclear-flash-level bursts of heat, up to the level of 75 hiroshimas. the sample was fine, if a little charred. one scientist remarked “normally, we do a test every couple of hours because we have to wait for [the material] to cool down. we’re doing it every 10 minutes, and it’s sat there laughing at us.” _url_0_ i just cant believe it. is it real? | i don't think it's a hoax, in the sense that i think this guy invented something. but claims mean nothing; anyone can say whatever they want. in the end, this tv-spot is one of few bits of documentation that this thing ever existed. and all i can tell from it is that it's something that'll smoulder when exposed to a blow-torch, which isn't terribly remarkable in itself. (you're also not going to get _anywhere near_ 2,500 degrees with a blow-torch like that! seriously, that'd be enough to make some metals boil) "75 hiroshimas" is so misleading it's almost a lie. _maybe_ the laser beam they used had a light intensity on the order of the _flash_ from hiroshima or something. but the heat of one hiroshima is easily enough to vaporize any substance known to man, near ground zero. but even that doesn't say much, without knowing how long the laser pulse is. so it didn't get hot? well, at most that means that the material doesn't absorb that one wavelength of light the laser has very well. that 'egg test' is a bit weird. i mean, what are we comparing to? not many people know what an untreated egg looks like under a blow torch. but since i had both those things handy, and obviously didn't have anything better to do, [i tried it out, here are the photos.](_url_0_). overall i don't think it looked that different (except for the runny yolk, maybe the starlite test used a hard-boiled egg). overall i felt it looked pretty similar, which is what i expected. blowtorch flames are hot, but only the surface of the egg is going to get very hot in this amount of time, because eggs are full of water that'll boil off and cool the thing. so you're mostly looking at a glowing charcoal surface. those "10 mindblowing uses" are just ridiculous. how could you possibly say anything at all about the potential uses of a material almost nothing is known about? in short, nothing _actually demonstrated_ about the material seems impossible or incredible. it'd be interesting if all the claims were true, but claims are just claims. i mean, if i claim to have a standard-type car that gets 10x the fuel efficiency of existing ones, that's amazing. but if all i demonstrate is the car but not the fuel consumption, or the fuel consumption but not the car, i haven't actually demonstrated my claim, because it's the combination of things that would be the novelty. in this case, how do you even know the thing is a plastic if the creator didn't let anyone analyze what it was? | 44 | [] | [
"http://www.techradar.com/news/world-of-tech/future-tech/10-mindblowing-uses-for-the-world-changing-substance-that-never-was-1156955"
] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/HiqQg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel"
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after dec 21, do the days start getting longer immediately, or are there a few days that are more-or-less equal? | this question came up in our walking group the other morning. a couple of us vaguely remember hearing that the days don't start lengthening immediately. is this correct? know that solstice is actually a moment, but it is the visible day length we are thinking of. | depends on your [latitude](_url_0_). day-to-day difference in the day length will be greater when you are further from the equator while length of the day will be very similar closer to the equator. as you can see from the curves, this change is a continuous process. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/images/daylength.jpg"
] | [
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is bending metal always a destructive process? | if you have a spoon, and bend it in the middle, back and forth, back and forth, it will eventually break. do all refined metals follow this pattern? what's happening, at the molecular level, each time the spoon is bent? is there a metal or metallic object that can be bent indefinitely? | if you are talking about cases where the metal doesn't immediately spring back, then yes, bending causes fatigue and the metal will eventually break. steel has an "endurance limit", a stress below which it can be loaded cyclically an infinite number of times without failing, but this is elastic, meaning that it springs back, and only holds for relatively small displacements. unlike the spoon, which undergoes large displacement and plastic deformation. this causes dislocations at the microscopic level that accumulate until there is fracture. note that steel infinite fatigue life is rather special; aluminum for example does not have that property and will eventually break. shape memory alloys can look like they can take on different bent configurations, but i believe these will all fatigue. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
do giraffes vomit? | someone's been reading showerthoughts this morning ;) yes, they do. there are even videos of them doing it on youtube if you're so inclined. they also regurgitate their cuds to chew them like cows do, but that's a bit different from what we humans think of when we think "vomit." | 996 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foregut_fermentation",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Z9o8revasA"
] | [
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|
do worms have a home? | i often see worms try to cross pavement and other hard surfaces, especially when it rains. this leads to them getting stepped on, so i sometimes pick them up and throw them in the grass when i notice them. am i screwing them over? are they following some path (like ants do with pheromones, for example)? | they just kind of roam around eating tasty soil. no set place of residence other than the entire patch of soil they came off of | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do i calculate the energy of an electron in an electro-magnetic field in the relativistic case? | to be more precise, i need an answer or perhaps some sources to calculate the energy of an electron when it is accelerated by an electro-magnetic field. the electro-magnetic field has components in all 3 directions, therefore having total of six components (ex,ey,ez,bx,by,bz), and all the six components depend on the variables x,y,z. i have to find the acceleration/energy of the electron for the relativistic case. edit: i want to find the acceleration/energy gain of the electron after it has left the em field, not the energy at a point. | the lorentz force law is d**p**/dt = q**v** x **b**. the momentum **p** for a massive particle is ym**v**, where y = (1 - (**v**/c)^(2))^(-1/2). the total energy of the particle is e = sqrt((**p**c)^(2) + (mc^(2))^(2)) + u. u is the electric potential energy qv, where v is the electric scalar potential. