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what causes penile shrinkage in pools and cold temperatures? | george costanza famously brought the problem of penis shrinkage to the masses in the 90s. from what i've... witnessed... it happens in pools and cold weather. is this some sort of natural defense system in place for when the human body finds itself in these situations? | the testes need to keep a very specific, and small, temperature range to keep sperm alive (right around 35 degrees c). in hot weathers, the scrotal will relax and the testes will drop further from the body to maintain temperature. in instances of cold, they scrotal muscles contract and bring the testes closer to the body to warm them up and keep sperm production at a maximum and sperm viable. penile shrinkage occurs because of two things. (1) a response to the reasons above (2) as our body is exposed to cold temperatures, blood is diverted away from the extremities and to vital organs to keep our core body temp as it is needed. if blood were to stay superficially located in the skin while in the cold, this blood would cool down, and as it circulates would cool your body as well - not wanted. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen if you were to enter a zone completely void of matter? | people say that space is "expanding". by this, i assume that they mean that there is no 'edge' of the universe, so even though there may be certain areas with no matter in them, the area still exists, and may soon be occupied with matter. if my understanding is correct, what would happen if you were to (theoretically) travel faster than the speed of light to reach the (or one of the) "matter-less" zone(s) of the universe. what properties would this area have? | when cosmologists refer to the expansion of space, they're not referring to expansion of all the matter in the universe into a matter-less part of the universe. the analogy is not, for example, a gas cloud expanding in a vacuum. instead, expansion of the universe refers to expansion of space itself (a "metric expansion") , rather than just the matter moving further apart due to bog-standard relative velocity. a more correct analogy is to consider a balloon with points drawn on it's surface. as you blow up the balloon (as space expands), the distance between the points become further apart. the universe is observed to be, on cosmological distances, isotropic and with uniform density. since the entire universe expanded from a single point in the big bang model, this suggests that the entire universe is isotropic and uniform. this means that, even in an infinite universe, there will be no "matter-less zones" as you imagine them, though there may be statistical fluctuations which leave large voids. to expand the balloon analogy.: imagine if, when the balloon was flat, you drew many point on its surface, with a uniform distribution. as you blow up the balloon, the points you drew will always be uniformly distributed, even though they're getting further apart. there will be no zones on the balloon's surface which the points you drew will expand into. a useful wikipedia article: _url_0_ | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_expansion_of_space"
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can invertebrates be melanistic, albino, leucistic, etc.? | yes! shamelessly taken from wikipedia: albinism in molluscs has been recognized to be a hereditary phenomenon at least since 1900.[55] albinism in molluscs can exist to a variable degree. sometimes an individual snail has a normally pigmented body, but the shell is completely without the normal pigmentation because of a defect in the cells of the mantle. shells of certain mollusc species can be translucent when they lack the normal pigmentation.[56] **in insects** the neurohormone [his7]-corazonin induces darkening of the cuticle of locusta migratoria. the okinawa strain of this species is deficient in [his7]-corazonin and is albino. one of the typical features of locusta migratoria ia that they are gregarious locusts. however, the albino strain shows more solitarious behaviour.[57] the yellow mutation in fruit flies is a mutation causing a congenital lack of normal pigment; it is a similar phenomenon to albinism in other organisms.[58] **in echinoderms** the japanese sea cucumber (apostichopus japonicus) is an echinoderm that is caught in the wild or cultivated for food. normal japanese sea cucumbers start to develop pigmentation when they are about 1 cm long. the upper side becomes a dull, yellowish -brown to maroon and the underside a light brown. the body walls of adult, albino japanese sea cucumbers contain only 0.24% melanin compared to 3.12% in normal adults. the difference in melanin content becomes visually apparent at 60 days of age. the epidermis is thinner in the albinos and contains fewer melanocytes. albino individuals are similar to normal individuals in growth rate, digestion rate and fertility.[59] astaxanthin is the main carotenoid in marine crustaceans (and fish). it has been shown that adding astaxanthin to the feed can improve the skin and muscle colour of marine organisms and thereby increase their commercial and ornamental value.[59] **in arachnids** "depigmented" arthropods have been found, usually in cave populations.[60] "albino" individuals of normally red citrus red mites (panonychus citri) occasionally appear in laboratory colonies, however, these still contain green and yellow pigments. this albinism does not affect mortality.[61] | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if electricity always tries to find the shortest path, why does this jacob's ladder drift upwards? | from /r/woahdude -- can anyone explain what's going on here? _url_0_ | electricity does **not** always try to find the shortest path. electricity finds all available paths, and the ones with the lowest resistance get more* current. * up to the limit created by having available charge carriers. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PXiOQCRiSp0"
] | [] | [
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fly in a bottle? | me and a friend from university were talking about this. lets say there is a fly stuck in a closed bottle. the fly has unlimited strength, strong as superman, for example. would the fly be able to lift the bottle and fly with it? what would happen if the fly started pushing on top of the bottle? assuming the top can't break. | this is equivalent to attempting to lift yourself up off the ground by pulling on your feet. newton's third law: every action has an equal and opposite reaction. so no matter how much upward force the fly applies to the bottle, it's applying an equal force downward as well. so no, they fly can't lift the bottle. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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fmris: what exactly is conjunctional analysis? | i am reading a paper called "brain response to putative pheromones in homosexual men" and i came across some [figures](_url_0_) using conjunctional analysis and got a little confused. first time using or even seeing this type of data honestly. so in this figure, they are comparing brain activity in homosexual men, heterosexual men, and heterosexual women in response to an androgen or estrogen based pheromone and oo is the ordinary odor used as a control. what i don't get is how can they compare hom+hew with just one brain slice? are they superimposing separate images? if so, how can they tell which area being lit belongs to which subject category? wouldn't it be simpler to just keep the images separate? edit: found the answer. basically conjunctional analysis looks at two different subjects and lights up parts of the brain that is activated in both subjects so in the figure, it shows us where parts of the brain lights up in both gay and straight men/women when they are introduced to either the androgen pheromone or the estrogen pheromone. | this paper should help [[1]](_url_0_). but to give you an idea of it, it's basically a form of statistical analysis used to test if one area of the brain is activated by two different tasks (information that would normally be washed out when using regular subtraction logic). [1] price cj & friston kj. (1997) cognitive conjunction: a new approach to brain activation experiments. neuroimage, (5)4, 261–270. doi:_url_1_, | 2 | [] | [
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can you calculate the different velocities of an object traveling in a circular path? | i am currently learning about centripetal force in my physics class, and it reminded me of [this comic](_url_0_), which lead me to my question. if you know certain variables such as the velocity of the object, size, etc., is it possible to calculate the velocity of different points of the object? | the absolute value of the velocity of a point on a rotating plane increases linearly with the distance to the axis. | 3 | [] | [
"http://img.gawkerassets.com/img/187qrwceew3p2jpg/original.jpg"
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what really causes hematite stones to crack or break? | when googling the question, all that comes up is the new age answer, "that it absorbs negativity." what really causes hematite to break after sitting around for a few years? | greetings /u/geotagger. i feel your pain for how the new-agey garbage is clogging up the interwebs when it comes to crystal and mineralogy related searches. however, a bit more information will be required to provide a meaningfull answer to your question. what form of hematite, exactly, are you speaking about and where is it from? hematite is an extremely common mineral which forms in a wide variety of settings. differently sourced rocks and minerals have different properties which are mostly inherited from their history and setting. this info would be essential to undestand what "cracking" or "breaking" you are talking about. the other thing we'd need to know is what kind of storage conditions you are talking about. finally a description of the cracking or breakage might also be relevant. that being said, when it comes to rock questions, there is no substitute to access to the specimen. when that can't happen photos are an acceptable (albeit inferior) substitute. you might also want to consider posting this question to /r/geology. just going off on a limb and without that key info, many forms of hematite consist of fine-grained powdery material laced with clays and hydroxydes. these are often inherently mechanically unstable and very fragile, sometimes described as "pulverulent". sometimes the clays mixed in those types of specimens are subject to swelling when exposed to moisture as some clays will remobilise ions between the layers of their lattice as they abserb water (i can't speak as to what happens should they presumably absorb "negativity" ... sigh...), causing the specimen to fall apart on its own. some other hematite deposits from older deposits are much better lithified, but have long deformation histories which may have imparted some kind of pervasive structural fabric (shistosity, cleavage, parting, whatevs...) and those structural weaknesses can cause mechanical failure through very little manipulation. even the coarser grained macrocrystalline forms of specular hematite aren't averse to crumbling in a pile of crysts, especially if weathering prior to collection caused them to undergo a few freezing-thawing cycles after being soaked. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is an overall more erosive force out of glaciers and rivers and why? | i understand there are alot of different variables about this but i'm wondering if we have sufficient evidence for one being more effective then the other at erosion. | there's a long-standing, general idea that glaciers are more effective, e.g. [the glacial buzzsaw hypothesis](_url_0_), but quantitative comparisons between measures of fluvial (i.e. river) and glacial erosion suggest that (1) on average they are pretty similar in terms of rates, (2) there may be more variability in glacial erosion rates as the areas occupied by glaciers vary with the climate (i.e. rates of glacial erosion decrease when there are fewer glaciers), and (3) the ultimate control on erosion rate is the rate of rock uplift, not the dominant erosion process, e.g. [this paper](_url_1_). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_buzzsaw",
"http://gis.ess.washington.edu/grg/publications/pdfs/Koppes.pdf",
"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2010JF001751",
"http://burbank.faculty.geol.ucsb.edu/Site/Publications_files/Oskin%20and%20Burbank,%202005,%20Alpine%20landscape%20evolution%20dominated%20by%20cirque%20retreat.pdf"
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so we did this in my physics class and i don't understand why it worked | we attached a cord to the cement at the bottom of a light pole, and hooked the other end to the back of my teacher's car. my teacher got several students to try and pull on the cord parallel to the ground and get the car to move. it didn't. then he took one student and had them grab the cord and pull straight upwards (away from the ground), and lo and behold the car moved very easily. the car was in neutral the entire time. why was it so much easier to move when pulling straight away from the ground as opposed to pulling straight away from the car? | it's essentially leverage. the students pulling on the car horizontally had to pull the rope one inch to make the car move one inch, but the student pushing the rope up had to move the rope further than an inch to make the car move one inch (exactly how far depends on the length of the rope). look up an explanation of levers to understand why the difference in distances the students have to move the rope makes a difference in how much force is applied to the car. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly is, what i would call, "leg bobbing"? | so, it's kind of hard to explain, but i'm pretty sure most people have done it, and probably still do it. basically, you're sitting in a chair, and all of a sudden you'll just start bobbing your leg. usually it's toe on the ground, heel up, and you just start bobbing your leg up and down. what is the reason or cause for this? | are we talking about a stereotyped movement that is *consciously controlled*? if that's the case, then it is very commonly used as a method of self-stimulation. self-stimulatory behaviors are often seen (to a much, much worse degree than you're describing) in children with autism. however, what you're describing could just be indicating that the person is bored, or not getting as much stimulation as their used to. as long as (once the person is made aware of it) they can completely cease the behavior of their own volition, it's definitely normal. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are we learning by going to mars again? | we had those other two rovers there for years. what are we trying to learn that we haven't already found out? why not send a rover to a different planet this time? | mars is an entire planet, with land area about equal to that of earth. if we had geologists study only a few sites on earth, would they know all that there is to know about geology? no, every new site they visit would potentially teach them something new. also, this rover is much larger and more capable than the previous ones we've sent. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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tidal bores | what causes large tidal bores? i understand that this phenomena is distinct from tsunamis but i haven't been able to find a good explanation. are different tidal bores in different regions caused by different circumstances? | tidal bores are created by tide waves rushing upstream and are essentially caused by two main factors; 1) the area in questions has a low-lying coastal river and 2) the area has a large tidal range. tidal bores occur in about 100 rivers around the world, with three of the better known (people actually go watch them for fun) bores are the qiantang bore in china, the pororoca in the amazon river, and the severn bore in england (people even surf this one). they can get a max of about 8 meters high. and to answer the last part of your question, i believe tidal bores around the world are all caused by the same factors i listed above. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can't something like a cold have a positive effect? | why is it that a sickness only has negative symptoms such as a sore feeling or runny nose? why can't there be a "sickness" that makes you feel better than normal (i.e. stronger or more energetic)? | this is a borderline philosophical question. when a virus enters your body, the virus' main "goal" so to speak is to replicate itself. the replication of the virus is not beneficial to you because it is using your resources to make copies of itself, thus taking away from your own cells. because of this, your body mounts an immune response to get rid of the virus, which ultimately causes the symptoms of your illness. if a virus had a positive effect on the organism, there would likely be a synergistic effect or the virus would become a part of our genome. individuals who benefited from having the virus that made you stronger would be selected for in a population. your question really is "why don't pathogens have synergistic effects on organisms" and the simple answer is that this is hard to find in nature, but could potentially occur. look up the theory behind mitochondria and chloroplasts and extend that to "a bacteria invading a host" and i think you will understand the answer to your question. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does one interpret specific impulse? | i was just wondering how exactly i should think about specific impulse when it comes to rockets. i know it's measured in seconds, and it has something to do with the time it takes to burn a specific amount of propellant (or something of that nature), but whenever i see a value given for specific impulse i don't know what to make of it. how should i interpret this? | multiply it by g, then you get the exhaust velocity. that is much less confusing because it is independent of earth. isp is used for historic reasons. if you want to hover with a rocket on earth, then isp is the decay constant of your rocket mass - after this time the rocket has 1/e of its original mass. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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concerning the simultaneity paradox of relativity in the "train and lightning" example - suppose the train has batteries in front and back of the train that dictate if it stops or goes if struck by lightning. does the train stop running? clarification in post. | [here](_url_0_) is a video of the simultaneity paradox i am referencing. someone standing still on a platform while watching a train pass by at close to *c* sees and concludes that two bolts of lightning strike the front and back of the train at the same time. due to the fact that an observer inside the train perceives light's speed as constant regardless of direction of travel, she sees and concludes that the bolt of lightning hit the front of the train before the back of it. the order of events are different to both observers, yet both are correct for their respecitve reference frames. **so here is my thought experiment. suppose there is a battery at the front and rear of the train. if the front battery is struck, the train keeps going (even if both are struck at the same time). if the rear battery is struck, the train stops.** okay, so the observer standing still on the platform sees two bolts of lightning hit both batteries on the train. since the front battery was hit, and this battery keeps the train going when struck with a bolt, the train keeps running regardless of the fact that the rear battery was struck. however, an observer inside the moving train perceives the front battery being hit first, and then the rear battery being hit second. the front battery gets struck, so the train keeps running. but then the rear battery was hit *alone*, so the train must stop. **so what happens when lighting strikes both batteries - does the train stop or not? how does each person perceive this? how do we reconcile this?** | the train ~~stops~~ continues. we reconcile this by the fact that we know how to convert between reference frames. in relativity, there are a lot of things which are "relative" (thus, the name). things which are simultaneous in one frame may not be in another. things which take place in the same place in one frame may take place in different places in another. but one thing remains the same: if two things take place at the same place and same time, then they will take place at the same place and time in all frames. thus, there is only a single reality. in your thought experiment, the problem lies in the statement "even if both are struck at the same time" isn't a complete thought when discussing relativity. you must say "even if both are struck at the same time *in the frame of the train.* (or i guess you could device a train where something happens if two things happen at the same time in some other frame, but the most likely thing you mean is in the frame of the train.) once you add in the necessary terminology, the question becomes obvious. it gives people fits sometime because they think "there is some 'real' time, or 'universal' time, and we're just trying to figure something out based on that time." but there is no 'universal' time, every object in the universe has its own time, and mine is just as good as yours, and yours is just as valid as the cosmic background radiation's (which is normally the time frame we refer to when we talk about "the age of the universe.") | 10 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wteiuxyqtoM"
] | [
"https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/169631/what-spacelike-timelike-and-lightlike-really-mean"
] | [
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what is the evolutionary advantage of desensitization? | by desensitization, i mean the down-regulation of receptors to repeated stimuli. is there an advantage to such phenomenon? | our sensory systems are built to detect change in the environment. if there is some continuous signal that is irrelevant, we want to ignore it and prioritize processing on things that might affect us (e.g. threats, targets etc.). the classic example is that soon after putting on your clothes, you stop feeling them. if you focus, you can again for a bit, but it's not an important sensation that we want to be experiencing all the time. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is everything, at the most basic level, made up of same thing? | if you could call all strings in string theory "the same thing", then string theory would say yes. the standard model identifies a large family of fundamental building block particles, so it would say no. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what color on the black background would be the fastest to process with our brain? | hello there. i'm not very good at physics and biology and cogsci, but i also can't figure out how to google for that kind of stuff. so the question: by looking at a black square, what color a shape that will appear inside needs to be so we can distinguish the shape and the position the fastest? by trying it out myself, i found blue-green (mint, cyan) colors to be the easiest to distinguish, but i can't tell for sure. opinions? | the answer, basically, is that patterns with higher luminance contrast are easier to see. the reason why is complicated, and i can just give an introduction: light patterns are encoded into 3 basic channels by the retina: light vs dark, red vs green, and blue vs yellow. these are based on responses from the three cone types, l, m, and s ("red", "green", and "blue"). simplifying a bit: let's say a cone can be on or off. the light/dark channel is basically encoding (l+m) on vs (l+m) off (interestingly, the s cone is mostly left out of this computation); the red/green channel is encoding (l) on vs (m) on; and the blue/yellow channel is encoding (s) on vs (l+m) on. the red/green and blue/yellow channels encode what we call "color contrast": they subserve your ability to see colors, but they aren't very good at transmitting fine details about edges, motion, texture, etc. for these kinds of details you rely on "luminance contrast", which is transmitted by the light/dark channel. (this then leads into discussion about parvocellular and magnocellular visual systems..) if you find cyan to be easy to see against a black background, that's because of the m-cone contribution. blue against a black background mostly stimulates the s cones, which is why blue text on black background is notoriously hard to read. conversely, blue on a white background is easy to read, because it's encoded as "dark" by the luminance contrast channel. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is shown inside this glass (translucent) frog? | [here](_url_0_) is the picture of the frog in question. as you can see, there are white circles, green circles, and some beige circles mixed in. does anyone have any idea as to what these are? i assume the white circles are eggs, but i'm not sure. i don't know about the rest. | the white is definitely its lungs. the green is its intestines. the red swirles are the top part of the heart, most likely the aortic arch. | 6 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/Txu5WUt.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how do activity bracelets (e.g. fitbit, jawbone up, etc.) recognize which stage of sleep you are in? | how does the software give an accurate reading of sleep stages without analyzing heart rate, body temperature, or brain activity? | these are based off of a methodology called actigraphy. this is a methodology with a pretty long history. basically, it uses an accelerometer to detect movement and then uses algorithms to *infer* sleep or wakefulness. research-grade analytic software allows setting different sensitivity thresholds, but basically you want to see little/no movement (depending on just how sensitive the accelerometer is) for x minutes before you infer that this period of stillness is sleep, then y number of movements/consecutive minutes with movement before you infer that you are entering a period of wakefulness. it's all indirect, and it's far from perfect, but it's certainly better than nothing. plenty of studies have compared actigraphy to standard sleep studies, which infer sleep based on brain activity, eye movements, and muscle activity. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would a kitchen match work normally on a dramatically different scale? | let's say 1/100, 1/10, 10, or 100 times its normal size. i have wondered this for years. | most likely not on the larger scales due to the decreased surface area to volume ratio of the ignition material and match stick. the ignition material would burn the surface rapidly but not cause the stick to completely combust like seen in the normal size. on the smaller scale the reaction would likely take place much more quickly due to the much larger surface area to volume ratio. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does it take energy to keep things in the air? | it makes sense that an object lying on a table has force pushing up and force pushing down, but requires no energy to maintain its position. but an object in the air is maintaining its potential energy but consuming energy to keep it aloft. why is this? how can energy be used to keep the object up but not change the potential or kinetic energy of the object? i know the energy is going into moving the air, but something doesn't sit right about a book not using energy but a helicopter does. thanks in advance! | newton's 2nd law tells us that if the net force acting on an object is non-zero, then that object will accelerate. in the case of a book on a table, the gravitation force is pushing down, an electromagnetic force is pushing up, and the net force is zero. now, if you remove the table, the net force is non-zero, because only the gravitational force is acting on the book. therefore the book will accelerate unless some other force is supplied. now, it is indeed true that some ways of supplying the necessary force to oppose gravity "costs energy,". but not all are. of course we already mentioned the case of a table. but there are other examples. a helium-filled balloon. a magnet. the point between the earth and the moon where the gravitational force from each cancels out. the point is that there is no special reason that energy must be supplied in order to keep something aloft. there simply need to be other forces at work besides the one pulling the book down. in some cases that opposing force comes from electromagnetism, in other cases gravity itself, or in other cases by the use of a propellant, which costs energy. in the case of a propellant, newton's 3rd law is being exploited. the actual force at work is generally electromagnetic. but a consequence of that force is that it acts equally on the propellant and on the rocket, so energy is given to the propellant that escapes. if the propellant just ends up hitting the earth, then that energy is given back to the earth-rocket system, which stays still. but if the propellant doesn't hit the earth, then that energy has gone into propelling not just the rocket, but the entire earth-rocket system (while the rocket may not move relative to the earth if it is just hovering, the earth will be gravitationally attracted to the rocket and will "follow" it). the rule used to figure all of this out about the rocket is conservation of momentum, which is a consequence of newton's 3rd law. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to have a "personal processing unit" to carry around and help our devices process information? | hey scientists of reddit, i've been wondering this question for a while now and i just wanted to know if anybody has any insight on this. some people's phones are a bit out of date and using a personal processor would help out with the processing power needed to keep up with apps that demand a lot more power to process. this could lead to other awesome applications for this technology. i've been fiddling with the idea that the processor could process the information and pass the already processed information through bluetooth to other devices. i'm not a computer expert and my expertise lies in software, so i thought maybe the scientists of reddit could shine some light on this idea. thanks for reading :) | the idea isn't ridiculous but... quite a lot of effort goes into keeping up with a processor - the memory and interface components are tied directly into the processor with dedicated high-bandwidth channels. while a second processor can be useful in some circumstances, the data bandwidth between processors (and/or peripherals) will frequently be the limiting factor. this is especially true for graphic displays. the next problem is maintaining compatibility. while there are a few standards for data - instructing another processor to do some work can be mildly tricky when that other processor is different to the first one. there are ways around this (virtual machines) and code prepared for multiple targets - but it involves extra work compared with running software on a single, known platform. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are airplane wings supposed to have some give? | i noticed that fighter jets seems to have very rigid wings that likely do not bend at all, even at high speeds. commerical airlines seem to have a lot more slack. is there any reason to this? how should an ideal airplane wing be? is there such thing? | firstly, fighter jets have very short wings (low aspect ratio) compared to airliners, so all else being equal they will deflect less. airline wings are very flexible - [see this bending test of a 787.](_url_0_) really crazy flexible. one reason is that this makes flying through turbulence much more comfortable -- the flexible wings act as shock absorbers resulting in a smoother ride in the fuselage. helicopter blades work the same way: you *could* make very stiff blades, but it'd make for a very jerky ride. but stiffness is certainly desirable in a fighter wing where fast maneuvers are paramount. think of the difference between a luxury car with very soft suspension compared to a sports car with a very stiff suspension. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ofhc5dDiCE"
] | [
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how is it known that long lived radionuclides are not stable? | for example, it has been known for awhile now that bi-209 is not stable but has a half life about 4x longer than the age of the universe. similarly, checking the wiki's list of element isotopes has every seemingly stable isotope listed as "observationally stable" from holmium and above, with a little note that half lives may be in the zettayear range. so how can we predict that elements like gold, platinum, and tungsten are suspected to have no stable isotopes? | it's important to keep in mind that radioactive decay is stochastic; while overall there is a clear pattern of behaviour that we can predict, it's random for an individual nucleus. so even if an isotope has a half-life of 60 billion years, it doesn't necessarily take 60 billion years for an individual nucleus to decay, it could decay in a second or a year or 120 billion years, etc. that this means is that a radioactive sample, regardless of its half-life, always has some nuclei decaying, and therefore has an observeable nuclear *activity* (decays per second). this activity decreases over time as well, as more of the original isotopes decay (in the simple case of a radioactive material decaying to a "stable" one). the change in activity follows fairly simple mathematical behaviour, so by measuring the activity over time, you can calculate the half-life of that particular isotope. so if you're trying to measure the activity of a material, and you *don't* measure any over a long time, this gives you a minimum bound on that material's half-life (or you could call it "observationally stable"). you can't say for sure whether or not it's *stable* based on observation but it can give you an indication. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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writing some science fiction here so... | would it be possible to amplify jupiter's magnetic field to a point where it's van allen radiation belt lies beyond it's moons ? | io, being the nearest moon, is approximately r = 421 megameters away from jupiter. the current magnetosphere (the magnetic field that makes up earth's van-allen-belt) has a dipole moment m of 1.53 × 10^20 t·m^3. so, according to the formula for the magnitude (b(r) = m/(4*pi*r^3) ), the field strength in tesla at io is circa 0.16µt. the earth's field is 60µt. if you look at the formula, you realize that these 0.16µt are directly proportional to the energy that is put into the field. that means, you'd have to enhance the rotation of jupiter (which seems to be the source of the energy field). all other variables cannot be changed by any means, so you'd have to multiply the energy of the rotation by 375. the rotation energy is 1/2 * i * o^2, where i is the inertia of the object and o is the angular speed. therefore, jupiter had to be sped up a bit more than 19 times. then you'd have io. farther moons would require even more speed-up. tl;dr: yes. make it so that a day on jupiter is half an hour. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain how this pattern of light was reflected onto my ceiling? | a few months ago i woke up to [this pattern of light](_url_2_) on my ceiling. when i opened the curtains and looked outside i saw [this.](_url_0_) as you can see, the light on my ceiling is a sort of reflection(?) of what is outside the window. however, where the "reflection" begins on the ceiling wouldn't quite be in direct view of the things that are being reflected (for example, if you looked from the bottom of one of the blue posts through the window you would only see the back of the curtain, not the ceiling). [here are some photos of the curtain](_url_1_) and [here is a photo from outside](_url_3_)(sorry about the poor quality, it's dark outside but i'm too curious to wait until tomorrow to ask) to explain what i mean. this phenomenon happened every day for a week or two, but i haven't noticed it at all for the past couple of months (although i haven't been looking for it). can someone explain to me what exactly is happening to make this phenomenon occur? | what you have there is akin to a [camera obscura.](_url_0_) basically the small gap at the top of your curtains (possibly in combination with window reflections/sun angle or something else) is acting as a photographic aperture, much like a pinhole camera. it looks all stretched out due to the angle of the ceiling. if you can hold a piece of paper in the light, perpendicular to the incoming rays, you should be able to get a much clearer image of the outside scene. | 21 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/SUCyn",
