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can you debunk the following "free energy generator"? | there's a popular video on [youtube](_url_0_), where a "free energy generator" is presented. yet i failed to find a succinct explanation why exactly this wouldn't work. my hunch is that a magnet (without alternating current) would always pull the rotor into the same specific location, without it being able to rotate. but i'm not sure and if that's the case it would require pretty good video editing skills to hide that fact. | sure i can. the second law of thermodynamics. it's not something that can be overcome just by sticking magnets to a computer fan. for another debunking, see the fact that this guy is making youtube videos instead of trillions of dollars. holding a magnet stationary near another magnet, or near an electrical coil, cannot cause continuous production of energy. it's not how magnetic fields work. however, if the magnet is moving near an electrical coil, it will induce a current. that's probably what this guy is doing: moving his hand slightly while holding a very strong magnet, so that by [faraday's law of induction](_url_0_) a current will be created. it's not any more mysterious than someone turning a hand crank on an electric motor to power a light bulb. it's standard electromagnetism, and it takes energy (muscle motions) to keep that bulb on. it's also possible that it's some other form of fraud, like he's got a battery hidden in the fan and is controlling it remotely or something along those lines, or he's better at video editing than it seems. the only thing that's certain is that he's not violating any fundamental laws of physics, because they apply to everyone, youtube scammers included. if he wanted to actually get physicists, rather than just the general public, to pay attention, he would use a tabletop setup where the magnet is clearly immobilized. edit: see /u/datanaut's [explanation](_url_1_) of what's going on with the fan, i think it's the best one i've heard so far. | 39 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jiAhiu6UqXQ"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2wscfh/can_you_debunk_the_following_free_energy_generator/cotrdq2",
"http://pcbheaven.com/wikipages/images/howpcfanswork_1269873671.png",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jiAhiu6UqXQ#t=98"
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how do cuckoo chicks know to remove host eggs after just hatching from their egg? | are there any other species that take on such tasks at 'an early age'? | well, this question arises a lot, for all kinds of animals. how do turtles know to crawl to the sea as fast as possible when they hatch? how do we know that we have to breathe when we're born? instinct, it's more fundamental than thinking and i don't think there's many thoughts involved, but thoughts are developed after instincts are developed, evolutionwise. if they wouldn't do it, they wouldn't be around these days. look at it that way. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the current state of research on work habits, daily rhythm and productivity? | there are thousands of articles with *x best tips* on how to be more productive. they often make sense but they are mostly nonscientific. in some recent articles, for example, i read that one can be very productive by only working [4 hours a day](_url_0_) and [doing sport/exercising in the evening](_url_1_). what are some actual, useful scientific results in this field of research? | read "willpower" by roy baumeister and "personal development for smart people" by steve pavlina, those will answer most of your questions. david allen has developed his own personal productivity system and coaches very high profile people (his book is called "getting things done". aside from those, i'd also recommend reading "the four hour work week" by tim ferriss and "awaken the giant within" by tony robbins. eban pagan has a dvd series calle "wake up productive" that is also pretty good. most of it has to do with establishing routines and good habits so that your brain doesn't use all its energy making trivial decisions. automation is huge. regular sleep, exersice, and healthy diet also contribute greatly. reducing time spent randomly browsing the interwebs (cough cough reddit), watching tv, and playing video game probably helps regulate dopaminergic activity in the brain, allowing you to focus more easily (dennis embry talks about this a lot in his research and his lectures). finally, meditation also helps, not only by reducing blood pressure, but with focus and attention as well. this is described by cardiologist herbert benson in "the relaxation response). edit: also, i believe [r/asksocialscience](_url_0_) is a more appropriate place for your question. not that this is the wrong place, but you'd probably get better answers there. | 10 | [] | [
"http://calnewport.com/blog/2012/08/31/henri-poincares-four-hour-work-day/",
"http://blog.seangransee.com/post/35254966580/no-studying-after-5pm-using-parkinsons-law-to-kick"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskSocialScience",
"http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95256794",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology",
"http://www.amazon.com/Power-Habit-What-Life-Business/dp/1400069289"
] | [
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why do obstructions occur more frequently in the coronary arteries than other vessels throughout the body? | it is my understanding that a heart attack is caused by plaque build up in the coronary arteries. correct? why do we never hear about obstructions in other vessels? what is it about the vessels of the heart that make them more prone to obstruction? | obstructions in other arteries can usually be mitigated by other blood vessels. and, if one vessel is weakening/becoming blocked, the human body can adapt slightly to let the secondary vessels pass more blood through. plus, if blood flow to an area is restricted, that area can still live, just with less function. in peripheral artery disease, this is felt as pain when you try to use the affected muscles. but the heart is, to put it mildly, important. if it has restricted blood flow, then it has to work harder to get the blood to it. doing that means you'll end up needing more blood. eventually, the cells begin to die from lack of oxygen. this is bad. an artery in your leg is important, but it's not vital. the arteries in your heart *are* vital. (note: i am intentionally refraining from answering whether coronary artery blocking is more commonx and if it is, why, because i don't know enough about that to make a quality reply.) | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how exactly does an eeg work? | could somebody explain to me how an eeg works? you can be as detailed as possible (even if it means i can't understand it)--as if you were describing how one were built. specifically, i'd like to know how [this](_url_0_) works. (i'm not actually looking for answers about the software, just the actual "hardware" involved in picking up waves.) | its kind of like hooking attaching your head to a voltmeter. basically the electrodes that are placed on an individuals head measure the change in voltage from neurons firing in the brain. the eeg doesn't measure the activity of a single neuron, rather it measures the aggregate of neuronal firing in the brain. the electrode is attached to an amplifier, and then the signal is then filtered to remove excess noise. once the excess noise is filtered out, the fluctuations in voltage are displayed on a screen. if i'm reading the article correctly, its basically describing an eeg that records brain activity from inside your ear. it would work in essentially the same manner as a normal eeg, only it would be based in your ear. they think that the in ear eeg will allow for continuos use, providing more information and the ability control various devices. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.commsp.ee.ic.ac.uk/~mandic/Ear_EEG_IEEE_Pulse_2012.pdf"
] | [] | [
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what is maxent (maximum entropy) species distribution modelling in everyday english? | i'm doing a species modeling project with african lions and can't quite get my head around exactly how the maxent algorithm works. the studies by phillips and even the statistical explanations by elith go over my head and assume the reader is already quite advanced. is there a higher-level explanation (besides it creates a probability surface) that still captures how maxent creates its output? thank you. | the idea is to construct a species distribution from the knowledge of a minimum number of constraints on it. for instance, you know that there are only enough resources to support a certain amount of animals, therefore, there can be no more animals than a certain set amount. once you've set some constraints which follow from the kind of situation you want to model, you'll still be left with a lot of possible species distributions compatible with the constraints. so, you'll try to determine one, by assuming that the one that will arise will be the most probable in some sense. take a simpler example. suppose you're throwing a couple of dice. it's hard to predict what the outcome will be of a throw. however, it is highly likely that the sum of the outcomes of the dice will be close to 7, because there are more ways to realise that than there are ways to realise a sum of 2 for instance. well, that's what max ent is doing, it is maximizing the number of possible realisations of a certain species distribution under some constraints and picks the distribution that has the most realisations at the individual/micro level somehow. take you have a situation where lion a is living in sector a and lion b is living in sector b. but if lion a goes to live in sector b and visa versa, the overall distribution of lions would still be 1 lion per sector. which thus has two different micro-realisations. however, if both lions go to live in sector a, there is only one way to realise that distribution. so 2 lions in sector a and 0 in b is less likely from a pure statistical point of view, all else being equal. from this, you note that this kind of modelling will only work if your statistical hypothesis of "randomness" holds. that is, that every distribution at the microlevel is really equally likely to happen. if for some reason the lions prefer to cluster in sector a, and you fail to account for that in the model, you'll of course generate a wrong prediction for the overall distribution. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does there exist a feynman diagram for any and every interaction between all fundamental particles, or are some interactions "meaningless" or impossible? | the only diagrams i've ever seen that were simple enough for me to understand depict a few seemingly "standard" interactions such as electron-positron annihilation. i've looked at more complex ones and it's clear that there are [many](_url_0_) [interactions](_url_1_) - what i am asking is, are *all* possible interactions between all particles realized in a physically meaningful way in the standard model, or do particle physicists ignore some interactions that either have no effect or are exceedingly improbable? *edit: phrasing | there are some effects (called *non-perturbative effects*) that cannot be written down via a standard feynman diagram. as for those effects for which there are feynman diagrams, in a given calculation, one generally keeps those of a certain size and omits others that are less significant. | 9 | [] | [
"https://teachers.web.cern.ch/teachers/archiv/HST2002/feynman/examples.htm",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=feynman+diagram+examples&newwindow=1&safe=off&rlz=1C1LEND_enUS499US499&es_sm=122&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=bb2QVbGqLoXttQW6yIzQDw&ved=0CAcQ_AUoAQ&biw=1184&bih=578#imgrc=_"
] | [] | [
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] |
ok, neuro types. what do any of you know about pandas (not about bears)? | it's an autoimmune disease caused by molecular mimicry in *streptococcus*; an antibody hits some part of the brain and causes tics, tourettes, ocd, and other stuff. how well-received is this? fringe, needs-more-data, hotly debated, or widely accepted? what gives with the range of symptoms? most of the articles i've found are quite vague, and it seems to do damned near everything (which is why i asked that first question). what is the full range of symptoms? are there specific proposed mechanisms? i've seen things about region of the brain, but nothing about what specifically is going on in that region of the brain. i mean at the cellular level. does it disappear with age? it's apparently been researched since the 80's, but i don't see anything about what happens to adults that had pandas. since the "p" is "pediatric", they don't have pandas anymore, but what are the longer term consequences? | so i don't have a ton of time to devote to this (also, i'm not as familiar with peds research), but i can say that in my field this is widely accepted. as i said, not a ton of time to give, but [here's a decent review article](_url_0_). as for the mechanism there is theorization that the antibody involved in the response may not be the same in every case, similar to adults with autoimmune mediated neuropsychiatric illness where there are different antibodies involved (nmda, anti-hu, vgkc) and so the pheontypic presentations can obviously be vastly different. as for the long-term implications, i think the jury is still out on this. autoimmune related neuropsychiatric illnesses are huge right now in my field and to be honest all of this stuff has come as a major slap in the face to a lot of people over the past decade. imo it's something we should have caught earlier and there is a lot of scrambling to identify all the suspect antibodies and get better lab procedures on profiling them in these cases. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.liebertonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1089/cap.2010.0043"
] | [
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can i hook up my treadmill to control internet speed? | so i have this idea for a project but i'm not really sure where to get started. i'd like to make it so that i only have a connection to the internet when i am walking on my treadmill. if i stop moving, the internet stops. that would be my first objective. then after that, i'd like to make it so that the faster i'm running, the more bandwidth "flows" (for example, jogging 5 mph will make a file download at 50% of my normal internet speed). does that make sense? is this feasible? (i hope i asked this in the right place...) | there is an open source firmware, [tomato](_url_0_), for some linksys routers that will let you set bandwidth limits for connected devices. a microcontroller on the treadmill could send speed data via ethernet to your pc or to the router. a custom api could interface the two. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.polarcloud.com/tomato",
"http://www.edseek.com/~jasonb/articles/traffic_shaping"
] | [