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes animals able to process aliments with high levels of sugar or salt while microorganisms can't? | to preserve aliments there are methods that add to them a lot of salt (cured meat) or a lot of sugar (honey). what process makes these aliments digestible by animals? is that process not possible at smaller scales or it's just not beneficial enough? | the difference is that we ingest it as a small part, but bacteria live in it as well as using it as a nutrient source. due to the high levels of sugar or salt, water is 'sucked out' of both the local environment and the bacteria, leading to the death of the bacteria. if the environment was not so hostile it would be a great supply of nutrients for the bacteria just like it is for us, they can digest them perfectly well. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a difference between the keratinous material in a normal blackhead and the material found in nevus comedonicus? also, is a zit just a tiny sebaceous cyst? | _url_0_ sebaceous cysts don't actually occur at a pore so there is no real hole at the top of the lump like you see in a pimple. so these guys, if they get bad, need to be drained (by a professional) that includes puncturing the cyst and evacuating the sebum. they can also be melted down by applying a hot compress to them frequently. they also can just go away on their own. pimples, on the other hand, are actually clogged pores where the cavity through which a hair grows (lubricated by sebum) becomes filled with sebum. that's why you can pop a pimple by just squeezing it. squeezing a sebaceous cyst will just make it angry, and you sorry. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://cf.ltkcdn.net/herbs/images/std/163642-425x319-sebaceous-cyst.jpg"
] | [
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|
do people who have a greater level of fitness donate 'healthier' blood? | i'm wondering if blood donated by a healthier donor has more benefits to the recipient. e.g. - would blood donated by an elite athlete be more oxygenated and better for the recipient, or are the benefits negligible? are there too many other factors to consider with the blood to make this true? all other factors being equal, would i be better off getting blood from say, an elite rower with a huge vo2 max and likely very few detrimental habits, vs. someone who is moderately active and has a few vices. thank you! | for the most part, it is the same. donors with serious health problems or history of certain diseases are ruled out as it could pose health problems both for them to donate and for the recipient to receive their blood (ex: sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, blood disorders resulting in altered forms of hemoglobin, etc.). for the donors that qualify, the ability of their red blood cells to carry oxygen is very similar. i had to do a bit of research on vo2 max as i am not too familiar with it (so someone please correct me if i am mistaken), but it is my understanding that increasing the vo2 max results from changes in the performance of the lungs, heart, and circulatory system in transporting blood and the surrounding muscles in extracting oxygen from the blood. a star athlete is only passing on his/her red blood cells, not the high performance of his/her heart, lungs, muscles, etc. the number of red blood cells may increase, but nothing i’ve been able to find has stated that increasing your vo2 max will increase the **actual number of hemoglobin molecules per red blood cell itself**, which is the important part. when blood is donated, it is usually separated into its parts (plasma, platelets, cryoprecipitate, and red blood cells) and the red blood cell units must meet a minimum hematocrit requirement – meaning all the units sitting in a blood bank fridge have roughly the same amount of red blood cells. one other important thing to mention is that blood is donated from a vein in your arm, not an artery, and so it is already partially deoxygenated. it will also “let go” of more of that oxygen while in storage. the function of red blood cells used in transfusion isn’t to deliver oxygen it has been “pre-packed” with, but to provide additional red blood cells to allow the body to oxygenate once transfused to the patient. it is also known that the longer the blood is stored, the less it is able to effectively transport oxygen once transfused. hope that helps! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do some video-games trigger such strong physical(chemical?) reactions? | so i was playing minecraft a couple of hours ago, and i'm building a fairly tall skyscrapper. it's right next to the ocean, so according to mc physics, you can fall into water from any height and take no damage. when i take the plunge, why does it feel like i'm almost falling in-real-life? i get that plunging feeling, similar to jumping off a high-diving board into a pool, and i'm on edge while i'm falling, anticipating a giant "plop" when i finally hit the ground (or water in this case). | i'm going to preface this by saying that i don't actually know the specific answer to your question. however it's established that when we play (especially 3d, first-person) computer games, we develop a mental model of the environment and the rules of the environment - gravity, etc. we also have emotional responses, fear, joy, etc. [emotional response patterns and sense of presence during video games: potential criterion variables for game design (pdf)](_url_1_) [eight ways videogames generate emotion (pdf)](_url_0_) researchers into cognition often take advantage of this by using video games to study spatial perception - not only is it easier to sit a bunch of people down in front of a screen than it is to construct a space of the exact shape and size needed, you can also manipulate the environment arbitrarily. [here's an example in the form of a recent ted talk.](_url_2_) really i've just provided links confirming the phenomenon you're describing. unfortunately from here it's kind of just an amalgamation of things i've learned in various places, to answer the "why" part. i think we are going to have to understand when you think about it, our brains do similar things all the time. ever feel scared in a movie? or jump at one of those prank videos? get a rush of adrenaline when you're the last man standing in a game of cs? in all these cases we know that what we're experiencing is completely artificial, and there is no real danger. i'd even say without those responses nobody would make or enjoy any form of art. but these responses are essential for survival in animals much simpler than us, and that applies to our distant evolutionary ancestors as well. long before we could make movies or video games we still had predators to deal with, families to protect, and so on. those instinctive responses are so fundamental that they are aroused by situations that are only conceptually analogous to the real world. when you think about it, that's pretty amazing. tetris really does not represent any real-world scenario, and yet the panic you feel when the rows are stacking up and the blocks are falling faster and faster is instantly recognisable. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.lcc.gatech.edu/~cpearce3/DiGRA07/Proceedings/111.pdf",
