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i know that lines of magnetic induction never terminate, but can they form knots? if so, is it physically interesting somehow? | yes they can. the main application for this is in fusion reactors. these are usually donut (torus) shaped, and the magnetic field lines go around horizontally and vertically at different spatial frequencies. if the field lines go horizontally and vertically around in ratios that are not co-prime (e.g. three horizontal loops for every two vertical loops), the magnetic field lines form a [torus knot](_url_1_). [this pdf](_url_0_) has a bunch of info and neat pictures on the topic of magnetic knots in fusion reactors. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.maths.dundee.ac.uk/scandelaresi/publications/seminars/mhd_topology.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torus_knot"
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|
whenever i see images from scanning tunneling electron microscopes, there is a grey, fluidy background. what is this background and why is it there? | noticed this as well on the new short animation by ibm using hydrogen atoms. when the atoms moved, you would see a ripple, like water, around the atom. it can't be electrons because hydrogen would not have that many rings. a little help?! | they use all [sorts of colors](_url_2_) (that image is from ibm as well). it's [carbon on a copper surface](_url_1_), and yes, the ripples are the [density of surface electrons](_url_0_). this has nothing to do with the concentric electron orbits in the bohr model of the atom. the bohr model is wrong; atoms don't look like that. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://physics.aps.org/story/v3/st30",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-22364761",
"http://www.astronoo.com/images/particules/atome-fer-stm.jpg"
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is there such thing as compression illness? | i understand that high pressure gases dissolve in liquids, and the release of these dissolved gases is what causes divers to experience decompression illness. is there ill effect from experiencing a rapid change from low to high pressure? | there are two big issues, oxygen toxicity and gas narcosis. _url_2_ _url_3_ most gases, including nitrogen and oxygen, when breathed at high partial pressure can cause potentially dangerous alteration of consciousness. having oxygen pressure too high has the added bonus of potentially causing seizures and a wide variety of other effects that i'll let you read about in the oxygen toxicity article. the suddenness of onset actually isn't important, but these two effects lead to different gas mixtures being used for particularly deep diving. _url_0_ _url_1_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_blending",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimix_(breathing_gas)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis"
] | [
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what would it be like to be on a planet in a quasar galaxy. | i've tried to research this question on the internet but didn't come up with much. assume our own milky way galaxy has a quasar at its center, i.e. it has an active core. what would it be like to be on earth? would the sky be flooded with blinding visible light? would the earth be flooded with deadly x-ray radiation or other deadly radiation? would life be completely impossible? would there be liquid water or would that boil away? | i am in a group that studies quasar host galaxies. that is galaxies with a quasar in them. this is an active field so things are always changing but this answer will be my best guess considering current research. lets only consider disk galaxies. in that case most of the emission from the quasar will not get into the disk. the high energy radiation will be mostly blocked by a region of thick molecular clouds around the quasar. at the distance of earth it would probably look impressive in the night sky. but probably have no greater significance for life. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what's best to do if exposed to acid? | hold the exposed area under a stream of cold running water for 10-15 minutes. this washes away the acid, and cools the tissue at the same time. dilution of conc acid releases a lot of heat, so the burns are both thermal and chemical. remove any clothes that the acid has soaked into. read msds data for the actual acid involved for exact recommended emergency procedures. e.g. [msds for sulfuric acid](_url_1_) [msds for nitric acid](_url_0_) for severe exposure, call emergency medical services right away. always remember to use the fume cupboard when handling hazardous chemicals and wear your safety goggles. | 43 | [] | [] | [
"http://fscimage.fishersci.com/msds/16550.htm",
"http://fscimage.fishersci.com/msds/22350.htm"
] | [
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|
can the principles of science be applied to make moral choices? | relevant, but could be considered opinion rather than science: _url_0_ the idea is that overall human well-being is something that can be measured, and something that has observable responses to changes in societal structure. as an extreme example, people are less well-off under a genocidal maniac dictator than under a free democracy. at the same time we consider the leader of that first society immoral because of the suffering he causes. theoretically you could measure the outcome of various actions in a hypothetical moral situation, and science would be the process of determining what actions and policies lead to the greatest well-being. it's a pretty utilitarian point of view, but more scientifically sophisticated than the utilitarianism you'd read about in a freshman political philosophy course. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ted.com/talks/sam_harris_science_can_show_what_s_right.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_ethics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_humanism"
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|
how much percent of our muscles do we use? | we use less than 10% of our brain. when i lift something or flex a muscle, how much percent of my muscle am i using? | i don't know the answer to your question but is not believed to be true to the best of my out of area knowledge. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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under the fluid mosaic model of plasma membranes, how can something with the consistency of oil give rise the various visible structures of animal cells? | i'm assuming the answer has something to do with the protein content of the extra-cellular matrix. | i think one of the key answers here is in the role of cholestrols in membranes - they help to regulate the fluidity of the membranes. it's also much harder to go from just a mass of lipids to a cell - there are several expiriments you can see videos of where they tip lipids into a solution and you can see small aggregrates, really proto membranes form. in (?all) living things, cells are always the division of an exisiting cell, much easier to chop in half and still have most of the bits, on random average, that you need to have a cell. in short ecm doesn't play much, if any of a role - this can be seen by simply plucking an bacterial cell out and placing it in a sterile solution devoid of any other material - the cell maintains it's shape and often motility and all other functions. as previously mentioned, it's the bits that embed in the membrane that are key | 3 | [] | [] | [
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would i get electrocuted doing this? | if you are in the us, in a standard well-wired building, then it theoretically wouldn't be a risk, since this is the ground. however, the better and more safe thing to do would be to find the circuit-breaker, switch off the electricity going to the pertinent outlet (perhaps plug in a non-grounded thing to make sure that the right switch in the circuit breaker switches it off), and then pull out the prong when you know the whole outlet is dead. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the psychology behind rioting and looting? | in light of the recent events in ferguson, mo, what motivates people to riot and loot in response to police shootings? how do people rationalize their actions in these situations? it seems to me that labeling anyone involved as a "thug" misses the point. how can we ever hope to prevent riots like these if we don't understand why they happen? | civilized society is a contact amongst people, who agree to follow a set of rules and laws, and in turn increase their chances at having a safe and happy life. rioting is often a reaction by a group when the sentiment within the group is that the powers they be have violated that contract, and will not be held accountable. in the mo. example, a young, unarmed black man was shot in the back by government representatives. the sentiment in the black community is that the police, the government, and this society, subject blacks to unnecessarily harsh, sometimes fatal treatment, and are not accountable. human beings have a strong impulse against perceived injustice, and so generally refuse be cheated. therefore, a violation of the social contract is met with escalation and a rejection of their obligation to the contract in turn. this is why the hood is generally less enamored of soldiers, police, judges and politicians, and this is why, when an event perfectly reflects the perceived injustice, things boil over. now, why loot stores and not go burn down city hall? because most people aren't sadistic, just self interested, and what has kept them from taking that flat screen was the now-defunct social contract. this is why you see looting primarily, not violence---you were given diplomatic immunity, would go murder people? or would you walk right to the bank? most people don't want to murder, but they also don't want to be beholden to a system that grinds them down 10x more than it lifts them up. now, why don't they feel any empathy towards the small business owners? well, a riot is a hectic time, and people are just acting, not taking votes on who to loot, but it's also true that the group likely sees business as being on the other side, the side the government cheats for. and if you wonder why they can't draw that distinction, then you are probably also smart enough to wonder why the cops can't draw a distinction between a black man with a weapon that's attacking them, and a black man without a weapon that's running away. maybe everybody needs to be a little more selective with their targets. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the karrick process the best way to use coal? | offhand, there is the [fischer-tropsch](_url_0_) process which converts a feedstock such as coal or biomass to synthetic fuel/oil and other byproducts. some researchers at my university (colorado school of mines) are working on reactors to run a f-t process on combined coal-biomass feedstocks. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer%E2%80%93Tropsch_process"
] | [
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|
what will be the most major scientific breakthrough of the next ten years, in your field? | i'm a lawyer. i suspect the breakthrough of the next 10 years will be accepting something that has been accepted by science for the last 20 years. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a way to artificialy change wavelenght of light? | for example if i have a monochromatic light source and lets say it emits light with 600nm wavelenght. is it posible to increase/decrease this wavelenght without changing the source? | yes, you can achieve such an effect by taking advantage of a variety of [nonlinear optical effects](_url_3_). one of the best examples of such an effect is called [frequency doubling](_url_1_). the idea is that you pass an intense beam through a nonlinear crystal and inside of the crystal pairs of photons will effectively fuse to give rise to a third photon with twice the frequency. this technique may sound exotic, but it is in fact quite ubiquitous. for example, most common green laser pointers actually use a 1064nm beam (generated by a neodymium doped crystal, e.g. [nd:yag](_url_2_)) which is then frequency doubled to 532nm. there also exists a simpler but more indirect method to effectively change the wavelength of the light, where you use the initial beam to pump a dye, which will then re-emit the light ([fluoresce](_url_0_)) at a lower frequency. this method, called downshifting, is used extensively for a variety of applications. for example, many modern lcd displays use a blue led as the initial excitation source, and then use green and red emitters to create the full rgb spectrum. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-harmonic_generation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nd:YAG_laser",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics"
] | [
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if we are initially interested by trivial things like playing world of warcraft/farmville, what causes the brain to lose interest over time? | is there a neurological/psychological explanation as to why the brain just flat out loses interest in something it previously found to be highly stimulating? keep in mind we are talking about trivial activities and not actually taking substances etc. | according to some sources ([this one](_url_0_), for instance), some dopamine receptors are responsible for rewarding us for finding something novel. while games like wow successfully hijack this mechanism by constantly offering something new to the players, like quests, locations, events, the foundation of this mechanics is the same. quest line leads gamers from grinding in one location to the next one, and so on. this is a speculation on my part, but i assume that this kind of subtle stimulation can also become too repetitive to reward for. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v12/n1/abs/ng0196-78.html",
"http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Variable_ratio"
] | [
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brainstorming ideas for prion treatment | after reading some literature on alzheimers, my friend and i noticed the plaques produced were much the same as in prion diseases such as cjd. since (really, to the pleasure of r/trees from what i hear) canabinoids (and specifically canabidiols) inhibit these plaques from being formed. anyways, the science behind it is that the actual stuff that causes the damage with prions is these beta amyloid plaques of (just for arguments sake, don't lay me purists) prpsc (that are normally alpha helices in situ when constitutively produced with the expression of prp). the cannabis stops these plaques from forming in these diseases (it's in the lit, i checked). also, we know areas of the brain that get affected by these prions. sooooo.....heres what i think. we know that there are certain cell markers on neurons in different areas in the brain (i really, really don't wanna list them all, so lets call the marker on the putaman neurons "a"). we know that we can (for the most part) attenuate a hepadna virus, which has reverse transcriptase. say we engineer an envelope for it to cross the bbb (easily done with a bit of lab magic...they made me do it all summer for oncolytic viruses). we also engineer the viral dna (via transinfection leading to genetic recombination, or even a specific insertion with some re's) to express genes for a shit ton of cannabis receptors. and say we find out a the pattern of a molecule on the putamen-specific a markers, such as a certain titer of sialic acid residues on the surface. we target the attenuated virus to infect those cells, let the provirus integrate itself into the genome...and see the cells become covered in the cannabis receptors. it would increase the efficacy of it beyond all belief, at least according to some base line western blot tests run in mice a couple years ago (it's up on pub med if your interested). anyone up for a talk with me about this? | i worked on the biophysics of protein aggregation, so i can toss my 0.02£. 1) you talk about increasing cannabinoid *receptors*. is therefore what happens from the cannabinoid signaling pathway what counteracts amyloid aggregates, instead of the cannabinoid molecule *per se*? link? 2) remember that what is really toxic is not the late-stage aggregate, like amyloid fibers and plaques, but are the small transient oligomers which form in early stages of aggregation. they are also what spread the disease from neuron to neuron. if you tear down plaques and release oligomers, you are actually worsening the disease. 3) what about the side-effects of loading neurons with cannabinoid receptors? | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://cshprotocols.cshlp.org/content/2010/4/pdb.prot5407.abstract"
] | [
