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what are the consequences of nonlocality? | hi. recently there have been a number of threads on /r/askscience asking about pilot wave theory, and it's been mentioned a few times that current theories provide a local but nondeterministic explanation of quantum mechanics, while pilot wave potentially offers a nonlocal but deterministic explanation. it's also been suggested that being nonlocal is a lot harder of a pill to swallow than being nondeterministic. what about pilot wave is nonlocal? why is a theory being nonlocal something that many would want to avoid? what are the consequences of this nonlocality? would there be any potential macroscopic consequences of interest? any other information about this topic would also be appreciated. thank you for any answers. | just a physic undergrad, so hopefully someone more qualified is working on a better answer. however, my best understanding is that pilot wave theory implies that a particle is interacting with itself to produce quasi-random movement. i say "quasi" because the particle has a higher probability to be in certain places compared to other places, similar to electron orbitals. (_url_0_ for a visual depiction) if a particle is nonlocal then it's position is not confined to a specific location. it interacts with its environment as if it is located in a general area as opposed to a specific location. a wave function can describe the area in which the particle has a higher or lower probability of existing in a given moment.mathematically, this wave function is a huge mess, especially in three dimensions, so avoiding it is preferable. deterministiclly, the particle is in a specific location at a specific time. it might act as if it is in multiple locations, but it itself is not. thus, once observed, the wave function collapses to a point. (the point where it was observed) consequences of nonlocality are that it is a pain to study particles. when considering macroscopic consequences, there is nothing super interesting to my knowledge. when you add enough wave equations together to model all the particles of a macroscopic object, you find that the probability of finding an object is 100% in one location. (i.e. the object isn't amorphously floating around the room.) additionally, even though objects are just floating particles and mostly empty space, you cant walk through walls. | 2 | [] | [] | [
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frozen pattern on trampoline, how did it form in such a way? | [deleted] | without a closer look i'd guess: you had a solid thin layer of ice on the whole surface. the lines are where the sheet has stretched when you jumped, thus separating from the ice. check the directions of the thread in the fabric, if i'm right they will be parallel to the pattern lines, and gives you a clue how the sheet likes to stretch when jumped on. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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bizarre cloud pattern i saw 2 days ago; any idea what might cause this? [photo] | i was in scottsdale, az, a couple days ago and noticed the clouds had a very distinct break between overcast and clear blue along a continuous straight line across the sky from horizon to horizon. image: _url_0_ the left photo is facing roughly ne and the right photo is sw at about 3 pm. i've never seen clouds like this before. anyone have an idea for what caused this phenomena? | fronts are a near-surface phenomenon, while these [cirrostratus clouds](_url_0_) which occur above 18,000 feet (5500 m), so it is not related to a front. really, it's [not all that uncommon](_url_2_), although the fact that these are high-altitude clouds (where there tends to be less turbulent motion) probably makes this sort of phenomenon more likely. [here is a satellite loop of november 17, the day i think you're talking about](_url_1_) (unfortunately, this permanent link will not work in a few days, but you can look up your own loop [here](_url_3_) when that link expires). in this specific instance you can see that the "straight line" is actually a very long arc over arizona and new mexico, and it is related to an upper-level jet streak transporting moisture northeastward. this "jet streak" is a bit analogous to a river, in that the motion is very unidirectional: the moisture is transported in a single direction, and there is very little atmospheric motion to the left or right. there is only enough moisture to condense into clouds within the jet streak, so the cloud layer has a very sharp lateral border. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/BXBus.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirrostratus_cloud",
"http://weather.rap.ucar.edu/satellite/displaySat.php?region=ABQ&itype=vis&size=small&endDate=20121118&endTime=0&duration=12",
"http://metabunk.org/threads/240-Debunked-Louisiana-straight-line-HAARP-clouds",
"http://squall.sfsu.edu/scripts/gevis_big_archloop.html"
] | [
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how automated is the world? | if everyone else on the planet inexplicably vanished, how long would i still have electricity or clean running water? how important are humans in our current age to these processes? i am in the us, but answers from any country would be fun to look at. | i am more interested in the opposite: what would happen if all artefacts are gone. we are woken up in the ditches that were dug up for foundations of our highrises, naked, with the only knowledge that is in our heads. i am sure there were sci-fi books on that, and i am sure i would not be happy with them, and i am even more sure that i would not be happy with reddit answers, so why am i asking this? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the criteria used to define "stable"? | i just read [this article](_url_0_) (recently posted on reddit [here](_url_1_)) and found myself perplexed over the existence of a "stable" particle that exists for just 25 trillionths of a second. at what point is a particle (reaction, element, etc) defined as "stable"? is it possible to have a stable particle that exists for 25 quadrillionths of a second? 