"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.134.6775&rep=rep1&type=pdf",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/neil_burgess_how_your_brain_tells_you_where_you_are.html"
] | [
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] |
a small question about apollo xi | i've been hugely interested in apollo 11 since i was a young child, and thought i understood it fairly well. today is the first time i saw anything about orbiting the earth twice before departing. this is depicted on wikipedia. (_url_0_). what was the purpose of this? at first i thought it was to build momentum, but that doesn't seem necessary once escape velocity has been met. was it to check systems? allow for a more precise trajectory? i'd love to understand more about exactly how we got there. | check out _url_0_ for a transcript of what was going on after launch but before trans lunar injection (tli). they were taking positional reading and calibrating navigation readings with the flight computer for the exact proper time and location for the tli burn. programming the computer with contingency plans if things went wrong. they were also coordinating communications with various ground stations and taking photos. there was a lot going on. it's kind of impressive that they did it in just a couple of orbits. it was only our third manned tli - nasa wanted to make sure we hit the target. edit: corrected second manned tli to third manned tli per fishify's point. | 3 | [] | [
"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11_flight"
] | [
"http://history.nasa.gov/ap11fj/02earth-orbit-tli.htm"
] | [
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just so i'm clear....an electron in an atom in my laptop right now has a greater possibility of being fond on the moon than in a node? | however close to zero that probability (of being found on the moon) may be, it's not actually zero, right? as opposed to in a (planar or radial) node; where it is 0....or was my chemistry prof "lying" for simplicity reasons when he said that? he didn't go into what exactly happens in these nodular regions. thanks!! | those orbitals are a probability density, so the probability of an electron being at *any* precise point, including the nodes, is zero. the probability density at a node is zero while the probability density at the moon is finite, true. that said, there is a finite probability of being arbitrarily close to the nodes (within a range dr). the relevant scale of dr in this case is set by the uncertainty principle: dr ~ hbar/p where p is the linear momentum, roughly given by p ~ sqrt(2 m e_0) where e_0 is the ground state energy of hydrogen. the probability p_n of finding an electron within dr of the node is then given by: p_n ~ dr^3 < psi(r) where < psi(r) p_moon ~ r_moon^3 exp( -(d_moon /a_0)^2) where a_0 is the bohr radius, r_moon is the radius of the moon, and d_moon is the distance to the moon. the exponential factor gives exp(-10^37), an impossibly, impossibly small number. though i haven't calculated < psi(r) p_n and we are way more likely to observe an electron in the vicinity of a node than on the moon. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope#Principle_of_operation"
] | [
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during heavy exertion, such as lifting, why do we close our airways? | does it provide support, or something else? | i can offer a little bit of information on this, but not the complete picture. we don't really need to breathe when we lift or go through quick, heavy exertions. weightlifting is almost purely an anaerobic exercise (my physio syllabus actually says its 100% anaerobic which makes sense). oxidative phosphorylation practically never kicks in, because it takes about 2-3 minutes of exercise before your body switches over from phosphocreatine and glycolysis to aerobic methods. now for the hypothetical portion of it. i think it provides some stability to the body if you close your airway when you lift. if you breathe, you use your diaphragm which really prevents you from keeping your core tight. loose core muscles leads to less stability, especially on heavy, heavy exercises. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do our brains wrinkle in order to make more surface area rather than fill out for volume? | i understand that our brains create these wrinkles to create more surface area, but why is it more important to create more surface area as opposed to volume? i would think that more volume would allow for more cells and therefore more processing power. | the key is that we want not only a lot of individual neurons, but also many efficient connections between neurons, sometimes to ones that are very far away from each other. if your brain were packed with cell bodies, it would be really hard to get axons and dendrites to link up neurons that are far apart -- they would have to navigate through a massive tangle of other cells. instead, the cortical surface is composed of cell bodies of neurons, that is the gray matter. the inside of the brain is white matter -- these are the axons or connecting fibers between neurons. more surface area means more gray matter. in [this](_url_0_) picture the white matter is the light pink stuff taking up most of the brain. the gray matter is the thin layer on the outside. [here](_url_1_) is a 3d printed model of these white matter tracts. | 27 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Human_brain_right_dissected_lateral_view_description.JPG/250px-Human_brain_right_dissected_lateral_view_description.JPG",
"https://cnet4.cbsistatic.com/img/-gr5L6yqL4qxRsHWkcStO7dVtec=/670x503/2014/07/02/a5216b99-6bd2-4165-acd0-57bc9ffb733b/neurons.jpg"
] | [