"http://imgur.com/a/6EJwY",
"http://imgur.com/4MbbY",
"http://imgur.com/9hobV"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura"
] | [
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] |
if i drop a live wire in the tub with me, i'm going to get shocked. if i'm in the ocean and someone drops a live wire in miles away, will i get shocked? | ie: if i drop a toaster in the tub with me that is plugged in, i'm going to get electrocuted. if you drop a toaster in the ocean next to me will we be shocked? how badly? what if you're 1 mile away? 10? 50? 1,000s? | i am on mobile so it's a pain in the ass to include reference links. i can add some later on if requested. the resistivity of sea water is about 3 orders of magnitude lower than the bulk resistivity of a human body. the effective resistance between the ocean and ground would basically be zero compared to human + ocean to ground. you can roughly model the system as two parallel resistors, you and the ocean. since there is a finite potential difference (voltage) between the lightning strike and the ocean surface, almost no potential would drop across your body, meaning there should be no current passing through you and you should not experience a shock. would i swim in the ocean during a lightning storm? probably not, but you should be fairly safe. an exact calculation may be quite tricky. assuming an average lightning strike carries 30 ka of current, and that sea water has a resistivity of 0.2 ohm meters, one could use the effective resistivity of a human body to calculate the radial distance from a lightning strike needed to ensure less than a lethal dose of current. i found a journal article about human conductivity but i'm not at work so i'm pay walled at the moment. maybe someone else can give it a shot? if i have time tomorrow i may try. seems interesting. my guess is less than 100 feet. _url_2_. _url_0_ edit: can't fall asleep for some reason so i did a calculation in my head that gives about 7 meters for a safe distance assuming 30 volts kills a wet human. might be super wrong, i'll write it out in the morning. i basically used conservation of charge from a 30 ka source to get potential as a function of radial distance from the strike assuming spherical symmetry of the current. edit 2: i quickly wrote up my "solution" this morning, which you can see [here](_url_1_)^\* . this may be a completely horseshit approach that gives a totally wrong answer, but such is life. i assume the lightning strike injects a constant current into the ocean, which then spreads radially away with spherical symmetry so that each hemisphere some distance *r* from the lightning strike must also have this much current passing through it. from the relationship between current density and electric field, i get an expression for the electric field as a function of *r* that i integrate to get a potential. i assume that a human body in the ocean does not have any effect on the lines of equipotential which is perhaps the worst assumption in the whole approach. then i assume that if you insert a human some distance *r* away from the lightning strike, the front of his or her torso will be at a potential v(r) and the back will be at a potential v(r+d) where d is the width of the torso. you can solve for *r* such that v(r)-v(r+d) ~ v_lethal where v_lethal is the voltage needed to kill you. \*: i accidentally dropped d near the end but i added it in by the magic of technology and computers. the last line reads r^2 + rd on the left hand side. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/027263401752246199",
"http://imgur.com/KC5Nqnu",
"http://www.aharfield.co.uk/lightning-protection-services/about-lightning"
] | [
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what is coefficient of friction on velcro? | learning about the effects of friction between one object and another. i would like to know what the approximate static and kinetic friction between a marble and a strip of velcro would be. note that its the soft part of velcro, not the hooks. also it is nylon velcro, and i do understand that there is very little information given. the marble is an average glass marble. the information doesn't have to be super accurate, just ballpark. | wouldn't the better question be: "how would i calculate *coefficient of friction* on velcro? or, perhaps, if you feel more physically inclined, "how would i *measure* coefficient of friction on velcro"? in this way, we encourage a reader to perform an experiment. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how was the compton effect measured? | to my understanding the compton effect is when a singular photon collides with singular electron the electron will gain kinetic energy and the wavelength of light will decrease such that both energy and momentum are conserved. but how was this actually measured? since you can't fire a single photon at a single electron right? | well yes, we can create gamma ray sources weak enough that you detect one at a time. but anyway, there’s no need to do that to observe the compton effect. you can place a scintillator detector near a gamma source, and measure the gamma ray energies. if you make a histogram of the results, you can see im the different regions of the spectrum where you have compton scattering, the photoelectric effect, and pair production (if the gamma energy is above twice the electron rest energy). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could human veins and arteries all be replaced with tubes of a similar texture? | if your question means to ask if some portions of veins and arteries can be replaced by tubes, it is most likely a yes. we have the ability to do this now in some capacity and the science is growing. this is the area of synthetic blood vessels and more broadly [tissue engineering](_url_0_). if your question is to ask if all veins and arteries could be swapped out for just tubes, then i'd put my weight behind an answer of no. assuming you could get around engineering issues like wear and tear, immunogenicity, expansion/contraction, clotting issues and implantation difficulties, blood vessels are more than just tubes. vessels are metabolically active and play a significant part of many physiological processes. for some quick examples, cells that compose blood vessels have receptors on their surface that interact with things like vasoactive molecules (allowing vessels to constrict or dilate in response to signals) and cells of the immune systems. so any individual lacking the ability to take advantage of normal blood vessel process probably shouldn't be expected to be physiologically normal, even if they could survive. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_engineering"
] | [
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|
why do sport/track records improve steadily over time? the record for the 100m men's was 10.6s back in 1912 a whole second short of usain's 9.58s. | are there any concrete scientific findings that reveal what factors contribute the most to this trend? i was thinking it could possibly be due to a combination of better nutrition, better instrumentation for more precise times/measurements, better equipment/training methods, and enhancement drugs. is there a theoretical limit to what humans can achieve without artificial enhancements? | because improvement is the only direction in which change is ever recorded. people are also fatter than ever before and would ostensibly also break the record in the *slowest* time 100 meters gets run, but we don't record that information now do we? only a small proportion of humans are unusually capable of any given thing, for example, sprinting quickly. why do more populous countries as a general trend win more olympic gold medals? because all other things being equal, a country with 300 million people produces on average a hundred times more naturally gifted athletes than a country with 3 million people. now let's take function f(x) to equal the number of human beings that have ever lived by time x. humans procreate all the time, so f(x) grows steadily as x increases. note that f(x) is the number of people who have *ever* lived, not the number of people currently living at x, since we hold people's records even after they die. now, as f(x) increases, the population of exceptionally gifted athletes in that group also increases. in proportion to what? in proportion to x. therefore: a later date has a larger pool of humans to draw on for records than an earlier date. yeah, *c*. but seriously what do you consider an artificial enhancement? a lot of records are based on doping, i'm not specifically calling out sprinting but what exactly is artificial? if two sprinters decide to have children specifically because they want to see if their kids have superpotential, then that's technically breeding. but as long as we're evolving as species there's nothing to say we can't run as fast as cheetahs one day. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
i watched a video recently of a gun being fired underwater and there was what seemed like a tunnel of air behind the bullet and i was wondering if anyone could explain to me what was going on? | _url_0_ i thought that maybe it was a vacuum? | this is called supercavitation and you can read about it [here](_url_0_). the linked article is probably more thorough than what i could write here. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=502KryEguA0"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercavitation"
] | [
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how conscious of their fate being a part of an experiment and their rights were the participants of stanford prison experiment? | i decided to read on some more about the stanford prison experiment and one thing stroke me as odd but i couldn't find the information on it. the participants of the stanford experiment volunteered for it so why bother with the fake arresting at home of each participant and the help of the local police? i mean: weren't the participants informed that what they're currently experiencing is just the experiment they volunteered for? or did they find out after it was cancelled and for the whole six days they thought they really were dealing with an actual prison? if so, however, how could they have been held captive against they will, with a blessing of the local police? isn't it an obvious violation of the constitutional right? on the other hand, what about the ones playing the roles of the guards? while making the "arrested" believe they were just wrongly accused and are in a real prison would be easy, the guards obviously knew it was all a masquerade. why use any aggression or be obedient to zimbardo commanding you to do anything if you can just say "okay, i've got enough of this" when you're no longer comfortable? also, why look at the misery of the "prisoners" if you can just tell the prisoners it's all fake and to hell with the experiment? | it wasn't to make them believe it was real so much as to make it feel more real. they knew it was an experiment and that being arrested was part of it, but it adds to the feeling that they aren't there by choice. if they'd walked in of their own free will the jail would have felt less oppressive. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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"group-think" why do large groups of people make decisions or advocate ideas that are not in their long-term interest and even contradict their intentions? | this is a difficult question, so i'll provide examples: 1) the queensland (australia) state election. voters kicked out a centre-left government for selling some state assets, but voted in a party whose reason for existing is to sell state assets and minimise government. the opposition is now just 7 members in parliament. (this is the main reason i am asking). 2) the legalization of marijuana. while people are pushing for this, and the amount of law-enforcement money that would be saved, it may ultimately have a negative impact on the health of citizens similar to (although, potentially less than) tobacco. 3) people attacking policies that allow governments to invade privacy, but supporting companies (google, facebook, apple) that invade privacy on a much deeper level (the porn you watch, when, where and what you watch it on... where you shop, what you buy, what news you read, etc.). in some cases, google will oppose the legislation, while engaging in the same behaviour for commercial gain. i'm interested to know the social mechanism, or even what is going on in the individual brain that causes people to make decisions or support an idea that they otherwise might not if it were an individual decision that only affected themselves - particularly those examples where intentions and actions are contradictory. *edit: i'm not taking an opinion on any of these examples, simply observing reactions and trying to understand why. | i'm not a social psychologist, nor anyone even close to qualified to offer any concrete reflections... however you're welcome to take this as musings on the topic as i have considered such scenarios many times. i think that it boils down to five things: 1) ignorance - if the individuals that make up a collective have a sub-critical collective awareness of the specifics of an issue they will not act on it appropriately 2) communication - while the issues may have sufficient illumination in the minds of some, it isn't necessarily possible to get that information to the people that need to know for anything to change 3) coupling of sacrifice and convenience - google invades your privacy, but the world as we know it wouldn't function without it, and the necessary cost of such tailor-made information networks is a certain amount of sacrifice on the part of the individual to digitize their identity 4) cost - there is a great deal of cost associated with changing an existing system; even if the eventual restructuring leads to something 'better', the human instinct for self-preservation and preserving the status quo as a means of ensuring personal security in an uncertain world will make wholesale changes of society difficult and rare 5) corruption - those who benefit from a change may not be those who have the power to effect it; there's a great deal of earning and employment associated with the drug war, and legalization of weed would incur collatoral costs in the police force - the distribution of benefit wouldn't necessarily line up with the distribution of cost there will be cases where the apparent contradiction in motive and action will have nothing to do with any of these, but could be because of a different factor that guides people's actions (not that i know anything about austrailian politics, but hypothetically the voters might not have had the sale of state assets as the defining priority). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to land-bound arthopoda during winter? | the simple answer is some form of hibernation. some will burrow into the ground or into trees for protection from the elements as they wait for warmer weather. some will over-winter as eggs with no adults surviving and a new generation hatching in the spring. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what geological/mechanical forces are represented in this perfect road split? | _url_0_ i'm curious why it does this. a civil engineer weighed in at the original thread and we still didn't really reach a conclusion. is it just coincidence that the split is so perfect so far down? is the image a really good fake? (doesn't seem likely, as i have seen a lot of shops in my time). | it appears to me that this is the result of shearing perhaps. i would like you to take note of where in the foreground, the very bottom of the picture, where the left side appears to buckle up higher than the right side. i would also like to say that it is most likely not so perfect a split as this particular angle and the apparent structural integrity of the asphalt would imply. the only truly helpful thing i can do is confirm that it is not a photoshop job. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/D2R2S.jpg"