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sound question | assuming the microphone that captures the sound of big ben is 1metre away from the bell, and that the sound is broadcast live without using satellite to a listener 2000km away, how far away would i have to stand before the radio listener hears the sound before i do? | radio waves travel at the speed of light, so if we assume that signal transfer from the microphone to the radio receiver is instantaneous, and that travelling 2000km for light is (nearly) instantaneous, then as long as you stand more than 1m away from the bell, the listener should hear it before you. in reality however, this is obviously not the case. there is delay on many levels, such as conversion of analogue sound to a digital signal, transmitting using a wire to a radio tower, transmitting to satellite, and then the delay it takes for the satellite to redirect the signal, and finally for your radio set to convert the digital signal back to analogue sound. so without more information, it really is impossible to answer this question with any degree of accuracy. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i exercise my left biceps, it will get more blood. will my right biceps get a similar increase in incoming blood? | my question is that can the human body increase bloodflow to a particular part of the body without increasing total bloodflow across the body significantly? to say it another way, is the human circulation system like an assembly line? for example to get more blood to a particular area will the body just increase the speed of the whole line, or does it have channels to send blood somewhere without having it pass through the whole circulatory maze? | your body has mechanisms to locally control blood flow. little rings of smooth muscle called precapillary sphincters can contract or relax to decrease or increase the amount of blood going into your capillaries, which is where oxygen exchange takes place. there is also smooth muscle lining your arteries (which carry blood from your heart to the rest of your body) which do the same thing. when one part of you body starts using more energy, it produces certain chemicals like co2 and lactic acid which the smooth muscle in that area can detect and dilate in response to, providing more blood where's it's needed most. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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to reach the sun, less delta-v is required if you go "out" first, and then descent, compared to going straight to the sun from earth. how is this consistent with conservation of energy? | basically the question you're asking is "how is a [bi-elliptic transfer](_url_3_) more delta-v efficient than a [hohmann transfer](_url_0_) - at least in this particular case - without violating conservation of energy?" the first part can be answered exhaustively with math, but basically it's only more efficient if the relative difference between the starting and final radii is sufficiently high. in the case of moving from a lower to a higher orbit, if that ratio is less than 11.94 the hohmann transfer is always more efficient, if a non-mathy explanation for this is that part of it is due to the [oberth effect.](_url_1_) you get a lot more delta-v for the same impulse when you do a burn deeper within a gravity well. for an explanation of *that* see [here.](_url_2_) the first burn (moving to the high apoapsis high eccentricity orbit) tends to be larger than the second burn since the orbital speed of an object as you get further from the primary tends toward zero. and at the apoapsis your orbital speed is the lowest, so you can cancel that out and fall into the sun for relatively little delta-v as well. earth is also moving fast and it costs a lot more energy to cancel it out directly if you want to reach the sun. to demonstrate with some back-of-a-napkin math: hohmann transfer orbit to jupiter requires ~8.8 km/s. the speed for a *circular* orbit at that distance from the sun is 13 km/s and any highly elliptical hohmann orbit will certainly have a much lower speed at apoapsis than that. earth's orbital speed is 30 km/s. thus δv < (8.8 + 13 km/s) < 30 km/s. to answer the second part: the important thing to keep in mind is that **delta-v is not energy.** (actually this would be a curt explanation of the entire question.) it just represents change in speed and is used because it's a more useful "currency" for figuring out where you can actually go. it is not linearly equivalent to your total energy budget, as the oberth effect demonstrates. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohmann_transfer_orbit",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberth_effect",
"http://www.askamathematician.com/2013/01/q-how-does-the-oberth-effect-work-and-where-does-the-extra-energy-come-from-why-is-it-better-for-a-rocket-to-fire-at-the-lowest-point-in-its-orbit/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi-elliptic_transfer"
] | [
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] |
|
is there any scientific merit behind the term "heartbroken"? | can emotional trauma cause actual reactionary pain in the heart? | yes, it's called [takotsubo cardiomyopathy](_url_0_), where emotional stress causes weakening of the muscles of the heart and can lead to heart failure. i have a colleague that published a number of case reports on this phenomenon. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takotsubo_cardiomyopathy"
] | [
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would we still have the urge to breathe if air was exchanged through some sort of iv? | if we were able to pump blood through a theoretical gas exchange machine that performed the function of our lungs for us (like a dialysis machine but for lungs), would we still have that conscious/subconscious need to inhale and exhale? or could we just sit motionless without breathing? | respiratory drive is regulated via a complex system of feedback loops that tend to revolve around measurements of blood co2 concentration and to a lesser extent blood o2 concentration (we'll ignore the effects of mechanical receptors triggering cough reflexes etc for now). these sensors exist peripherally in the blood vessels near the head/heart (carotid and aortic bodies) and increase minute ventilation as co2 rises or o2 drops (but not until the po2 drops to below 60mmhg). there are also central chemoreceptors that are much more selectively sensitive to changes in pco2 as opposed to po2 or ph from other sources. the effect of central chemoreceptors is generally much stronger than that of the peripheral ones, which is why respiratory drive is said to be primarily co2 driven. one interesting application of this balance is seen in copd patients, who are chronically hypercapneic and hypoxic, leading to reset baseline levels. thus, when these patients come in with acute exacerbations it is actually harmful to give them too much supplemental oxygen, as this may suppress their respiratory drive even more. delays in the transmission of these signals can lead to interesting breathing patterns such as cheyne-stokes breathing, in which apneic periods occur for a while before the respiratory center in the medulla kicks in and increases drive to breathe - effectively too much latency in the control system. **tl;dr: drive to breathe is primarily determined by blood carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations as well as ph, with feedback from both peripheral and central sensors.** to address your question, there is a procedure called extracorporeal membrane oxygenation that basically replaces the function of the lungs and heart in critically ill patients. *in theory* if a patient's blood gas parameters were finely titrated it is possible to inhibit the native respiratory drive quite a bit, perhaps to the point of apnea. however this is difficult to say for certain because of the complex comorbidities involved with these patients. a parallel can be drawn to patients who are intubated and mechanically ventilated, who can often have 0 patient-induced breaths. however, these patients are often sedated and have other disease processes concurrently affecting that respiratory drive. a [recent study looking at awake ecmo as a bridge to lung transplantation](_url_0_) noted that patients were breathing spontaneously, but does not go into further details about the ventilation rate or blood gas characteristics. **tl;dr: yes, in theory, but i don't know of any specific circumstances in which this has been verified.** | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.201109-1599OC#.U4tt7fldWSo",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphyxia#Oxygen_deficiency"
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how do people go about optimizing a complex system where each variable affects affects another? | for example, i am currently modeling a train powered compressed air. i've deduced optimizing the tank size will result in the most change, but changing volume/gas will then affect the mass and area, which will then affect your normal force and your drag force. seems like everything is intertwined. i'm sure there are some common methods people use, how do they go about it? | well, that's the problem, isn't it! optimization is an enormous subject with tons of literature from the classical to the very modern. to learn more general info, you can look up texts on mathematical optimization, control theory, and partial differential equations. again, there are countless textbooks for all sorts of backgrounds and goals. if you have a particular problem in mind, you'd have to ask a more specific question :) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
can someone help i.d. this fossil i found? | in 2009 i was visiting my sister in biloxi, mississippi, and while we were there we visited jefferson davis' home. well there is a stone covered path that snakes through the compound, and while i was walking i looked down, and i saw a [funny looking rock, and what do ya know, there was a fossil shell in it. ](_url_0_) does anyone know anything more specific about it? | hey there. it is a [brachiopod](_url_0_). a specific kind of bivalve. they lived at the bottom of the ancient oceans. they actually had a stem that came out the back and went into the sea floor. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/M9YGw.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachiopod"
] | [
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in the franck-hertz experiment, why are the peaks and not the troughs of the anode current at the multiples of 4.9 volts? | my intuition says, at the multiples of 4.9 volts the current should be at its local minimum. | 4.9ev (or rather, a tiny bit below it) is a peak, because both increasing and decreasing the acceleration voltage will result in a drop of the current detected at the end: if you increase the acceleration voltage, the electrons will suddenly have enough energy for a collision with the mercury. this means they lose 4.9ev from whatever they have, which leaves them with almost nothing left for traversing the final potential. if you decrease the acceleration voltage, fewer and fewer electrons will have enough energy for the final "ramp" as well and the current will also drop. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how fast would you have to be going to make a red light appear green? | assuming that a red light has a wavelength of about 700 nanometers, and green light has a wavelength of about 500 nanometers, how fast would you have to be going for it to appear to be green? | this is a calculation wolfram|alpha can do for you. if we plug in the values you give, we find that the speed must be [about 0.3243c](_url_0_) toward the observer (click on "more units" to get the speed as a portion of c). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=relativistic+doppler+shift&a=*FS-_**RelativisticDopplerShift.vs-.*RelativisticDopplerShift.lambdas-.*RelativisticDopplerShift.lambdao--&f2=700+nm&x=0&y=0&f=RelativisticDopplerShift.lambdas_700+nm&f3=500+nm&f=RelativisticDopplerShift.lambdao_500+nm&a=*FVarOpt.1-_***RelativisticDopplerShift.lambdao-.*RelativisticDopplerShift.lambdas--.***RelativisticDopplerShift.DopplerRatio--.**RelativisticDopplerShift.fo-.*RelativisticDopplerShift.fs---.*--&a=*FVarOpt.2-_**-.***RelativisticDopplerShift.vo---.**RelativisticDopplerShift.lambdao-.*RelativisticDopplerShift.lambdas---"
] | [
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what happens to baumgartner's capsule after his jump? | immediately after the jump, the now-lighter balloon/capsule combination would have ascended by some amount. the actual height it would ascend depends on how much baumgartner weighed and how buoyant the balloon was. after that initial jump, and once baumgartner was safely out of the way, [the capsule separated from the balloon](_url_0_). the capsule fell to the ground, being slowed by its own parachute. the balloon was then deflated to allow it to also fall to the ground. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.redbullstratos.com/technology/high-altitude-balloon/"
] | [
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|
some exothermic reactions like the one that produces thermite can be very violent and rapid; are there any endothermic reactions that occur as violently and rapidly, quickly cooling the are around them? | i had a dream of an extraterrestrial planet where a predator froze its prey by mixing two chemicals and shooting them out, freezing it's prey in seconds. it might be a dumb question but do such endothermic reactions exist? | what a great question! the only thing i can find that gets part way there is the dissolution of ammonium salts or the [mixture of barium hydroxide and ammonium chloride](_url_0_), though it's still a little less dramatic than you probably are hoping for. it's hard to prove a negative, so i won't say that such a reaction can't exist, but i can argue why it would be a lot less common to see than a strongly exothermic reaction. the answer requires diving into some thermodynamics. if you look at the equation for gibb's free energy: δg = δh - tδs which says that for a reaction to happen spontaneously, it needs to have a negative δg. this free energy is the difference between the change in enthalpy, δh, and temperature-scaled entropy, tδs. you want a very endothermic reaction, so δh will be high. ~~you also want it to happen very quickly, which corresponds to a large negative δg.~~ in order to be spontaneous (negative δg), the change in entropy has to be ~~very, very~~ large and positive. edit: as per /u/platypuskeeper below, the reaction can't happen quickly because it's self-limiting. the contribution of entropy gets larger as the temperature gets really high, by the t factor, but that kind of defeats your purpose. in addition, a lot of chemical changes that are endothermic, like formation of new bonds, tend to reduce entropy of the system as well. you absorb energy to make the bond, and you also reduce disorder as two molecules become one. that's not a hard rule, but it's less common to see processes that simultaneously suck up energy and also create a lot of disorder. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GQkJI-Nq3Os"
] | [
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this [square kilometre array] video states 'the energy of a single snowflake falling... provides more energy than all the energy ever received in radio astronomy" - is that true? | [the video](_url_0_) we can harvest energy from radio waves, enough to actually do useful work (say, powering a sensor). granted, those are terrestial radio waves, but can interstellar ones really be *that* much weaker? some of these radio telescopes are **huge** (think arecibo) and we've been using them for decades. could he be referring to the *mass* energy of a snowflake? i had assumed kinetic energy. thanks. | it's true, and it is indeed referring to the kinetic energy of the snowflake. astronomical sources are very, *very* faint. as faint as starlight is, there is **far, far** more energy coming out in optical wavelengths than in radio. if you were to put a cell phone on the moon, it would be one of the brightest non-solar radio sources in the sky, including things like the black holes in the center of the milky way and quasars and active galaxies. | 39 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jlzG8NcRLLk"
] | [] | [