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in analyzing human behavior or attitudes, is it possible to have a sample size that is too large? | i'm trying to understand a decision the author made in [this paper](_url_0_). in the second paragraph of the materials and methods section, the author states: "thus, although our sample size may appear small to some readers, it is important to note that we obtained the necessary power and representativeness to generalize from our results while purposefully avoiding an unnecessarily large sample that could have biased our results toward a false-positive type i error (48)." i do not understand the second part where she says a large sample size could have biased the results. my understanding of statistics is that as long as the traits of the subjects fit the bounds of the study, the more subjects the merrier. can someone please explain this to me? | what's usually taught in relation to power is that you need a large sample size to detect a small effect. another way to think about this is that a large sample size will yield significance for small effects (and medium effects, and large effects). [this blog post](_url_1_) illustrates this nicely. a tiny difference of 0.0009 is not significant when n = 10, but it will be when n = 1000000 or some other equally large number. as you increase your n, your sampling distribution will look more and more normal, and your [sampling variance will go down](_url_0_). these will make it easier to find significant effects. it's also good to avoid excessive n because it's a waste of resources and, according to some, unethical to test people/animals when it's not necessary to do so. ideally, all studies should be planned by figuring out the effect size, and then computing the n that would be required to get a good shot at finding an effect if there is one. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/109/41/16474.full"
] | [
"http://www.mailund.dk/index.php/2009/07/05/false-positives-and-large-sample-sizes/",
"http://blog.minitab.com/blog/statistics-and-quality-data-analysis/large-samples-too-much-of-a-good-thing"
] | [
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is the guanabana really this cancer curing fruit or is it all dr. oz type nonsense? | well, the plant (annona muricata) has [a lot of chemical compounds](_url_0_) in it: most of the research involves extracts from different parts of the plant, predominantly the leaves. extracts from the leaves have pro-apoptotic and anti-proliferative effects on cancer cells lines in vitro (pretty high doses, depending on the type of extraction). there are probably compounds within the plant that would be more effective if isolated and concentrated, though we don't know yet if they would rival currently existing drugs. also, it probably is not the case that eating the fruit will confer all of these benefits that much higher dose injections provide. the fruit also contains the annonaceous acetogenin compounds that the leaves do, and their accumulation in the body can apparently negatively effect neurons. so eating a ton of the fruit may not be great for your neurons in the long run. so i'd say that guanabana (soursop) being a cancer-curing fruit falls in a space that so many other things do -- the twilight zone of "kind of, but not exactly". | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/16/7/15625/htm"
] | [
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|
if a person is illiterate will they look at a image top left to bottom right? | i read an article that stated that people will look at images top left to bottom right right if their language is written left to right, but would a illiterate person do the same? | considering that many languages have completely writing patterns i would assume that there is no reason that an illiterate person should naturally organize from left to right. however as a dyslexic who remembers being illiterate, i can say that there are other ways to learn the left to right-top to bottom system; for instance picture books are organized under that system. so my hypothesis is that illiteracy does not guarantee ignorance about how your society organizes things. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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did the eugenics program of ancient sparta have any lasting effect on the population of modern greece? | the eugenics program of ancient sparta was to make every person a warrior, is there any lasting effects from this in the general population? | not an expert by any means but this is something to consider: * the type of eugenics that were practices in sparta were practiced in other regions in greece. * my understanding it was only for spartan citizens * if you take this as true _url_0_ the population of spartan citizens was very small i'd say that if there is any effects they would be fairly small. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ancientgreekbattles.net/Pages/47932_Population.htm"
] | [
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] |
why is there always a butt in my cup? | that's a mathematical curve known as a cardioid, which means ~~butt~~ 'heart' in greek. [here's a neat demonstration](_url_0_) from wolfram showing how a point source of light can create a cardioid when its rays are reflected by the inside of a circle. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/GeneratingACardioidVIReflectedRays/"
] | [
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|
why are nuetrons necessary? | how do they physically play into the stability of an isotope? how do they stop protons from repelling each other? | they don’t stop protons from repelling each other, they just provide binding energy due to their attractive strong interactions, without contributing any coulomb repulsion. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_force"
] | [
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if muscles operate more efficiently when breathing oxygen-enriched air, does the brain become more efficient as well? | i do know that oxygen is given as a treatment for cluster headaches because the raised blood oxygen levels cause the relaxation of narrowed blood vessels. _url_0_. the brains need for oxygen is many times greater than any other part of the human body which leads me to think an increase in oxygen wouldn't be significant enough to have a huge impact on brain function whereas muscles demand less but an increase in oxygen levels would have a significant impact. purely speculation however look forward to hearing people's thoughts. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19996400"
] | [
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in 1899, meter was defined as the distance between the center portion of two lines graduated on polished surface of x shaped cross section _url_0_ question is to see image of the graduation lines and how one meter is measured? | i'm not sure what you mean by "see the image of graduation lines..."; like you want a picture? or how they graduated the bar in the first place? as for how it was measured... in the case of "standard" units at some point somebody has to decide that some given length is a meter by definition. so from the wikipedia article it was (by definition) the "distance between two lines on a standard bar composed of an alloy of ninety percent platinum and ten percent iridium, measured at the melting point of ice". or in other words, you have a bar that doesn't change much due to temperature or corrode and cut two lines in it and say "this distance is a meter". from that point of that is the distance everything else is based off of. today though due to other reasons we don't base the meter off of a physical object per se ; it's based of the distance light travels in 1/c seconds. | 2 | [