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someone mentioned "relativistic determinism" on here a few days ago, and i can't really wrap my head around it. how can an event still in my future already be in your past? | [the thread that led to this question](_url_0_) relativisticmechanic posts a diagram later to explain, but i don't understand *why* the diagram of events looks like that. i'm really not getting this at all, which is a little exciting, but frustrating, too. | let's consider you, right where you are at the moment you read this. we'll compare everything else to that. in relativity, we use the word *event* to mean what is occurring at a certain location and at a certain time, so there is the *event* of you reading this now (location: wherever you are when you browse the web; time: whenever you read this post). we will call this our base event. all the rest of the events in the universe (each of which has a location and a time) can be divided into three categories: 1. there are those events that you at the base event could in principle affect -- e.g., travel to or get a message to. 2. there are those events that could, in principle, be affecting you at the base event -- e.g., agents at those events could have traveled to or sent a message to you at this point in space and time. 3. there are those events that you at the base event could neither affect nor or be affected by. things in category 1 are events that are in the base event's *future*. since you can't travel faster than the speed of light, there are some events that would occur at a later time for you, but they are so far away, you could never reach them. for example, if you wanted to influence the mars rover one second from the base event, you'd be out of luck; although it's at a later time as far as you're concerned, it is out of reach. it is not in category 1. things in category 2 are events that are in the base event's *past*. since nothing else can travel faster than the speed of light, there are some events that occur at an earlier time for you but which could not have affected you at the base event. category 1 is called the base event's *future lightcone* in relativity, and category 2 is called the base event's *past lightcone*. since nothing can travel faster than the speed of light, and since the speed of a light beam is the same relative to every observer, everybody in every reference frame will agree on which events are in the base event's future lightcone and which are in the base event's past lightcone. now there is category 3. these are objects are said to be *spacelike* separated from you at the base event. you can neither affect these or be affected by them. it includes anything that occurs at the same time as the base event but at a different location, as well as things that occur at a later time according to your clocks but are far enough away that you couldn't get there (because you'd have to travel at a speed greater than the speed of light), and things that occur at an earlier time according to your clocks but are far enough away that they could not affect you (because they'd have to send something at a speed greater than the speed of light to reach you). relativity tells us that exactly which events in category 3 occur at the same time as, which occur later than, and which occur earlier than the base event will be different relative to different observers. since these events can't affect the base event and vice-versa, however, there is no problem with this; there is no way to conjure up a measurement that would be make an absolute determination of which came first, precisely because you can't have any of these affect the base event or vice-versa. now i realize this doesn't tell you why relativity leads to this conclusion, but it should give you some understanding of why this conclusion of relativity does not lead to problems with past and future and cause and effect. edit: just fixed some language. | 14 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1046ug/how_does_a_real_life_warp_drive_work_how_can_we/c6ad5uq"
] | [] | [
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why/how does exercise lower blood pressure? | sorry if this has been asked before. i searched but could not find it here. from what i've been able to gather, exercise increases cardiovascular efficiency, so the heart does not have to push as hard to move blood around, but i'm not sure how exercise does that. is it related to the muscles in our blood vessels, or maybe just clearing out physical blockage in our capillaries? | now first let me state that any amount of exercise will be beneficial to your cardiovascular health, there are many causes for hypertension (high bp) and the effects of exercise will vary based on that. for example, you can be very fit but still have hypertension that is caused by a hormonal thyroid problem. that said, there are actually a number of reasons why (that we know of through research; quite possibly other pathways as well)! here are the major ones: 1. exercise makes your blood more efficient at delivering oxygen. because your tissues need more oxygen when you exercise, your body produces more rbcs through bone marrow, which promotes vasodilation (=less bp). 2. exercise brings more oxygen into your body. because your lungs are more efficient and more powerful at bringing in oxygen, you have more oxygen dissolved in your blood. higher partial pressures of oxygen in blood causes vasodilation. 3. exercise improves the strength of skeletal muscles. skeletal muscles act as a pump on veins to return blood to the heart, thus reducing the need for high pressure on your blood vessels. 4. exercise reduces stress hormones. these hormones act on your nervous system to increase heart rate and promote vasoconstriction (higher bp). exercise reduces this. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do conductors and insulators work? | i've been wondering about this for a while now, how is it that different atoms can pass electrons 'better' than others, and others not at all? is it something to do with an octate (hopefully the right word) configuration that makes some harder the pass, because that's my best guess right now. | conductors are generally extended solids where the valence band of electrons is occupied at the fermi level. in order to conduct electrons they must enter the "conduction band", which are unoccupied energy levels that begin just above the fermi level. in the case of a metal, the valence electrons form a continuous band up until the fermi level where the conduction band begins. what this means is that electrons need next to no energy in order to be in the conduction band and therefore, conducted. an insulator has a valence band that does not reach the fermi level and the conduction band begins above the fermi level. therefore in order to promote an electron into the conduction band, you require an input of energy which must overcome the "bandgap". [this picture](_url_0_) shows the case for different types of material. ef on the energy axis to the left is the fermi level, or fermi energy i was talking about. semi-conductors, which are also in the picture, have a band gap that is small enough to be overcome by, for example, uv-light. i have simplified a lot of concepts here so reading material on band theory would be the best in order to get a detailed understanding of this. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Band_filling_diagram.svg"
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what are the differences between methimazole for humans and methimazole for cats? | long story short, one of my cats needs methimazole to treat his hyperthyroidism. doing preliminary search on only google results, there is a form of methimazole that can be used for humans. i was curious about the differences between the methimazole that is used for humans and the methimazole used for cats? thank you. | the majority of medicines prescribed to pets are actually drugs made to treat humans. this is true for most chronic or acute conditions. most "pet only" drugs that are developed are preventative medications like flea, tick, and heartworm. this is why you should always price shop for your pet's meds. if the vet is prescribing a med that is also for humans, you should never buy it from the vet. go to costco, no need for a membership to use their pharmacy, and i guarantee it will be cheaper. never, ever, buy directly from the vet and always ask if there is an equivalent human med to treat whatever condition your pet has. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i introduce heat to a sample of pepto bismol and am left with bismuth subsalicylate, is there anything i can do it to make it like a pure sample of bismuth with the right angle crystallizations ? | i've always wanted a sample of bismuth but i live in a remote part of canada, and if this is possible it seems like a fun alternative to spending a lot of money to order it. | it's easier than that. just go buy some [lead-free fishing weights](_url_1_). these are usually bismuth now-a-days. you should do some checking first just to be sure of the particular brand that you intend to buy. now that you have elemental bismuth... bismuth is one of the easier things to grow crystals of. you can grow your own crystals based on these instructions from the [chemistry in its element](_url_0_) podcast. edit: forgot to include the link to crystal growth. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/Interactive_Periodic_Table_Transcripts/Bismuth.asp",
"http://www.leadfreefishingtackle.com/"
] | [
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this is getting tossed around as debunking climate change. | found [this](_url_0_) claiming that this study debunks climate change. i'm slowly working my way through it now, but, well, i'm not a climatologist. can someone help break down for me? [orbital forcing of tree-ring data](_url_1_) | no, it certainly doesn't. this [realclimate article](_url_0_) has a good explanation of what's going on in the new study, and what its implications are. some excerpts: interestingly, this is left out in most of these "global warming debunked" articles which have popped up like mushrooms in the climate "skeptics" blogosphere. the "divergence", also sometimes known as "decline" (as in "hide the decline") is a phenomenon where high-northern latitude treerings stop mirroring actual temperatures in the mid 20th century. in other words, the authors extrapolate from their localized sample to global temperatures, but other, non-treering proxy reconstructions from more southern regions do not actually show the phenomena they found. and finally, schmidt and the others at realclimate point out that non-treering proxies actually show lower cooling than treering proxies, which—in direct contradiction to the new study—allows the conclusion that treerings *over*estimate cooling trends: > there are a few rather interesting observations here. one is that the moberg et al (2006) reconstruction, which–unlike all of the other reconstructions listed above–uses no tree-ring proxy data at all to estimate centennial and longer-timescale temperature variations, shows the smallest cooling trend of all. that is in contrast to esper et al’s hypothesis that including tree-ring data leads to reduced long-term cooling trends. | 5 | [] | [
"http://newsbusters.org/blogs/noel-sheppard/2012/07/11/new-study-thoroughly-debunks-global-warming-will-media-notice",
"http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nclimate1589.html"
] | [
"http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2012/07/tree-rings-and-climate-some-recent-developments/",
"http://newsbusters.org/sites/default/files/main_photos/2012/July/Global%20Cooling.png"
] | [
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is still water truly level? | we widely accept the fact that a completely still fluid will be level due to the forces of gravity. however, wouldn't the earth's rotation cause this to be slightly angled? i realize it would be a small amount, but my question is whether or not this exists. also, if it does, how do we account for this in precision measurements? | first you need to think carefully about what you mean by "level" keeping in mind that the earth is not a sphere for the exact reason you're asking about (centrifugal force stretches/flattens it into an oblate spheroid, see [equatorial bulge](_url_1_)). there are many possible definitions of level including: * (a) perpendicular to a line passing through the earth's center of mass * (b) parallel to a suitably chosen [reference ellipsoid](_url_2_) * (c) parallel to the [geoid](_url_0_) (a) assumes the earth is a sphere, (b) takes into account centrifugal force, and (c) adds local variations in the earth's gravitational field due to variations in density and terrain height. so if you use definition a then yes, there is tilt due to both centrifugal force and gravitational irregularities. in my opinion (b) makes the most sense in this context. in that case centrifugal force is already accounted for in your definition of "level" so it has no effect but local gravitational variations are not so, for example, if you are near the base of a very large mountain or near a large underground deposit of something very dense the surface of the water will be tilted slightly. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoid",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial_bulge",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_ellipsoid"
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why are theories that are "elegant" more likely to be accurate? | i've read in a number of pop science books that many physicist pursue theories that are "elegant". why is this? is it just a personal preference or is there some rational reasoning behind it? | that is another way of stating the occam's razor principle. when building theories, it is advisable to pursue the path of making the least assumptions, arriving at theories that offer more explanation than complexity. this is all, of course, open to interpretation and is by no means some sort of scientific law, rather a "best practice." | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://lesswrong.com/lw/2ks/a_proof_of_occams_razor/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probably_approximately_correct_learning"
] | [
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electric conduction through solution. | how does a solution of, let's say nacl, conduct electricity? i get how an applied voltage will make the cations go the cathode and the anions to the anode and since these are moving charges it can be considered a current, but how does this explain the electrons flowing in the wire. surely there must be a build-up of charge somewhere in the system since no electrons are being transfered between the anode and cathode. | as i remember it, the electrons are transferred into and out of the ions, producing chlorine gas and sodium at the respective electrodes. so there is a net flow of electrons through the circuit, carried by the ions in solution. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain the physics happening in this video (quantum levitation)? | i recently saw this video: _url_0_ what's going on here physically? what keeps the puck in the same orientation, for example? | without getting excessive, the lines of flux "magnetic lines of force" from the magnet are cutting through the inside of the puck ["type 2 superconductor"](_url_1_). since the puck is superconducting, when gravity pulls the puck toward or away from the magnet, an opposing magnetic force is induced by the [change in magnetic flux](_url_2_). this [induces an electric current](_url_3_) in the puck that counter acts the force of gravity on the puck. obviously the force applied by the human hand is more than this phenomenon can over come, there is a [limit to the magnetic force a superconductor can remain a superconductor in](_url_0_), and thus a limit to the current it can conduct without losing it's superconducting ability. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=Ws6AAhTw7RA"
] | [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/solids/scbc.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type-II_superconductor",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_flux",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction"
] | [