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with all the neural tissue in our gut, do gut injuries and damage affect our behaviour/emotions/functions beyond what that bit of gut would do anyway? | i assume you mean beyond the scope of the function of that piece of tissue, in which case absolutely! there are over 500 million neurons innervating the gut tissue, which has lead to this part of the body being described as a "second brain," due to its ability to function (as in digest and move food through the gut) without any input from the central nervous system. this high density of nerve tissue means that there is a lot of communication between the brain and gut. to preface, this entire field is very new and very poorly understood, but i'd be willing to wager that this high volume of communication is the reason that stomach aches and gastrointestinal distress is so debilitating to suffer from. there are also a lot of theories regarding the interplay between gut microbes and the nervous system, with many theories going so far as to link mood disorders such as anxiety and depression with alterations in gut microflora populations, since this can change the nature of communication between the gut and brain. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does there exist, at any given time, two diametrically opposite points on earth that have the same pressure and temperature? | i believe this is the meteorologist's theorem, stating that there are two antipodal points that have the same value, but i have little idea how it works. also, while you can prove it hypothetically, are there anomalies in the earth's pressure/temperature etc to prevent it from being true in reality? | yes, here's why. let p be any point on earth, and let f(p) be some function of p - it could be the pressure, or temperature, or humidity, or anything you like. let's denote by -p the antipode of p. importantly, we want f to be continuous - it doesn't jump around in value. with me so far? now i'm going to define a new function, g(p), as g(p)=f(p)-f(-p). so it f is temperature, g(north pole)=(temp at north pole)-(temp at south pole). similarly, g(south pole)=(tempt at south pole)-(tempt at north pole). think for a moment about why g(p)= -g(-p). this is important. because if g(p)=0, then we're done, f(p)=f(-p) and so we have two antipodal points which have the same f-value (be that temperature, pressure, whatever). if g(p) is not zero, then it is either positive or negative. let's say positive, without loss of generality. that means g(-p) is negative. since f is continuous, g must be continuous as well, and so if we travel on a path from p to -p, g must take on all the values between g(p) and g(-p). since g(p) note that this is true regardless of the path we take from p to -p; so if we do this with a whole bunch of different paths, we'll get a "ring" of points with f(q)=f(-q) between p and -p. we know it's a ring and not a weird bunch of scattered points because f is continuous and hence g is continuous. since g is continuous, if we change the path we take from p to -p just a little bit, the values of g should only change a little bit - meaning the 0-point can't suddenly jump far away. so let's denote by f this curve of points where f(p)=f(-p). f is composed exclusively of antipodal points, and so it separates the world into "hemispheres" just like the equator does, although they might not have a nice "straight" border like the equator. hence, this curve f has an interesting property that it separates all antipodal points. we're going to exploit that to finish the proof. let h(p) be any other function, and define j(p)=h(p)-h(-p). for exactly the same reasons as before, we get a ring of points q where h(q)=h(-q) between p and -p. let's call this curve h. since h is composed of antipodal points, f must intersect h because f separates any two antipodal points. the point where f and h intersect, let's call it r, must have f(r)=f(-r) and h(r)=h(-r), because that's what it means to be on the curves f and h respectively. hence, r and -r are a pair of antipodal points with the same f-value and the same h-value. substitute "temperature" for f and "pressure" for h, and you're done. this is all very real; notice all we needed was that f and h be continuous functions, and temperature and pressure are certainly continuous. incidentally, there's another interesting theorem that states at any given time, there must be a point on earth where the windspeed is precisely 0. this is a consequence of the fact that "you cannot comb a coconut." can you think of what the latter might have to do with the former? | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does molecular beam epitaxy work? | also why is the electron gun necessary? thanks for your attention. | what electron gun? the rheed (reflection high-energy electron diffraction)? it has nothing to do with the growth. it's just a way of measuring the current thickness of the film as you grow it. as for how it works i don't think it's conceptually that different from any other growth technique. a very dilute gas of material is made to condense onto the surface of a substrate. the substrate is kept heated so its surface is quite hot and thus when the gas condenses on its surface it is incorporated into a solid thin film. you can therefore grow thin-films of one material ontop of another with a level of atomic precision based on having extreme knowledge and control over this very slow growth rate. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are cichlids in the perch family? | i've recently been quite confused around this. are cichlids still a type of perciform fish? or is cichliformes a new group that isn't perciform? thanks. | you're probably confused because evolutionary lineages are often being rewritten as new data come to light. in the case of perches and cichlids, cichlids were classified in the order perciformes with wrasses and other perches, however molecular evidence has indicated that they are their own order. they are now considered to be their own order (which is actually a level above family) of cichliformes. perch are still in the order perciformes. there is a monophyletic grouping (a cluster of species which all descended from a common ancestor with no outgroups) called percomorpha which is considered a clade in the superorder acanthopterygii. as we discover new species, new evolutionary relationships, and new techniques for unraveling these we find that the classification schemes we learned in school of king phillip came over for great spaghetti (kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species) is often not substantial enough for the genetic diversity and evolutionary complexity we observe. thus the need for descriptors such as superorder, suborder, etc (there are a lot). | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does anyone know what self-exciting oscillations are? | the wikipedia article was not too clear. :) | it's some sort of oscillation that doesn't require an outside stimulus to start. i'll paraphrase from the biology example on wikipedia because that makes the most sense to me: there's some area where there are lots of bunnies. unfortunately for the bunnies, their arch-nemeses, the foxes, are only too happy to devour the hapless bunnies for breakfast, lunch and dinner*. the foxes do quite well and their numbers increase. now it takes more bunnies to keep the foxes well fed, and the number of bunnies starts to drop off. sadness! the foxes can't feed themselves, and their numbers dwindle. ...but all is not lost! the reduction in predators allows the bunnies to thrive once again with their customary bunny-like activities! rinse and repeat as necessary. *and occasionally second breakfast | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how would one minimize turbulence in a hookah hose? | if any of the folks of askscience have smoked hookah before, you may have found that you get the best hit by pulling nice and slowly. it would appear that the quality of the hit would depend on how turbulent the flow is in the hookah. we can probably assume roughly constant density of smoke plus air in the hose, but i don't know the actual smoke concentration in the hose. how would someone go about finding out exactly how hard to pull so as to maximize flow rate while minimizing turbulence? (don't be afraid to bring on the maths.) | i think [this](_url_0_)(pdf) would be a great help to you. if you know the fluid density and dynamic viscosity as well as the pipe diameter etc, you can determine the reynolds number which will tell you whether the flow will be prrimarily laminar or turbulent. working backwards, you can punch in the fluid density, dynamic viscosity, and pipe diameter with a reynolds number of 3500 to get a reasonable upper limit on your velocity. reynolds number increases linearly with both fluid velocity and hose diameter, but increasing the hose diameter should decrease the fluid velocity by a much larger degree, meaning (basically) that a thicker hose will lead to more laminar flow, though the initial smoke concentration will probably be lower due to the hose being large and full of air. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.pipeflow.co.uk/public/articles/Laminar_And_Turbulent_Flow.pdf"
] | [
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what parts of the brain are on the other sides of your temples? | right in front of the ears, where it feels really good to message the jaw muscles.. does that spot have any significance in relationship to the brain? i'd also like to know just for reference. thanks! | you can see it (approximately) [here](_url_2_). it's the [temporal lobe](_url_3_). i am not sure if i understand correctly your question. could you please explain it to me? the auditory cortex is in the temporal lobe, but not exactly here if it was your question (see [that image](_url_1_)). and if you were wondering why it feels so good to massage this point, it's mainly because of the [temporalis muscle](_url_0_). but this isn't related to the brain. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_muscle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_cortex",
"http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3730/10567980934_03055bf5e2_m.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_lobe"
] | [
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] |
if a conductive metal in wiring for a home is in liquid/melted form, will it still conduct electricity as well or at all? | if the wiring in a house, copper for example was melted but still held in a linear form within the rubber insulation, would it still conduct electricity as well? | yes. mercury is quite a good conductor, and exists in a molten state under ambient conditions. the same principles would hold for copper, although i dare say, the plastic casing would have evaporated by then. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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sad scientist disappeared and i have magnet (and battery) questions that were never answered. what is currently being done to advance magnet technology? | i read the magnetism series after a quick discussion i had earlier about earth's magnetic field. it seems like after part 3, it was just barely scratching the surface. it's more like an introduction to the background of magnetism. i'm curious about how magnets are made physically/chemically, and what the current research is working on to enhance magnet performance. maybe this is more engineering than science. edit: for clarification, i meant permanent magnets and the discussion i was talking about, i found in the [science faq comments](_url_0_). the same question applies to batteries such as the ones you put in a tv remote, but i'm more curious about the magnets. | right now, the strongest magnets are made of superconductors. superconductors traditionally work only at very low temperatures (liquid helium), but in the last 25 years they have been discovering higher temperature superconductors that can exist in liquid nitrogen. there is a lot of research (over 5000 papers in 2011 so far) going in to understanding high temperature superconductivity and hopefully finding a material that can superconduct at room temperatures. there is also research into other magnetic materials, such as multiferroics, topological materials, combined ferromagnetic/superconducting materials, etc. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/sciencefaqs/comments/g5wk5/magnets_how_do_they_work/"
] | [] | [
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what does a wave function look like? | do we have any ideas what an electron or a photon really looks like? if we shrunk down to that scale what would it look like? | it is possible to see, using scanning microscopy, the interference pattern of delocalized electrons on a surface inside a ring of atoms, which you could interpret as a visualization of a wavefunction. [pic](_url_0_). the "height" is related to the electron density. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://spiff.rit.edu/classes/phys314/lectures/stm/corral_top.gif"
] | [
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can you use a loop of superconducting material to hold a current indefinitely, like a battery with no losses? | yep. in fact, that's how they measure the resistance of a superconductor is experimentally determined to be zero (although you can never actually say anything is zero with absolute certainty experimentally.) the idea is that if you start a current flowing in a closed superconducting loop it behaves somewhat like an rl circuit with some self inductance. the current read at some time t should be proportional to the initial current via the relation: i(t) = i(0)*e^-(r/l) however, since r is zero, the current doesn't change from the initial value. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[psychology] what's the science of obsession? questions below | 1. what's the clinical definition? what officially qualifies as obsession? 2. how does it develops? 3. how/if does it differ from addiction? 4. what's the best way to treat it? thank you for the responses! | i'm really surprised that no one has attempted to answer this yet. 1. obsession is defined in the dsm-5 as the following: * recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are experienced, at some time during the disturbance, as intrusive and unwanted, and that in most individuals cause marked anxiety or distress. * the individual attempts to ignore or suppress such thoughts, urges, or images, or to neutralize them with some other thought or action (i.e., by performing a compulsion). 2. obsessions usually develop under a somewhat specific set of circumstances. internalizing stress can cause a person to develop obsessions. physical and sexual abuse in childhood have also been associated with increased risk for developing ocd, a psychological disorder marked by severe obsessions and compensatory behaviors (compulsions) designed to alleviate those obsessions. 3. the major difference is that generally addiction is pursued based on deriving some sort of pleasure from participating in the addictive behavior. substances produce a pleasurable effect on the user, at least for some time. obsessions are generally unpleasant in nature, causing distress (as defined by the first bullet point in my first answer). 4. there are several ways to treat disorders that include obsessions. cognitive-behavioral therapy is commonly used. exposure therapy is also used commonly, but some people may have adverse reactions to the therapy. anxiolytic drugs can also be prescribed to help keep symptoms under control while the client undergoes therapy. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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our neurons use neurotransmitters for 'communication', and each type of neurotransmitter has a calculated mass and chemical formula. can we calculate how much a thought weights? is it fair to say a thought is a tangible object? | two problems here: 1. we have no idea exactly what patterns of activity underlie conscious thought. so no, there is no way to know this currently. furthermore, different thoughts, or even the same thought at a different time, likely involve different patterns of activity. it's just impossible to know what these are at this point. 2. even if we did know (1), it's unclear how we would calculate the weight of a thought because it's unclear what 'counts' as important activity. let's say we know exactly the spike rate and all neurotransmitter activity of a given population of neurons during a certain time window, and we know this population is producing a thought (as i mentioned earlier, currently impossible). even then, we won't have any idea whether this population is producing one or many thoughts, and we wouldn't know which neurons are producing which thoughts. we could calculate the total amount of weight of all the neurotransmitters, blood in the area, etc, but what is that really telling us? that we now know how much a population weighs when it's doing some activity? it would be totally unclear and probably not super helpful in our understanding of how the brain works. so basically, we really just can't answer this question at the level of granularity you're interested in. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can quadraplegics hold their breath? | i know that all the 'automatic' funtions like digestion keep on working, and obviously they keep on breathing, but can they send a conscious signal to the lungs to hold their breath / blow hard / whatever? and if so, how does that work? | i think the best answer i can give would involve explaining how conscious breathing works in a nutshell. obviously, you or i breathe regularly without any conscious input. we have groups of neurons in our brainstem that are responsible for this. our brainstem, which is a very primitive neural network compared to the cerebrum, is primarily responsible for those automatic functions (breathing, heart beat, etc). when we want to consciously take a big breath or something like that we are doing something a little different. we are using our motor cortex to control the muscles of the chest wall and diaphragm in order to increase the intrathoracic volume there by decreasing the pressure, resulting in the inflow of air into the lungs. with that said, depending on the extent of the damage to the person's spinal cord and what level the injury occurred at, the person may have different ability to take a deep breath. a person without the use of their chest wall muscles would not be able to take the big deep breath that we would be able to because they would not be able to puff out their chest, however they could still exert control over the diaphragm allowing them to hold smaller breaths. hope that helps some | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the power source of the united states, antarctic, scientific station? | it seems to me that wind turbines and solar panels would be impractical for antarctic use and the cost, transportation and storage of petrol based fuels would be prohibitive and likely as impractical. thank you. | [for a decade, a small 1.8mw nuclear reactor provided power for mcmurdo.](_url_0_) these days, it's jet fuel.^* ^* ^- ^(*common sense dictates there's probably a plutonium battery or two as well. nobody's talking.*) | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMurdo_Station#Nuclear_power_1962-1972"
] | [