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how exactly is "turbulence" one of the last unsolved problems in classic physics, and how is it related to the navier-stokes equations? | i have read that feynman said that turbulent flow was "the most important problem still left in classical physics". in what sense it is a "problem"? does he mean that we cannot predict turbulence exactly in every situation, and therefore it is considered "unsolved"? what would it mean for the problem of turbulence to be solved, that we can describe it perfectly mathematically? or that we can predict the exact patterns of turbulence when any force of any kind is applied to any fluid? also, how does this relate to the idea of "smooth solutions" to the naver stokes equations? | it’s a “problem” because the terms responsible for turbulence in the fluid equation of motion are nonlinear, and nonlinear dynamical systems are generally much harder to solve than linear ones. turbulent flows are chaotic, so even though the system is deterministic, we can’t predict its behavior in practice. | 29 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how is temperate transferred through a vacuum in a furnace? | i have recently been addicted to reading up on metallurgy, which lead me to titanium casting. this must be done in a vacuum, or rather it must be done away from oxygen. apparently it is common for argon to be used to displace the natural air in a kiln at a pressure of .1 torr(99.99% vacuum). with such an exceptionally low amount of particles to transfer energy, how is the heat radiating from the coils transferred to the metal in the crucible of the furnace. edit: i have just realized my typo in the title. should be temperature, | the crucible is heated through induction, not via radiated heat transfer. the coils generate big alternating magnetic fields, which induce magnetic fields in the crucible and/or metal to be melted. these magnetic fields induce currents which generate heat. its basically a big hall effect/induction heater. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is it possible to pick 6 colors with the most amount of contrast between them? | not sure if this is in the right sub, or if it's the right flair. shout-out to /r/cubers! i'm asking this because i solve rubik's cubes and the like as a hobby. a common thing to do is to swap out the stickers on your cubes to increase the contrast between them so that color recognition is easier. my question is, is there a set of 6 colors that is optimally contrasted from one another? | if you have normal color vision (i.e. you are not colorblind), then the most [unique hues are red, green, blue, and yellow] (_url_0_) - these colors serve as something like anchor points for all the other colors you see (all those other colors seem somehow related to one of the unique hues). red and green are as different as two colors can be, except for yellow and blue, which are also as different from one another as colors can be. if you add to these four the poles of the brightness axis - i.e. white and black, which are obviously strongly contrasting - then you have the six most contrasting colors in human vision. the problem here is that ~5% of human males do not see red and green hues, and so for them there cannot be an equivalent set of contrasts (it would have to be some kind of combination of blue/yellow and black/white, e.g. black vs white, darkblue vs brightyellow, and brightblue vs darkyellow). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://131.111.190.111/jdmollon/papers/MollonJordan1997UniqueHues.pdf",
"https://www.nippondenshoku.co.jp/web/english/colorstory/images/07_what_is_ucs_2.jpg"
] | [
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need help with a question about lift. | okay, so this is going to be hard to word. i hopefully get my question out correctly. here goes: so i know the basics of lift (for flight). when you speed up a fluid, the pressure decreases. furthermore, pressure goes from high to low. wings are designed to split the air, which causes a low pressure system above the wing, so the high pressure below pushes the wing and plane up. however, the problem i can't work out is why does the air on top accelerate? i get that it has longer distance to travel in the same amount of time as the air below. but why does it have to follow that time constraint? lets see if i can word it a little better: let ab be a section of air. when you hit it with a wing, a goes above the wing and b goes below. why do a and b have reach the same point after wing at the same time? why, when split apart does a want to get back to b? note: a and b are parts of a chemical molecule. ab is not a chemical compound. let say they are both 02. why would one oxygen molecule want to get right back next to another specific one? hope that made sense. | these are both true statements: 'an airfoil produces lift because there is a pressure differential between the top and bottom of the wing'; 'an airfoil produces lift because it pushes air downward'. a lot of people try to draw a distinction between lift due to a pressure differential and lift due to pushing air downward. this is a false dichotomy. think of it this way: there are two ways that the air and rotor blade interact: viscosity and pressure. **viscosity and why i'm ignoring it** viscosity in a fluid causes shear stress in the presence of velocity gradients (there's a more precise mathematical way to say it, but bear with me). importantly in this discussion, viscous forces between the air and an airfoil act in a direction parallel to the airfoil's surface. an airfoil is mostly flat, so the viscous force acts mostly in the direction parallel to the flow (i.e. the drag direction, not the lift direction). therefore, it would make sense if viscosity could be neglected in discussions of lift. in fact, empirical measurements of lift show very good agreement with inviscid (ignoring viscosity) calculations. so, despite the many interesting and important phenomena of viscous flow, i'm going to ignore viscosity in the rest of this post. pressure, in contrast, acts perpendicularly to the surface of the airfoil. it is the primary means of interaction between wing and air, and the primary force acting between different morsels of air. **effect of pressure gradients** in our inviscid model, any acceleration of the air is the result of a pressure gradient (an increase in pressure in a certain direction.) to envision the effect of these gradients, imagine a discrete morsel of air, small enough that pressure, velocity, and other properties are uniform throughout the morsel, but large enough that you don't need to think of it as individual particles. if pressure increases in the direction of this morsel's velocity, then there will be more force pushing on the front than the back, and it will slow down. conversely, decreasing pressure in the direction of velocity will speed up the air. this is the conceptual basis behind bernoulli's principle. gradients perpendicular to velocity will not change the speed of the morsel, but will cause curvature in the direction of decreasing pressure. the pressure differential between sides of the morsel provides the centripetal force that curves the air's path. gradients with both parallel and perpendicular components will change both speed and direction. **pressure and deflection** now that that's out of the way, let's get back to the wing. imagine the airfoil staying stationary, with air flowing past. because air cannot pass through the airfoil, it will split into two sections, flowing above and below the airfoil. the two paths will rejoin at the trailing edge of the blade. if the trailing edge is pointed downward (the front is pointed upwards), then the faster air along the upper surface will have a lower pressure than the slower air along the lower surface, and the blade will experience lift from this pressure differential. so far, this explanation sounds just like the equal transit time fallacy. the important difference is the mechanism behind this pressure differential. rather than some anthropomorphic "need" for the airstreams to meet back up exactly as they left, the speed and pressure changes are explained by the effects of pressure differentials described above. (in fact, the faster air along the longer upper surface of the blade will beat the slower air to the edge. if anything, the equal transit time fallacy will understate the lift.) when the two airstreams meet again at the trailing edge, they will keep going in the direction of the trailing edge. if the trailing edge is pointed downwards, then that means that both upper and lower streams must be deflected downward. this is caused by pressure gradients in both streams, with pressure increasing in the upward direction. look at the top stream first. far away from the airfoil in all directions, the pressure will be uniform. this is called the freestream pressure. for an upward pressure gradient to exist on top of the airfoil, then, the pressure on top of the airfoil must be lower than freestream pressure. on the lower side, conversely, an upward pressure gradient requires that the pressure below the airfoil be higher than freestream pressure. with higher-than-freestream pressure on the bottom, and lower-than-freestream pressure on top, the wing experiences a net upward lift. note that the pressure distribution around the wing is intimately linked to the downward deflection of air. it is wrong to try to separate the two as if each contributes to lift individually. it's the equivalent of saying "my car is starting to move partially because my foot is pushing the accelerator and partially because the engine is turning the wheels." | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karman_trefftz.gif",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ngwob/why_does_air_on_either_side_of_a_plane_wing_have/"
] | [
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if you were to dig a tunnel straight through the earth and jumped in. would you reach the other side at all? (leaving aside you would be fried alive in the core) | considering gravity pulls you to the centre of the planet. | you would accelerate until air friction made you reach a velocity of a couple hundred mph, then you would pass the core and not go very far before you stared moving towards the core again. you would settle in the core. if the tunnel was a perfect vacuum, you would pass the core, just reach the other side before stopping and then fall back to your starting point again....repeat as needed. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/sciencefaqs/comments/ix4yo/if_you_could_drill_a_hole_directly_through_the/"
] | [
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could ripley really hold onto the ladder in aliens? (or, how much weight can a human arm hold onto before it rips off > ?) | in the decidedly-nonscientific movie scene to which you're referring, the ripley character is not actually countering the weight of the alien or the "pull of the vacuum," but simply the resistance of her own body and the alien's against the flow of air through the airlock. the "down" direction implied by the camera angle is arbitrary, as whatever artificial gravity is assumed to work in the spacecraft would almost certainly not work in the airlock or in space beyond it. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
scientists say alchemy is impossible, but isn't that what nuclear fission is doing? | i know that many alchemists used to try to make gold out of other metals and elements and it was impossible for them. however with the technology we have now we are actually making new elements from other elements so wouldn't it be possible to make metals eventually even if we don't yet have the exact technology? | no, nuclear fission is adding a neutron into the atom and then making the atom split. it is possible to make gold out of lead and that's how they discover new atoms. they strip the atom of electrons, accelerate it and then fire it into another atom with its electrons stripped. so we do have the exact technology already, it's just cheaper to buy gold than it is to make it from lead. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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everclear and tap water = heat? | mixed everclear and water and then it started to produce heat. what is happening within the reaction? | there isn't a chemical reaction occurring but you are seeing the [heat of solution](_url_1_). when mixing two different materials they may rearrange so that they are interacting with each other, and this rearrangement involves breaking the interactions in the original solutions and forming new interactions between the two solutions. if the two solutions have very favorable mixing then heat can be produced such as with alcohol and water ([up to -777 j/mol](_url_0_)), or if the resulting solution has a higher enthalpy then heat can be consumed such as with table salt and water. most of the time the heats produced or consumed won't be noticeable as their magnitudes are generally small and usually only a small amount of solute is mixed into a large amount of solvent, dissipating the heat change. in your everclear and water example you have a 90-95% ethanol solution being mixed with pure water in likely near equal amounts and thus enough heat is produced to raise the temp of the mixture by a few degrees. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol#Physical_properties",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy_change_of_solution"
] | [
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could redox reactions happen using positions? | [deleted] | to prevent annihilation, all players in the redox reaction would have to be made out of antimatter. in this case, the reaction would be chemically indistinguishable from it's normal matter counterpart. antimatter is cool, but from a chemical standpoint, it's pretty boring. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible for the human eye to observe a visual doppler effect? | basically, if the movement of an object relative to the observer is such that the perceived wavelength of its reflected light is different, will it appear to be a different color? | yes. it is known as red shift if it is moving away and blue shift if it is moving towards you. _url_1_ _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueshift",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redshift",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/astro/redshf.html#c1"
] | [
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] |
aspartame and health, what's your take? | it's rather difficult (if not impossible) to find neutral information on the supposed risks of aspartame consumption. so what do you think (or better, know)? | it's one of those issues like vaccines causing autism. there's a lot of noise coming from people who think it causes cancer but have no evidence that it does. if you want to read a decent summary of what's going on [try this](_url_0_). what exactly do you mean by neutral information? do you mean to say that scientific studies on the matter are for some reason not neutral and are bias? or do you mean that there's so much fluff and hot air flowing from every national inquirer conspiracy website that you can't find anything scientifically valid. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartame_controversy"
] | [
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machines that are conected to physics and react to music (e.g. ruben's tube). | hello. i need some examples of machines that react to music. it would be nice if they could be made from cheap parts (something i can build). i want to make some of them (or one) and present it in my high school. rube's tube seems nice, but it's like every year in my school science day. maybe would it be possible to make coroful flame instead of orange one? thank you for all your answers. | you can put some kind of complex fluid (like corn starch in water) in a vat on top of a speaker, and the sound will induce patterns in surface waves. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3zoTKXXNQIU"
] | [
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[physics] how does the the beta function describe the strong nuclear force? | i've always wondered what were the mathematical laws that describe the strong and weak nuclear forces. i was watching the elegant universe and it said the beta function describes the strong nuclear force. can someone explain the physics of how the [beta function](_url_0_) describes the strong nuclear force? | the other two commenters saying that you are confusing it with the callan-symanzik beta function are mistaken; the [veneziano amplitude](_url_4_) really *is* the euler beta function. in particle physics we are interested in calculating scattering amplitudes. these are functions which, given a set of incoming and outgoing particles and their momenta, tell us the property of some scattering process or another occurring. if you've seen a [feynman diagram](_url_0_), that's a useful picture of what happens in a scattering process. the key idea is that the incoming particles combine into internal "virtual particles" which carry on combining with each other or splitting off according to the feynman rules until eventually you get the outgoing states. the internal virtual particles are different from real particles because they don't have to have the correct mass-energy m^2 = e^2 - p^(2); their momenta are determined by momentum conservation at the vertices and we can have e^2 - p^(2) = anything. but when the momenta of the incoming particles are just right to make an internal virtual particle have a mass-energy which is nearly the same as that of the corresponding real particle, the amplitude gets really, really big. it's basically the same as if the incoming particles coalesced into a real physical particle which then decays, which quantum fields prefer to do if possible. we see this behaviour in scattering amplitudes because they contain factors like 1/(*s*-*m*^(2)) where *m* is the mass of an internal virtual particle and *s* is a function of the momenta of the external particles called a [mandelstam variable](_url_1_). you can see that when the external momenta are such that *s* is about the same as *m*^(2), the amplitude diverges to infinity; this is called a "pole". in particular, this is a pole in the "*s* channel"; if we used the mandelstam variable *t* then this would be a pole in the *t* channel. this is exactly how the higgs boson was discovered in 2012, by the way; the lhc experiments found that the scattering amplitudes had a peak when combinations of the momenta of outgoing particles squared to give 126 gev. in the 1960s, quantum field theory - the theory which we now know to underpin all of particle physics - was reasonably well understood as applied to electrodynamics and the weak force, but no-one understood how it could be used for the strong force. the data that they had were that they could see peaks in the amplitudes. people were trying to guess the form of the amplitudes, knowing where the poles should be, using certain symmetry constraints that were hard to implement. veneziano wrote down the first amplitude with the right properties in 1968, it has infinitely many poles in both the "*s* channel" and the "*t* channel". it is given precisely by the euler beta function *a* = *b*(-1-*α* ' *s*,-1-*α* ' *t*). we now understand that the amplitude describes the scattering of the lowest-energy states in string theory. the fact that there are infinitely many poles in both channels corresponds to the fact that there will be a pole at each harmonic of the string which is mediating the interaction. you may find this paper interesting: [the birth of string theory](_url_3_) by paolo di vecchia. edit: by the way, veneziano's amplitude is only approximately right; the approach that it was part of, [s-matrix theory](_url_2_), was abandoned in favour of qcd as a theory of the strong interaction in the early 70s, though a small number of people kept working on what became string theory. edit 2: why are the incorrect answers the most upvoted ones? this is so irritating. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.efunda.com/math/beta/images/beta.gif"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman_diagram",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandelstam_variable",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-matrix_theory",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/0704.0101",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneziano_amplitude",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_function_(physics)"