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why is arctan(x) + c the antiderivative of (x^2 + 1)^(-1)? | hi! to preface, i like to think about math a lot. this was one the times where i was thinking in the shower about math. i questioned how to make the general shape of a bell curve, and i came up with f(x) = (x^2 + 1)^(-1), which produces a nice lump around the y axis, without causing any vertical asymptotes. later, i was exploring the properties of this function, and i discovered its antiderivative is very simple: arctan(x) + c. because it was so clean looking, but also somehow related to trigonmetry, i was wondering the reason behind this. however, i struggled to find resources on this that shed light into the reasoning behind this. why does an inverse trigonometric function have a completely non-trigonometric derivative? for reference, i'm currently taking calculus i; we haven't gotten to antiderivatives yet, but i am comfortable with the concept, as well as doing some calculations. | it's because the derivative of arctan(x) is 1/(1+x^(2)). note, first, that sec^(2)(arctan(x))=1+x^(2). you can just use the fact that tan^(2)(x)+1=sec^(2)(x) and plug in arctan. next, the derivative of tan(x) is sec^(2)(x), which follows from the quotient rule and the derivative for sine and cosine. so we next want to implicitly differentiate the equation tan(arctan(x))=x with respect to x. using the chain rule, you get that * tan'(arctan(x))\*arctan'(x) = 1 but we know the derivative of tan(x) is sec^(2)(x), and plugging in arctan(x) into it gives * (1+x^(2))arctan'(x) = 1 solving for arctan'(x) then gives 1/(1+x^(2)). so the fact that the derivative of arctan(x) is 1/(1+x^(2)) is really a statement of the pythagorean theorem. also, this function you chose is closely related to the [cauchy distribution](_url_0_) and is often thought of as a [normal distribution](_url_1_) that has "fat tails" (because it goes to zero much slower). ------------------------------------------------------------------- as a tiny correction for terminology: a function doesn't have a single antiderivative, if has infinitely many antiderivatives. arctan(x) is *an* antiderivative of 1/(1+x^(2)). the general form for an antiderivative is then arctan(x)+c, where c is any real value. fixing a value for c then provides you with one out of infinitely many antiderivatives. we often say that the "indefinite integral" is the collection of *all* antiderivatives of a function, and write it in the form arctan(x)+c. so the indefinite integral of 1/(1+x^(2)) is arctan(x)+c, but arctan(x) is *an* antiderivative of 1/(1+x^(2)). (though, indefinite integrals have almost nothing to do with actual integrals and are just a convenient mechanism to reverse derivative rules to find antiderivatives, but that's a whole other story.) | 15 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_distribution",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution"
] | [
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how were heisbenerg and schrodinger's models (or feynman and schwinger's for that matter) shown to be equivalent? | i'm not sure if i'm posting in the correct place and maybe /r/math or /r/physics would be better but i'll try this here first. anyways, i read a lot of biographical and historical science books these days. and a lot of the ones on qm and qft talk about how these two models were vying for competition but were seen to be systematically and mathematically different [conceptual with a picture vs mathematically abstract] and yet both approaches were shown to, if not say the same thing, both be accounting for the data points. how is that? | heisenberg came up with matrix mechanics, schrödinger with wave mechanics. they appear different but they're fundamentally _and mathematically_ equivalent, just different representations of the same thing. dirac's operator formalism bridges the two. in this picture, schrödinger's wave equation can be viewed as an eigenvalue equation for a linear operator (the hamiltonian) on the wave function. per the superposition principle, the wave function can be any of those eigenfunctions (solutions to the equation) or linear combination of them. so any state can be represented by a _vector_, which contains the linear coefficients that belong to each respective solution. so a wave function in the schrödinger picture is a state vector in the matrix picture, or a 'ket' in the dirac formalism. now a mathematical operator is something that transforms one function to another, so in the context of quantum mechanics, an operator acting on the wave function is transforming one representation of the state to another. (e.g. the fourier transform takes you from position space to momentum space or vice-versa) in linear algebra, it's a matrix which transforms the vector. so observables are represented by linear operators (in the schrödinger/dirac picture) and by matrices in the heisenberg picture. now, the inherent property of quantum mechanics that's being represented here is the uncertainty principle - which could be expressed as the fact that a single state in the position representation doesn't correspond to a single state in the momentum representation. this is in both cases represented by mathematical _non-commutativity_. that is, ab does not always equal ba. that's true when a and b are matrices, and also true when they're operators. i hope that's not too technical. but the bottom line here is that they're not fundamentally different, but just different formalisms that represent the same thing using different mathematical objects (which share the same abstract properties). as it were, anyone studying actual quantum mechanics learns and uses the formalisms interchangeably. a textbook might define an operator and then promptly continue to calculating its 'matrix elements'; the equivalence is implied. any clearer? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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as you approach the speed of light, does the cmb in front of you get blueshifted? | and similarly redshifted behind you? | i'll try to expand slightly on the existing answer. as /u/somedave explained, "approaching the speed of light" is an ill-defined thing as your speed depends on the referential. the cmb as we observe it has a [dipole anisotropy](_url_0_), meaning that it looks hotter in one direction than the opposite, and this is exactly the blueshift forward/redshift backward you are asking about. measuring this primary anisotropy allows us to infer the speed of our solar system with respect to the cmb to be 370 km/s. by subtracting the measured velocity of the solar system in the galaxy, we can also determine that the velocity of the galaxy with respect to the cmb is 620 km/s. this seems to be the correct interpretation of this anisotropy as this is the typical velocities we observe in individual galaxies moving about inside galactic clusters. an interesting question would be the typical interaction cross section for a high energy particle moving through the cmb. this has been studied in the past and is related to the [gzk limit](_url_1_), which is a theoretical limit on how cosmic rays can be energetic: at very high energies, they would scatter off the cmb so much that they would not be able to travel far, meaning that we should not be able to see cosmic rays coming from far away with energies above that limit. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background#CMBR_dipole_anisotropy",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin_limit"
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] |
how does a phonograph work? | the grooves in a record look like [this](_url_2_) under high magnification. those tiny bumps in the groove walls move the stylus side to side, and this movement is translated into an electrical signal. there are [several methods](_url_1_) for creating the signal; early machines used a piezoelectric crystal, but most modern cartridges use a magnetic pickup with either a moving magnet in a stationary coil or a moving coil with a stationary magnet. moving coil cartridges are a lot like electric loudspeakers, though they work in reverse. piezoelectric cartridges are similar to [cheap microphones](_url_0_) like those used in telephones, but the needle is used instead of sound waves to generate pressure on the crystal. a few early record players translated the movement of the needle directly to a diaphragm through mechanical means. this was easy to build and cheap because it didn't require electricity; they generally used wind-up springs to keep the record going. i have an edison player from the turn of the 1900s that uses this method, and it's surprisingly effective. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_microphone#Piezoelectric_microphone",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonograph#Pickup_systems",
"http://www.visualphotos.com/image/1x6058742/record_stylus_in_record_groove_coloured_sem"
] | [
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|
how can subliminal messages provoke a response without us consciously registering them? | your brain can be primed, meaning if you activate certain sensors with certain stimuli, you will be quicker to recognize the stimuli the second time you experience it. just because the stimulation does not register with your consciousness, doesn't mean those sensors weren't triggered. that "subconscious" stimulation will then contribute to later activations of simular stimuli causing it to feel more familiar and subsequently preferable. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how are tiny particles detected in a very short time span? | i'm asking about things like the discovery of new fundamental particles and very short lived isotopes. for example: the wikipedia page says that only 3 or 4 atoms of ununoctium 294 have been detected. it also has a half life of 890 microseconds. how were those individual atoms detected? how did they do it so fast that they could figure out the half life? how did they know it was ununoctium and not something else? another example: how did they figure out that there were charm quarks, considering that they decay into up quarks in 10^-23 seconds (if that's correct)? how did they measure it's traits and know that it was different from the other particles? | in the case of particle physics, you don't detect the particles directly, you observe their decay products and can work out the properties of whatever decayed. you do a lot of collisions get some distribution of calculated properties and compare them to theoretical predictions. i imagine it is the same in nuclear physics (more or less) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if someone is receiving parenteral nutrition (fed through an iv), do they feel hungry? | would you feel hungry even though your body is receiving nutrients? or does your brain just tell you when your intestines are empty? | i have somewhat limited experience with this as an rn, but i can tell you two things to consider regarding this question: 1) parenteral nutrition is given as a last resort to provide nutrition, so the patient has already gone without food for some time when parenteral nutrition is given. generally speaking, hunger is strongest in people who are habituated to eat regular meals. most people who stop eating report that they no longer feel hungry after 2-3 days. 2) these patients usually have a progressive disease that causes suffering in many ways beyond "feeling hungry," so any remnant of hunger would be overpowered by nausea, pain, anxiety, or another element of their pained existence. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can things explode/break in the exact same way if the amount/arrangement/way of breaking is the same? | if i had two identical glass cups (down to the subatomic level) and i dropped them on identical floors (down to the subatomic level) with the exact same amount of force, would their break be exactly the same? the same could go with a large scale explosion in space, (exact same amount of matter, construction, explosion etc.) would the spray of matter be the same? (in a place un-affected by outside forces) | this is very similar to the question on whether the universe is deterministic - given an initial state of a system, can the rules under which it operates, can you predict the time evolution of said system? there are a number of answers, and i think the consensus is no. there are truly random events that cannot be modelled. for example, the location of an electron at any given time cannot be precisely known. although this _translates_ into a fairly deterministic macroscopic system - i can use newton's laws to model a ball bouncing _just fine_, it really comes down to how you define as "the same." what you'll find is that given a coarse enough resolution, yes you can say an object breaks "the same way." however, once you get down to the microscopic level, the ability to compare if two systems are identical begins to fall apart. there _is_ a technique similar to what you're thinking - mass spectroscopy. molecules undergoing ionization will fragment according to the quasi-equilibrium theory, which approximates that the energy of the ionized molecule is distributed evenly across all bonds of the molecule, thus the weakest ones are most likely to break. of course, this is a statistical approximation - it's hard to predict the fragmentation pattern of _one_ molecule. so, in summary, it really depends on how finely you want to look at your system. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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let's say you drilled a hole directly through the centre of the earth right on through to the other side and jumped in. | disregarding the heat factor and the fact that this is impossible of course. would you fall directly to the middle and stay floating in the exact centre of the earth?? | you would oscillate between the holes, slowing down and eventually stopping at the center of the earth, due to air resistance. you could imagine this as a damped spring with the equilibrium state at the center of the earth. if there were no air resistance, you would "fall" to the surface of the earth at the other side of your hole, then "fall" back to the surface where you originally dug your hole, and so on. you can picture it as a skateboarder on a half-pipe with no friction. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.damninteresting.com/the-gravity-express/"
] | [
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how did freeze fracture analysis help prove that proteins penetrate the cell membrane? | i get the general concept of freeze-fracture, but i don't get what the metal ions sticking to the membrane mean in terms of proteins being present, or why this type of analysis demonstrates the presence of proteins at all. | kasseev's answer is pretty good, but not entirely complete. yes, the metal ions are nothing more than an indicator - which makes your question somewhat akin to asking why ink is important when trying to understand an architectural structure: it's not at all important to the structure itself, but is important to visualizing the results. with the freeze fracture techniques done on membranes, several important things were discovered/visualized: first, that the membranes were bilayers, which was clearly important to the understanding of the structure of the membranes, and secondly, that there were protein complexes that penetrated the whole way through the membrane. since membrane chemistry was a nascent field back then, there were a lot of important questions people didn't know the answer two, including how things traversed the membrane (turns out that much of it is through pores made by the proteins) or how the cells with the membranes interacted with the world outside (turned out to be proteins capable of receiving signals on one side and signalling on the other side of the membrane). if you look at the last image here: _url_0_ you'll see that the freeze fracture of the inside of the membrane (actually, you're just seeing the thin layer of metal "ink" they sprayed on it) gives a bumpy appearance - the bumps are the proteins that were sticking all the way through the two sides of the membrane bilayer. it doesn't scream protein at you, but scientists already knew that membrane bilayers had proteins in them, and there wasn't much else it could be sticking out like that. does that answer your question? | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/membrane_intro.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18617035"
] | [
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what causes that bad feeling in your chest after you lose at something? | answered something similar a little while ago. the gist of it was that emotional pain is mediated by the sympathetic nervous system (fight/fight and all that jazz). the parasympathetic nervous system (essentially the complimentary system to the sympathetic nervous system) attempts to regulate the sympathetic nervous systems' effects. it however "overshoots" and as the parasympathetic nervous system reduces heart rate, that feeling you get when you get sad or general emotional pain is the heart rate/blood pressure decrease. **tl;dr an overreaction from your nervous system** | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if i punch my friend in the arm would any one of the million cells affected die? | it is likely that several thousand cells, or possibly hundreds of thousands of them would die. some would rupture from the physical trauma of the punch, while others would die in response to chemical signals released from cells around them that were dying. any blood cells that flooded into surrounding tissues from ruptured blood vessels would eventually die (causing the dark purple color associated with bruising). tl;dr thousands of cells would probably die. don't worry; 40-70 billion cells die in your body every day and are replaced. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does pandas affect the basal ganglia? | reading up on the disease pandas or pediatric autoimmune neuropychiatric disorder associated with streptococcal infections and do not understand the concept of autoimmunity. also confused about how pans is different from it. want to know the effects of the damage of pandas on the function of the basal ganglia. and specifically what the basal ganglia does exactly. thank you. | pandas is a bit of a controversial diagnosis, but the proposed model for pathogenesis is similar to that of sydenham's chorea, where group a strep infection (gas) causes an abnormal immune response in a susceptible host. this abnormal response to gas antigens causes some of the resulting antibodies to cross-react with host tissues.^1,2 this mechanism is similar to how strep pyogenes can cause autoimmune heart disease, also known as rheumatic fever. a simple way to understand this mechanism is to picture [an antibody molecule](_url_0_). see all those variable regions? those vary tremendously from antibody to antibody, and will fit different protein and carbohydrate structures on invading organisms. the ones with the best fit during infection get mass produced. sometimes, the antibodies that fit invading bacteria also fit our own tissues. this is called cross-reactivity and is the basis for infection induced autoimmunity. because the inflammation of the infection has caused these antibodies to be mass produced, they attack infection and host tissue alike, causing damage to host structures. in pandas, this autoimmunity is thought to manifest as anti-neuronal antibodoes. the neuron, the basic building block and communication unit of the brain, would be targeted and destroyed.^3 (this is one of the points of controversy).^4 the basal ganglia is actually several different anatomically defined areas of the brain, that serve as the bridge between the cerebrum and the brain stem. for pandas, some of the published studies regarding the immunology of the disease have noted antibodies targeting the caudate, the putamen, and globus pallidus.