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what is the purpose of creating artificial elements that don't last for more than a few seconds, if that? | the thought really started coming to me after i read the new article stating japan created element 113 in a 9-year long experiment. with elements like that, and the 118 created awhile ago, i have to wonder...why? why are we bothering to synthesize elements of such magnitude if they decay so quickly and are made in such small amounts that we can't actually use them for anything? is it just our human curiosity to see just how big of an atom we can create? | because the universe doesn't conform to timescales we happened to evolve to find comfortable. plenty of important things happen on picosecond levels or shorter. the sorts of actions we have to go through to make these elements happen in many regions of space (quasars, gamma-ray-bursts, star cores, the big bang). but by doing this we may also find the theorized _island of stability_ whereby some super heavy elements could last for hours, or even up to millions of years. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes hypergolic fuels to react on contact? | let say you have hydrazine (n2h4) and trinitrogen textroxide (n2o4), which was a common fuel / oxidizer combo in the old titan ii icbms. i'm assuming the h and the o combine with a high heat generation to cause instantaneous combustion, but why is that reaction so favorable? where is the energy to start the reaction come from? i can't find a balanced combustion reaction anywhere and i'm curious to what actually makes this happen. i've heard that peroxides can also combust instantaneously but i'm not sure about that one. | the molecules have energy at the start. they are rotating, vibrating and moving around. there is a spread of energies and so some of the molecules will have enough to react. if the reaction adds enough thermal energy to the system, then more molecules with have enough to react i.e. a chain reaction. thermodynamics: you're forming two very energetically stable products, water and nitrogen. so it turns out the reaction is favourable and has a fair amount of "free energy" associated with it. the reaction therefore increases the system temperature. kinetics: increased temperatures increase reaction rates. so the reaction gets faster as it occurs i.e. a chain reaction. if the reactions activation energy is low then this is even more pronounced. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i was trying to explain lawrence krauss' theory of a universe from nothing to reddit. i want help on where my own understanding of it may be wrong. | i humbly ask those of you who are more versed in this field to tell me where i am right and where i have gone wrong with my explantion. i am fully expecting some of you experts to wince at it, so trust me, i am right there with you. what i really want is clarification so that i no longer spout off potentially misconcieved crap to other people, because it's not something that i want to do. ___________________________________________________________________________________________ so what is nothing? it is important that we establish a foundation as to avoid confusion. there are two defintions of nothing: 1. the everyday understanding of nothing, which is literally no-thing. 2. the scientific understanding of nothing, which is quantum foam. for all of human history we used to believe that empty space was nothing^1 . if you took a jar, purged it of any air, any other particles of matter and radiation; made it a perfect vacuum, you would be left with what most people would describe as nothing^1 . quantum physics has led us to re-evaluate this. it seems something is inescapable. nothing^1 is impossible, it's an abstract concept, because nothing1 by its own definition can't exist. if nothing^1 existed it would be quantifiable, it would be something. the closest you can get to the classical idea of nothing^1 is the nothing^2 described by physics. it is essential the baseline of the universe, we can't get anymore fundamental than quantum foam. so, the universe did originate from nothing, it just isn't the type of nothing we were brought up to believe. nothing^2 has weight, it also has energy. this energy is what drives the expansion of our universe, and because that energy is believed to be infinite, it explains why it is speeding up rather than slowing down. not only does it contain energy, it can produce virtual particles that pop into existence and then annihilate each other all the time. but how can these particles come from nothing!? it goes against everything we know to be true in classical physics. it violates the 2nd law of thermodynamics for one thing, since energy cannot be created or destroyed. this is where it gets really interesting. this spontaneous appearance of virtual particles doesn't violate the law, providing that the energy is paid back very quickly, and when i say quickly i mean in an unimaginably short time span. this is called planck time: planck time = 10^-43 or 0.0000000000000000000000000000000000000000010 seconds. just to put that into some form of perspective, there are more units of planck time in 1 second than there will ever be seconds in the universe. all the matter in the universe acts as positive energy (1). the gravity of all this matter pulling at every other piece of matter acts as a negative counter balance (-1). these two types of energy cancel each other out. now here is where you're mind should rightfully get blown. despite it being epic and mind boggling, the mathematics for it is crazily simple: 1 + -1 = 0 a good analogy for this was used in prof. brian cox's wonders of the universe. imagine you a digging a hole. you toss the dirt into a pile right next to it. the pile essentially represents the positive energy of matter, where as the vacuum, the hole, represents the negative energy of gravity. as we travel back in time we can imagine tossing dirt back into the hole. as we add more and more the universe gets more and more condense until you hit the pinnacle; 1 planck length after the big bang (the planck epoch). once the hole is filled it is neither a pile or a hole, it is flat land. this flat land represents the mutual cancellation of the two energies. as for the big bang, as a bonus mind-fuck for you, we cannot get past the planck epoch. the science seems to indicate that the universe was already 1 planck unit old when the big bang occured! | a couple of things jumped out at me here. this idea of "paying back" energy is not generally a useful one. i'm sure you're familiar with the fact that the uncertainty principle is not a limitation of our measurements, it's a fundamental property of the universe (you can say that that the universe "doesn't know" what's going on to arbitrary precision). so, the fact that energy conservation appears to be violated is better understood as that the universe "doesn't know" how to impose energy conservation to arbitrary accuracy, so you get these little "wobbles" in very localized regions in spacetime, which is what is usually stated as these things happening in a small amount of time. the time that a virtual particle exists depends on the energy of the process - it's certainly not true that all virtual particles last for exactly 1 planck time. the only thing that's special about planck units (planck length, planck time etc) is that our knowledge of physics may not apply below that kind of scale. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how physiological plausible is it to "upload" information to the brain as in the matrix? | what i'm referring to specifically is the scenes in the movie where characters are uploaded with information from a computer and can learn physical skills instantly. i know that learning involves forging or reinforcing neuronal connections, but would it be possible to manipulate these connections fast and strong enough to actually force a brain to learn something in a matter of seconds? | bioelectronic interfaces is a field that's being developed currently. we have managed some progress in going the [other way](_url_0_) (brain - it represents a much higher threshold of difficulty to to input data into the brain than it is to extract commands from it. with the example above, a simplistic approach is to lay electrodes over the brain and identify which areas become more active during specified thoughts. this can then be mapped in a fairly linear fashion to cursor commands. on the other hand, we have so little understanding of how exactly memory is encoded that even if we could identify exactly where to input signal, we wouldn't be able to input anything coherent to the brain. learned skills are also related to specific neural pathways in the purkinje cells of the cerebellum, but again the encoding of the signal is far beyond what we understand. i think to summarize at the current state of the art we are able to identify which physical areas of the brain may correspond with certain abilities, but we are far from being able to input anything. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.zdnet.co.uk/news/emerging-tech/2011/04/08/scientists-demonstrate-mind-controlled-cursor-40092455/",
"http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/AtkinsonShifrin.html"
] | [
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virtual pair production at the event horizon is often used to explain the mechanism behind hawking radiation. this is usually accompanied with a disclaimer that it is not representative of the actual math that describes the phenomenon - so what is? | you can have a look at hawking's [original paper](_url_0_) to read some of his thoughts on this issue. in particular, he describes the way that one can picture the black hole radiation with a pair of virtual particles coming into existence, and says: (...) the virtual particle pair creation explanation is usually the one used because it's relatively simple to understand and more satisfying than just saying "it is like that because the maths says so". but, well... it is like that because the maths says so. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.itp.uni-hannover.de/~giulini/papers/BlackHoleSeminar/Hawking_CMP_1975.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unruh_effect"
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|
for cognitive systems, what determines what nodes are associated with one another? | in pavlov's dog/bell experiment, the dogs associated the bell ringing with food. is it simply the co-presence of the bell and the food that allowed this to happen? i can imagine that there are situations in which the co-presence of certain things is not noticed and the connection between the two is not made. what is it that allows these connections to be made? | clinical psychology student here. i'll admit i don't know a lot about the brain side of this, but i can explain some of it. i'll use your example of learning an association between a stimulus and a reward (food). this may be more info than you wanted, but it's still pretty cool. i don't know what your background is, so feel free to ignore me if this is all stuff you already know. in your example of pavlov's dogs, the bell actually rings **right before** the food is put in the mouth, not at the same time. perfect co-presence of the 2 stimuli is much less likely to cause an association to be made in classical conditioning. classical conditioning involves the pairing of an outside stimulus with an instinctual reflex. the dog is going to salivate if food is put into its mouth. once the dog has associated the bell ringing with receiving food, the dog will salivate when the bell rings because the association is made. somewhat more complicated operant conditioning involves the animal doing something and receiving a reward (usually food). the original experiments involved rats hitting a button to get a food pellet. so knowing to hit the button to get food is one type of association. they could also train the rats to only hit the button when a bell rings, by not giving them food when they hit the button unless the bell has rung. these are just experiments, but these animals use other cues in their natural habitat to know when food is available (and also to fulfill other drives). essentially, animals are hard-wired to look for these cues. it's part of the reward mechanisms of the brain, which involve the hypothalamus (central drive area), the nucleus accumbens (in the basal ganglia), and the medial forebrain bundle (connects midbrain to the nucleus accumbens). the main components of this mechanism are *wanting* and *liking*. the part where animals learn the cues is related to the *wanting* component. as mentioned, the cue signals availability of the food, and this *wanting* system activates. dopamine is released in the nucleus accumbens. this is essential for the animal to be motivated to seek out the food, to want it. so the animal is motivated to seek out the food, and when it obtains the food, endorphins are released, also in the nucleus accumbens. these endorphins create the *liking* component to reward, causing the animal to enjoy the food it has acquired. the dopamine release is what causes the animal to learn the association between certain cues and certain rewards. it aids in *long-term potentiation* within the nucleus accumbens, which is when repeated activation of synapses increases their strength. long-term potentiation enlarges axon terminals and generates new receptor sites on the post-synaptic membrane of the connecting neuron. this means neuron 1 has a greater chance of causing an action potential in neuron 2. this long-term potentiation is the hebbian theory mutilated_bonsai described. this ltp process occurs in other areas of the brain involved in learning, as well, such as the amygdala (fear learning) and the hippocampus (encodes short-term memory into long-term). hopefully this makes some sort of sense. let me know if you have any quesitons. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how did this "self sustaining eco system in a jar" survive without externally added water? | _url_0_ i have seen this article a few times over the years. i am interested to know how the plant survived for such a long period of time without externally added water (other than the 2 times he admits to have watered it). can the plant survive by recycling/re-using its own water? they are implying that the plant survived from the condensation inside of the jar. how would that work? | this is known as a "closed system" (in this case, *almost* closed) and [humanity has experimented with it a couple times on larger scales](_url_0_) in preparation for establishing colonies on other worlds at some point in the future. essentially, nothing except light and local heat gets in, and nothing except reflected light and reflected/generated heat gets out. (in a truly closed system even those are locked in place.) the water cycle in the jar is the same as the water cycle on our planet, except one step is slightly different. left is earth, right is jar. 1. water is in soil < --- 2. some water is sucked up by plants and it evaporates from their leaves via transpiration < --- 3. other water evaporates from ocean and soil < --- 4. winds move the resulting water vapour around < --- 5. water forms clouds which turn into rain that hits the soil < --- 6. go back to 1. | 12 | [] | [
"http://reclaimgrowsustain.com/content/40-year-old-self-sustaining-ecosystem-jar"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere_2"
] | [
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askscience ama series: we are researchers in quantum computing and quantum information, here to answer your questions. | hi everyone, we are bugeyecontinuum, mdreed, a_dog_named_bob, luklearfusion, and qinfo, and we all work in quantum computing and/or quantum information. please ask us anything! p.s.: other qip panelists are welcome to join in the fun, just post a short bio similar to the ones below, and i'll add it up here :). to get things started, here's some more about each of us: bugeyecontinuum majored in physics as undergrad, did some work on quantum algorithms for a course, and tried to help a chemistry optics lab looking to diversify into quantum info set up an entanglement experiment. applied to grad schools after, currently working on simulating spin chains, specifically looking at quenching/annealing and perhaps some adiabatic quantum computation. also interested in quantum biology, doing some reading there and might look to work on that once present project is done. mdreed majored in physics as an undergrad, doing his senior thesis on magnetic heterostructures and giant magentoresistance (with applications to hard drive read-heads.) he went to grad school immediately after graduating, joining a quantum computing lab in the first semester and staying in it since. he is in his final year of graduate school, and expects to either get a job or postdoc in the field of quantum information. luklearfusion did his undergrad in mathematical physics, with his senior research project on quantum chaos. he's currently 6 months away from a _url_0_. in physics, studying the theory behind devices built from superconducting qubits and hybrid systems. he is also fairly well versed in quantum foundations (interpretations of quantum mechanics) and plans on pursuing this in his phd research. he is currently applying to grad schools for his phd, if anyone is interested in that kind of thing. he is also not in a north american timezone, so don't get mad at him if he doesn't answer you right away. qinfo is a postdoc working in theoretical quantum information, specifically in quantum error correction, stabilizer states and some aspects of multi-party entanglement. | basic questions from an entirely uneducated person: 1. what materials to you see (or are available) to serve as quantum computing devices? 2. what are the benefits of qc over current computational technology? 3. what will serve as the equivalence of a bit and transistor in a quantum computer? thanks guys! | 47 | [] | [