] | [
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i found this weird skull (i think) on the beach in northern california, can anyone identify it? | that is a pelvic bone (or rather, the fused bones that form the pelvic girdle). in your third picture, see how the front looks like a vertebra? that's because it is (leaving out some biological detail). those large holes which sort of look like eye holes are obdurator foramena, and the little holes along the back are where nerve bundles wind their way out from inside the column to the legs and such. probably some low-slung mammalian quadraped, but it's been a long time since i've looked at bones. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are the 'reset' and 'test' buttons for on a blowdryer? | i've only had to push reset a couple of times but i never knew what it actually did. | it's a built-in gfci (_url_0_). it's basically a sensitive circuit breaker to detect a short and kill power before you electrocute yourself. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residual-current_device"
] | [
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how is the artificial meat coming along? | [20 feb 2012 prof mark post, of maastricht university in the netherlands, yesterday announced the world's first test tube hamburger would be served up in october. heston blumenthal, the experimental chef, will cook the patty grown in a lab from a cow's stem cells. each portion will cost £220,000, but prof post hopes if the burger is a success he can develop the technology on an industrial scale.](_url_0_) so, still not ready for prime time, still not ready for mass production, still in the experimental, very expensive, stage. that's from a gs for "mark post maastricht meat", there are more articles out there if you're interested. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/9092779/Vegan-campaigners-savour-test-tube-burger-breakthrough.html"
] | [
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|
is peer review essential? (philosophy of science(?)) | in general i am very interested in whether the idea of peer review is absolutely essential to the scientific method as a means of obtaining knowledge, or whether it's just a nice-to-have or add-on. i'm wondering if science, as an epistemological system, is essentially social in nature. i think it isn't, in sort of the same way that ["parallel lines do not intersect"](_url_0_) is not essential to other axioms of geometry. i'll put it in thought-experiment terms: would you believe in ghosts if you saw evidence with your own eyes, were able to reproduce this evidence in a proper experiment, but were not able to submit it to a peer reviewed journal for some contrived fantasy reason? (maybe the ghost was shy, i dunno.) what i'm wondering is, would you ever be in the state of, "i believe it and i would not approve if anyone else did at this point in time" or do you completely submit your own experience and consciousness to the community? what if you lived in a post-apocalypse and there *was no* scientific community? would you be paralyzed, unable to draw conclusions, simply because anything you see could be an illusion or a hallucination, and that any conclusion you draw could be the result of a cognitive bias or some other issue anyway? i'm not asking if or why peer review is useful, i'm asking if science is still appreciably useful without it. does taking away peer review make the rest of it nonsensical and useless in the same way that taking away, say, experimentation with a control does? is it not a workable and useful system regardless of a community of trained scientists? ethical implications: can i use science to draw conclusions in my daily life in a short-term sense? is it proper to think lowly of someone who claims to have been abducted by a ufo or seen spirits etc? is the collective experience the *only* experience that "matters?" | philosophy time! as with any useful word in a useful language, "science" is a complex. certainly an isolated individual can engage in scientific inquiry, so "science" in this sense doesn't require peer review. however, we live in a society with many scientists, and in that society, "science" is a social enterprise. peer review is essential to this enterprise because it provides distributed arbitration of authority. individual scientists get by just fine without peer review, but the communication that drives the scientific enterprise as a whole could not. | 6 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry"
] | [] | [
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how exactly does universal heat death work? | from what i understand, heat death is the situation in which all energy has been converted to entropy. supposing this is the case, what happens when some object, drifting through space, collides with another? or does heat death require all matter compacts into a singularity to rule out collisions? | i'm not entirely sure i understand the question; however, i'll do my best. with a system where energy is uniform, there wouldn't be objects anymore, because a discrete object means that there is not uniform energy. even if there were an object, it wouldn't be moving, because kinetic energy doesn't really work here either. a singularity is not really implied by the heat death theory. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible that a constant could fluctuate by miniscule amounts (eg. 1*10^-20) within a certain range? | i know this seems like a contradiction, constants don't change...they are constant. i know of the theory, which does not have much evidence, suggesting constants may vary in the universe. my question pertains to the universe in its entirety. it has been said before that if a constant changed, the universe would be completely different. it is possible for the universe to have constants that are not truly constant. for example, we know c = 3 x 10^8 m/s, and we know that to a high degree of accuracy. it it possible for this constant to fluctuate by minute quantities (1*10^-20), amounts we cannot measure with our technology. it just seem with the chaotic nature of the universe that there exists a constant that is absolute and never changing. the sheer quantum nature of universe may cause a constant to fall within a tight a range. i don't know if we would ever me able to measure it, but would there be noticeable effects from these changes? | if we can't measure it, by definition there would be no noticeable effects. anyway, we have no reason to believe that fundamental constants change their value. we don't have evidence that they *don't*, either, but a universe where constants refuse to stay constant would be much more complicated. so parsimony tells us to stick to thinking of them as unchanging unless convincing evidence indicates otherwise. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19429-laws-of-physics-may-change-across-the-universe.html"
] | [
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is there such a thing as hand-ear coordination? | i'm wondering because i am absolutely horrible at anything that requires hand-eye coordination or spatial senses-- handwriting, drawing, sports, video games etc., but i'm pretty good at the piano; especially just improvising. it feels like my fingers just know where to go when i think of a melody, yet no matter how many times i try i can not throw a football or write legibly or play a first person shooter with losing badly. | bats have echolocation. i think we can call that ear mouth coordination. i'm pretty sure there are some people who could probably catch a fly or mosquito near their ear without looking. that could be hand-ear coordination too. compared to dolphins and bats though, the region of the brain that is optimized for "echolocating" is small. in the bat/dolphin, and other such animals, it's oversized due to evolution.... well, at least the thinking part of our brain is big... as a result of that, you can learn to use sound to coordinate your movement but it would have to be learned, and we wouldn't be very good at it. anecdotally some blind folks can tell where big things are by making clicking noises and listening to them like echolocation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is gravitiy realy a force with the knowledge of gr? | i was wondering: since the general relativity theory states that for example planets are not held on their curve through force, but they are moving on a "straight" line that is curved because of gravitation. is gravitiy realy a force than? or is it some other kind of effect? i mostly got this idea regarding people trying to bring together the four basic forces in the string theory (iirc). please correct me if i got something wrong about how gravity works in gr. didnt hear any lectures on gr yet. | in some sense, gravity is a "fictitious force." spacetime is curved, and, as a simplified explanation, the apparent effect of the "force" of gravity is actually a result of things following "straight lines" through spacetime. the question is more "why does the presence of mass-energy cause spacetime to curve," which general relativity does not attempt to explain. so, in that sense, we still need a mechanism (such as gravitons in string theory) to explain why the curvature is there in the first place. for an analogy, newtonian gravity simply says "gravity is a thing that happens" and offers no explanation of the mechanism. general relativity explains the mechanism as a result of spacetime curvature, but offers no explanation of the mechanism by which the curvature arises. string theory (and other related theories like lqg) attempt to explain that mechanism. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what angle are the two corners of a semicircle? | # ◓ are they 90^(○)? it can't be more than that as a semicircle fits in corner of a square. & #x200b; & #x200b; | it is 90 degrees. any line from the center of a circle meets the edge at a 90 degree angle. you can actually use your corner analogy to understand what is going on. let's say that you have a corner whose angle you can adjust. what is the smallest angle that it can be at and the semicircle still fit in the corner? to do this, imagine that we are on the coordinate grid, and the left edge of the semi-circle is snug up against the y-axis. we can then use the line y=mx, of varying slope m, to investigate this. the question is then "where does the line y=mx intersect this circle?" you can see the situation [here](_url_0_). the equation for this semicircle is (x-1)^(2)+y^(2)=1 (for y > =0). to figure out the intersections, we plug in y=mx into this equation to get (x-1)^(2)+(mx)^(2)=1, which is a quadratic equation in x. this can be rearranged as (m^(2)+1)x^(2)-2mx=0. we already know that they intersect at x=0, so we can divide through by x to find some other intersection point. this gives x=2m/(m^(2)+1). so for any finite m, there will be *two* intersection points of this corner with the semicircle. but, as m goes to infinity (which means that the line is becoming vertical), this intersection point is getting closer and closer to x=0. this means that only when the this line is vertical that we get 1 intersection point, which means that a right angle is the smallest angle in which we can actually fit the semicircle. | 25 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.desmos.com/calculator/ne9iyatv2q"
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how does increased rbc count and decreased binding capacity of haemoglobin help us adapt to altitude sickness? | it seems really counter intuitive. shouldn't haemoglobin bind as much as it can to give us more oxygen. and shouldn't cell production be reduced to save energy? | hemoglobin does bind oxygen to hold onto it as it travels through the blood, but once it gets to the tissues, the hemoglobin must release the oxygen so that the cells in your tissues can use it for energy production/metabolism. the ultimate goal of hemoglobin is to bring oxygen to the tissues, not to just hang onto it. if the hemoglobin bound so strongly to the oxygen that it didn't release it, your tissues wouldn't be able to take up the oxygen, and they would be unable to do aerobic respiration. in higher altitudes, the lesser atmospheric pressure means that there's less partial pressure of oxygen for your lungs to take in and transfer to the blood. because there's "less" oxygen available to be carried by the blood, your body tries to compensate by 1) deeper, faster breathing (immediate effect) to try to increase the amount of oxygen you take in per breath per minute 2) increasing rbc production (delayed effect through epo from the kidneys) because it's the only other way for the body be able to carry more oxygen to the tissues. yes, this does require more energy and resources from the body, but if your body didn't make more rbcs/hemoglobin to carry more oxygen, the rest of your organs would suffer from hypoxia, which is a bigger problem than just using up energy to make more rbcs. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's inside this glass toy? | ethanol and a dye. it rises because the alcohol vapor in the bulb expands from the heat of your hand, pushing the liquid up the straw and into the upper bulb. try this: get all the alcohol into one of the bulbs. then chill the empty bulb by holding an ice cube upon it. (lay it down on its side.) you will see the alcohol condense out of thin air as it were, and eventually all the alcohol will diffuse into the cold bulb, evaporating from out of the nonchilled bulb - minus the dye! cf. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/search?q=hand+boiler"
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|
what happens if the anticodon of a trna changes? | [deleted] | i don't think /u/smittywrbnjgrmnjsn94 really followed you far enough on the logic of your question. mutations in the anticodon can and do occur. yeah, the t-- but nevermind all that. what happens if a mutation does occur and muahaha there's no one to stop it? well, a few things. the most common is what's called a suppressor [trna](_url_2_), or a nonsense suppressor, or some thing similar. what happens is that the anticodon for a couple of different amino acids is one base different from a stop codon. if the anticodon gets changed to recognize a stop codon but can still be successfully charged with an amino acid, that trna will read stop codons and insert an amino acid, "reading through" the point where translation would normally end. this doesn't always occur as the result of random mutation and can actually be a [strategy](_url_0_) for expanding coding capacity for different organisms (like, you can code for more proteins in the same amount of dna/rna if you sometimes ignore stop codons). but let's go more abstract than that. learning about the world isn't just useful for dryly answering questions and being fun at parties -- it lets us imagine *other*, different and unusual worlds. what would happen if we took the trna for, say, alanine, and changed its anticodon to the one that translates to phenylalanine. i would say two things could happen and they're both death. let's say that changing the anticodon is enough to switch the amino acid that gets attached to that trna from alanine to phenylalanine, in which case every protein whose gene has that codon all of a sudden has big honking phenylalanine where once there was tiny, modest alanine. most proteins would not likely function like this. so many proteins would likely be affected by this change that the cell in question would die. the other thing that could happen is the anticodon changes but the amino acid that gets added stays the same, so instead of phenylalanine you get alanine. now, gargantuan phenylalanine is humble alanine. same effect -- protein doesn't work, most proteins don't work, cell dies. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/23/4767.full",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22356/",