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what's wrong with the original definition of the gram? | according to wikipedia, the gram was originally defined as the mass of a cubic centimeter of water, and then later redefined as one thousandth of the mass of a particular metallic object. i've heard this was due to the isotopes in water causing minute variations, but we have since become much more adept at measuring isotopic differences, and presently use water to define our temperature scales. are there additional concerns preventing us from simply reverting to the original definition? | the push is to make si unit definitions that relate to fundamental constants of nature rather than the other way around. your example of the temperature scale is a good one. a degree kelvin is currently defined in terms of absolute zero and the triple-point of "vienna standard mean ocean water" which, as you point out, has a given specific ratio of isotopes. at the same time they are redefining the kilogram, they are also redefining the kelvin in terms of the boltzmann constant, which relates the average kinetic energy of a gas with its temperature. currently the boltzmann constant changes depending on the exact value used for 1 degree kelvin. going forward 1 degree kelvin will be defined based on a exact numerical value of the boltzmann constant. similarly for the kilogram, if we use the cubic centimeter of water definition, and someone comes along and makes a better measurement of that specific mass, the values of both the boltzmann constant and planck's constant will shift. by instead fixing the planck constant and making the definition of the kilogram dependent on that value, the unit becomes universally derivable. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does height/size of a person affect the minimum response time possible? | no, neural impulse move depending on the type of fiber, the neural impulse travels at speed ranging from a sluggish 2 miles per hour to, in some myelinated fibers, a 200 or more miles per hour..... 119m/s (muscles) 76.2m/s (touch) 0.61m/s (pain) source: necropsy expert/ex-girlfirend | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what did the lamprey evolve from? | i don't know if this is the best place to ask this, but after reading asoiaf i made the mistake of googling this disgusting creature and having several nightmares, i started to ask - what did it come from? what region of the world is it from? why is it so successful biologically? | lamprey are among the most primitive* vertebrates in the world, along with [hagfishes](_url_6_). unlike all other living vertebrates, these two groups have no jaws. the earliest vertebrates were "jawless fishes" including diverse [armored forms](_url_0_) alongside [unarmored types](_url_8_) more similar to the ones that remain today. jawless fishes populated the oceans long before vertebrates colonized the land and were highly successful. however, the [evolution of jaws](_url_9_) provided benefits in terms of both feeding and respiration (jaws allow fish to create suction to pull water through their gills while stationary). the jawed fishes, including nearly every fish species around today, replaced jawless ones for the most part, although a few stubborn groups (the hagfish and lamprey) have continued to thrive. where did jawless fish come from? from earlier non-vertebrate chordates. these were somewhat fishlike animals that sported a stiff [notochord](_url_1_) (a precursor to the backbone) along their bodies. very few of these remain today, but they are represented by the [lancelets](_url_5_). ([sea squirts](_url_2_) are also non-vertebrate chordates, but they took a hard left along the evolutionary road, so to speak, and ended up as headless filter feeders). vertebrates are chordates as well, but our notochord gets broken down during development and incorporated into the [discs](_url_3_) between our vertebrae. [lampreys](_url_7_) are found around the world, in freshwater and marine habitats. juvenile lampreys are mud-dwelling filter feeders, while the adults either feed parasitically on other fish by attaching to them or do not feed at all. ***** \* i want to preemptively clarify my use of the word "primitive." although common usage of "primitive" implies something like "coarse and inferior," that's not at all what i mean. it can be tempting to think of the species on earth as arranged in a sort of "chain" from lowly, simple creatures like protozoans and worms, to more complex, higher organisms like vertebrates, and especially humans. but this is not a good representation biological diversity. instead, each species is evolved for its particular lifestyle and nothing is strictly "more evolved" than another. what i mean by primitive in this context (and what evolutionary biologists generally mean by primitive) is that these organisms have retained certain ancestral traits that their relatives have replaced with newer evolutionary innovations. here, i am referring to the lack of jaws. however, there are probably many ways in which hagfishes and lamprey are independently innovative compared to jawed fishes. an example that comes to mind readily is the hagfish's legendary ability to [rapidly turn water into mucous slime](_url_4_). | 26 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracoderm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notochord",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunicate",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intervertebral_disc",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LLxShdxTDio",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancelet",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagfish",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamprey",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conodont",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnathostomata"
] | [
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] |
since pulsars have lighthouse like beams, does that mean we can only see the ones that point to us? | yes, the pole needs to point nearly towards us at some point in the rotation of the pulsar. [the beams are emitted in a shape with some opening-angle](_url_0_), not perfectly cylindrical laser-like beams, so we don't need to be looking perfectly down the pole. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ias.ac.in/jarch/jaa/16/107-117.pdf"
] | [
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|
question regarding einstein's train thought experiment, and the relativity of simultaneity | i'm looking at this diagram: _url_1_ and i'd like to modify the example scenario slightly. let's say that instead of lightning hitting the two ends of the train, mr. blue instead shoots a laser towards both ends of the train. furthermore, let's say that there are clocks on both ends of the train, which have been synchronized. let's say the train (and thus mr. blue) start off at rest relative to mr green, at some distance very far from mr. green, and they all have time to look at the clocks and agree that the clocks are synchronized (i'm assuming that if everyone is at rest relative to each other, they can agree to simultaneity). now let's say once that agreement is established, mr. blue then starts accelerating to almost light speed towards mr. green. since mr. blue and the 2 clocks are accelerating at the same rate, i'm assuming that mr. green still perceives the 2 clocks as being in sync with each other, and since the clocks are at rest relative to mr. blue, he also perceives the clocks to be in sync. now mr. blue shines his lasers. since the two clocks are at rest, i assume mr. blue perceives the laser to hit both clocks at the same time, and he can record what time the clocks indicated when the lasers hit. mr. green sees mr. blue shine his lasers, but since the clocks are moving, mr. green would see the laser hit the back clock before it hits the front clock, and since the clocks appeared to be in sync to mr. green, i assume he perceives the lasers to hit when the clocks indicated different times. so mr. blue and mr green disagree about what the clocks indicated when the lasers hit them. but this seems to contradict what i understand from _url_0_ particular the part that says: > where an event occurs in a single place–for example, a car crash–all observers will agree that both cars arrived at the point of impact at the same time. can someone clarify where my misunderstanding lies, and/or which assumption i made earlier turns out to actually be false, and why? | when you talk about them all looking at the clocks and agreeing they match, i presume we're saying not that they see the same readings at the same time (which is dependent on speed of light) but that they are corresponding to synchronized when that's taken into account? i'm not at present, delving into math/equations to back me up yet, my initial thought, though, is that this is an issue of length contraction and time dilation. once the train is in motion, the clocks would be no longer synchronized from the perspective of mr. green, and so one would see different times on the clocks. or, moreso, he'll observe the lasers hit the clocks when the displays are the same value, but he won't see the clock displays match at the same time once it's in motion, nor would he observe the clocks be struck by lasers at the same time in his reference frame and based on his clock. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Einstein_train_relativity_of_simultaneity.png"
] | [] | [
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is there a specific medical reason why 4 hours is the cutoff time to see a doctor after ed drug's effects won't go away? | or is there some arbitrariness to it? | there is some "arbitrariness" to it, although starting at 4 hours you begin to see microscopic changes of severe and possibly irreversible injury. [more than you probably want to know...](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2859143/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_cavernosum_penis"
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[astronomy] what do we think exists at 141ym? what do we think exists at 931ym? | so, time is the reason why we can't see beyond 141ym (correct?). since 140ym is the farthest estimate edge of our universe. what is theorized exists at 141ym? it is also theorized that the universe is 930ym. so, what is theorized beyond 931ym? | basically, the farther away we look, the farther back in time we see. when we look far enough, eventually we see a time where the universe was too hot for hydrogen to form and it was full of opaque plasma. we can't see beyond that, so the farthest thing we can see is the thermal radiation from this plasma as it de-ionized, 400,000 years after the big bang, which is the cosmic microwave background. if we greatly expand our neutrino and gravitational wave observation capabilities, it is possible we can see even further back. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do your muscles atrophy from disuse if you're otherwise getting enough calories/protein/etc? for example, when bedridden at hospital. | xie xie. | laziness. your body is designed(evolved, whatever) to be an extremely efficient system, and maintaining muscles that aren't being used is like leaving the door open to air condition a room that you never use. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i'd heard that bruce mccandless was given his own space object designation. is this true? | if you don't recognize the name, it's [this guy](_url_0_). according to someone i know (worked with the air force, worked on midstar-1 among other things) mccandless was given his own designation as a space object when he did the famous eva walk. is he right? | yes, he is correct. while mccandless was conducting his famous untethered mmu spacewalk back in 1984, he definitely was tracked independently by norad/ssn, and during that eva, i know he was classified as being an independent satellite. this is backed up by the fact that mccandless is officially designated as being the first human satellite above earth. i will have to do some digging to try to find some documentation to back that up and get his actual norad object tracking id number from the 1984 records, but i am quite certain that your usaf friend is correct. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_2100.html"
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say i run a process on my computer, and it takes 10 seconds to complete. will this process have involved signal travelling through a combined total of 10 light-seconds of circuitry? | (assuming of course there where no hdds involved- obviously those move a bit slower than c) | no. computers are large arrays of transistors that are hooked up to each other to form logic gates, then those logic gates are hooked together to form larger and larger computational units. when a signal enters a computational unit—say, an adder—it causes a cascade of transistors changing states, eventually causing the output of that computational unit to arrive at the appropriate value for whatever computation is being performed there. that area of the processor is in a steady state until the next time the clock changes and another cascade of transistor flipping occurs. even at this level the cpu is not continuously letting a signal bounce around. it's a discontinuous process, starting and stopping billions of times per second. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i trick myself to sleep by daydreaming, what's going on? | what you are most likely experiencing is a *hypnagogic hallucination*. this occurs when the alpha brain waves of drowsiness are switching to the slower theta brain waves as you are entering the first stages of sleep. stage 1 nrem, or non-rapid-eye-movement sleep (sometimes referred to as [*hypnagogia*](_url_0_)) is a transitional stage in which the sensations of the outside world are slowly disengaged. sounds that are familiar, such as the hum of an air conditioner, or passing vehicles gradually fade from conscious awareness. quickly regaining conscious alertness is possible in this stage of sleep if need be. *hypnagogic hallucinations* are possible during this stage of sleep. examples of this are hearing your name being called, loud crashes [(exploding head syndrome)](_url_1_), and feeling as if you're floating, or flying. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnagogia",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploding_head_syndrome"
] | [
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|
is chiroprathy a sham? | i thought it was a sham. now i'm undecided. what i do know is that my healthcare covers 100% of any chiropractic work done with no deductible, so i figured i'd try it just for funzies. the lady warned me that there'd be a great deal of endorphins released during my adjustments, to which i was skeptical. everything felt great and i cracked and popped all over the place and as i walked out the door i found myself smiling from ear to ear. it got me like i was walking on clouds for the rest of the morning. this happened a couple times over the course of a couple visits. all positive experiences. this group is much more concerned with science behind what is being done and they try to approach it that way. i liked that. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is an n-body problem where n > 3 "impossible" to solve? | title says it all. i know we can run gr simulations on computers over and over to predict n-body interactions, but what is it about the math that makes n-body problems "impossible" to solve except in restricted cases? | first of all, the n-body problem is a classical interaction of n-bodies, it isn't gr. there's several good reasons for this: 1. the n-body problem isn't solved, adding gr corrections will turn our large system of ode into a large system of pde, which is much worse. for starters one of the difficult questions in pde (which is long resolved in ode) is whether a system *has* solutions (we know the n-body problem has solutions, the problem is about their behaviour). this has been proven for gr equations in restricted cases, but is in general difficult. 2. the 'big picture' question doesn't need us to look at gr problems. the n-body problem is really a question of what is the long term behaviour of structures like our solar system and our galaxy. does it rotate periodically/quasiperiodically? do all object collapse into each other eventually? something in between? gr corrections aren't the dominant factors on these scales, they're important if you're looking at the motion of mercury, or motion of stars near the galactic core. the expansion of space is dominant if studying galaxies far from each other. but the question of the n-body problem can be answered to our satisfaction with classical mechanics. 3. even if classical mechanics didn't offer sufficient insight, there is still the problem of understanding what a large number of bodies, with a nonlinear interaction between them, do over long periods of time. this is very important to understand in ode and pde theory. the n-body problem itself isn’t ‘impossible’ to solve. it is most likely impossible to solve in the sense that we’ve solved the 2-body problem, where we can write out every solution using a finite, closed form expression of ‘easy’ functions like sine, cosine, exp(x), and polynomials. this is very likely (but i think not proven) for the n-body problem, we typically assume it to be impossible to do for most complicated ode and pde systems. but proving that a solution of that type doesn’t exist is hard as well, hell, there’s debate of what we should consider the ‘easy’ functions. one famous example of an question that doesn’t have an answer in easy functions is the integral of e^-x^2 (that is to say a function whose rate of change at any given point is e^-x^(2)), this doesn’t have a representation of that form, but it is such a common function that is well understood, so why shouldn’t it be considered an ‘easy’ function? now the n-body problem does have solutions in other representations, for example you could find a power series solution, you could also solve it approximately using numerics. both of these are a little bit unsatisfactory, power series solutions have all the properties of the solution but lack insight into its behaviour, an approximate solution gives you insight but only for a finite amount of time, to only 1 specific initial condition at a time, and with an error too high to be acceptable for mathematicians. what has been done for the n-body problem? i’ll give the story of a failed approach. first of all the system of concern is a newtonian system with no way to lose energy, this allows to reformulate the system using its energy with something called the hamiltonian formulation. the background of it is a bit technical and it involves a lot of mathematics, but the results are simple and beautiful. the idea is you represent particles by their position and momentum in what is called a phase space. for n particles there this is a 2n-dimensional space that their movements occupy. one nice insight is that you can then plot the energy as a function of these 2n variables, in a 2n+1-dimensional space. since energy is conserved the motion given an initial condition takes place inside of a 2n-dimensional slice of that plot. there is also a beautiful underlying geometric structure i won’t get into. now one of the wonderful facts of this approach is that if there are enough quantities that behave energy, in that they don’t change as the system does, you can rewrite the equation in a much simpler form. the system is what is known as ‘integrable’, and there is a coordinate set you can change to where n of the coordinates are constant, and n of the coordinates evolve linearly. with some additional assumptions on the structure of the system you can show that orbits are periodic or quasiperiodic. the two body problem has exactly this structure, and as you may imagine the initial data that yield elliptic and circular orbits has the additional structure needed. the existence of these coordinates have been proven by vladimir arnold, and generalized jurgen jost. another special and wonderful fact is that systems that are ‘close’ to integrable ones, in the sense that the system is (integrable) + (small not integrable component) then the periodic and quasiperiodic solutions of the integrable system can persist for an infinite time if certain criteria is met (and extremely long times if certain weaker criteria is met). the first of this was posed by kolmogorov, proven by arnold, and later generalized by jurgen moser. the latter, the ‘exponential stability’, was posed by arnold and proven by nikolay nekhoroshev. arnold was the one that thought we may view the problem of n-bodies as a perturbation on the integrable 2-body problem. he did the work and showed that all of the criteria was met, except there was a small error. the procedure of kam (komogorov-arnold-moser) theory is very delicate and it involves changing coordinates, then changing back to make corrections. this going back and forth requires a certain component of the system to be ‘nondegenerate’, essentially that you *can* invert it. it turns out this nondegeneracy does not hold for the n-body problem, which made the kam approach fail. the difficulties of the n-body problem: 1. there genuinely is no closed form solution made from a finite summation of easy functions 2. the system involves an arbitrarily large number of particles and nonlinearity, which makes problems in differential equations difficult 3. some of the famed and beautiful approaches, like kam theory, do not apply due to issues with the system, like degeneracy. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do brown dwarfs have cores? | since they're somewhere in between a star and gas giant, would a more star like brown dwarf lack a core, and more gas giant like brown dwarf have one? what about brown dwarfs smack dab in the middle? | it's a question of nomenclature. in a typical star, the core is where most of the fusion occurs. there is a physical difference between the core and, say, the radiative zone, or the convective zone of the star. in a brown dwarf, the composition is relatively homogeneous. [researchers often refer to the center of a brown dwarf](_url_0_) as the "core," but it's mostly convenient terminology, rather than a fundamental difference in properties. so if you take "core" to mean 'innermost part,' then yes, brown dwarfs have cores. if you interpret "core" to strictly mean 'the part of a star where nuclear reactions occur,' then there is no core. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/1305.0980v1.pdf"