"M.Sc"
] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/0907.4737",
"http://jcp.aip.org/resource/1/jcpsa6/v135/i22/p224306_s1",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VyOtIsnG71U"
] | [
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what is that seam that runs up the scrotum? | that, my good man, is the scrotal raphe. it is indeed a seam where the scrotum is formed from the tissue that would have been the labia. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do i measure glyphosate concentration in ground water? | i have no earthly idea where to begin with this. how do i find out how much glyphosate is in my groundwater? | a [kit like this](_url_0_) might help. but i doubt you'll find significant levels though, glyphosate sticks quite tightly to soil and doesn't significantly leach into water (i remember seeing one estimate of about 2% runoff). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.abraxiskits.com/moreinfo/PN500081info.pdf"
] | [
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] |
would you still be able to see if your eye fell out of its socket? not so any of the 'cables' were snapped but if the eyeball was just out? | it's called traumatic globe/eye luxation. it's actually relatively-common in some cat breeds, and my understanding is yes. up until the point in time that the stress and inflammation causes irreparable damage to the actual parts. bonus answer: i'm hard-pressed to explain wtf non-traumatic luxation would be... | 407 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/vDm3I.png",
"http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2006/03/my_eyeball_just_fell_out_of_its_socket.html",
"http://www.msgroup.org/Tip.aspx?Num=139&Set="
] | [
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|
how can your stomach tell when to trigger the body's "eject" function? | i recently got food poisoning, and i was wondering, how does our stomach "sense" that there is something bad there? (is it when they try to absorb it into the stomach lining?and then, how does it know when to stop the body from trying to get rid of said harmful entities? getting sick got me curious, i guess. thanks! | if something irritates the stomach lining (like ipecac), it will trigger an ejection. and if something messes with signals between the body and brain, it may also trigger. most non-poison vomits are the brain realising something is wrong (motion sickness being a great example - "the eyes say we're moving, but everything else says we're stationary. crap, we've been poisoned! empty the stomach!"). | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens physically when crossing the termination shock? | so, at the termination shock, the bubble of solar wind plasma slows down, making it dense and hot. how did the voyager 1 and 2 cope with this? how hot does it get? i may be uneducated on some crucial law of physics that clearly states how this doesn't matter, but i'm trying to wrap my head around the idea. thank you, /r/askscience! | it's more correct to say that the termination shock is the point where the solar wind velocity slows down to subsonic speeds due to interactions with the interplanetary medium. the interplanetary medium, while extremely sparse, has a constant pressure, whereas the pressure of the solar wind decreases according to inverse-square law. now, the speed of sound in a medium is dependent on its pressure and density. the speed of sound in the ism is around 100km/h, whereas the initial solar wind velocity is ~400km/h. however, its pressure decreases, and will continue to decrease until the point where the solar wind cannot maintain a supersonic flow relative to the speed of sound in an ism, and a shockwave forms. yes, there is localized heating and differences in particle flows, but... there's also a shockwave and corresponding fluid flow and heating effects when a supersonic jet airliner exceeds the speed of sound in air. the mechanism is extremely similar, with the exception that the ism (and the solar wind at the termination shock) is *extremely* sparse. were you there it would be impossible for you to notice - we need sensitive magnetometers and particle counters to see details in the edge of the heliosphere. for reference, voyager 1 crossed the termination shock on december 16th, 2004. here are some plots from the crs (cosmic ray subsystem) particle detector, showing changes and increases in detected particle counts at the transition point: _url_3_ and some more details showing a linear increase in particle count after crossing the termination shock: _url_2_ and more detailed plots of crs fluxes for the low-energy particle telescope: _url_1_ and the same for the low-energy and ion detectors on the lecp (low energy charged particles) instrument: _url_0_ as can be seen, this is a fairly subtle effect. it's even more subtle for the magnetometer data (which i couldn't get plots of... curse you cohoweb! :p) where the solar magnetic field is so weak that we're almost at the detection limits of the voyager magnetometers. (in theory (and in practise, it turns out! though unlike theory, the galactic magnetic field is not flowing in the opposite direction to the solar one, but rather in the same direction), at the termination shock the solar magnetic field should form "bubbles" and the interstellar magnetic field's interactions with it should be detectable). | 7 | [] | [] | [
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what is the "supervoid"? | i saw popular news articles today (like [this](_url_0_) one, which isn't great) about something being called the supervoid, which is a huge, less-dense area of space. what does it mean for there to be a "cold" area in space? is this a meaningful discovery? | [this article](_url_2_) does a better job of explaining it. this "supervoid" is basically one manifestation of [the large-scale structure](_url_3_) of our universe. simulations and observations of the matter distribution in our universe show that galaxies (and dark matter) make a web-like (filamentary) pattern, and the regions between these filaments are called voids. this particularly large void was first discovered with observations of the [cosmic microwave background](_url_1_), which maps out radio emission from every direction in the universe (this radiation is often described as being the residual of the big bang). this radiation is almost uniform across the whole sky, but it has slight fluctuations based on the integrated matter density in a particular direction. regions that are more dense end up being brighter in these radio images, so they are described as "hotter", while regions that are less dense are dimmer in these images, so they are described as "cooler". basically what this team did is to look for galaxies in the large "cool" (i.e., less dense) region of the sky identified in the cmb map. they used a combination of a space-based telescope called [wise](_url_4_) and a ground-based telescope ([pan-starrs1](_url_0_) in hawaii) to look for these galaxies, which takes a long time because you have to take images of a really large region of the sky, and astronomical telescopes typically only take images of a small region of the sky at a time. this paper confirmed that the region that looked less dense in the cmb map is also less dense when you really count up the galaxies in it, so we astronomers get a pat on the back for our understanding of the universe. i don't know what you mean about light slowing down -- do you have a source for that? | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.cnn.com/2015/04/21/us/scientists-confirm-supervoid/"
] | [
"http://pan-starrs.ifa.hawaii.edu/public/",
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laniakea and virgo superclusters - what one are we in? | so, i'm kinda confused. some people say that we are in the laniakea supercluster, and some say we are in the virgo supercluster. i don't really understand. are these just two names for one or something? could someone maybe explain? thanks. | we are in both. let me explain: _according to the wikipedia page on the [laniakea supercluster](_url_3_):_ _put simply, the laniakea supercluster contains four subparts, which previously were considered separate superclusters:_ * [virgo supercluster](_url_2_) * [hydra-centaurus supercluster](_url_0_) * [pavo-indus supercluster](_url_1_) * southern supercluster | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra-Centaurus_Supercluster",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavo-Indus_Supercluster",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgo_Supercluster",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laniakea_Supercluster"
] | [
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if you left a magnet next to a live crystal inside of a cave for several thousand years, could you divert the direction of its growth? | i was told that crystals grow by magnetic direction. can this direction be altered artificially over the course of thousands or millions of years? | do you have any sources for that? i'm not aware of any natural crystals having magnetic poles. well except for magnetite. are you referring only to magnetite? even in that case i find it hard to imagine that it is affected by local magnetic fields. natural magnetite tends to be formed of multiple domains that oppose each other and form a net zero total magnetism. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can't we use the pressure on the ocean floor for reverse osmosis? | why can't we build a reverse osmosis plant underwater ( say a few hundred feet ) and let the pressure from the ocean push the water through the filters instead of using expensive energy consuming pumps to create the pressure? all that would be left to do is pump the water from the plant to land. | it seems like a good idea but for reverse osmosis what you need is a **pressure gradient** not just high pressure. it is the gradient, the difference of pressure between two regions, which drives the water through the membranes. in order to take advantage of the higher pressure of deep water you would need to create and maintain a chamber of artificially lower pressure in the deep ocean. it could certainly be done but at that point you are probably using at least as much energy as you would on land to create high pressures. plus building reliable machinery to function for long periods of time in the deep ocean is always going to be more expensive due to the need to protect against corrosion of the salty environment. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can animals grasp and experience the concept of a 'bad day'? | watching those when animals attack shows and they comment that such and such animal was fed up or having a bad day, i was wondering if there is an animal that could grasp that concept and change its behavior because of it. i would think that for most animals, missing out on a pray or having their shelter destroyed is all part of the adaptation or survival they go through, bit imagine working your spider web all day with an awesome design, and then something suddenly destroys it, it surely has to suck | bad day is a concept, its a word-feeling association. to realize that you have a bad day, you have to have a word or emotional representation, that you use to recognize a pattern. our conception of a "bad day" seems simple, however its linked to a lot of different feelings, emotions and social habits. for example its related in your brain to the concept of "having bad luck" and i'm pretty sure that animals lack the understanding of luck. so the main question is, if its possible to understand patterns without having language itself, which is a great deal in simplifying the concept creating process. concepts are based on patterns, patterns on reoccurring incident. i'm pretty sure some smarter animals are able to create patterns from reoccurring incidents, but without words the only association they can create is bound to a memory. for example what i think they can feel is: "oh this fish escaped me just like yesterday" but are not able to create the standalone concept of a "bad day". we can even go on and ask, whats good in saying "this is a bad day"? because we hate to blame our self, we don't like being cause of our own problems. therefor we blame it on bad luck, bad day. so we can go on and ask, do animals blame them self? to be able to point any idea at yourself you need the same level of self awareness as you need to identify yourself in a mirror. because then you are able to create the basic concept of the word "me" which is a basis of "i'm the cause if this and that". so my guess is, no they cant. you need words for that or a high level of conceptualizations. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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according to a new study, some of da vinci's diagrams have turned out to be "the place where leonardo first recorded the laws of friction." could someone please explain these simple-looking diagrams and how they represent the laws of friction? | _url_0_ there appear to be blocks, a pulley, and some other markings. the article does not go into detail, and the study costs like fifty bucks. any super science sleuths wants to take a crack at it? | the basic test for friction is simple. you pull an object with a fixed force then balance the forces on the object. to create a fixed force you suspend a known weight from a string, run it over a pulley to change the direction of the force. this basic and standard experiment design is drawn on the paper shown. | 3 | [] | [
"http://phys.org/news/2016-07-reveals-leonardo-da-vinci-irrelevant.html"
] | [] | [
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ac cycle sync across city grid? | a friend of mine is a private pilot. he took me up for a night flight. looking down at a small city, i wondered: if a town is feed by one upstream generator, are all the ac cycles the same across that grid, or do the step down transformers introduce cycle differences because they are inductors? to put it another way: would all the street lamps flicker on the same cycle across an ac grid? | while there are delays due to induction, electricity moves at the speed of light. so in theory there would be a "cross-town flicker" of lights but you're unlikely to be able to observe it. (am a former ee, this is a classic question in engineering school) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[physics+math] - how do we know that temperature is a continuous function? | there's a classic problem in math/physics stating that there exists at least one point in the world, where the temperature on the antipodal end is the same temperature. this follows easily using the intermediate value theorem, given that your function is continuous. but topologically, continuity states that for every open set in the image, the pre-image must also be open. well if "f" is a function, f: [world position] -- > [world temperature], and i assume physicists use the standard topology for these, then we can take some open set in temperature, let's say (60f, 70f), and then we find the pre-image of this temperature interval, why do we "know" that the area on the world will also be an open space?? | if you use the metric induced topology (which you'd probably do) then the difference between some space and its closure is immeasurable. even if a function of space seems to be discontinuous it might be continuous if you look closer and the other way around. temperature describes a macroscopic average of energy of a many particle system. therefore from some certain scale on it doesn't really make sense to talk about temperature anymore, so thinking whether it is a continuous function of a real variable is thinking about the structure of you abstraction, not about physics. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the minus end of microtubules grow more slowly than the plus end? | there is usually a protein anchor that remains stable for a while and falls off and reattaches as the tubule grows. during the period that the anchor is off, the tubule can grow on that end as well so long as it is energetically favorable. as the tubule approaches certain structures, proteins and compounds, this off period can induce a collapse that propagates through the tubule. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when making an electromagnet, what makes it stronger voltage, or amperage? | the magnetic field is generated by electric current flowing through conductor. so technically it's "amperage that make electromagnets stronger". however for conductors the current is proportional to voltage due to ohms law, so raising the voltage will result in raising the current anyway. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