25 quintillionths? less? what defines "stability" in any given particle, reaction, element, etc? | i don't think there's a singular official/standardised definition of "stable" or "stability". if we consider stability as a binary quantity, then a stable object should never ever decay. for example, standard-model protons. in this article, stability is used as a continuous, relative quantity. note the phrase "stable enough" in the 6^th paragraph. with this definition, you could say that ^(238)u is more stable than ^(235)u, or that the π^+ is more stable than the π^(0), despite none of these things being absolutely stable. edit: i should probably answer your questions directly. honestly it depends on a chosen definition. common ones include "will never ever decay", "has never been observed to decay" or "has a half-life/lifetime longer than the age of the earth/universe". half-life: the typical time until 1/2 of a population remains lifetime: the typical time until 1/e of a population remains. decay length: velocity times lorentz factor times lifetime. (useful if you have a near-mono-energetic beam of particles). decay width: if you measure the mass spectrum of some particle with perfect resolution, you'll get a breit-wigner distribution of finite width. the width of this distribution is inversely proportional to lifetime, due to the uncertainty principle. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/new-particle-called-quantum-droplet-discovered-1.2553585",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/1z6puy/new_particle_called_quantum_droplet_discovered/"
] | [] | [
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can anyone explain the ergodic hypothesis simply? | spent far too long staring at the wiki page, it's just not making sense. is it possible to explain it in simpler terms? i'm not a physicist, but have an understanding of thermodynamics. any help would be appreciated. thank you for reading! edit: put physics flair on, but this could also be a mathematical question. | the ergodic hypothesis is the statement that all states of a system with a given energy are equally likely to occur over long periods of time. adopting the ergodic hypothesis allows one to compute the average behavior of a system over time by instead performing an average over states. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what has happened to this cap from marinated mushrooms? | if the jar did corrode on both sides as it appears to have, then that means the oxygen has made its way through the metal enough to allows rust on both sides. if its been like that for a while then its possible that might be enough allow bacteria to grow (it doesn't take a lot for them to set up their own little ecosystem). i wouldnt eat any of that. not that i would ever eat pickled mushrooms. even if you think it tastes great, it doesnt take much to make you really sick. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does overlapping a conductor with an insulator prevent heat from dissipating further through the conductor? | i have a question about the top portion of a thermos where the plastic cap threads into the steel flask.. how does the heat not continue to travel through that threaded portion of the steel? it appears to stop once it comes into any contact with the plastic. how does combining this insulator with a conductor prevent further heat transfer through the conductor? | _url_0_ from the image shown here, i would think the inside slightly down from the lip, it would start to get warm, but near the top you will have crossed the vacuum section and not get most of the heat transfer. i would assume, so that they do not get sued when people burn themselves, that most manufacturers of items like this would leave the mouthpiece on the other side of the vacuum tube. that being said, if you have a specific manufacturer or model number, you could look this up in much greater detail. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://futurism.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Thermos.gif"
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i've found what looks to be a glow in the dark microbe in my laundry room. google hasn't given me any leads. | i apologize as this probably isn't the right subreddit for this. there's an "identify this bug" subreddit but not one for what i need. i recently found in a drain that's been gathering dust a peculiar golden glow. i believe it to be a microbe. as the title says, my google search didn't help me in identifying this, only leading to me looking over wikipedia pages on a couple of marine bioluminescent microbes. the drain in question that i found it in hasn't seen water in months. i can't provide pictures at this time. edit 1: the more i think about it the more implausible it seems as far as being a microbe. any suggestions are welcome. edit 2: possibly relevant: the drain in question is within two meters of a litter box. i'll check back here in several hours. | when you say: "the place in question has not seen water in months", do you mean it is as dry as could be or could there be growing a mold. a group of tropical slime molds is known to be bio-luminescent [1]. but without pictures it is very difficult to do anything more than speculate. i am also not to sure about the golden glow. [1] h. weitz, *the effect of culture conditions on the mycelial growth and luminescence of naturally bioluminescent fungi*, fems microbiology letters 2001 [pdf link](_url_0_) | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.aseanbiodiversity.info/Abstract/51002968.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_brightener"