] | [
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effect of changing body mass on blood supply/heart? | hello, i am currently going from long-time skinny tall guy to muscular tall guy, and i was wondering about how this affects my blood. obviously, more muscle will require more blood. but how exactly does this work? does the marrow (that's where blood is made, right?) need to work overtime to produce more blood for my larger muscles? will there be a lag there where i have bigger muscles, but not quite enough new blood yet? would it make a difference if you got bigger due to fat or muscle? what happens to all the extra blood if you lose weight? also, what about the heart? obviously you work your heart during the actual exercise.. but what about when you have more blood? how does your heart react to this? does it need to work harder when you're idle just to pump all this extra blood around? could you give yourself a heart attack by getting so muscular that your heart cannot pumping all that blood during a workout? | when you increase your body mass, you need to increase your blood volume to maintain your blood pressure, among other things, just as you predicted. when your body gets bigger, and you have more vasculature, the blood volume is relatively there decreased. your macula densa cells in your kidney sense a decrease in blood flow and activate what is called the renin angiotensin aldostorone system. it's a group of hormones that works together to essentially tell your kidneys to retain more salt, that would otherwise just get peed out. when it retains salt, water stays with it to maintain tonicity, or salt concentration. by keeping this water and salt, you are expanding your extracellular fluid, including your blood volume. as for your red blood cells, your kidneys also sense an inadequate amount which leads to secretion of eurethropoetin, which acts on your bone marrow, like you said, to increase red blood cell production. everything i said above takes a little time. so does building muscle. your body also has a few mechanisms to deal with reduced blood volume immediately, like the baroreceptors in your neck. i won't talk about those, though, since they wouldn't play a large role in long-term muscle building. as for your heart, it wouldn't notice much in the process since its so slow. however, if your blood pressure should go down a little, which it probably wouldn't, the chambers in your heart can secrete hormones just like your kidney does to promote fluid retention. they're called bnp and anp. also, your heart rate might go up a little to maintain cardiac output. a heart attack would not necessarily be more likely. a heart attack is a block in a blood vessel to your heart. that is not necessarily more likely just because you have more muscle and blood volume. if anything, exercise in a healthy person is good for the heart. hope that helps. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to cultured human cells at 4 degrees ? | hi there, recently i was harvesting some human cells (specifically 143b osteosarcoma cells) and i was wondering what exactly happens to a cell which has typically never been exposed to temperatures lower than 20 degrees. i know heat shock proteins exist, but do similar things exist for cold shock ? is there any known way in which human/mammalian cells attempt to adapt to 4 degrees. i have read that cells are normally okay to leave on ice for a while, but after a few hours they will die. is this because they are basically living without medium and they run out of an energy source, or does cell death happen immediately and the cold temperature slows down all the enzymes involved like caspases and so on ? thanks ! | this question's answer really depends on what situation you are interested in. it's possible to actively try to cryopreserve cells at 4ºc, for example. but you may be asking about cells that have been detached from a growth surface and are now floating in suspension so they can be manipulated. there are cold-shock proteins, but these proteins are really adaptations for more modest modest temperature drops, not something all the way down to 4ºc. in general, at the low temperatures you are asking about, metabolic and enzymatic activity of the cells is diminished and cell integrity is compromised (membrane and cytoskeleton). the ability to synthesize new proteins is also diminished and there are issues with nutrient and oxygen exchange. the end result is cells are stable for a while at low temperature, but then there are decreases in viability and ability to recover. if you are dealing with tissue culture situations with adherent cells you have detached from a monolayer, in addition to the issues above, you have removed cells from their preferred attached and comfortable state and probably stripped the surface of proteins (if you use trypsin). they do not immediately undergo cell death -- they are actually stable for some time and will recover if you return them to temperature, appropriate medium and have a place to re-attach. so the issue you are probably dealing with in this case has a lot to do with not letting them attach and lay matrix for themselves. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when an embryo is developing, how do the first few cells "decide" which end will be the head and which end will be the feet? | after the blastula, the embryo undergoes gastrulation where the germ layers are formed. these 3 germ layers will become all the different body tissues, and i'd recommend reading up on [germ layers](_url_0_). cells that differentiate do so by signalling cues from other cells through the process of signal transduction. these cues are not fully understood, but there are chemicals involved that affect which genes are read and by how much. these chemicals are released in specific patterns that govern how and when our cells differentiate. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer",
"http://biology.kenyon.edu/courses/biol114/Chap13/antennapedia.gif"
] | [
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|
how exactly does formalin work as a preservative while embalming corpses? how is the process carried out? | formaldehyde crosslinks proteins through the aromatic amino acids, making them resistant to enzymatic degradation. residual formaldehyde does the same to bacterial enzymes, killing the bacteria. dna and rna are also crosslinked through their bases, and this makes formalin-preserved specimens useless for genomic studies. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does tourettes exist in all languages and if so does it manifest itself differently in different cultures? | verbal tourettes is just a very small part of the disorder at about 12% of the individuals who have it and of those only a small percent expel curse words. most manifestations occur in physical repetitive motions such as tapping or twitching and can be as grand as siting down repeatedly. so yes it happens in all cultures in many different ways | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://blogs.plos.org/neuroanthropology/2012/05/16/not-allowed-to-have-a-small-heart-tourette-syndrome/"
] | [
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|
evolution: clarifying some gaps of my knowledge. | i recently read the god delusion (which has a large focus on evolution) and decided i want to know more about evolution, i have always believed it to be true due to evidence and general common sense. after looking about it online i learned a great deal and have ordered two books for further reading: 'the origin of species' and 'the greatest show on earth: the evidence for evolution'. however, i watched a video called 'the case for the creator' as i wanted to see another view and was confused by the cambrian explosion, evidence for pre-cambrian species and apparent gaps in the fossil record. my question is this, how sound is the evidence for evolution (are there actually any big gaps) and why are there (or is there actually) some problem related to the cambrian and pre-cambrian eras. i am still a sound believer in evolution and see no other alternative however i do not believe i should simply deny what these people say without further evidence. i greatly appreciate any help and understand my question is pretty vague haha. but i really want to understand evolution properly. note: i am currently 16 years old and only have a gcse in biology so my knowledge isn't too great so go easy on the technical terms :/ i'm not stupid but i'm more of a physics and maths guy :d | extremely sound. scientifically, there is really no doubt that evolution is correct - it is a scientific fact. that doesn't mean we're totally sure about every single detail, or that we have full knowledge of everything that happened back to biogenesis, but the overall theory and structure simply isn't in doubt. nope there aren't. i'm not sure exactly what you've heard about the cambrian eras. could you elaborate? in any case, whilst there are perhaps unanswered questions on some details, it fits fine with evolution without problems. frankly, the 'the case for the creator' video was probably full of lies, which many people here will be happy to clear up if you are interested in the particulars. whenever you have two fossils, you can say 'what happened in between these'. that's what creationists mean by gaps. any regardless of how much evidence is collected, they can and will continue to say 'what happened in between these?', pretending that our inability to answer means the theory is flawed. of course, this isn't really scientific. given the limitations of fossil recovery, we always expect to have places without a full record. regardless of this, our extensive fossil record fully fits with and supports evolution, and is simply not a scientific issue. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does pain occur with hypoxia/ischemia? | nociceptors express receptors that is activated in response to certain mediators present under hypoxia and/or ischemia - two major components being: lowered ph and leak of intracellular content. & nbsp; **lowered ph:** during hypoxia and/or ischemia, insufficient oxygen delivery forces cells to produce lactic acid (in order to free up nad^+ from nadh to keep glycolysis and its production of atp going) which is then released for it to be transported to the liver. this increased lactic acid production results in a decrease in extracellular ph. the increased presence of h^+ (from a lower ph) affects trpv1 and most likely also other receptors on nociceptors either by decreasing the threshold of activation or by activating the receptor directly. & nbsp; **leak of intracellular content:** if the hypoxia and/or ischemia is severe enough or goes of for too long, cells of the affected tissue will be damaged and ultimately die. cell/tissue necrosis causes leak of intracellular molecules to the extracellular space - a major component being atp. atp binds to p2x and p2y receptors on nociceptors and produce the perception of pain. & nbsp; also if inflammation were to set in on the affected tissue, this would increase the perception of pain through (hyperalgesia) from the increased production of inflammatory mediators like prostaglandins and bradykinin. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are the criticisms/short-comings of interpreting a city's safety based on crime per capita? | i'm having a hard time putting this into words, so thanks for bearing with me (it took over 2 hours just to compose this post). i'm also not sure whether this should be tagged as 'mathematics' or 'sociology'. basically, there was a recent article published here that talks about crime statistics across canadian cities. i heard the article discussed on the radio and they were basically saying that because toronto has a lower per capita crime rate, then it is a safer city than say saskatoon, even though toronto has much more crime that saskatoon. i'm just having a hard time following that logic and could use an explanation. hypothetically, we have 2 towns: smallville and gotham. smallville has a population of 1,000 while gotham has a population of 1,000,000. assuming smallville has 10 crimes/year while gotham has 10,000 crimes/year, then they would both have the same crime rate per capita (right?). if i were a tourist, aren't the odds of me becoming a victim of crime 1,000 times greater in gotham then in smallville? furthermore, consider a city with a population of 2 that has 1 crime/year. per capita, this city would have 50x the per capita crime rate, right? yet i would feel much, much safer in this last city. i guess i'm asking is crime per capita a good statistic to measure how violent a city is, or the likelihood of being a victim of crime in that city? thanks in advance! | the likelyhood of you becoming the victim of a crime in your last example is 50%. in smallville and gotham it is 1%. or 1 in 2 compared to 1 in 100. smallville and gotham are equally safe and way safer than scary incestville. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the earth in/at an equilibrium? | i was reading that the earth gains a massive amount of energy from the sun, and realizing and taking into consideration how that energy can be dissipated, dispersed, and even reflected, but i still noticed that we gain a substantial amount of energy in what can heat the earth up. so my questions are; 1) how does the earth cope with these energies? and; 2) why is it that, to the degree of what we emit, the earth not become a giant fireball/giant ice planet and are we at an equilibrium or slightly favoured in one way or another? | because there are no (or very few) atoms in space, heat can only be transfered by radiation (as opposed to conduction and convection). just as the sun radiates energy which is absorbed by the earth's surface, the earth's surface too emits radiation into space. this is indeed effectively in equilibrium so the earth can be taken as a [black body](_url_0_). the greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorbing some of the energy that is radiated from the earth's surface destined for space. after absorbing the energy, the gases radiate it out in all directions, some of which is directed back down to the earth. this causes an increase in temperature compared to direct solar radiation heating alone. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation"
] | [
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why do i get a static shock from everything this time of year? | every time i touch something metal, something touching metal (i just got a shock from touching my damn taquitos in the oven) or people, i get a shock. why does this happen and is there anything i can do about this? | reduced humidity, mostly. dryer air is less conductive so the static doesn't dissipate as easily. i'm sure clothing and shoe changes plays a part as well. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it true that rh- folks are more resistant to toxoplasma? | hi science! nursing student here. now i think we've *all* seen some of the weird theories about rh- blood - my personal favorite is that it came from reptilian aliens! i recently heard that rh- blood may confer a slight resistance to *toxoplsma gondii,* but because of all the misinformation out there i wasn't sure if that was true or just more hype. so does anyone out there know if this is true? do we know why? any good journal articles i could read up on? thanks science wizards! edit: reptilian blood thing is a joke. don't want anyone thinking that a future nurse actually believes in that. | great question! toxoplasma is a really interesting parasite, and one that is capable of modifying animal behaviours and causing cognitive changes. the classic example is making rodents less averse to cats and more likely to go near cats, allowing them to be eaten so the parasite can spread to feline animals (its primary host). in humans, the parasite has been linked to certain neurocognitive changes as well, such as increased reaction time, more likely to get into traffic accidents, etc. it has been shown in some studies that there is a link with geographical rates of toxoplasma in certain populations and the prevalence of the rh- allele (a deletion in the rh gene). people who are rh- and infected with the parasite appear to have less reduced neurocognitive findings (such as reaction time) than rh+ infected people, supporting the idea that rh- allele does provide slight protection against the effects of the parasite. however, rh- unfortunately have the chance of having offspring that develop hemolytic anemia if the babies are rh+, which was often fatal before modern medicine. as a result, there is a selective pressure to achieve balance in the form of heterozygotes, those who have one allele rh+ and one allele rh- (called heterozygote advantage), who get slight protection against the parasite with decreased risk of hemolytic anemia for their children. that's why evolution has favoured the spread of the rh- alleles, particularly in areas of high wild cats or toxoplasma, in the form of heterozygotes. article on the topic here: _url_0_ hope that helps :) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://web.natur.cuni.cz/flegr/pdf/rh.pdf"