am i reading this article incorrectly, or does a reaction involving only 6 molecules give off the same amount energy as a 7-layer burrito? | ["hydrogen sulfide, for example, reacts with four molecules of foof to give sulfur hexafluoride, 2 molecules of hf and four oxygens. . .and 433 kcal."](_url_0_) | energy values for reactions are almost always quoted per mole. so one mole of h*_2_*s combines with four of foof to give that amount of energy. it's not suggesting that one molecular reaction event gives that much off. | 30 | [] | [
"http://pipeline.corante.com/archives/2010/02/23/things_i_wont_work_with_dioxygen_difluoride.php"
] | [] | [
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is "learned helplessness" generally accepted in the scientific community? | i was reading the article on [learned helplessness](_url_0_) on wikipedia but was having trouble determining if it was actually accepted in the scientific community. any insight? | what do you mean "actually accepted in the scientific community"? the short answer is yes. the introductory text on learning i have sitting on my bookshelf has 5 pages devoted to it. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness"
] | [] | [
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what effect does evolution have on survival-neutral organs in humans and other creatures? | in thinking about survival neutral organs - being organs that don't kill you before you can reproduce but aren't necessary to survival - it seems like humans being such a big population may eventually evolve these organs into something that does kill us when two people with non-compatible survival-neutral organs meet and have babies. i know conceptually what i'm trying to ask, but i feel like i'm not making any sense so feel free to ask me to clarify anything. | you're using slightly confusing wording, but i think i can answer your question. darwinian evolution states that any mutation that promotes the organism to have multiple viable offspring will be spread throughout the population. something like the appendix in humans has absolutely no impact on birth rate (unless it becomes inflamed and kills you obviously) so any mutations in it would generally have absolutely no impact. your idea of "non compatible organs that kill you" does have a strong basis in genetics, but not in the sense that you're thinking of. this will be hard to explain, but here it goes. you and most other animals have two copies of every gene, 23 from mom 23 from dad giving you 46. each gene copy can be slightly different from one another, and different combination will give predictable physical traits. for example, imagine that one flower inherits a deficient gene in flower color from one parent. this child flower may not be able to produce as bright and vibrant a color as it is supposed to, but it can do ok and survive just fine. if that child flower mates with another flower like it, there is a possibility that the offspring will not live. that's because this gene may be important, and control more than just flower color. two defective copies would cause the flower to die. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen in this situation? | lets say someone put a speaker behind a mirror and then started playing a pure sine wave while a laser was being bounced off of the mirror. would the laser's reflection look like a sine wave? or would it just be a random mess of light? if it's not a mess, could this be theoretically used like an oscilloscope or something? here's a rough diagram i drew in ms paint: _url_0_ | congratulations, you just found the theory behind most "spy" listening devices. they bounce a laser off of something reflective, and recreate the modulation of the reflected light into sound waves. you're literally listening to the speech of the people in the room bouncing off of the window. | 7 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/213aH.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how did calmette manage to isolate antivenom from horse blood in 1895? | i read [this interesting story](_url_0_) about a guy getting bitten by a black widow, and wondered how the heck calmette managed to isolate anitivenom from horse blood after injection venom into a horses blood stream. more specific: what technique did he use, and what kind of technology were available to scientists back then? | the anti-venom consists of neutralizing antibodies produced by the horse when exposed to the black widow venom. these antibodies "coat" the venom protein, neutralizing it. in order to get usable anti-venom one would only need to draw blood and isolate the serum from the blood. the serum would contain the antibodies. this could be done with a simple centrifuge that would have been available at the time. other antibodies would also be present but unless the horse was also previously injected with some human protein they wouldn't be harmful to us. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/17/science/dancing-with-black-widows.html"
] | [] | [
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why is fasting important in blood serum tests? | most blood tests looking at serum levels of biomarkers require fasting (for usually at least 8 hrs). i've been looking all over but i can't seem to find any information as to why... i'm trying to figure out how to test folate and choline serum levels in babies... cuz there is no way they are going to fast. | this is mainly for lipid testing. serum triglycerides spike after consuming fat and this has a significant impact on measurement of other lipids. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://ltd.aruplab.com/Tests/Pub/0070070"
] | [
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] |
how much aspirin is life-threatening? | inspired by this [lovely thread](_url_0_) i think that because of the (mild?) anti-coagulant attributes of aspirin you should be able to achieve a rat-poison-like effect similar to an overdose of phenprocoumon (marcumar), but i'm guessing the liver would fail before that - and i know some people (*especially housewives*) who pop aspirin like pez. how many pills would one have to take in what amount of time for aspirin to be potentially deadly? | in rats, the experimental ld50 (dose which kills 50% of subjects) is 200 mg/kg oral aspirin. assuming (which could mean i'm very wrong) that we have the same ld50, it would take a dose of about 14 g of aspirin to kill 50% of 70kg people. rat and human metabolism could be very different. this is only one way to determine it, but it is a direct correlation to death. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/WTF/comments/v2ald/gave_my_neighbor_some_aspirin_last_night_woke_up/"
] | [] | [
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how does the hair follicle drug test work and is it effective? | whenever a drug is taken (prescription or illicit) and cery small amount binds to melonin, which is present in hair. this is incorperated into new hair growth. so the drug becomes part of the hair structure in tiny amounts. hair drug tests take a length of hair (usually around 3cm which is equal to about 3 months of growth). they then 'wash' the hair is a series of different organic and inorganic solutions which extracts the drug and drug metabolites from the hair. the extracted mix is passed through an immunoassay. there are many types of immunoassays for different drugs, and they have the benefit of being relatively quick and inexpensive. if an immunoassay comes back positive a more specific test, a gas chromotography mass spectrometry test, is done to confirm the positive and determine the amount of the drug found in the sample. in general, yes they are effective. they show both the original drug and the metabolised drug (for some drugs) hich proves that the drug must have been used by the person being tested. they can also determine the exact structure of the drug that has been tested positive for, so they can determine the difference between pseudoephedrine (cold and flu meds) and amphetamines. they may be innacurate if the dose of the drug taken was very low. they also can't calculculate backwards from the final result to determine what volume of drugs have been used. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does conservation of information contradict free will? | if all the information about the universe was present before the big bang, then determinism is true; every action we make could have been predicted by someone who knows everything about everything in the universe. but if free will is real, then wouldn't that follow that new information is being created and conservation of information is false? this has always bothered me because coi is so widely accepted as law yet free will is rather controversial. i am not in any way a science or philosophy major, or properly educated on either. im just a film major who loves physics and philosophy | where did this "conservation of information" come from? who is it widely accepted by? the second law of thermodynamics basically implies that information is *not* conserved. whoever told you about this "conservation of information" was talking out their ass. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what do we really get out of water? | i was just thinking about it, and realized i don't know what exactly we get from water. that is, i can see cells taking the bits of h2o and putting it somewhere wherever water needs to be, but i have no detailed concept of what our body does with it. can someone explain please? | well a lot of different ways. water is used to cool us down (sweat). it's used in certain reactions that take place in the body (cellular fluid), it's used to dissolve and transport things through the body (blood). it's used to dissolve things that need to be removed from the body (urine). a whole lot more too! | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do humans recognize faces where there are none? (e.g. seeing faces in the clouds) | looking at clouds, the patterns on my ceiling, the spots in a dog's fur, i see face-like patterns all the time, even though these things clearly don't have faces. in some cases, i even attribute expressions to these "faces" (e.g. the man on the moon looks sad). what's happening in my head that creates this effect? | a few points regarding the question: 1. when you see an object "as something", this is something that your brain is doing. an image of a face, or of a house, or of a cat or a hammer, doesn't have any intrinsic meaning or identity. the brain recognizes images as being caused by things in the real world, and links them up with the appropriate meaning. 2. human brains are *really good* at recognizing faces. we can discriminate between identical twins; you or i can probably discriminate between thousands of unique human faces that we know in one way or another; and after seeing a face just *one time*, if you attended to it specifically you've got a good chance of remembering it in useful ways. 3. the *reason* we're so good with faces is that there is a system of neural circuits in the ventral/posterior part of the cerebral cortex, in a region called the fusiform gyrus, which seem to be specialized for face processing. we don't have any comparable density of circuitry for discriminating any other types of specific visual object. if there's an object that the human brain sees best, it's a human face. 4. the face-intensive processing done in the fusiform complex then informs the rest of the brain about crucial face-related details regarding what's being seen - is it a face, what kind of face, someone you know, etc etc. 5. the fusiform complex is so good at discriminating faces in part because it's so *sensitive*. you can make out a face in the dark, if it's got warpaint on, if it's covered in mud and blood, or peeking out behind thick foliage. a side-effect of this extreme sensitivity is that it makes the system prone to false alarms. so, you can trip it with something that isn't a face but is sufficiently face-like. 'sufficient' is hard to define, but probably just a few spots or shadows that line up in such a way that they can trip an 'eyes and nose' template, or 'eyes over mouth', or 'round shape with central horizontal shadow' are enough to get even a weak signal through the fusiform face area, which then gets distributed to the rest of the brain in form of "face! face here!". | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareidolia"
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in cancer, what is it that stops contact-inhibition? | i'm studying my section on cancer right now, and it made me wonder something. if your cells lose contact inhibition it causes the excess cells and a tumor. and telomerase activity makes them essentially immortal by elongating the telomeres. so if the cells in an organism still have contact inhibition, but also had telomerase activity, could that organism theoretically be immortal? i mean, aside from death by injury or other diseases. | theoretically *maybe*, and there is current research going on as to how telomerase as a therapy can extend the life of an organism. telomerase looks very promising and even if the same therapy wouldn't slow aging, it could be used to treat diseases caused by abnormal amounts of telomere shortening.. i'll link an article and the journal it references to if you'd like to read more about one of the experiments that has been done. _url_1_ _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/emmm.201200245/abstract;jsessionid=86B0450DA0E6F4F164842DEC713BCB57.d04t03",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/05/120514204050.htm"
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when i eat seafood or other things cooked whole (lobsters, octopus, crabs), why can't i identify any organs? | the liver, pancreas and most of the rest of the digestive system become a green goopy delicacy called tomalley when cooked. most of the other organs you'd expect are there but are small and hard to find. the lobster brain - technically a supraesophogeal ganglion - is one of the trickiest organs to locate. it is about the size of a grain of rice and far forward near the eyes above the esophagus. there is a heart but it is small, and there are few arteries or veins. instead of truly having blood they have a fluid called hemolymph that is not confined to arteries and veins, and they rely on body motion to do most of their pumping. this system is called a (partially) open circulatory system. the thing that looks like a vein in the tails of lobsters and shrimp is an intestine. orange granular goop in the tail is eggs (roe) and considered a delicacy, and yellowish-white less-granular goop in the tail is sperm (milt). carefully removing the brain and waving it around for other people to see at a fancy restaurant will get you mixed reactions. | 238 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would a continuous-flow heart be superior? | medical devices exist which replace the pumping function of the heart with a continuous blood flow, a consequence being that one can live without a pulse, at least for some period of time. other than not having the indicator that pulse provides, what are the side effects? from a purely theoretical perspective, is continuous flow "better" than pulsed flow, in terms of stress on your cardiovascular system, etc.? | there have been some successful trials, but we don't have enough data to say what effect it'll have in the long term. clearly it doesn't lead to imminent death, quite a few people have survived for a while with them in, but we don't have a huge amount of data on it. there were some worries it might mess up your lymph system, but it doesn't seem to. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do we measure liquids from the bottom of the meniscus? | i would make sense to use the middle of the meniscus because if the liquid was not concave, it should even out to the middle? i learned this in school so is this a thing teacher tell high school students to not complicate thing and if so, what do methods professionals use? | it's mostly arbitrary. bottom of the miniscus is easier to read than finding the bottom and then finding the top and then guestimating where the middle is. consistency is most important and any time you bring in a guestimation (even on that small scale), you introduce more human error to the equation. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about thermodynamics, kinetics and organic transformations | for some reason, it's hard for me to understand the relationship between thermodynamics and kinetics as they pertain to organic transformations. i understand that thermodynamically stable reactions proceed without the input of energy and that kinetic reactions require an input of energy, but i don't understand how the two intertwine. i also don't understand how a kinetic product can be turned into the thermodynamic product and how equilibria come into play. i know this is asking a lot, but any information you could give would help tremendously! | thermodynamics dictates whether or not a reaction will actually happen. reaction kinetics describes the speed and pathway of that reaction. thermo defines the threshold that will result in a reaction. once that threshold has been met, reaction kinetics is used to examine the rate of reaction. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about curiosity mission and space probes | while i'm absolutely thrilled at the successful launch of such a high profile mission, i can't help but have some doubts about its ultimate goals. doubtless some great science will be done and new discoveries will be made. however if we're going to be looking for evidence of life wouldn't the resources be better spent on sending a mission to titan, europa or enceladus? are there any practical reasons why we haven't sent probes to these moons? do we simply keep sending probes to mars because of proximity and technological limitations? | there are some daunting technical challenges with reaching the liquid part of the ice moons. i'd like to see a 2 component mission with an impactor followed by a autonomous rov-type sub, coupled with an orbital telecom relay. a bit like the way we've handled the deep impact program on tempel 1. but you'd have to scale things up considerably to have an impact which would break through the ice crust of enceladus of europa. but drilling is not going to cut it, and its in the liquid phase that you want to get. otherwise, while no doubt interesting, well just be able to do surface observation of the ice (which should be pretty barren, although some organic material might be present in trace amounts), and perhaps radar imagery through the crust. fun and interesting for sure, but not the answer to the questions on top of everybody's mind: are there critters swimming downs there? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why don't β− rays deliver an electric shock? | as i understand it, the "β− particle" is really an electron. if i was to be exposed to an electron flow from an unsheathed wire or by foolishly plunging a nail into a power socket, i would certainly suffer an electric shock. how come that an electron ray (be it from nuclear decay or as a cathode ray) does not have the same effect? | well, first of all let's calculate how many electrons are involved in the minimum electric shock a human can perceive, and see if a single electron alone is remotely comparable. according to [wikipedia](_url_0_) humans can perceive a shock of as little as 1 ma, or 0.001 coulombs per second. suppose such a shock lasts for a very short time, say a millionth of a second. that means that 10^-9 coulombs have been transferred, which is equivalent to 6 billion electrons. from this we would conclude that in order to deliver an electric shock, at minimum you would need to be hit with over a billion β− particles at once. now, there is a wrinkle in this story, which is that a β− particle hitting you is not the same thing as a current flowing through your body. β− particles are high energy electrons produced by radioactive decay, a type of ionizing radiation that acts like tiny missiles that ionize the atoms in your body, which can cause cellular damage. you are constantly being blasted by thousands of β− particles per second from cosmic rays and natural radioactive decay both inside and outside your body. a banana, for example, is constantly shooting out dozens of β− particles per second, and it doesn't give you an electric shock! it's also worth noting that in the medical field electron beam therapy (ebt) shoots high energy electrons into the tumor of a patient, and as far as i can tell the patient doesn't feel a shock. from what i can tell, beams in the ~10 na range are used, orders of magnitude below the 1 ma range that wikipedia suggests is perceptible. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_shock#Magnitude"
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how does this proposed down draft tower not violate the conservation of energy? | i can see that pumping the water up will increase the potential energy, but i don't understand how the rest of the system works. i certainly can't see how the plant will power itself and generate 500 megawatts of additional power. relevant links: _url_1_ _url_0_ | they aren't pumping the water up to gain potential energy. they pump the water up to the top and then mist the water into the top of the tower. the water mist absorbs energy from the air (in the form of heat). the cooler air is now more dense than the surrounding air. this means the cooler air will start falling. the dense falling air is used to drive wind turbines at the base. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.forbes.com/sites/davidferris/2013/03/26/massive-energy-skyscraper-proposed-on-u-s-mexico-border/",
"http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/tech/proposed-hyperboloid-energy-skyscraper-uses-simple-math-to-solve-a-big-problem/"
] | [] | [
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is there a reason, from like... a linguistics standpoint, that people say "like" so much? | maybe this is a dumb question, but i was thinking about this earlier when i caught myself saying "like" numerous times in a conversation. i've always kind of noticed that a lot of people, including myself, do this. then i thought why on earth would that be a thing? why the word "like"? do other languages besides english have any similar quirk? | generally "like" is used as a linguistic filler, which indicates the person is thinking about what to say next. previously, people seemed to use "um" and "ah", but we seem to have moved away from that to using terms such as "like" or "actually". as a poor french speaker, i tend to need fillers all the time, and have taken to saying "tu vois (you see)" - i'm not sure how well this would go down with native french speakers! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to 'hit the air too hard'? | if you fell from high enough, would the air ever resist enough to kill you? assuming you fell infinitely.. | well, if you fell from infinity toward the earth, your velocity once you hit the atmosphere would be around **11 kilometers per second** and you would burn up and be crushed and torn apart by the heat and deceleration. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
solarsails! | back in the navy we would talk about solarsails before class (with the teacher) daily, somewhat honestly and somewhat jokingly. we discussed limitations and that top speed would be heavily reliant on the size of the sails v. mass of starcraft v. starting distance from the star. my questions are: do solar sails only allow outward motion from the sun, or is it somehow possible to sail twords the sun? would it be possible to fit a highly radioactive (not sure if there would be enough high-energy protons/neutrons emitted) behind the sail and use it as a "wind generator"? if the above is possible, could this machine, given enough distance and time, reach 99.9% light speed, or is there another limitation that deals strictly with the power source? | sailing towards the sun would actually just be having the sail positioned in such a way that the reflection of the light/radiation would be at an angle, and part of that reflection is along the a line parallel to your velocity. basically, you'd be slowing down your orbital angular momentum and you'd be able to make your orbit decay into/towards the sun. no. this would be akin to getting on a sail boat and blowing on the sail to make you go forwards. there are ways that this could work (where the sail redirects the flow), but all would actually be far less efficient than redirecting all of the radiation behind you some other way (kind of like reflecting containment vessel and a nozzle). despite said limitations, if you did have a nearly unlimited power source and a constant form of acceleration powered by said source, yes you would eventually reach an arbitrarily large [rapidity](_url_0_) (it's like speed, but a lot easier to deal with in relativistic terms). the issues here are practicality before anything else. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapidity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacking_%28sailing%29"
] | [
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what is thermohaline circulation? adn what would happen if if changed dramatically? | from my basic knowledge i know that it is a change in the ocean circulation due to density/temperature/ salinity but i still don't really understand it. | thc is, as orbitalpete rightly said, a density driven system of currents within the ocean. the variation in density results from variation in temperature and salinity, where the influx of summer meltwater (cold and less saline) from polar icecaps is particularly important. to understand why it is a big deal, keep in mind that the solubility of oxygen in water is maximized in cold conditions. as this denser polar contribution sinks to the lower parts of the ocean, it replenishes oxygen within the water column at depth. it also provides the motive force allowing mixing of deep nutrient-rich water with more surficial oxygen-rich weater. thus the import of thc becomes readily apparent: without it, the portion of the oceanic water column within which oxygen concentration is sufficient for complex life would be greatly reduced, and zones of upwelling would be smaller and fewer. a failure of thc would thus at the limit lead to vertical ocean stratification (a bit like the conditions in at least parts of the proto-atlantic during parts of the jurassic), where the majority of the ocean would be cut off from the atmosphere and contain very little available oxygen in the water column, with the exception of the top where wave and storm action would provide some mixing. also, zones of upwelling, where biological pruductivity is maximized, would be greatly reduced. thus, a very bleak outcome for biological productivity as it impacts human society, with fisheries and whatnot. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation"
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is it possible for thermohaline circulation to stop? | with rapidly changing ocean temperatures and salinity is it atually possible for the earths thermohaline circulation to stop? thanks for the responses everyone. happy holidays :d | for this to happen, the oceans would need to be in an equilibrium state, that is, the temperature of the oceans is constant at all depths and all longitudes/latitudes. i would be astounded if this was ever achieved because sunlight heats the oceans unevenly. near the poles there is significantly less sunlight than near the equator, and there is more sunlight during the summer than the winter. the same is true of salinity: it would need to be constant, or nearly constant, throughout the entire ocean. i know a bit less about where ocean salt comes from than i do about the temperature situation, but i think it would require a constant ocean temperature first, which won’t happen unless the earth’s orbit changes significantly or the sun dies. i say this because the solubility of salt in water is temperature dependent. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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curiosity rover has three spectrometers. what is the need for having three? | i was listening to npr regarding the new laser test recently and they mentioned that the plasma would be analyzed by three spectrometers. what need are they filling by having 3 spectrometers apart from redundancy? | there are actually four spectrometers on curiosity. they are different instruments, and although they likely overlap a bit, they serve different purposes. at it's base, spectrometer simply means "light analyzer." [apxs](_url_0_) is a alpha particle x-ray spectrometer, designed to be put in contact with rocks to measure elemental abundance. [chemcam](_url_1_), curiosity's laser, is designed to target a small amount of rock from a distance and then analyse the resulting flash of light using a telescope. [sam](_url_2_) aka the sample analysis at mars sensor suite is actually three instruments, two of which are spectrometers (the third is a gas chromatograph). one is a mass spectrometer, which vaporizes a sample and determines what elements are present by their mass. the other is a tunable laser spectrometer that is used to determine if a number of isotopic elements are present (with more accuracy than chemcam, as the sam is designed to test samples that are aboard curiosity). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://msl-scicorner.jpl.nasa.gov/Instruments/APXS/",
"http://www.msl-chemcam.com/index.php?menu=inc&page_consult=textes&rubrique=64&sousrubrique=223&soussousrubrique=0&titre_url=ChemCam",
"http://msl-scicorner.jpl.nasa.gov/Instruments/SAM/"
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can you tell by looking at power lines which way goes to the customers and which way is the power plant? | i got thinking of this in a walking dead type post apocalypse scenario where you might be ambitious enough to try to restart a power plant. if you came upon a power line, and the power is out, would you be able to tell if you should go left or right to get to the power generation plant? | no. in fact, many of those lines link whole regions of the country together, and carry electricity in either direction depending on demand. on one day a nuclear plant in new york might go offline for maintenance, and power might flow in from new england to fill the gap; on another day cold weather might increase demand up north, and power would flow up from new york. | 36 | [] | [] | [] | [
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ok reddit, can someone please explain to me the idea of someone's 'reaction time'? | hear me out. i basically don't understand the idea that different people have different reaction times. consider the classic test where a ruler is held by someone and dropped, allowing people to measure their reaction time by how far the ruler falls before it is caught. my interpretation would be that, upon the ruler dropping, the reaction time is the time that is required for an optical signal to be recognized, sent to the brain, and subsequently sent to the muscles of the hand to close the fingers. my question is this: is the limiting factor of this not just the speed of transmission (i.e. the speed of light)? i would think this should be pretty constant, so how can there be such a significant difference in the overall trait of 'reaction time' from person to person? i'd love to hear! | the transmission speed isn't the speed of light. it's very electrical in nature, but not completely analogous to an actual transmission line (which in fact doesn't go at the speed of light either). in neuronal signal transmission, there is a lot of mechanics involved, such as sodium and potassium channels (and others) opening and closing to let ions flow through. also, every time a signal reaches the end of one neuron and starts flowing down the next, neurotransmitters have to be released through small vesicles. all of these things take time, and generally occur on the order of milliseconds. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does capacitive sensing work? | if you have ever had a samsung galaxy s4-s5, you would know it had a feature called airview. it uses capacitive sensing, so how does it work? i mean capacitive sensing in general, not for airview. thanks in advance! | i know this one! before we talk about screens, let's just do a single point, like a button. take a conductor that's your button. hook it up to a little capacitive circuit, that can hold a charge for a tiny moment. on a cycle, you charge the system, and watch how much time it takes to discharge. if there is a big sac of salt water in near-contact with it, like a person, the capacitance (charge storage) will be higher and the charge will take longer to dissipate. a little microcontroller watches the time measurements, does some filtering, and decides if it is being "touched" or not. with different filtering, you can measure how far the sac of salt water is from the conductor. usually the distance data is just noise, but some really good software can pull cool or useful stuff out, like samsung's hand-waving. when it's a button, that's it. to make it a 2d screen, you make a grid of conductors, that looks basically like graph paper. you can charge and time each one, horizontally and vertically, and figure out where on that plane the contact is. the charge/discharge cycle is incredibly fast, far faster than any human can move. benefits to capacitive sensing include tweakable sensitivity, and no need for electrical current to run through the person. (i've tried that last one... doesn't work out well). edit: check out the qprox chips, which are off-the-shelf capacitive sensor controllers. the data sheet explains all the physics and how that particular chip handles it, which gives a good idea of how they all work. this will be different than samsung's or lg's implementation details, but the operating concepts are the same: _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.atmel.com/Images/qt60248_402.pdf"