"http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/~smaloy/MicrobialGenetics/topics/rev-sup/sup-tRNA.html",
"http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/35/10/3420.long"
] | [
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young's modulus and ultimate tensile strength | is it normal for the youngs modulus of a bar under tensile test to be larger than the ultimate tensile strength measured for the test? im so confused lol | the two are not comparable, although they have the same units (which look like pressure), they mean different things. young's modulus is the ratio of stress to strain (in the linear region). ultimate tensile strength is the largest force per unit area that the material can sustain in tension without breaking. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes one olympic athlete better than another(in the same sport)? | is it one trains harder? is it genetics? is it a little bit of luck? | well it's a whole host of things: who they trained with (if for example it's a sport like judo, who their training partners were) if your training partners are of a higher skill level, you will be at a higher level than your competition. nutrition plays a big part as well. south koreans are about 5 inches taller than north koreans on average, even though they are derived from the same gene pool, because they are not starved. also how much time each athlete puts into training. it also matters how the athletes are taught to think, and their mental composition. often times athletes succumb to pressure. one thing that eliminates pressure is having a superior support system. there are other factors as well. if you want more info, you can read books like outliers for more information. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how was the 'calorie' discovered? how was energy expenditure first measured? | a the concept calorie was never discovered; it was defined as the amount of energy needed to heat a cm^3 of water 1 degree c/k. this is just an arbitrary amount of energy and joules are often used instead (0.239006 calories per joule). this is sometimes measured by simply observing how much food can heat water when burned in a bomb calorimeter. note 1000 calories(water definition)= 1 calorie(food definition). | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule#The_mechanical_equivalent_of_heat",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine#Efficiency"
] | [
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|
have any parts of eistein's or newton's theories been disproven? | it isn't exactly right to think of their theories as bein right or wrong, in many instances it is a question of accuracy. newton's physics works very well until a certain level of accuracy is required or certain factors for in to play that his model did not account for. our models today also have limits, often that we are well aware of. maybe someone can bring up an example of something they were just wrong about. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can thoughts be describe in a mathematical expression or equation? | [deleted] | quite a loaded question and highly depends on what you refer to as a "thought" and also if you really mean just a single equation. computers think all the time and their thoughts can definitely be written as an equation, albeit a massive one. if you mean thought as just how a neuron processes incoming information and its output, we have [tons of various equations](_url_0_) for that. if you mean though as in "i have a meeting tomorrow at 4pm in room 100 with mr. smith", i think you could come up with an equation for that as long as you allow that equation to have many sub-equations that account for every neuron that participates in that thought. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_neuron_model"
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do symbiotic relationships between rhizobia and fabaceae occur in alien environments without inoculation? | pioneer plants, particularly when chosen for permacultural applications, are often prioritised for their nitrogen-fixing abilities amongst other benefits. will these plants fix nitrogen when planted into a non-native areas? will they form symbiotic relationships with rhizobia they haven't encountered before? usually when planting legumes, the correct rhizobia is supplied in the form of an inoculant and applied directly to the seed when sowing. for example, if [caragana arborescens](_url_0_) (siberian pea tree) is used in an australian temperate zone without inoculation, will the tree adapt to the native rhizobia (or foreign from other inoculated crops) or are the nitrogen-fixing abilities non-existent? or will they form some sort of relationship, just not the most beneficial? | [at least in hawai'i and the galapagos, invasive species can form novel mutualisms with the native rhizobia](_url_0_). however, i believe the majority of the time invasive species will vector in invasive rhizobia and maintain their current mutualisms. all of the examples of novel mutualisms that i know of are from the family myrtaceae, but i believe (basing this off of a talk i saw two years ago) albizia, which is a member of the fabaceae family, has been observed hijacking some of the native rhizobia from the native plant species. so tentatively yes, but a small possibility of no. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caragana_arborescens"
] | [
"http://planet.botany.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Invasives/Refs/Richardson.pdf"
] | [
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keeping an electromagnet cool | hey so i'm trying to cool down an electromagnet. right now its reaching temperatures in excess of 290 f, which is pretty extreme. my question is, if i increase the number of coils that will in turn increase the resistance of the wire, which then decreases the current, right? this should then decrease the power (heat) output of the electromagnet since p=i^2 r. so then, when considering the equation for magnetic field, will the increase in turns compensate for the decrease in current and still allow me to have a fairly strong electromagnet? thanks for any advice! | the formula for the magnetic flux density of an ideal solenoid is: b = μ n i / l where μ is the permeability of the core, n is the number of turns of wire, i is the current, and l is the length of the solenoid (not the wire). if you double the length of the wire, the resistance will double and the current will halve given the same voltage. but for an ideal solenoid, you could then get twice the number of turns. so the halving of the current and doubling of the number of turns "cancel" and you end up with the same magnetic flux density (assuming the length of the solenoid remains the same). real solenoids, however, don't quite work this way. turns get further from the centre as you add more: their diameter increases. this means that twice the length of wire will not give you twice the number of turns on a tightly-wound coil. the ideal solenoid formula also assumes that the length of the solenoid is much greater than the diameter, so as you add further turns your solenoid is becoming less "ideal" and the approximation to ideal is less accurate. **tl;dr:** yes, increasing the number of coils will result in the same magnetic flux density with a decrease in power usage: but there are limitations. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
does applying a magnetic field to a ferromagnetic material while it cools from above the curie point do anything neat? | so i was looking at [induction heating](_url_0_) on youtube when i heard the video's creator mention that the metal ingot had passed the [curie temperature](_url_2_). i looked it up, expecting it to have something to do with the point at which metal starts glowing (the [draper point](_url_1_)). instead, i learned that permanent magnets lose their magnetic order and become paramagnetic above the curie point, except when there is an external magnetic field applied. so, my question is the title. am i describing a recipe to create ordinary permanent magnets, or does this have any use or effect? does this create some kind of super-polarised extra-strength permanent magnet, or is that sentence nonsense? | permanent magnets (ferromagnets) always become paramagnetic above the curie temperature by definition. what this means is not that there is no magnetization, however. it means that the magnetization only results from an external field. the difference is that in a ferromagnet, the magnetization comes from the fact that the magnetic moments in the material prefer to be aligned with each other. in the paramagnetic case, it's due to the fact that the magnetic moments in the material prefer to be aligned with the external magnetic field. let me be more careful now about what is meant by ferromagnetism. let's assume for now, for simplicity, that your material looks the same under all rotations. ferromagnetism means that the magnetic moments in the material align "spontaneously", that is, in any infinitely tiny magnetic field. this is because the interactions between the magnetic moments favor them being aligned strongly enough that it overcomes the thermal energy associated with being disordered. in particular, the meaning is that there is, even in an infinitely tiny field, a large (i.e. not infinitely tiny) average magnetization in one direction. so now, your question. what happens if you add an external magnetic field as you cool? well, above the curie point there will be magnetization due to the magnetic field. when you reach the curie point, the material would have nonzero magnetization in zero field. but what your external field does is just increase that magnetization *at that temperature*. as you cool further, the magnetization will continue to increase, but the magnetic moments can't get any more aligned than fully aligned. so at low temperatures, where in zero field the moments would be fully aligned anyways, there won't be any difference if you apply the field. now, there's the subtle part of what happens when the magnetic moments in your material prefer to align along a particular direction (due to the material's crystal structure or things like that). in that case, the same thing as above happens if you apply the field along the preferred direction. however, if you apply the field along a different direction, there's now competition between the field and the preferred direction. depending on how strong the field is and how strong the preference is, you may still go to a ferromagnetic phase at low temperature, but this time the magnetization will be smaller than if there was no field. this also decreases the curie temperature (which talks about what happens at zero field *along the preferred direction*). otherwise you stay magnetized along the field. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_heating",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draper_point",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie_temperature"
] | [] | [
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light phase and energy question | i was thinking about light an phase recently, and i can't seem to wrap my head around phase cancellation. lets say we produce two beams of light with opposite phase and send them away in paralell. these beams will cancel each other out for eternity, what happens to the energy that was in those beams? | once you zoom out to two or more dimensions, you find you just can't get waves from any two point sources to cancel everywhere. the energy that would have been "lost" just ends up making a node somewhere else bigger by the exact right amount. edit: [diagram.](_url_0_) note that it only interferes destructively along those rays, interfering constructively elsewhere. the only way i could get those two to cancel everywhere would be to sit those sources on exactly the same place, which isn't doable for other reasons. :) something similar to this applies to all other possible waveforms, since you can treat *any* waveform as the result of a bunch of point sources. | 11 | [] | [] | [
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where did the mass go? | hi! stupid question here. i just got done making cookies and i was left with a question. when portioning out the dough, i was using a tablespoon to scoop out the cookies. i ended up with 16 tablespoon cookie dough balls. thing is, i put 22 tablespoons of flour in the dough. and that's not taking the butter, sugar, and other ingredients into consideration. so, where did all of it go? | the mass is still there. what changed is the volume. apparently the dough you made was more dense than the ingredients, since the same amount of mass that previously took up at least 22 tablespoons, could be compressed into 16 tablespoons. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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structure formation in miso soup? | dear fellow askscientists, i have been a guest at uni tokyo for a few weeks now and have wondered about this many times since i am here: traditional japanese "miso" soup generates peculiar patterns when left on its own for a few seconds. see e.g. youtube timelapses here: [transistion from homogenous to structured](_url_0_) [and the structures keep evolving](_url_2_) do you happen to know any papers/articles/general information about the formation processes of these structures? i found [this](_url_1_) and [this, but cannot access right now.](_url_3_) fluid dynamics is really far from my field, maybe someone can explain in not-too-jargon terms? what are "bernard cells" for example? cheers, oss1x | oh boy! i actually did some reading on this once when trying to learn something about stellar convention, but a proper fluid dynamicist should correct me. "benard cells" are just the name given to the convection cells that form in a fluid with a temperature gradient across it, which generally form a sort of tiled lattice of hexagonal convection cells. basically, bottom is hot, top is cool, so hot stuff from the bottom comes up and goes back down - thermo/convection 101. in fact, we think there are bernard cells forming convective columns in the sun (but /u/drzowie would know more...). beyond that, it gets really complicated really fast, and my knowledge wains, but i think i can explain what we're seeing in your [second video.](_url_1_) it looks like there might be one convection cell set up in the bowl. the white matter seems to be a good flow tracer; watch the white particles that near the edge of the bowl in the second half of the video (for example on the right side of the image) and you'll see them take a quick dive towards the bottom when they get near it. i assume they're then recycled and flow back up in the center of the column. [google images gave me this picture from wikipedia, which i think describes what we're looking at fairly well.](_url_0_) the abstract of your second paper corroborates this: as a guess for what causes some of the structure: (1) it's chaotic, but for some gross features (2) the higher density of white matter in the middle of the bowl compared to the edge might then just be due to the relative flow velocities at those points. near the edge of the bowl you can see the white particles are visibly moving faster when they enter the downward part of the convection cycle, but they seem to be moving slower in the central column. | 56 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b_HZMFWIMEg",
"http://www.e.ap.kyushu-u.ac.jp/ap/research/EHD/index-e.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PmG65_0kJzY",
"http://www.researchgate.net/publication/225579602_Convectional_and_sedimentation_dissipative_patterns_of_Miso_soup"
] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/RayleighBernardConvection.png/400px-RayleighBernardConvection.png",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PmG65_0kJzY"
] | [
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what is the "stratigraphy" of the yamal, siberia, crater? | in [this picture](_url_0_) there are three or four different-colored bands in the crater: from top down, there's tan, medium grey, light grey, and dark grey. i figure the dark grey is actually shadow and is 'actually' still the light grey; but on the other hand, all of the erosion channels seem to kink at the light grey/dark grey boundary so maybe the dark really is different. my questions are: (1) what are the different bands?, (2) which boundary is the ground surface?, (3) if the ground surface is at the tan/medium grey boundary, is there enough dirt surrounding the crater to fill it?, (3½) if not, what would have comprised the 'missing' volume?, and (4) the lower parts of the crater are grey, so why is there tan dirt on the top? | from the pictures that i have been able to see, it looks like just different forms of top soil. from what i have been able to discern, is that most of the yamal peninsula is made up of clay, silt and mud. [\[1\]](_url_0_) one of the things that has come out about these holes, is that they might be caused by the melting of the permafrost that has locked up a great deal of water and carbon dioxide. with the rise in global temperatures, much of this permafrost is melting, and in these areas that consist of more soil than hard rock, we are seeing these holes appear. think of these holes as cave-in in areas where there are big area of limestone. like all the sinkholes in florida. back to your original question, though, from larger pictures that i have been able to see, it looks like just alternating layers of sand and silt. i have yet to find a full geological map of the area though. | 2 | [] | [
"http://img.washingtonpost.com/rf/image_908w/2010-2019/WashingtonPost/2014/07/29/Production/WashingtonPost/Images/Par7939306.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/html/yamalex.html"