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what is the relationship between waves of probability amplitudes and waves of em field strength? | i've studied basic qm and started looking into qft, but i'm hung up on something basic. qm 101 is all about describing a single ideal particle, which is described by a wavefunction over space. part of that description is the energy of the particle, in the form of the frequency of the wavefunction. but how does this relate to many-particle systems, or the classical em field? does each particle's wavefunction add up on top of each other (so to speak)? | this is one of the major differences between qft and regular qm. in qft, you don't really have wavefunctions anymore. instead, you have fields. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the likelihood that the sci-fi-esque artificial food may be possible in the near future? further, is there any out there now that we should know about? | i know there are meat replacement products, like soy curds and whatnot. but i'm referring to unnatural digestible plastic or rubber types, or something similar, that we may literally be able to manufacture and eat. and, if so, what examples are there that may exist that are actually better than natural counterparts? it is my understanding that there does not exist wholly artificial food. | something that could be "close" is quorn. it's a fermented fungus that grows in huge tanks where you add vitamins, minerals, sugar and oxygen. the growing process of the fungus is controlled and not natural but it's not some edible rubber that is manufactured from crude oil. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do power lines work ? what happens when there is a downed power line and how is it fixed? | not sure if this is the right sub reddit for this , but i'm interested in the science behind power lines and how they work | power plant produces electricity, the voltage is stepped right up at a transformer (different countries use different values) so you have low current (current produces heat). this high voltage is networked across the country in high voltage lines to other transformers that step the voltage back down to the range you see in your house. if one line goes down there's usually redundant lines for the power to get to where it needs to go source; i am an electrician | 22 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there complex angles? and is there application for them? | i just love and confused by imaginary numbers. my teacher told me that they work because they act like place holders between the question and the answer. they always seem to blow my mind! | first off, regardless of your ontological stance on math, imaginary and complex numbers are just as "real" as real numbers. we see real numbers pop up more frequently because they help us quantify measure and scale. of particular importance is multiplication for real numbers; if you take a (positive) real number r and see what it does to every real number then you will find that it zooms the number line in and out. which has obvious direct applications, eg proportionality. for complex numbers, multiplication is just as important but more powerful. in a similar way to real number, multiplication by complex numbers will scale things up/down, but it also *rotates* the complex plane. rotation is super important and complex numbers are important because their arithmetic is intimately tied with rotation. they arise in more complicated contexts, because rotation + scale is more complicated than just scale, but they do arise as "just as real" as real numbers. for instance, quantum mechanical systems are quantified using complex numbers and how they interact as "real" things depends on the "rotational scale" between them. we could (probably) do all of planar trigonometry with complex numbers instead of sine and cosine we just happened to develop it without complex numbers first. though there are many applications where they do act as middlemen to avoid complications with trigonometry and to take advantage of the many powerful tools associated to complex numbers. ------------------------------------- as for complex angle, yes you can. in case you have not heard, there is the notion of "hyperbolic trigonometry", which does to hyperbolas what trigonometry does with circles. to understand this, we need to know a bit about regular circular trigonometry. the notion of an "angle" in circular trigonometry is usually defined using arclength. if you have an angle, draw a circle of radius r centered at the point of intersection of the angle, then find the arclength l along this circle from the first line in the angle to the second. the angle is defined as t=l/r. because all circles are similar, this number does not depend on the radius of the circle you chose. this is how it is *usually* done. but we actually don't want this. instead, we want to define it using area. if we have the same angle and circle, then instead of computing the arclength, we can compute the area of the wedge of the circle defined by this angle, a. there is a relationship between this area and the angle as usually computed, namely a =tr^(2)/2, and this means we can actually use this area to *define* what an angle is. so we define the angle of an intersection to be t= 2a/r^(2), where a is the area of the circular sector made by the angle. note that when r=1, we just have that t is twice the area of this sector (note, again, that since circles are similar, this value does not depend on the radius chosen). with this notion of an angle, we are able to "parameterize" the entire circle. for every angle t between 0 and 2pi, there is a unique point on the circle given by x^(2)+y^(2)=1. we call this unique point (cos(t),sin(t)), which is where cosine and sine come from. it turns out that, since angles have nice properties, you get things like the angle addition formula, etc. we can play a similar game, but with hyperbolas. the hyperbola of "radius" r is given by the equation x^(2) - y^(2) = r^(2) and we'll view this "centered" at the origin. this hyperbola has two pieces to it, but we'll just concern ourselves with the righthand portion of it. if we have a point on this hyperbola, then we can draw a line from it to the origin. we also have the line along the x-axis from the origin to the hyperbola at (r,0). these two lines form an intersection and, with the hyperbola itself, bound an area that is a "hyperbolic sector", which has some area a, and we define the hyperbolic angle associated with this intersection, s, to be the value s = 2a/r^(2), just like with the circle. as before, this value only depends on the intersection, not the "radius" of the hyperbola. so, when r=1, we have s=2a. just as above, for every real number s, we can find a unique point on the (right portion of the) hyperbola whose hyperbolic angle is s. so on the "unit hyperbola" x^(2)-y^(2)=1, given an s, there is a point on it corresponding to this s that we all (cosh(s), sinh(s)). since hyperbolic angles have nice properties, you get things like the hyperbolic angle addition formula, etc. so we have two notions of "angle" and two different versions of the trigonometric functions to go along with them. it turns out that these idea can be unified using the notion of "complex angles". it turns out that these two kinds of trigonometric/hyperbolic functions are just weird manifestations of exponentiation. there is the famous [euler formula](_url_0_) which gives us * cos(t) = (e^(it) + e^(-it))/2 * sin(t) = (e^(it) - e^(-it))/2i there is also the hyperbolic version of this: * cosh(s) = (e^(s) + e^(-s))/2 * sinh(s) = (e^(s) - e^(-s))/2 this is *usually* just given to you as what the hyperbolic trig functions *are*, which is a shame because the link to the hyperbola is gone and it's just a dumb formula. but there's [really nice geometric proofs of this formula for hyperbolic functions](_url_2_). notice some similarities between these. note that it kinda looks like cos(t)=cosh(it) and similarly for sine. in a way, it looks like the circular angle is an *imaginary* hyperbolic angle. so we've been working with imaginary angles all this time! these relationships, along with the addition formulas, can allow us to define trig functions that input complex angles. particularly, we can define c(x+iy) and s(x+iy) as follows: * c(x+iy) = cosh(x)cos(y) + i\*sinh(x)sin(y) * s(x+iy) = sinh(x)cos(y) + i\*cosh(x)sin(y) note that * c(x) = cosh(x) and c(iy) = cos(y) * s(x) = sinh(x) and s(iy) = i\*sin(y) so we, essentially, get all the trig and hyperbolic functions back from this where "real" angles are hyperbolic angles and "imaginary" angles are trig angles. you can also check that the angle addition formula holds for s(z) and c(z) (in the form of the hyperbolic angle addition formulas). so, these are functions that naturally generalize the trig and hyperbolic functions and can input any *complex* value as their angle. so what? what's good or useful or geometric about this? it turns out that there is an important geometric interpretation for these guys. before, we were looking at the circle and hyperbola as the solutions to x^(2)+y^(2)=1 and x^(2)-y^(2)=1 respectively. intuitively, then, since these new functions contain *both* of the ordinary trig functions, they should, in some way, help us parameterize some kind of geometric object that has both a circle and a hyperbola in it. and that's exactly what they do! consider the solutions to the equation z^(2) - w^(2) = 1 where, now, we are interested in any *complex* values solution. so, for instance, (0,i) is a point on this thing. in fact, note that (cos(t),i\*sin(t)) is always going to be a point on this thing. this means that, whatever this thing is, it has the unit circle in it. on the other hand, note that (cosh(s),sinh(s)) are also solutions to this thing, and so it *also* contains the unit hyperbola on it. it turns out that the geometric object that z^(2)-w^(2)=1 gives us is a one-sheeted [hyperboloid](_url_1_). the unit circle is the circle at the cinch and the hyperbola is the profile of it. even more, though, for every complex number z, the point (c(z),s(z)) is a point on this hyperboloid and, finally, given any point on this hyperboloic there is a complex angle z (unique if you restrict the imaginary part to between -ipi and ipi) so that the point is given by this complex angle. so even "mixed" angles like 3 + ipi/2 is defines a point on some place in between the circle and hyperbola. (we sometimes call this hyperboloid a "complex hyperbola" since it uses the same formula as a hyperbola but we look for complex solutions. but we could just as easily call it a "complex circle" because when we try to use the circle equation z^(2)+w^(2)=1, then we automatically get a point on the hyperbolic one since z^(2)+w^(2)=z^(2)-(iw)^(2)=1. in other words, in the complex world, there is no difference between circles and hyperbolas.) **tl;dr** yes! there are complex angles. the corresponding complex trigonometric functions that use them generalize circular and hyperbolic geometry, and correspond, geometrically, to a "hyperboloid". | 71 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_formula",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperboloid",
"https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/757091/alternative-definition-of-hyperbolic-cosine-without-relying-on-exponential-funct/757241#757241"
] | [
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why does thyrotoxicosis aggravate heart failure and copd? | the extent of my nursing student knowledge is that an increase in heart rate related to high circulating levels of t3 and t4 might cause exacerbations. school me, reddit! | active thyroid hormone (t3) has multiple downstream effects, but one of the most important is increasing catecholamine (e.g., epinephrine, norepinephrine) sensitivity. copd and hf patients have abnormal cardiopulmonary physiology. in severe copd with secondary pulmonary hypertension there is decreased tolerance of flow on the right side of the heart because of increased rv afterload. putting someone into an increased catecholamine state who cannot easily tolerate increased pulmonary vascular flow is a recipe for hf. on a related note hf patients do not tolerate the increased catecholamine state, but for various reasons depending on the nature of their heart failure. nevertheless increased chronotropy and inotropy are recipes for disaster in hf (with perhaps the exception of the patient with an mi secondary to hf). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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physics question regarding invariance, energy and relativistic motion. | background: i initially asked my teacher the question: "is energy an invariant property?" that is, will mass "a" have energy "b" joules regardless of where i observe it from. to this, he replied yes. now, consider mass x (100kg) is moving through a vacum in a straight line at a constant speed of 1x10^8 m/s, parallel to z who is also moving at 1x10^8 m/s [(see diagram for a clearer picture)](_url_0_). the distance between x and z is constant, so we may assume that x is at rest relative to z. however, relative to y, z is moving at 1x10^8 m/s. ek =1/2 x m x v^2, so x's kinetic energy relative to point y = 5x10^7j but, as far as i can see, x's kinetic energy relative to point z is 0j because from z, x's v = 0m/s. again, i approached my teachers on the matter, and they told me that energy is conserved and invariant, but the type of energy mass x has changes depending on where you observe it from. i then investigated the energies of x relative to y and z using e=mc^2. *x's energy relative to y* e=(relativistic mass)c^2 =100kg/ squareroot(1 - 1x10^16/9x10^16) x c^2 =106.066c^2 j *x's energy relative to z* e=mc^2 =(rest mass, 100kg) x c^2 =100c^2 j i cannot make left or right of this. does this mean that energy is in fact not an invariant quantity? could someone explain where the difference in energy arises, and why it appears that energy is not conserved? edit: formatting | he was wrong. even in newtonian physics this isn't true; if you are stationary relative to the mass, it has only potential energy. if you're moving relative to the mass (equivalently the mass is moving relative to you) it has the same potential energy but now it also has kinetic energy. the quantity that's invariant with respect to all observers is the *mass* of the object (sometimes called "rest mass" to distinguish from "relativistic mass", but relativistic mass is a misnomer for something that should really be called energy); the equation of note is e^(2) - p^(2)c^(2) = m^(2)c^(4), where e is the energy, p is the momentum, m is the mass, and c is the speed of light. different observers will disagree on the energy and momentum of a given object, but they'll all agree on the mass. | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/9HN3c"
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some questions about light, if you don't mind | 1. how do we see brightness? 2. how do we absorb light as heat? 3. how does fire have colour? 4. how does friction produce light? is it because when things get hot enough, they produce light? like fire? how does that happen? i think that's all about light for now. thanks so much and sorry if these are dumb questions, i've learned these things but i'd love to get a better understanding of them from you guys. thanks again! | 1. we see brightness by the number of photons hitting our eye per second. a photon is a "light particle" and it defined by its wavelength, which will determine what color it is. but the more photons that hit your eye, the brighter that color will appear. 2. we absorb light as heat by absorbing the energy of the photons that hit an object. those photons have energy, so when they are absorbed that energy has to go somewhere, and where it goes is heat. 3. three and four have the same answer, [black-body radiation](_url_0_). all objects release photons, and it is dependent on what temperature they are which wavelength (thus color) of photons they release. the hotter something is, the shorter wavelength (thus bluer) of light they release. this is how heat cameras work. we, being cold things, release photons with much too long of a wavelength for our eyes to see, so they build a special camera which can see long wavelengths. we call these heat or infrared cameras. once something gets hot enough, it releases photons in the visible spectrum that we can see, fire and friction can both do this. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation"