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is eating a raw diet the healthiest method of sustinence? | aka a largely vegan diet? i've heard this argument a great deal from vegans. as well as the argument that "we aren't supposed to eat meat" i.e. "meat eating is unnatural". | first, the whole "we aren't supposed to eat meat" argument is hogwash. hunting was a huge part of the diet of ancient humans, and we were hunter-gathers long before we developed the agricultural skills to be able to sustain large populations on produce alone. i don't think that meat is intrinsically unhealthy, but the way meat is farmed and sold in 2016 is certainly enough to make someone want to swear off it forever. aside from the devastating environmental effects of industrial beef farming, the antibiotic load of most meat in the super market is gross. the microbial biodiversity of the human gut has already dropped by some ridiculous percentage since the introduction of antibiotics in beef farming, which is causing poorer gut health and lower immunity on a global level. i certainly don't plan on raising my children vegan, but i will make buying local, grass fed, antibiotic free meat a top priority. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when mechanical power is converted to electrical power, is the electric power real or apparent? | for this example, let's assume 100% efficiency between the mechanical and electrical system. the mechanical power a gas turbine is contributing is 100 w. the electrical generator that is coupled with it is operating at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. would the electrical generator see 100 va (80 w, 60 var), or would it see 125 va (100 w, 75 var)? | the mechanical power is the real power of the electrical system. thinking about it in reverse its more obvious, if you have a generator producing power and your using that to turn an electric motor for example it cant do any more work than the real power supplied by the generator, (this is actually the definition of real power, the power available to do work). in your scenario its the actual work being done to turn the generator. real world electrical production and distribution systems are inductive in nature by design so the apparent power ( the product of the current and voltage of the system p=iv) will be greater than the real power. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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has there been research indicating the most effective way of lecturing and providing/not providing resources such as lecture notes? | i ask this because as an undergraduate student, i have range of modules all taught by different lectures with different preferred lecturing styles and different philosophies when it comes to taking notes, revising and offering resources. i have one lecturer for example who uses [pencast](_url_0_) in lectures on a projector. of which he uploads to my university website at a later date so you can rematch and listen to the lecture over. he also provides the notes he uses to write from. i have another who writes on a chalkboard and refuses to ever upload lecture notes. relying on us to either consult textbooks or ask professors or peers about topics we struggle with. i much prefer the first professor's approach, but was wondering if there were any studies available that provided insight on which method of teaching is more effective? maybe the latter approach forces students to thoroughly understand topics or it may put them off the topic entirely. | yes, there has been a lot of research done into the design and delivery of lectures. but in the field of higher education research there are a lot of arguments about one particular word you mention: 'effective'. effective for what? learning, attention, 'engagement', grades, attendance..? i'm thinking you want effectiveness in terms of learning, in which case the question then moves to how to measure learning. if you're willing to work with lecture effectiveness meaning learning, defined by 'a change in long-term memory' as measured by tests, then you're in luck as a lot of research exists. here are a couple of findings with links to books that discuss and provide syntheses of the evidence: * if the lecturer wants students to take notes they should 'signal' when the noteworthy moments are. an accessible summary of the evidence behind this is in [clark, nguyen & sweller](_url_2_). the cognitive load theory concept of 'split attention' is used to explain this phenomenon: it's not a good thing to split student attention between taking notes and listening. (there is also a lot of other material in that book about the use of graphics, text and spoken words. one interesting recommendation i remember from reading it is that you should not put long block quotes on the screen and read them out to an audience at the same time. i like this book because all of its recommendations are findings from rct studies, and most are findings from meta-analysis of rcts.) * there are many forms handouts can take, and the best type depends on a bunch of factors. one of the authors of the book i mentioned previously has developed a useful book for trainers and it has [a summary table of some pros and cons of different handout types on p.195](_url_0_). i caution that the level of evidence behind these statements is not as high, and i suspect it is because the education research is just not up to answering all of the questions we have - yet. i use arguments and evidence from these two texts when teaching lecturers and one thing to note is that many reject the premise that the goal of a lecture is learning of facts; to them a lecture has other goals like inspiring students or getting them to question their beliefs. the response i have to that is that [lectures are not good for much, but learning information is one of the few things that they are not that much worse than other approaches at; lectures are actually the wrong choice to for most other objectives](_url_1_). | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.livescribe.com/en-us/pencasts/"
] | [
"http://books.google.com.au/books?id=0x1onDqjwAcC&pg=PA212&lpg=PA212&dq=evidence+based+training+methods+handouts+notes&source=bl&ots=ANofmJsYUm&sig=agyp87pl2uOu4Avpo-I7GT0JMrA&hl=en&sa=X&ei=hkNBU_7qGYjLkwXhrIF4&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=snippet&q=handouts&f=false",
"http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic38998.files/Bligh_Ch1_and_Ch3.pdf",
"http://books.google.com.au/books?id=9nwESAIRzxoC&pg=PA90&lpg=PA90&dq=cognitive+load+signalled+lecture&source=bl&ots=C1fcC8v_R_&sig=l2rqbWQG8Job5U2o7pC1j0Qs0dw&hl=en&sa=X&ei=EUBBU5SLLIfUkgXW9IHIAQ&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=cognitive%20load%20signalled%20lecture&f=false"
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[serious] scientists of reddit! what are some good books or sources for a laymens like myself to learn about astro-physics and quantum astro-physics? | stephen hawking's "a brief history of time" would be a good starting point. it is written for a broader audience, like something you would pickup while waiting at the airport. it has a great overview of cosmology, and newer editions include new topics like wormholes. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what happens to electricity after it's been used by a device? | i was wondering. electrons flow from a battery to a device where they're used. what happens to them afterwards though? do they get destroyed by the device in the process? | you received some bad answers here. you have a misconception, i think, that electrons carry energy from the battery to the device. electrons don't "give off all of their energy in that process," as you said. and all of the people that answered you didn't really challenge this assumption. some even agreed with it. however, the way energy really flows from battery to device is through electromagnetic fields outside of the wires. electrons don't carry potential energy from the battery through the wires and then release it at the device. rather, the moving electrons create a magnetic field and the oppositely charged wires that connect the battery to the device create an electric field. this electromagnetic field around the wires (not in the wires) is the electrical energy of the system. this energy flows in one direction, from the battery through the air around the electrical circuit and into the load. [here is a webpage that explains it well.](_url_0_) the author, william beaty, is a redditor. maybe /u/wbeaty can give his opinion. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://amasci.com/elect/poynt/poynt.html"
] | [
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is there no beginning of time with science? | i am an atheist, but my main reasoning isn't scientific for that stance. but i do wonder, does science believe time itself was created with the big bang? or does science see time as something without a beginning or end? i've always seen it without a beginning or end... but not sure if there is an official stance of science on this matter. | the present understanding is a bit muddled. the main camp i'd say believes that time itself is created at the big bang, and that's the beginning of time. the other large camp believes that time exists in a way through the big bang to some "thing" earlier, but the big bang is a wall that is impenetrable to measurement (ie, there's no use to scientifically speak of events before the big bang because the bb *hides* all of the preceding events). smaller camps believe some other things like that we can glean pre-bb info out of the aftermath of the bb. right now our undertstanding doesn't necessarily resolve these questions. we don't know the big bang well enough to know which scenario it is, but i think the canonical/establishment view is that time itself is created at that event. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why did lenard choose aluminum for his window in his cathode experiment rather than other more typical material? | in lenard cathode experiment he used a small “window” made of aluminum to transmit cathode rays into the open air. why aluminum and not quartz, glass, mica or other metals gold, silver, iron, etc.? | i had to consult his nobel prize lecture to get some of the experimental details. it is well worth a read. _url_0_ lenard seems to have worked with electrons with energies around 30 kev (that is, accelerated by 30000 volts). electrons of these energies will be fairly efficiently absorbed by materials on a length scale of around 100-1000 nm, so the challenge is to find window materials that can be formed into thin sheets. metal leaf was the simplest choice at that time. he found that metal leaf of low density (aluminium) was more permeable to cathode rays than that of high density (gold) for the same thickness (page 112). gold can be beaten into thinner leaf than aluminium, but perhaps thin gold leaf lacked the mechanical strength needed for a window between vacuum and air. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1905/lenard-lecture.pdf"
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is a caco3 endoskeleton unique to echinoderms? | hi, i was just wondering if this trait, the endoskeleton made of caco3 is unique to echinoderms or if it is present in other animals. thank you! | other animals have caco3 skeletons, but not in the same way. vertebrate (including human) skeletons contain caco3, although they're also made of calcium phosphate, protein and other components. molluscs shells are made largely of caco3, and some molluscs bear their shells inside the skin, meaning the shell functions more or less as an endoskeleton. the echinoderm skeleton is still an apomorphy, though, meaning it evolved specifically in the lineage that led to echinoderms. so there's no group outside of echinoderms that has that particular endoskeleton or anything much like it. most features of echinoderm anatomy, in fact, are quite unique! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
so i sliced my ring finger washing dishes... why does my middle finger feel like it's sliced too? | the ring finger and the middle finger are served by the same nerve, as phage0070 pointed out to you. you've caused enough damage to the surrounding tissue to swamp the ends of the nerve with information. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are the geometric patterns at the beginning of this simulation? | _url_0_ | it actually looks like something called grid imprinting, which you get when you try to simulate spherical things on square lattices, and not something physical. all the information i can find about grid imprinting is extremely technical, unfortunately: _url_0_ | 8 | [] | [
"http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/archive/PIA17845-640.m4v"
] | [
"http://www.newton.ac.uk/preprints/NI12086.pdf"
] | [
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chance calculation, what are the odds of this? | in belgium we have something similar to the social security number. it's an 11 digit number, the last two being a check digit. example: 72020290081 if you want to calculate if the number is valid, you take the first 9 digits and calculate the modulo 97. example 720202900 % 97 = 16 you then subtract that number from 97, this should be the same as the check digit. example: 97 - 16 = 81. the first example is a valid number. my co-worker was just testing my script that checks numbers and started complaining that it's not working, as she entered some random numbers and the script passed. when i looked up the number she entered, i saw that she actually managed to enter a valid number (45896589878), following the rules above. as i always found math and chance calculation fascinating, and i'd like to calculate the odds of this happening (someone entering 11 random digits from 1-9) and somehow creating a valid number. | 1 in 100. the first 9 digits do not really matter at all, you don't even have to care about what the check sum actually is, just that it is two digits long. the last two digits of your 11 digit number are also chosen at random. so your question becomes. "when i choose a number from 0-99, what is the chance to guess it right" and that is 1:100 | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the depo-provera birth control shot fail? | from what i understand, the depo shot works by keeping you from ovulating and thickening the mucus in your cervix to make it more difficult for sperm to reach the egg. if this is true, how could it fail? does the body "accidentally" release an egg during one of your cycles? or is the shot 100% effective (with perfect use) for some women and not for others? | the "depo-shot" is medroxyprogesterone, a form of progestrin. as you stated this hormone causes ovulation to fail and the mucus of the cervix to thin. your explanations are also correct. hormones do not work perfectly on every person all of the time. there are a large amount of environmental and genetics factors controlling your hormone levels. the body may, under certain specific conditions, fail to react to the shot do to increased levels of other hormones that cause ovulation to occur anyway. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does myocardial infarction cause pain/numbness to the extremities of the left side, however the right side is usually unaffected? | is there a neurological reason for this isolation, or is it simply due to proximity? | the source of somatic sensation (pain) from the parietal pericardium (strictly speaking the middle layer), is carried by somatic afferent fibres in the phrenic nerves. for this reason, 'pain' related to a percardial problem maf be referred to the supraclavicular region of the shoulder ot lateral nech area dermatomes for spinal cord segments c3, c4, and c5. the left phrenic nerve covers a groter part of the pericardium than the right phrenic nerve, and it covers areas that are more succeptiable to pathology that causes pain. edit: drake rl et all. gray's anatomy for students. regional anatmoy; mediastinum. p 183. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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