^5 the basic function of these structures is conscious motor movements, with the caudate also having involvement with executive function (planning and executing actions, e.g.). damage to these structures usually causes movement disorders (huntington's chorea with destruction of the caudate being a classic example). the primary difference between pans and pandas seems to be the pathogenesis, with pandas thought to be due to gas induced autoimmunity, and pans being a very similar disease of unclear cause. sources: 1. greenberg, da et al. clinical neurology, 8th ed. chapter 11: movement disorders 2. swedo se, leonard hl, garvey m, et al. pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections: clinical description of the first 50 cases. am j psychiatry 1998; 155:264. 3. swedo se, leonard hl, kiessling ls. speculations on antineuronal antibody-mediated neuropsychiatric disorders of childhood. pediatrics 1994; 93:323. 4. brilot f, merheb v, ding a, et al. antibody binding to neuronal surface in sydenham chorea, but not in pandas or tourette syndrome. neurology 2011; 76:1508. 5. singer hs, loiselle cr, lee o, et al. anti-basal ganglia antibodies in pandas. mov disord 2004; 19:406. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/ii7L9LV"
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what is the method of the brain for performing logic? | i think you'd get better answers if you added more information about what you already know about the brain, and what you mean by "logic" exactly. that said, the answer will likely have to be "we don't know". neural computational theories exist that show that neural networks are *capable* of performing simple logical calculations (which of course we already know, since we know the brain does it somehow), but as far as i know (this is not my field, but it's pretty relevant for what many people in my field do), we can't isolate something like a single logical step in the human brain and figure out how it works. the neural network is just too complex, and its processes too distributed. there is some research on much much simpler biological neural networks (like that of a tape-worm, if i remember correctly). i'm not sure what that research has managed in terms of completely analyzing the neurological computation of worm decision-making. maybe someone else here can jump in and tell us more about that. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do our bodies react to consuming large amounts of sodium in a short period of time? what types of short-term stresses does this put on our digestive systems, organs and brains? | i've been wondering about this for a few weeks now, since realizing how frequently i go over my rda of sodium and also how easy it can be here in america to consume upwards of 1600-1800mg of sodium in just one meal. i've read that high sodium intake doesn't pose as much of a threat to one's health if their potassium intake is proportional. is this true? if so, how does potassium "balance" with sodium. if i know i'm going to be eating something salty (pizza+wings, burgers, soups, salsa etc.,) i try to have a banana or some raisins before/after for the potassium. does this help, and (for the sake of discussion) are there any other ways to mitigate the negative effects that high sodium consumption can have on my body other than proper hydration and, the obvious, not over-consuming sodium? are there different "types" of sodium similar to the way there are simple/complex proteins and carbs? and are there any "healthier" sources of sodium than others? thank you in advance for your attention and responses :). | as long as your kidneys are working fine and you're a healthy, young adult and you don't have an underlying cardiovascular or renal condition, it really has no effect at all. the reason that sodium can be bad is that leads to an increase in extracellular fluid (ecf), and with an underlying condition, it isn't eliminated properly and will lead to a retention in water. one factor of blood pressure, other than heart rate, is ecf volume. your kidneys are the master regulators of long-term blood pressure and are really, really good at regulating it though, so all of your excess sodium gets filtered out. one caveat is that in certain populations, those over 50 or african-americans, this may not be true, which is taken into account when treatment options are formulated. once you have hypertension or a kidney condition, the whole system is off balance, then yes, sodium levels can be critical. reducing them along with other common sense type things like physical activity, eating right, lowering weight, moderating alcohol, and quitting smoking can have almost as much or the same effect as our best pharmacological interventions. this is why we hear so much about it, and yes, decreasing everyone's sodium intake will lower cardiovasular morbitity and mortality in the population at large, but it seems that this is large because of at-risk individuals. there is not enough evidence to say right now that most normotensives will benefit from low-sodium, but there is still a lot of work to be done in this field. [jama study on sodium intake in normotensives](_url_1_) [jnc 7: complete report](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/42/6/1206.long",
"http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/275/20/1590.abstract"
] | [
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is it possible to get a sore heart? how'd it feel? | no, your heart is made of cardiac muscle, and has a completely different set of rules as compared to skeletal muscle. it pulls much more oxygen from the blood, it can't lock up, and the only time it feels sore is from ischemia, aka a heart attack. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is happening to this plant? | my parents have a lot of these bromeliads in their backyard. my mother has always called them hurricane flowers, as they tend to bloom right after big storms. the flowers look like this: _url_0_ one of them, however, has grown something strange. it looks like this: _url_1_ this structure is on the end of a stalk like the flowers but it doesn't contain normal flower parts. you can see that the leaves on it have some serration, but they have a color similar to that of the flowers. my guess is that some hormone that is supposed to tell the plant to grow flowers didn't have its intended effect, so the plant just grew leaves instead. is this what happened? have any of the botanists here seen something like this happen before? | in maize, "crazy top" sometimes occurs to a plant, where the flowers become leaves. it is caused by an infection. _url_0_ but, your plant's leaves look very uniform and pretty healthy looking. could it be a different species from the other picture? | 19 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/jOz2O.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/4PiNB.jpg"
] | [
"http://ipm.illinois.edu/diseases/series200/rpd207/index.html"
] | [
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