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if a generator that generates electric curent via a magnetic field is put in a bigger magnetic field, will it still work? | induced current is caused by a changing flux, proportional to the area times the magnetic field strength. if the generator is placed in a larger magnetic field, the strength of the net magnetic field will change, causing a different change in flux with time. this will affect the output of the generator, but it should still work. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are some of the eastern gray squirrel behavior and mannerisms? | there is a male squirrel (and sometimes a female) that i often see outside my window and for some reasons i love watching their behaviour and personality. i was wondering if anyone could give me some more info on there behaviour. i have watched and researched about them a bit but i was wondering if anyone could provide me with more detailed information such as their mannerisms and suddler behaviours or even some good artical about them. | i don't have anything for you right on hand, but the term to search for is "ethogram", which is basically a catalog of the behavior types of an animal. look around for gray squirrel ethograms and you might find something. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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replacing nerves with fiber optics | if it were somehow possible to replace human nerves with fiber optic cabling, would a human's reaction time be decreased? i'll give an example: you are about to be punched in the face. your eyes see the threat, and your brain sends signals to your muscles telling them to move. if the nerves that these signals are sent on were replaced with fiber optics, could you duck out of the way/react faster than normal? | hypothetically the reactions could eventually be just as quick. but this would depend on the nervous systems response to these fiber cables and an extremely sophisticated implantable microchip. it's definitely something in the works for future prosthetics. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why and how does immunofluorescence work for visualizing biological samples? | i'm an undergraduate biology major so i have some background but i can't seem to wrap / organize the concept of immunofluorescence and immunostaining. also would like help understanding the general procedure in the lab, and the purpose of each step. many thanks reddit! edit: grammar | let's say you want to visualize neurons in a mouse footpad sample. you get your sample, fix it in paraffin or a cryomedium, and cut in on a microtome or cryostat so you have slices that are between ~4-40nm depending on what you are looking for. in this example, we'd cut it thicker, so we can see longer sections of neurons later. once on the slides, you have to dehydrate the sample by washing in increasing concentrations of alcohol. you should rinse in water between each wash so as to not dehydrate it too quickly, which makes the sample fall off the slide. you finish with a wash of xylene, a detergent, which cleans up the slide. the theory behind the staining is that you add an antibody to the samples, which binds with antigens on a protein in neurons, then add a florescent or radioactive marker that binds to the antibody you added to the samples. you can then use a specific wavelength of light that makes your florescent marker show up under the microscope. sometimes you can tag your antibody directly with a florescent [marker](_url_0_), but lots of times, you have to add another antibody with a tag embedded in it that binds to the initial [antibody](_url_1_). in most cases, you have to incubate the slides in a buffer that blocks non-specific binding sites in your sample, so that the antibody binds only to what you want it to. i can elaborate further if you need. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Immunohistochemicalstaining1.PNG",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Immunohistochemicalstaining2.PNG"
] | [
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is there a psychological reason for bridges in music, or is it just a consequence of western musical development? (maybe both?) | listening to the radio the other day, the bridge part of a pop song was playing and i wondered if there was a psychological trick it plays on us or if it is more related to how western music has developed (the song escapes me now). i'm thinking that probably the two are pretty intertwined by now, given how we internalize music of our culture, but i was more wondering if bridges came about due to some sort of human need or subconscious thing. maybe the bridge breaks up the song so we can more fully realize the main melody of a composition or song? this may also be something more historically inclined than scientific, but i feel it reaches both areas. | i'm a classical musician, and one concept that might be interesting to you is the concept of flow in music. western music developed with this idea of forward motion or direction as the expressive element, where many styles of eastern music are more static and meditative. western music is bit more like storytelling than concentration, and so in this respect western music is composed with certain structures and forms in mind. the 'arrival' that we feel at the beginning or ends of sections is in some way the point or goal of western music (to arrive, achieve), and the use of a bridge helps provide the feeling of tension that is eventually released, much to the listener's pleasure. | 63 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are these particle/interaction diagrams called? | example: _url_0_ do they have a name? (like feynman diagrams are called such) also used a lot on wikipedia to visually present various groups related to particle physics models (such as guts, qcd, electroweak etc...). i feel like this should be a simple thing to find out, but i can't for the life of me seem to find an answer. | i am unaware of a name, but the topic can be found if you search for "lie group representations and particle physics": _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [
"http://deferentialgeometry.org/epe/epe8/"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics_and_representation_theory"
] | [
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how are the birds, from the frontpage, preserved at the museum to not decompose? | from this link: _url_0_ | they've been taxidermied before storage. these photos are of the bird skins preserved and stretched over molds. soft tissues and internal organs that would otherwise rot have been removed. [_url_0_](_url_1_) | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/interestingasfuck/comments/6dg8j7/the_backroom_of_the_natural_history_museum/?ref=share&ref_source=link"
] | [
"SmithsonianMag.com",
"http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/story-behind-those-jaw-dropping-photos-collections-natural-history-museum-180958671/"
] | [
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does the epson salt in a bath actually do anything? | yes, the magnesium works to relax the muscles, and other effects are being studied. epson salt is just magnesium sulfate (mgso*_4_*). you might find your scientific search more fruitful if you use this term, although i'm still getting a lot of marketing/sales sites. magnesium sulfate is almost as soluble as table salt in water and alcohol, and studies have confirmed that it absorbs into the skin. it ionizes in water, and while i know the effectiveness of the magnesium component from physiology, i don't know much about how the sulfate does, except that the body has uses for it. _url_1_ _url_2_ _url_0_ edit: added sources | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/content/76/4/565.full.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15080493",
"http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/magnesium/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_tank"
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|
neurons and re-polarization? | sodium and potassium are moving using active transport when depolarizing. what happens with the na and k when it re-polarizes towards its resting potential? | just to add to [keel_gright](_url_0_) 's comment. the sodium and potassium transport during depolarization/repolarization is **passive** not **active**. the transport to maintain the resting concentrations gradients, that one, is **active** | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/25eogq/neurons_and_repolarization/chgp5jh"
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do people who suffer from face blindness (prosopagnosia) still see faces in clouds, etc.? | i was thinking about this last night. people with prosopagnosia can't recognise other people's faces - they have to memorise particular features about that person (their gait, for instance). how susceptible to pareidolia are they? do they recognise smiley faces as being abstract depictions of faces? :) do they still see shapes in clouds, but not faces in them? | no they do not. though the face-blindness aspect is portrayed, mostly, as a deficit of seeing human faces, in actuality it (probably, more work is needed) is more of a deficit of _holistic processing_ of faces and face-like configurations. for example [this](_url_2_) would not be seen as a face at all. just some fruit and vegetables. for prosopagnosiacs, it has been shown that the face inversion effect (i.e., when you flip a face upside down and try to recognize it) [goes away](_url_1_). non face-blind people are extraordinarily bad at inverted faces, especially wit the thatcher effect (see my comment [here](_url_0_)). [this chapter](_url_3_) is without question probably the best for face processing in prosopagnosiacs. brad is top-notch and does amazing work. that whole book is (supposed to be) good (i haven't read it yet, but i know it will be good). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/phrys/why_do_cats_have_worse_facial_recognition_of/c3pglrd",
"http://www.nefy.ucl.ac.be/facecatlab/PDF/Busigny%26Rossion2009.pdf",
"http://i.thisislondon.co.uk/i/pix/2008/10/fruit-and-veg-portrait-leads-show-of-renaissance-faces-415x275.jpg",
"http://www.faceblind.org/social_perception/papers/DP%20chapter.pdf"
] | [
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i am (hypothetically) in a kitchen and just lost a lot of blood. should i drink plain tap water or throw in some salt and sugar? | i think that i know that supportive fluids are usually isotonic. would it make sense to approximate that given you have the necessary ingredients in an emergency situation? | fluids that are given intravenously are isotonic (having the same osmotic concentration as plasma) because if they were not, the imbalance would cause all the red blood cells to swell up and burst; this is why you can't give someone sterile water in an iv. in an emergency resuscitation, the priority is replacement of lost blood with volume, not replacement of salts, and the available evidence suggests it doesn't matter too much which fluid is used. resuscitation with oral fluid in severe blood loss is going to be a problem; you may be semi conscious and unable to swallow, the volumes required may lead to gastric distension and vomiting, and in a shock state absorption from the gut is reduced. so, in the situation of blood loss no, i don't think it would make any real difference. on the other hand, in children who have dehydration secondary to diarrhoea then oral rehydration with isotonic solutions can be life saving. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when i vacuum seal something, am i increasing the atmospheric pressure of earth? | when a vacuum tube is created, or a vacuum seal package is created and the air is evacuated, is the now empty space making earth's atmosphere's pressure greater? i know if it is, it's only a very, very minuscule amount, but is that what's happening? | good question! intuitively, if you have a rigid container which contains a tube at equilibrium, if you then create a vacuum within that tube, you'll be increasing the pressure of the rest of the container. but earth's atmosphere isn't a rigid box; it exponentially decays towards zero density far from the surface. the hydrostatic pressure you feel at the surface of the earth is due to gravity acting on all the air above you. now, gravitational attraction decreases with height... and if you were to create a vacuum chamber at the surface, this would have the effect of pushing air up, towards higher altitude, where gravity is weaker. so i could see that creating a vacuum chamber at the surface of the earth might actually *lower* the ambient atmospheric pressure. analogous to the notion that if earth's radius doubled, but the total mass of air stayed the same, the ambient pressure would be much lower. i'm just spitballing here, so corrections/refutations/alternatives welcome. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is he-3 so useful for nuclear fusion? | i am a spaceflight fanatic and a common argument i hear for a return to the moon and a possible colonization is that the moon has he-3, of which the earth has only minor quantities. so my question was, why is helium-3 so useful for nuclear fusion in comparison to the more common helium isotopes or other light elements? | he-4 doesn't have any two-body fusion reactions available to it that make any sense from the standpoint of terrestrial thermonuclear fusion energy production. deuterium + he-3 yields a proton and an alpha particle. it's an aneutronic fusion reaction (a reaction not yielding neutrons as reaction products), meaning it requires far less shielding and doesn't activate the surrounding materials very much. if we ever were able to get deuterium-tritium fusion to work, deuterium-he-3 fusion would be a logical next goal. of course, it's not entirely neutron-free. any thermonuclear reactor able to fuse deuterium and he-3 would also fuse deuterium and deuterium, a reaction where one of the reaction chains is to make tritium (which would then react with the deuterium to make an alpha particle and a 14 mev neutron) and the other reaction chain is to make a he-3 ion and a 2.45 mev neutron. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there any merit to binaural beats (i-doser, i-dose, etc)? | programs like "i-doser" claim to use binaural beats to induce different states, such as relaxation, calmness, euphoria, drunkenness, etc. it seems a little fishy, but lots of people say it has worked for them. so, is this a real thing? if so, how does it work? | i have created [some samples](_url_0_) so you can experiment for yourself! these samples are each 2 minutes in duration and use a carrier frequency of around 400hz. beats of 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12hz are provided. i can create and upload any combination of frequencies people want to experiment with. also, if anyone knows of a better file hosting service for audio files, let me know! **edit**: scientific studies do suggest they have an effect on the brain [[1](_url_3_),[2](_url_2_),[3](_url_1_)]. interestingly, the third source found that auditory beats (the two frequencies are combined and the same sound played to both ears) and binaural beats affected the brain in very similar ways. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mediafire.com/?sav421hcd9jy0",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378595510000262",
"http://www.set.rmit.edu.au/~e20426/PhD_Thesis-Dean_Cvetkovic.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031938497004368"
] | [
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if a tiger and a lion can mate to give birth to a liger are they truly speciated? | in short yes they are still speciated. one of the determinants of speciation is the ability to produce viable offspring. keyword being viable, male ligers have so far not been able to reproduce, though female ligers have. for viable examples there are wolves-dogs, and grolar bears(mix between brown and polar bear). nonetheless offspring viability is only one of the determinants of speciation, other factors such as genome, and phenotype still have enough differences for them to be considered different species. edit: fixed kodiak to grolar, they are different. thanks to u/viralchemist for pointing it out. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how are mesa/plateaus etc formed? in particular ones with curved hexagonal columns like devil's tower. | in particular, [devil's tower](_url_1_). if this mesa is supposed to have ejected from beneath the surface upwards (or other theories), what gives the hexagonal lattice the warp/curve seen around the base? i've seen some [explanations](_url_0_) and theories, but am stumped as to why this mesa has such a curvature. also, what gives a mesa/plateau/butte etc it's flat top? i've seen this type of hexagonal rock formation elsewhere with curves like [devil's postpile](_url_2_) so it's no uncommon, just curious as to it's process. | structures like the devil's postpile are igneous intrusions. they form when molten rock fills an empty space in the earth's crust, and can be exposed when the softer surrounding material erodes away and/or as that area of crust bulges upwards due to increasing pressure in a pocket of magma below it. if the liquid intrusion forms a "lake," the top surface will be flat. where that liquid rock cools evenly, it forms (mostly) hexagonal vertical structures known as columnar basalt. the regular shapes form as the basalt contracts during cooling. slow, even cooling results in evenly distributed contraction stresses. this causes regularly sized areas of the rock to break away from each other in each horizontal direction, forming a hexagonal tessellation. the curved structure seen at the bottom reflects the original shape of the cavity. some curvature may have existed above this, but a longer exposure to weathering (and possibly also greater vulnerability to it due to uneven cooling nearer to the surface) means that areas higher up on the side of the structure are more likely to have eroded away. my favorite columnar basalt formations are fingal's cave and giant's causeway in ireland and scotland, and svartifoss in iceland. _url_1_ _url_0_ _url_2_ | 10 | [] | [