] | [
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the 'aquatic ape' phase; is there anything to it? | i remember awhile back there was a popular theory that described a universal homo sapien 'aquatic phase' which explained our hairlessness and instinctive ability to swim. i was just wondering what the current take was on that idea, and if any of it is still viable? | the idea is not and never was viable. it was always a pet theory of the marine biologist who came up with the idea in the 1930s and the [writer](_url_2_) (without a scientific background) who popularized the idea in the 1980s onward. the hypothesis has several large gaping holes in its logic as well as several factual errors about human and aquatic mammal biology and behavior. [this site](_url_1_) has long been a clearinghouse of information. it has a [page devoted](_url_0_) to quickly debunking specific claims of the aah, such as supposed similarities in skin, sweat glands, and subcutaneous fat shared by humans and aquatic mammals. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.aquaticape.org/aatclaims.html",
"http://www.aquaticape.org/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine_Morgan_(writer\\)"
] | [
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claim about hydrogen peroxide and cockroaches | this is something i heard a long time ago from someone or something that, in my mind, was fairly reputable. but i've since tried to look it up and cannot find any support for this claim. it's a claim i may partly mis-remember; i'm not even sure if this particular combination of chemical and insect were the ones referenced. the claim went like this: *if you pour hydrogen peroxide on a cockroach, it slowly dissolves the flexible "hinges" between the rigid plates of the exoskeleton, but has no other discernable effect. so the result is the cockroach will run away, but it's body will fall apart as it does so. it kills itself by its own mechanical movements tearing its body apart, spreading its internal organs and body parts over some distance as it futilely tries to escape what ails it.* is this true or plausible? does it make sense chemically? or is there a chemical that would do this? thanks. | i heard that diatomaceous earth does what you are talking about. it's like a powder that has sharp edges (under microscope). the sharp edges get into joints(soft areas) of insects with exoskeletons, and it basically cuts them up when they move. they say it's not harmful to humans. here is a link: _url_0_ edit: typo | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.richsoil.com/diatomaceous-earth.jsp"
] | [
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when i stack books on a previously rolled-up poster and it straightens out, what is happening on a cellular level? | i am currently straightening out a poster with a large book, and it occurred to me that i have no idea how this actually works. when i apply pressure to previously rolled-up posters, what is happening on the small scale to each cell to make it yield to the pressure applied on the large scale? and just for fun, this is what paper looks like under a microscope: [1] _url_0_ | nothing is happening at the cellular level, since there are no cells as such in printing paper. they all get destroyed or at least killed during the paper making process. on a molecular level it just shifts the point at which molecules are in their lowest energy state. when paper is rolled up, there are fewer molecules on the inside of the curve. this is no longer stable when the paper is flattened out, so the molecules move kind of like diffusion, but with fibres not individual particles, so that the length of each side is the same, and the paper is flat again. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/news-amazing-paper-project"
] | [] | [
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bill nye & my mom say keeping batteries in the refridge extends life. snopes says: false! i'm so torn. help! | in a bill nye electricity episode he says that keeping batteries in the fridge will make them last longer. my mother told me the same thing. i then learned sometime in my life this isn't true. snopes also says it's false. what to believe? | the chemicals in the batteries can be degraded over time through slow electrochemical reactions. reaction rates are slower at cold temperatures and therefore the rate at which batteries will degrade is slower at low temperatures. energizer published a report: [alkaline manganese dioxide handbook and application manual](_url_0_) in which a graph of battery lifetime versus temperature is published on page 12, the results clearly show that batteries stored at cold temperatures last longer. **edit** this is only true if you keep them above -20 c because the contents will freeze and cause leaks below that temperature. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://data.energizer.com/PDFs/alkaline_appman.pdf"
] | [
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what makes clingwrap stick to itself so well? | what sets it apart from just regular plastic wrap? | some cling wrap contain adhesives. the ones that don't aren't really adhesive on their own, so the plastic that's used is doped with smaller polymers like pib and eva that interact with each other strongly. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are electric fields additive? | in undergraduate physics, you are taught that if you add the individual forces that a set of electrically charged particles put on another, that sum will be equal to the force experienced by the particle. but let's say you have 3 particles in a line. apparently this rule still holds. however, forces are supposed to be carried by particles in qm, the photon specifically here. if you shine a light, which is made of photons, on two inline objects, it won't hit the farther back one, because that is in shadow. so if electric force is additive for inline particles, that makes it sound like the photons from the far left reach the particle on the far right, when the shadow example makes me think it shouldn't. how does that work? | the equations of motion for the em field, maxwell's equations, are linear. this means that if you sum sources (charge distributions) you get the sum of the fields (superposition principle). however, if you allow the charge themselves to be moved by the em field (according to the lorentz force equation), the coupled system of maxwell's equations plus the equations of motion of the charges is not linear anymore, so the superposition principle does not hold. in the case of shadows, they form when a material absorbs incident light. this happens because light moves the charged particles in the material which as a result then produce fields that cancel the light wave (this is a very unintuitive, but correct picture of absorbtion). since the motion of charges influenced by the em field itself is important, the superposition principle does not apply. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could someone explain to me the weak force? | things i already know (not a lot): responsible for nuclear reactions transmitted by w & z bosons please keep in mind i am not a physicist and therefore unfamiliar by complicated equations. aslo anything you know about electroweak unification would be helpful. | so... a particle travels from a to b, both places we observe it at. but since we don't observe it between a and b, we can't know for sure exactly what path it takes. some of these paths involve interacting with other "particles" in other fields. and when an "interaction" takes place, momentum is exchanged. changes in momentum are, technically, forces. (let's leave z aside for the moment). the interesting behaviour is that when a particle interacts with a w boson, it changes "flavour." an electron gives its charge to the w^- boson and some momentum and the electron changes flavor into a neutrino. (for instance). so some particle, say a muon, has a mass, and it interacts with w bosons. so between a and b it *can* take a path where it temporarily interacts with a "virtual" w boson. (more about virtual vs. real in a bit). so remember the interaction. the muon gives its charge to the w^- boson, and becomes a muon-type neutrino. the w^- boson then travels on a little bit and decays down into an electron and electron-type anti-neutrino. so more specifically here, we observe a muon and then, later, an electron and a neutrino and anti-neutrino (well we almost never observe the neutrinos directly, but let's pretend we have a perfect experiment where we detect those too). so what? well see, in the above, we had one particle with mass. that's only one way to arrange energy. mass. but in the end, we have 3 new particles flying off in different directions from each other. and each has some mass, but their relative shares of momentum could all be very different. so there's many more ways to arrange the energy there. so entropy has increased. and the universe likes entropy increasing. so as the time between a and b increases, it's increasingly likely that the muon will have taken a path that includes a decay. hence we see a "half-life" for muons that arises out of this scenario. so what's the deal with nuclei, then? well... a nucleon, a proton or neutron, is 3 (valence) quarks bound together with the strong force. but when you get nucleons together, some of that strong force "leaks" out between them. and the energy of the strong force holding the nucleon together is about 90% of the mass of nucleon. so that leakiness means that the nucleus' mass *isn't the same as* just adding up the mass of however many protons and neutrons the nucleus has. (plus other quantum mechanics corrections, and the energy of forcing positive protons together) so now we take a nucleus, and just like the muon above, let it travel. well any of the quarks making up a nucleon can interact with w bosons. up quarks can interact with w^+ bosons and down quarks can interact with w^- bosons. well if any of those quarks, interacting with a w boson, can lower the overall mass of the nucleus... it's likely to. these are the various "beta" decays. w^- bosons will be emitted from up quarks to decay into electrons and anti-electron neutrinos. w^+ bosons will be emitted from down quarks and can *either* emit a positron and an electron neutrino, *or* absorb an electron from the atom and emit an electron neutrino (and a gamma ray photon from the electron "falling into the nucleus") --- z^0 bosons? well these are not charged. and they don't participate in changing flavour. think of them as massive photons that exchange momentum between particles that don't have to be charged (including exchanging momentum between photons). but they're so massive they rarely interact at all anyway, so they're pretty negligible all things considered. --- virtual particles: this is such a big topic... i'll link you my favorite article on the subject though: _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://profmattstrassler.com/articles-and-posts/particle-physics-basics/virtual-particles-what-are-they/"
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would someone be able to describe in lamens terms what long-term potentiation is? | i have an idea but it would help to get a professional's perspective/answer on the topic. | i'm not sure how simple you want it, so i'm going to err on the side of "really simple" and lead off with a ridiculously simple analogy (if it's condescendingly simple, it's unintended and i apologize in advance). say you really love cookies, and you're in the middle of a park with a lot of people around you. you have boxes that can carry cookies, but its tiring for you to bring too many boxes at once, so lets say on day 1 you just bring one box for each person in the park around you. i come along and i happen to have a lot of cookies to give you, and i completely fill up your box. you get excited that now there's a person around who will give you cookies, and you have learned, hey, alkahdia will give me cookies. but, your cookie box was saturated by my cookies. so wherever i happen to be near you, you start bringing more boxes so you can carry more cookies. now we have a pretty good connection between us, me sending you lots of cookies and me bringing more cookies for you. of course, the other people in the park aren't doing anything for you and your love of cookies, so you don't bring out more boxes for them (again, cause it's tiring for you), so around them, you still have the one cookie box. now say that i'm a presynaptic neuron, you're a postsynaptic neuron, my cookies are neurotransmitters, and your boxes are neurotransmitter receptors. when i send you my neurotransmitters, you receive them on your receptors, and then (blah blah blah a bunch of cell biological steps that aren't important for understand the concept blah blah blah) and then you express more receptors, so you become more receptive to my neurotransmitters. it is now easier for me to stimulate you. the reason i made a point that you're in the middle of a park with a bunch of people around you and only i'm giving you cookies is this: long-term potentiation happens between two neurons at a time. just because me and you develop a stronger neurochemical bond doesn't mean that your bond with a third neuron is strengthened, too. these strengthened connection is basically how learning happen. i may be able to answer some greater details, but i'm only a student so my knowledge may fall short of everything you want to know. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does long term potentiation work? | the strengthened signal is due to postsynaptic ampa receptor upregulation. when the postsynaptic membrane is strongly depolarized, mg2++ is removed from the postsynaptic nmda receptor channels. this allows passage of ca2+ into the cell. ca2+ activates camkii and pkc which phosphorylate the ampa receptors. this leads to recruitment of ampa receptors to the plasma membrane and subsequently lower threshold for synaptic activation. ltd (long-term depression), the exact opposite of ltp, is activated by low intracellular ca2+. also, high intracellular ca2+ activates creb. creb signals for protein synthesis downstream to initiate long-term synaptic growth processes such as new dendritic spines and postsynaptic receptors. source: neuroscience undergraduate student | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what would happen if we had twice as many veins but they were half the size? (same amount of blood, same size heart) | great question! gonna tag this "human body" although it's much more in line with general "fluid mechanics." let's say in your situation, the human body still needs equal volumetric flow rate in both cases (have the same total quantity of blood flow per unit time.) volumetric flow rate is defined as: volumetric flow rate (q) = fluid velocity (v) * cross-sectional area (a) so if the cross-section a gets smaller (smaller veins, or a smaller pipe) the velocity v must increase to achieve the same flow rate q. now, the [darcy-weisbach equation](_url_0_) describes the relationship between relevant parameters in terms of the "pressure drop" in pushing fluid through a pipe. that expression reads delta p = l * f * rho/2 * v^2/d where "delta p" is our pressure drop, which we can interpret as "how hard the heart/pump has to work to move the fluid", l is the length of the pipe/vein (which we're gonna assume constant cause it has to make a round trip), rho is density treated as a constant, v is velocity and d is pipe/vein diameter. f here is the dimensionless "darcy friction factor" and it is proportional to 1 / (vd). treating everything else as constant, we then have the pressure drop is proportional to v / d^2 . re-writing v in terms of the volumetric flow rate q where v = q/a, and area a is pi(d/2)^2 for a circular cross-section, we have pressure drop ~ q / ( pi * (d/2)^2 * d^2 ) ~ 4q / (pi d^4 ) or that *pressure drop is inversely proportional to the diameter to the 4th power* if you hold the volumetric flow rate to be the same. in your case, that says if we drop the veins to half their original diameter but maintain the flow rate, **you need 16 times more pressure to move the same amount of fluid.** this is actually a very important simple result in the context of plaque build-up in human blood vessels and the effect on the heart. if arterial plaque reduces the radius of a blood vessel by "just" 5%, moving the same amount of blood requires 20% higher blood pressure! | 118 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darcy%E2%80%93Weisbach_equation"
] | [
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|