"https://www.nps.gov/deto/learn/nature/images/ThreeGeoTheoriessm_1.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Devils_Tower_as_Seen_From_the_Path_Along_the_Base.jpg",
"https://southwestdesertlover.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/devils-postpile.jpg"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant%27s_Causeway",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingal%27s_Cave",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svartifoss"
] | [
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has there been a study about whether the idea of santa improves children's behaviour? | if so, what were the results? | yes. there was one study where they asked first graders and kindergardners to tell stories about santa claus, the easter bunny, or pets in exchange for 9 pieces of gum. afterwards, they were encouraged to donate the gum to handicapped children. first graders tended to donate more gum after talking about santa claus than talking about the easter bunny or pets. kindergardners were less likely to donate gum at all and were not affected by the type of story. source: [dixon, d. and hom, h. the role of fantasy figures in the regulation of young children's behavior: santa claus, the easter bunny, and donations. *contemporary educational psychology*, 1984, **9**, 14-18.](_url_0_) | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0361476X84900031",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10589297"
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is "carl jung and isabel briggs myers typology" well-supported by actual studies? | just found out about this, and my girlfriend and i are both coming up very accurately to the personality test we took. however, i'm familiar with studies showing how people tend to agree with general statements about themselves (hence why we're so vulnerable to horoscopes). just wondering if any psych people can let me know if this stuff is well-supported enough to take seriously. as a secondary question, is there research done on how constant this stuff is in regard to age and life experience? are these personalities a result of nature or nurture? | absolutely any psychological variable is a result of both nature and nurture. the [reliability](_url_1_) (i.e. will you get consistent results at multiple test times?) and [validity](_url_0_) (i.e. is the test an actual reflection of what it claims to reflect?) of the meyers-briggs test are debated; some studies find evidence to support reliability and/or validity (namely those published from proceedings at personality testing conferences) while others call those constructs into question. for example, you would expect a bimodal distribution of scores on a measure being used to separate people into two sides of a dichotomy. however, the distribution on any given variable in these tests is unimodal, meaning the vast majority of people fall near the center of the supposed dichotomy. this calls the dichotomy into question, and thus questions the validity of the test. i can only speak for myself as a cognitive researcher in saying that i do not take personality psychology seriously. these typology tests may have broad descriptive uses in "measuring" and roughly describing a test-taker's current psychological tendencies, but i do not see any evidence for dichotomies along supposed personality axes (using factor analysis to select those axes is also an unsound and biased procedure, in my view), nor any evidence for valid predictive uses of the typologies. and, again from a cognitive science perspective, a model with no predictive uses (i.e. unfalsifiable) has no use in science ;) confirmation bias and the fact that most people actually fall near the center of the distribution-- meaning they might describe themselves as (for example) an extrovert or an introvert, depending on how the question is asked or the day of the week-- are likely explanations of why so many people think they are being perfectly described by typology tests. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator#Validity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator#Reliability"
] | [
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why did suture lines in ammonoids become increasingly complex over time? did they provide some sort of evolutionary advantage? | my professor was going over ammonoids from the mesozoic and pointed out the change in suture lines over time. i asked why they changed, if it provided an evolutionary advantage or something, and she couldn't quite say. i was wondering if anyone had some insight? for reference: _url_0_ _url_1_ | these sutures also affected the shape of the septae dividing up the buoyancy chamber. it was found that simpler sutures, such as those found in nautiloids, improved resistance to pressure, but at the expense of finely tuned buoyancy control. with complex sutures, the reverse is true. this strongly suggests that ammonites adapted to shallower waters than nautiloids and that there was a selective pressure which affected then, notably acting on the fine tuning of buoyancy control which might have affected agility. see daniel et al. (1997): _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonoidea#Suture_patterns",
"http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ammonites_suture_terminology.PNG"
] | [
"www.researchgate.net/publication/233843165_Septal_complexity_in_ammonoid_cephalopods_increased_mechanical_risk_and_limited_depth/file/d912f50c09a95e7887.pdf"
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what would happen if the gulf stream stopped? | [deleted] | this was an exam question in a geography question. the short answer was we don't know for sure, but the uk would be a lot colder and canada would be a lot warmer in the winters. what the prof did was raise and lower the weather band on the map. for example western canada would be similar weather in nebraska and kansas. the uk would be similar to sweden. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a question about lines | i really can't explain the problem i've been having, and it's kind of weird/confusing, so i've created a visual graphic ([here](_url_0_)) to help illustrate my point, along with the little thought experiment below. blue = point a yellow = point b red = travel along x axis green = travel along y axis route numbering goes 1-4, from left to right on the bottom row. let's say i want to get from point a (blue) to point b (yellow). in route 1, i hug the wall and go straight along the x axis, then straight along the y axis. the distance is 14 1/2 units along x, and 14 1/2 along y. according to the pythagorean theorem, a "direct" route along the hypotenuse should be 20.51 units, which is obviously shorter than the 29 travelled. i modify route 2 to reflect this and to try and make my route more similar to the hypotenuse, and therefore to cut down the length of my walk. my path is now more similar to the hypotenuse, but i'm still travelling 29 units. route 3 is looking good, and hey, route 4 is almost there. but still, each path requires 14 1/2 red, and 14 1/2 green. i think it's pretty clear that route 4 is "straighter" than route 1 (and therefore more similar to the hypotenuse), but they're still each at 29 units. i assumed the answer to it lay in the fact that, in order to actually draw the hypotenuse, i would have to modify my frame of reference. but then i thought, if i continue this infinite division, i'll eventually have a perfect line at 45 degrees, right? but then, that would mean i have the hypotenuse, and so i'll have two different measurements (of 29 and 20.51) for the same line segment. is my problem now stemming from a misunderstanding of what infinity will get me? if so, can you clarify where my mistake has happened? thanks very much! | the error is in claiming the the limit of dividing the lines in the way you describe is a straight diagonal line. a straight diagonal line has a slope defined at every point, your line has no slope at any point. by slope i mean i want the limit e- also read up on the koch curve. start with a straight line, replace every straight line with _/\_ , and keep repeating that process. the resulting figure has an infinite length but fits in a finite area. | 21 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/edExH.png"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_of_a_curve#Definition"
] | [
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do the control surfaces on long distance flights have to be trimmed slightly downwards to compensate for the curvature of the earth? | no. there are four forces acting on an aircraft: thrust from the engines, drag from the air, lift from pushing air down and weight from gravity. we trim an aircraft so that the lift and the weight balance out and the aircraft remains in a steady attitude relative to the horizon. as we fly over the curved earth, the plane remains trimmed so that "down" is in the same direction. we don't need to adjust the control surfaces for the plane to follow the curve. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a chemical with a triple point at, or around, stp? | if i were to take this chemical and place it in a container at stp it should be found in all three states. side note it doesn't have to be exactly stp just somewhere within producing those conditions at home, without an sort of extreme temperature or heat. | i think you're looking for [cyclohexane](_url_0_). although i wouldn't try it at home. cyclohexane is pretty bad for you and it may be carcinogenic. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEbMHmDhq2I"
] | [
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if you could theoretically drill a hole through the center of the earth... inertia problem? | that's usually the case because of things like friction. if the tunnel through the earth has all the air pumped out of it there would be essentially nothing to slow the ball down, and it would reach the same height. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if muscle building is just the micro tears and repairs of muscle fibers, is it possible to do this with lasers or radiation to build muscles without working out? if so, why hasn't anyone invented a way to do this yet? | because muscle building isn't *just* micro tears and repairs of muscle fibers. actually, it's not totally clear that those are directly correlated with muscle growth; some lifts, like the deadlift, the olympic lifts, box squats, and partial squats or presses done from pins or a box, have either a vastly reduced eccentric component or none at all, and therefore they do not cause significant microtrauma; however, they nonetheless lead to increased size and strength. microtrauma has also been shown to decrease with training; hence why your first workout after a layoff will produce unimagined levels of soreness, but your tenth or eleventh will produce almost none. my understanding is that satellite cells are able to contribute to the growth of muscle cells even if there is no microtrauma. the actual process by which the body "figures out" that new muscle tissue is required isn't fully understood. a great deal of it definitely has to do with the flood of anabolic hormones post-workout. strength gains also come from not just the synthesis of new muscle tissue but also from increased neuromuscular efficiency; likewise, size comes not just from myofibrillar hypertrophy, wherein the actual muscle fibers increase in diameter, but also from sarcoplasmic hypertrophy, wherein the muscles basically store more fluid. the continuum here explains why olympic weightlifters can be very explosive but not particularly large and why bodybuilders can be very large but not particularly strong. | 304 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
with current technology and unlimited budget, is draining the north sea and connecting europe and england possible? | inspired by this thread here: _url_0_ | unlimited budget? fill it with concrete. north sea: 93,000 km^3 = 9.4 × 10^13 m^3 9.4 × 10^13 m^3 = 1.23 × 10^14 yards^3 concrete: $75 per cubic yard cost of concrete: $9.221 quadrillion (9.221×10^15 ) | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/l6wsi/til_i_learned_there_was_a_plan_in_the_1930_to/"
] | [] | [
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] |
is "latah" a neurological disorder? | the people over at /r/indonesia were discussing about this and apparently it's a phenomenon very specific to the region of indonesia and malaysia. i was wondering if people in the neuroscience department can give some answers. here's a [video of a woman who has "latah"](_url_2_). it's in indonesian, but if you watch it carefully, you can see how her responses to external stimuli (her friends touching her and asking her to do things while the woman is concentrating on whatever she's doing on the computer) are for the most part involuntary. you can see more interesting responses starting at 0:37. edit: i'd like to add more case videos. just to give everyone a heads up, these videos do seem very comedic and funny, because "latah" is viewed as a funny quirk in indonesia. but i wonder if it's related, even remotely, to tourette's, spasms, etc. here's another [video](_url_0_) of a girl who involuntary mimics what her friends do. the guy behind her would make vomiting noises (just for tease) and the girl would mimic them, and at times it looks like she's actually about to vomit. another [video](_url_1_) of two women in a quiz show. the guy asks the woman some questions, and she would respond to them very quickly and involuntarily. it's not until she finishes answering that she would gasp realizing that her responses have been involuntary the whole time. | latah is a [culture bound syndrome](_url_0_), being in this case both an exaggeration of normal neurological function and specific to one culture.^1 1) [simons, r. c. (1980). the resolution of the latah paradox. *journal of nervous and mental disease, 168*(4), 195-206.](_url_1_) | 9 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/AYLKm6mHvjk?t=21s",
"http://youtu.be/C3zqHoXaRzk?t=1m10s",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1lZzkY5zIbA"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture-bound_syndrome",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7365478"
] | [
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why are we unable to equalize the pressure when we have a cold? | whenever my friends or i have a cold, we cannot equalize and scuba dive. why does this happen? | the way i explain it to patients is that you have your eustachian tube running from the middle ear to your pharynx which is like a pressure relief valve to equalise. if you have a cold/sinusitis type infection then the mucosa of the tube (as well as your sinuses) becomes congested and prevents the tubes opening properly hence you can't equalise the pressure. also explains why you feel nasally blocked again due to the congestion of the mucosa. similarly if you're going up/down and have difficulty equalising you use the vasalva manoeuvre and it essentially opens the tube and allows equalisation. if it happens spontaneously this is what you'd feel as the sensation of popping. interestingly the geometry of children's eustachian tubes is a little different to adults, kids run more horizontally and this gives rise to why children get ear pain in planes given it's more difficult for them to equalise. this is what causes a lot of babies to cry on planes on ascent | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does being under cover lower the atmospheric pressure being pressed upon you? | at sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch. does it matter if you are standing out in the open or underneath something? does the cover block some of the weight? | nope, because pressure pushes in all directions. even though it may ultimately be due to the weight of the atmosphere. when you're under a canopy, you still have some air above you. *that* air is being pushed on all sides and needs to push back (and if it doesn't, the volume of air will collapse until it does push back enough). the key point is that pressure has no direction. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure"
] | [
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how does this chemical equilibrium expression work? | i came across an equation that looked something like this: hgo(s) = hg(l) + o2(g). now the equilibrium expression should be k = \[o2\], since hgo and hg are solid and liquid respectively, so they shouldn't be considered in the equilibrium expression. according to this expression, reducing the concentration/pressure of o2 should reduce k, and in turn, shift the equilibrium to the reactants. however, according to le chatelier's principle, reducing the pressure would shift the equilibrium to the right, as there are more moles of gas there. & #x200b; how do le chatelier's principle and the equilibrium expression relate/affect one another, and are they always accurate? | don't think of it as if the value of k is changing. the equilibrium constant is a constant at a given temperature. so starting with a higher than equilibrium pressure of oxygen will just mean that your pressure of oxygen will decrease until it reaches k and vice versa. this will occur via the formation of more hgo and removal of hg but this doesn't change the molar density of hgo or hg and so doesn't affect the equilibrium. le chatelier's principle will always corroborate with k because it directly stems from k. in this case it's just a conceptual way of balancing the moles of gas which is exactly what k does. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the size of the animal affect the number of rbcs? | please refer me to textbooks or scientific papers that talk about this subject. | size dictates that, yes. think about it - the appropriate reference ranges for hematocrit values are reasonably similar for domestic mammalian species. if a cat and a cow can both have a pcv of 40% and both be considered normal; a 6kg cat would have ~0.5 l of blood, versus a 1000kg cow with ~80l. according to fundamentals of veterinary clinical pathology 2nd edition (by stockham and scott) an erythrocyte size in a cat is 6um, and a cow is 5-6um. a horse is 5-6um and a dog's is 7um. pretty insignificant size difference, so logic says that much more blood volume must contain more cells to maintain appropriate hematocrit and oxygen distribution. furthermore, the same text provides estimates based on an average size animal and assuming 40ml of blood per pound of an animal (which gives similar numbers to the calculation i used above, which is 0.8% of the body weight is blood volume. kilograms = liters). the table is as follows rbcs in blood (x10^12) : dogs: 5.6 cats: 2.2 horses: 450 cattle: 280 as the other commenter said, different species can also have different cellular characteristics. for example, horses normally form rouleaux, or stacks (like coins) of red blood cells; a different phenomenon than agglutination caused by a pathology. anemia and anemic response can behave differently between species. erythrocyte morphology can also vary between species. the book mentioned above was more or less the basis of my clinical pathology course during veterinary school. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the brain use so much blood? | what specific actions go on in the brain that use up the nutrients brought to it? what by products are produced by the processes? | there are a lot of nutrients that the brain needs, but some of the most important -- and the reason why your brain has such a disproportionate amount of blood flow -- are glucose and oxygen. the brain is extremely active metabolically, so it needs a lot of energy, and for the most part, this energy can only be supplied by sugars. (the small counterexample: when the body is in hypoglycemic states like fasting or starving, the liver breaks down fats into ketone bodies, which can also be used for energy. they're also fairly toxic, which is why the body doesn't like using them much.) the oxygen, obviously, is necessary for oxidative phosphorylation. one thing your brain needs to do is to maintain an electronic gradient between the inside and outside of the cell. this gradient gets reversed every time there's an action potential, and resetting to the proper balance of lots of na outside the cell and lots of k inside the cell requires a lot of energy. neurons are also constantly making new neurotransmitters and other random proteins necessary for function, too. some neurotransmitters are returned to the axon terminal of the presynaptic cleft, but many are broken down in the synaptic cleft and need to be reformed in the nerve cell body (which takes energy) and translocated to the axon terminal (which also takes energy). some neurotransmitters work on proteins that work through second messengers (which often requires the phosphorylation of proteins, which takes energy), and others work on ion channels on the post-synaptic neuron (which would require that the ion gradient is reset, which also takes energy). interesting sidenote: pet scans work because it is assumed that the parts of the brain that get the most blood are doing so because that sends the most glucose towards that part of the brain, and that the parts of the brain that get the most glucose are the most active. they inject you with radioactive glucose and see where your brain is lighting up the most. if you're talking byproducts, i'm much less confident about my answer so i may be wrong, but in case no one else answers with something better: nothing comes to mind other than the normal byproducts of metabolism. i'm not aware of anything significant that only the brain makes. i'm sure there's a lot more going on the brain that could be said, but my physiology is much more solid than my biochemistry source: i'm a med student | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i see a lot of scare tactics surrounding "super bugs" lately. how valid is this? | ok, first of all, bacteria and viruses are different things. the concern is over the former. bacterial infections are usually treated with antibiotics. these molecules generally disrupt processes that the bacteria needs to survive. this works well enough for the most part, but the problem arises when they don't work on 100% of the bacteria-if a single bacteria has mutated to no longer need the targeted pathway, it will give rise to a strain that is resistant to that antibiotic. this is obviously problematic. as bacteria continue to evolve and render our antibiotics obsolete, they can become untreatable. the main culprit here is the meat industry- [80% of the antibiotics used today are given to livestock](_url_0_) prophylactically. this is a massive selection pressure and has doubtlessly played a huge role in promoting bacterial resistance. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/04/health/use-of-antibiotics-in-animals-raised-for-food-defies-scrutiny.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0",
"http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0305_deadly_bacteria.html",
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/9921927/Antibiotics-are-ticking-time-bomb-warns-medical-chief.html"
] | [
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|
if you include something made up into a story (of a real event) and tell it again and again, will other people who were part of it actually start to believe your version? | i guess you'd probably have to tell the story again and again? and wasn't there something about telling stories that would make you believe that you were part of it, even if you weren't, if told often enough? edit: everyone, thank you so much! your answers helped a lot! | the research on this kind of thing is pretty famous, and is in large part thanks to dr. elizabeth loftus (et al., of course). her research focussed a lot on how you can alter memories with language use and how fallible eye witness testimony is because we don't actually store things very well at the time (and so anything you didn't store you basically make up on the spot under pressure, without realizing it, and then start to believe it). a quick google scholar search reveals some of her greatest hits: [heres ](_url_3_)a study that showed you can influence people to remember objects they didn't see in the first place, [another](_url_0_) that demonstrated memories being altered by how people were asked about them, a [cool one](_url_2_) about childhood "memories" seeming more likely if you imagine them first, and a [personal favorite](_url_1_), what amounts to a discussion on whether repressed memory is really a thing. i just thought you might like to know about those since they seem relevant to your question! or, tl;dr version: yes. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://e.dyffrynaman.org/psychology/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2014/01/Reconstruction_Automobile_Destruction.pdf",
"http://cogprints.org/600/1/199802010.html",
"http://cogprints.org/590/1/199801004.html",
"http://www.someya-net.com/01-Tsuyaku/Reading/Loftus75.pdf"
] | [
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why exactly is a 100% efficient process impossible? | so i've built a perpetual motion device and need your help... no, actually i'm a bsc physics grad working on a book and trying to sort some things out in my head. i've been doing a bunch of reading on the topic and am trying to pin down one particular point. i get the basics of the four laws of thermodynamics, i remember the statistical explanations of entropy, and (actually, mostly thanks to a few reddit posts), i'm starting to get a hold of the idea of heat being "unusable" energy. ok, so my actual question is this: how valid is it to say that you cannot reach 100% efficiency because you cannot escape friction, and friction always results in a heat transfer? am i thinking on too much of a macro level? thanks for any help you can give. | friction is a good culprit in mechanical systems, but equivalent types of loss occur in other systems (e.g. viscosity leads to drag in fluids; randomization of electron paths leads to ohmic resistance in electrical systems). i think the concept you're reaching for is this: it is never, in practice, possible to create a completely ordered system, and slight amounts of disorder in any energy-transducing system will yield loss of ordered energy (mechanical, electrical, chemical) to disordered energy (heat at uniform temperature). friction is due to lack of order in the physical shape of sliding solids on the molecular scale, or to viscosity in liquids or gases -- which in turn is due to momentum transfer by disordered molecular motion perpendicular to applied shear. electrical resistance is due to disorder in the electron-nucleus interaction in a conductor. etc. the problem is that such statements have to be so general (to encompass all the forms of disorder and of ordered energy) that they just boil down to restatements of the second law of thermodynamics. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will my skin develop a dependence to lotion? | it seems that hair can develop a tolerance to moisturizing shampoo and conditioner (that is to say, the shampoo and conditioner don't moisturize anymore after constant use) and that lips can develop a dependence to lip balm (in other words, the lips will become chapped if you *don't* apply lip balm after using lip balm constantly over a long period of time). so, i'm wondering the same thing. will my skin develop a tolerance or dependence to lotion if i decide to apply it to my whole body every day? will my skin then become, in effect, more dry if i stop applying lotion daily? if so, why? thanks for your answers! | as a pharmd student, i find this to be a really interesting question. while i challenge your use of the word "dependence", the notion that you can, in fact, become dependent upon lotion kind of makes sense. i'd like to preface my comment with the disclaimer that my suggestion regarding this subject is not evidence-based and i have no clinical trials to back my statements. to my knowledge there have not been any trials regarding this particular topic. a quick search of pubmed and medline seems to confirm this. i believe that long-term, repeated use could cause problems with the skin. many lotions contain emulsifiers which i believe could damage the epidermis at the cellular level over a long period of use. emulsifiers solubilize lipids; lipids such as cholesterol which comprise the mainstay of your body's own cells. also, much of the body's ability to control water loss and to decrease susceptibility to pathogens arises from its ability to secrete oils (sebum) and endogenous anti-microbial agents. the disruption of this system could reasonably lead down a path to relative dependence upon the lotion. i'd like to hear what other reddit professionals think; i don't know everything and certainly don't claim so! | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do springs form higher than ground water level? | this is probably an easy question, but the cultivated rise in the foreground of this picture and slightly to the left (_url_0_) recently had channels cut in it to drain the natural spring. how/why would the spring form in this rise, rather than in a low spot? if it helps this is in bartle frere australia (a very high rainfall location) | it maye be an artesian spring from an aquifer that is high up in that mountain in the background. water enters the aquifer in the mountain, and fills tbe aquifer underneath a confining layer that extends beyond the base of the mountain. the water beyond the base of the mountain is pressurized in the confined aquifer. the amount of pressure is determined by maximum elevation of the water in the aquifer (near the top of the mountain.) when the confined aquifer finds a path to daylight, it is pushed out of the ground by the pressure built up behind it. _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/7iUk6Sc"
] | [
"http://www.vaiwai.com/au/images/Aquifer.jpg"
] | [
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how exactly do natural springs form and what gives them the pressure to move water? | it is just rain that has permeated through one layer of soil/rock, travelling downhill underground, and has hit a less permeable layer and moved sideways until it can escape to the surface. a more interesting type is an artesian well, where the water ends up under pressure because of an impermeable layer (perhaps clay) on the top: _url_0_ | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artesian_aquifer"
] | [
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|
what can i feed to dinoflagellates? | hello askscience. my family has some pet dinoflagellates (specifically unicellular protists of the division dinoflagellata and of the species pyrocystis fusiformis) and we have been buying "dino food" from the company we purchased them from but i can't shake the feeling that i am dramatically overpaying for a solution i could make myself or purchase from a scientific supply company. unfortunately the google has been less than helpful in describing what they eat. (there is an otherwise great page from the smithsonian however.) so, can anyone tell me what to feed these jewel-encrusted sea monkeys? thank you! | pyrocystis fusiformis is a photosynthetic organism, so it doesn't need "food" in the usual sense. instead, the solution contains micronutrients required by the organism (just like fertilizer for plants). a mixture called ["guillard's f/2 formula"](_url_0_) seems to be a common choice for growing this species (sources [1](_url_2_), [2](_url_1_)). note that the concentrated f/2 solution you can buy needs to be diluted with seawater, so if you are currently mixing your "dino food" with freshwater, you will also need to add aquarium salt or similar. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://mel.xmu.edu.cn/UserFiles/Image/gomap/pdf/f_2_medium.pdf",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.4319/lo.1977.22.1.0073/pdf",
"http://www.plantphysiol.org/content/70/1/272.full.pdf+html"
] | [
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odd scene with a fluorescent light, darker bands that move to the sides of the tube. what causes this? | i lacked any picture-taking equipment when i saw it, but here's a picture that i hope explains the phenomenon better: _url_0_ | these are known as [striations](_url_1_) , and from [here](_url_0_) , they appear to be the result of stepwise ionization of the argon (in this case, the lamps you are referring to may be krypton or something else) and if you're just looking for a way to fix it, usually keeping the lamps warm will help (block a/c airflow over them) | 7 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/qOHs1.png"
] | [
"http://iopscience.iop.org/0022-3727/41/13/135211;jsessionid=B66B72F81BAB6AE655C833B883EC0ED9.c3",
"http://www.icpig2009.unam.mx/pdf/PB15-9.pdf"
] | [
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] |
why is xenon 135 not used as a control rod/poison in nuclear reactors? | since it causes xenon precluded start up you would assume it would make an effective poison in small doses yet we seem to use boron and cadmium instead. | because it's radioactive and its half-life is only 9 hours. so you would need to develop a way to be constantly separating it from the fuel while the reactor is operating. and because it's so potent, and a gas, it would be difficult to control. poor management of xenon poisoning contributed to the chernobyl disaster. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to get an std or sti from/at the gym? | if so, what/how? | many of the microbes and viruses that are known to cause sexually transmitted infections do not survive well outside of the body. hiv is one great example here, as it 'survives' mere minutes outside of the body before being inactivated. so most of the microbes would not survive long on, say, a piece of gym equipment. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are planes lightening proof? | i understand that modern commercial and military planes can be struck by lightening and not suffer catastrophic failure. my question is, how does a plane deal with the gigawatts of electrical energy that a lightening strike can give off? | one important protection method is making sure that the current is conducted along the exterior of the plane. if the entire exterior is covered, carefully, in a conductive material, then the current will begin somewhere (say, nose), travel through the exterior and end at the other end. planes typically have a conductive exterior of a composite material with a lot of aluminium. a modern plane will in fact use a several-layered protection, with fiberglass, with a conductive metal, and with a carefully designed geometric structure that spreads the current over a larger area. then it's important to avoid interference with instruments. you don't want extra current to go through the wiring. that's why they use grounding and surge protectors for electrical systems. the biggest potential problem is, rather obviously, fuel. it's very flammable so any problem in the fuel area would cause a fire or explosion. so in addition to using fuels that are less explosive when possible, fuel tanks have to be well protected so that the fuel is not reached even if there are burns in the exterior - basically, ensuring that the lightning can't burn through the exterior to reach the fuel. for a military plane, similar concerns will apply to protecting the munitions. also, planes don't just fly untested. lightning resistance is a significant part of testing, and a plane will be exposed to powerful currents in testing. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_cage"
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