how does the mechanism for how euvolemic hyponatremia causes hyponatremia work? | everything i read about it seems as though they are describing water retention pathways and dilutional hyponatremia which seems like it should be hypervolemic not euvolemic. | to summarize the background here * hyponatremia means decreased concentration of sodium in blood * euvolemia means normal total water in blood * you ingest water and sodium * you lose water mainly through urine (but also sweat) * you lose sodium through urine the other important thing to know is that excretion (by the kidneys) of sodium and water are closely connected processes. also, they are regulated by a bunch of different processes, drugs, and stimuli, so it gets pretty complicated. to simplify, though, you can start with the assumption that the normal situation is that increased/decreased salt in blood leads to increased/decreased water in blood in order to maintain a pretty fixed sodium concentration (defined by sodium content / blood volume). so, to end up with hyponatremia, you have to: * increase water intake without increasing salt intake or * lose salt faster than you are losing water i already told you that normally lose salt and water together so that the concentration of sodium stays the same, which means that in order to lose salt faster than water there has to be a second process in place. for example, if you are losing salt and water, but then water loss leads to dangerously low blood pressures, your body will start compensating by trying to retain water *even though* that will lead to hyponatremia, because acute hypotension will cause much more damage much faster than acute hyponatremia. a classic way to get dilutional euvolemic hyponatremia is to pee a lot and hydrate only with water. you lose salt and water, you replete water → euvolemia hyponatremia. you can also end up in this situation is if something is not normal — for example, if your kidneys fail, then regulation of salt and water in blood will be off, and you can develop euvolemic hyponatremia. finally, we have drugs that regulate water retention and salt retention, which means that we can disrupt the normal process with drugs, and that can also lead to euvolemic hyponatremia. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the odds of anything? degrees of freedom in the universe, according to information theory? | a [hot new book](_url_0_) by a very distinguished scholar is being released. the synopsis asks: > what is the likelihood that self-reproducing life forms should have come into existence spontaneously? what is the likelihood that, as a result of physical accident, a sequence of viable genetic mutations should have occurred that was sufficient to permit natural selection? i'm not asking r/askscience to defend or refute these claims or this person's work; but my first reaction was, "*in an infinite universe, the odds of anything are pretty much 1.*" i mean, even here on earth, in human society, things with one-in-a-million odds happen to several people per day (e.g. lightning strikes). so i ask you to shed some light on this area that's fuzzy to me: what is this idea of *degrees of freedom*? how many does our universe have, and what are the implications of that? space may be infinite, but surely the universe, as we conceive it, cannot be the sum of all possibilities, so how can the questions posed by this philosopher be squared with the notions of possibility and probability, as they exist at universal scales? | an infinite set is not a complete set. even in an infinite universe, there will be an infinite number of events that never happen. | 3 | [] | [
"http://redd.it/w2qi2"
] | [] | [
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[hypothetical] depleting a piezo crystal? | you have a quartz crystal, insulate it from the environment and you cram it to create an electric charge. you collect the charge and store it without letting electrons flow back into the crystal. can you deplete a piezo crystal this way? what happens if you do this? is there a way to deplete a piezo crystal? | you don't create charge through piezoelectric effect, you redistribute it and create electric fields/voltage. the charge is still bound in the atomic orbitals \(quartz is insulating\), so the process wouldn't be much different from trying to strip electrons from a relaxed crystal. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why is it so hot (58 °c/136 °f) in mexico's cueva de los cristales (cave of crystals)? | it's is so hot, [people can only endure approximately ten minutes of exposure at a time.](_url_0_). why? is it close to an underground plume of magma? other, deeper caves are cold. | well, you have a geothermal gradient of ~25 degrees / km normally. however, this cave is sitting over a pool of magma, which raises the temperatures a lot more than the expected 25 °c/km. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_of_the_Crystals"
] | [
"http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/11/crystal-giants/shea-text"
] | [
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particles and antiparticles during grand unification | as i understand it, during the theorized grand unification epoch, photons were spontaneously generating particle-antiparticle pairs. however, if the electromagnetic force was not yet separate, i assume that electrical charge was meaningless and so was the distinction between particle and antiparticle. is this true, and if so, how could they annihilate each other? | it's not that *photons* are spontaneously generating particle/antiparticle pairs. it's that energy is sloshing around between all of the primordial fields through their various couplings. and these fields differ in ways beyond just simple electrical charge. as the universe cools down, the energy "freezes out" in whatever field it's in, and as symmetry breaks these fields continue to interact but now through what we recognize as the several fundamental forces and fundamental particle species. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in what situations is it better to have higher voltage and lower current? | i know p=vi. in what situations is it better for the voltage to be higher and current lower but the power stays the same and vica versa? | your question is a bit vague, but here is one scenario. any time you wish to transport power (especially direct current) over a significant distance, you'll find that you lose less to transmission when your voltage is higher - power loss is represented by r*i^2 . this means that given a certain resistance, the lower the amperage, the lower the power loss. you can move a lot of power with a high voltage and a low current, minimizing that power loss. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to an interferometer moving relativistically fast? | say you have a michelson interferometer with one leg in line with the motion of a spaceship and the other leg perpendicular to it. as the leg in line with direction of travel lorentz transforms, would the fringes look different? | the rest system of the interferometer is aequivalent to all other inertial systems according to special relativity. thus, it does not matter if the interferometer is moving or not. the interference pattern does not change. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens at the connection points when electricity travels through a not particularly conductive material? (and other questions) | i was looking at [this](_url_0_). also, [original video here](_url_1_) my shallow understanding of electricity is that elections travel from negative to positive. if that's the case, why are there burns on both terminals? is the because it's ac? if so, if you did this with dc would it only have burns on one side? also, how come the wood doesn't sustain a fire? it seems like once there is a nice charred pattern the carbon build up increases conductivity, if that's the case why doesn't it just take the first path every time? why are there extra wandering paths? thanks. | the movement of charge carriers generates heat no matter what direction they are travelling and it is the heat that causes the wood to char/burn. the current starts at one electrode, spreads out as it flows through the wood, then reconverges and exits the other electrode (possibly reversing direction at 60 hz as you mentioned). that means the density of current flow, and therefore heating, is highest near the electrodes and the wood there burns first. it looks like she is using plywood (with a layer of veneer) which is dense, contains not-very-flammable glue, and sometimes even has flame-retardant chemicals added to it. that's correct, and once the spreading paths touch most of the current does take that first connected path. if you watch carefully you can see that after the paths touch the connected route gets thicker and burns much more quickly (higher current flow) and the other unconnected paths basically stop spreading. the current doesn't all immediately follow that particular path from the start because its resistance is probably very similar to the many other possible paths. before there is any charring the resistance is fairly uniform, it's only once the final path has become mostly charred that its resistance is significantly lower. | 8 | [] | [
"http://redd.it/19mkxw",
"http://vimeo.com/60814695"
] | [] | [
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sum of divergent series. in our casual maths class. would someone care to explain? | i'm doing my last year in a school for 16 to 18 year-old-students in finland. nothing fancy, casual stuff. keeping that in mind the sixth (out of 9) question of our test was: > -1 + 2 - 2^2 + 2^3 - 2^4 + 2^5 . . . equals to -1/3 > is this wrong or right? prove it. i think i was the only one in our class to actually claim the equation was correct. in our books it says *if q, that is the common multiplier of a geometric sum, is larger than one, the sum will diverge and can't be calculated.* however being interested in maths i tried once the way numberphile showed the -1/12, and got -1/3. | the problem is that before asking that kind of question, we should first understand the question "what does it mean to add an infinite number of terms together" ? turns out it is not very intuitive, and there are a lot of potential problems. how can i add an infinite number of things together ? should it depend on the order in which i sum the terms ? if i sum the same number of -1 and 1, should the result be 0 ? and so on ... these questions are not trivial at all. so, we have a precise definition to help us settle this. it states that if we have a sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , ... then we look at the so-called *partial sums* : sn = a1 + a2 + ... + an if the sequence of partial sums converges to a limit, then we say that the series converges and that we **define** the sum of the series to be equal to this limit. (i emphasize the fact that this is a definition, not a consequence of some computations). and we denote this sum by a1+a2+a3+... . otherwise, we say the series diverges and in this case, it doesn't have a sum. so in your example, the partial sums diverges, and hence there is no sum. hence the sentence is wrong. but the story doesn't stop here because mathematicians are not easily defeated. they don't want to leave things undefined if they can find a way around it. so they create new definitions. the idea is to get a procedure that will give the correct value for convergent series, but that will also give a value to certain divergent series. they call it the "something-sum". a simple one is the cesaro-sum where instead of looking at the sequence of partial sums, you look at the sequence of averages of partial sums. it gives the exact same result for convergent series, but it gives new things when you apply this definition to certain divergent series (for example 1-1+1-1+1 ... is a divergent series but its cesaro-sum is 1/2) the problem is that we have to be careful because these "something-sum" do not always behave like usual sums. for example, you can have a "something-sum" of positive number that is negative. (and such things were not possible with the usual sum). so we should never use these methods without explicit reference. so back to the initial problem, the series -1+2-2^(2)+2^(3)-... is divergent and hence doesn't have a sum. however, there are extended definitions where the "something-sum" of this series is equal -1/3. but, be careful, we don't have the right to write that -1+2-2^(2)+2^(3)-... = -1/3 because -1/3 is not the *sum* of the series. it represents something else. ps : the definition of these methods are out of reach for students in high school, and the "trick" using the formula for the sum of a geometric series is not rigorous at all. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1x4ni5/could_someone_explain_this_1_2_3_4_112/"
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how do you measure someone's stress levels? | how do people know for sure when someone has high levels of stress on them? i can only get an idea that some is stressed by the symptoms they show like being very irritable or anxious, but i'm not 100% sure if they're stressed. . . can a person's stress level only be measured by the symptoms they show, how they act? how do you measure someone's stress? | you could always try asking people how stressed they are. use a scale from 1 to 10 if you're feeling fancy :-) the most common indicator in the stress literature is cortisol but honestly it is plagued with a lot of problems. the truth of the matter is people can have similar cortisol levels and one will say they feel "pumped and ready to go!" and another will say they are "stressed and overwhelmed." | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens if the pineal gland is removed? | the process is called a "pinealectomy" (for your googleing pleasures). the pineal gland has an active role in suppressing many of the other major endocrine glands, pituitary, adrenal, gonads. upon removal of the pineal gland you will see a physical growth (which i assume corresponds to increase in hormone production) within this glands. source: _url_0_ (i am hoping someone with active journal subscriptions can pull up a better paper) | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://wurtmanlab.mit.edu/static/pdf/3.pdf"
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|
is there a way to achieve ambidexterity? | i'm a med student planning on becoming a surgeon, i have excellent precision and ability on my right hand, but on my left hand not so very much. so its there a way i can improve on this? | so the brain is quite plastic when it comes to learning and perfecting motor movements. you just have to shape the dexterity into your left hand by practicing. try doing everything with your left hand and avoid using your right hand for a while. if there is a really complex task you wish to perform with your left, then slowly shape the behavior one step at a time ( i'd start at the last step and work my way up). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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friction and cold correlation | i have noticed that the colder things become, the less friction they seem to have. i was wondering why this is? what i think might be the case is that the lack of motion on the molecular level, due to the temperature of the object, decreases the amount of friction that the object will experience. i expect to be wrong and appreciate all your time in explaining this to me. | i suspect that you're conflating "ice is slippery" with "cold things have less friction." i don't think that there's a correlation at all. even with ice, warmer ice is more slippery than colder ice, since part of its slipperiness is due to a very thin layer of melt between the glider and the ice due to frictional heating, which is harder to generate as the ice gets colder. ( [link](_url_0_) ) other slippery things aren't cold at all, such as oil. it's just that textbooks like to use ice as the example for whatever (probably cultural) reasons. if you look back at galileo and newton, the discussions are more frequently about perfectly polished spheres and oiled tracks. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=EjGsPSoYHOIC&lpg=PA41&ots=_aFRkes0na&dq=coefficient%20of%20friction%20of%20ice%20with%20temperature&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q=coefficient%20of%20friction%20of%20ice%20with%20temperature&f=false"
] | [
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what happened to gliese 581g? | i remember the red dwarf star system, gliese 581, being in the news roughly a year ago. first it was the excitement over gliese 581c, a super earth, which i believe was confirmed. then there was indications that there may have been a smaller planet ("g") that wouldbe more likely to support life. it was better situated in the goldilocks zone, and smaller than c. it was to be only about 4 earth masses. it's existence was also unconfirmed the last i heard. i can't seem to find any new information on it, so i was wondering if anything has changed. i know many things in astronomy take time to conform because you have to give time to track star-wobble and use parallax techniques and all that. i know many more potentially life-hosting, extrasolar planets have been spotted, but i'm especially curious about the gliese system for some unknown reason. have there been any recent developments in confirming the existence or non-existence of gliese 581g? | i saw [this](_url_0_) minutes after reading your post. until then, i knew nothing of this gliese 581c/g you speak of. last paragraph: sorry to be the bearer of bad news, but at least we don't have to worry about them coming here to steal all our water! | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cbc.ca/news/offbeat/story/2011/09/13/science-habitable-expolanet.html"
] | [
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what is the most current (and correct) theory of decision making? | i know this is a rather broad question, but i'm familiar with simon's work as well as kahneman's. have there been any more recent theories on a general framework theory of decision making, which have updated (based on new evidence from behavioral economics, psychology, neuroscience), for instance, prospect theory? | good question, and i'm surprised to see that there haven't been any responses yet. dual process theories of decision making are probably the sort of thing that you're looking for. broadly, they're the idea that we have two different systems of decision making; system one is fast, intuitive, and evolutionarily old, whereas system two is slower, evolutionarily recent (many consider it to be exclusive to humans) and more accurate. if you've read kahneman's *thinking, fast and slow* you'll have been exposed to dual process theory already. probabilistic models of decision making also seem very popular at the moment, although they extent to which they're rivals to dual process theories (as opposed to complementary) is somewhat debated - the current popular opinion is probably swinging towards the idea that they're complementary. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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