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could you create a current in a wire of exactly zero resistance? | if i=v/r, but the resistance is zero, then current and voltage must also be zero. is creating a current in a wire of zero resistance impossible, or is this just a fault of the equation that would never be needed since the situation cannot really exist. | you can have materials that have exactly zero resistance under certain conditions. most notably, such a situation arises for [superconductors](_url_3_) below a certain critical temperature. note that you can still have electrical currents in such a material. the relationship you listed, [ohm's law](_url_1_) simply states that under certain conditions, the [voltage *drop*](_url_0_) (*v*, a measure of the energy lost per unit charge) will be proportional to the current applied (*i*) and an effective proportionality constant called the resistance (*r*), giving *v*=*i**r*. the fact that the resistance of superconductors is zero simply means that no such voltage drop would take place (by definition) when you pass a current through the superconductor. in other words, the fact that the resistance is equal to zero doesn't mean that current can't flow, but rather that current can flow with no associated energy loss. in fact, superconductors allow for persistent electrical currents (i.e. currents that do not decay with time) to propagate, again because there is no resistance to stop this flow of electrons. this actually gives rise to some amazing properties. for instance, if you bring a semiconductor close to a magnet, this will [induce](_url_4_) electric currents in the superconductor. the currents in turn will produce their own magnetic field [as described by the biot-savart law](_url_2_), which will cancel out the applied magnetic field within the semiconductor. this effect allows the superconductor to levitate on top of a magnet indefinitely [as shown in this cool demo.](_url_5_) | 41 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_drop",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Ohm%27s_law",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biot%E2%80%93Savart_law",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Electromagnetic_induction",
"https://youtu.be/Ws6AAhTw7RA?t=10s"
] | [
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question why is one side of a person different to the other? | so i've recently been taking notice that probably down the middle of a human being you can see all sorts of minor defects most common is one eye socket larger then the other. also fingers being larger then the ones on the other hand. what is the science? | nature isn't symmetric in large scales. the only naturally symmetric material i can think of are a handful of identical molecules forming a tiny crystal in micro gravity. if i had a big load of these molecules and would bring them together, they would start to form crystals at different locations at different times, causing little failures in the crystal's grid, making the overall crystal asymmetrical on a small scale. human bones aren't made of just one type of molecule, they are made of many different ones and also some, which aren't really supposed to be in there. different melecules have different sizes and different binding energies in a polycrystalline structure. genetics dictate a higher level of order than fundamental thermodynamics. your dna just pushes lots of the right material into the right place over a long timespan but allows lots of errors due to inhomegenic material distribution during growth. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does technology quicken or dampen adaptation/survival-of-the-fittest? | i understand that every organism is a transitional organism and that there is no "complete" evolution for an organism. does technology, such as human tech, affect the evolution of the human species in any way. are there really any ways that physical parts of our body are not needing to change anymore due to the rapid pace of medical practices (implants, transplants, medicines, surgeries, etc). is our technology outpacing our bodies' need to select for traits that help our specie to survive? or is technology actually augmenting our evolution in that we are changing more mentally than we are physically? i understand this is more than likely a very loaded question and is sort of speculative, but has there been any research into how our species is projected to change in our distant future? we went from motorized carriages to putting objects into space and communicating world-wide with every human on earth with access to internet in the span of 2 lifetimes, more or less. in the millions of years of evolution is it possible that our technology is out evolving our physical evolution? and thus, our need to physically evolve. or maybe our specie will die out before we'll find out. who knows. tl;dr: is tech out pacing our need to physically evolve by providing us quick fixes to physical adaptations needed to survive. | technology just provides a new environment humans need to adapt to. the pressure of selection on humans isn't modified by technology per se, but rather by two things: what proportion of human survive to breed, and how evenly is reproductive success distributed. fancy medical care probably has a smaller impact than you'd think. the majority of medical expenses occur at the very end of life, too late to matter for this purpose. if person a gets a transplant at age 55, after they have had kids and seen them raised up, then the transplant won't effect the spread of their genes. however, basic stuff like sanitation means that a high proportion of humans in developed countries do live to breeding age. still there are plenty of things in the technological world that can kill you and that we need to adapt to. changing diets have driven some clear cases of adaptation. but more important is probably reproductive success. anything that increases your chances of raising healthy offspring will be selected for....this could be looks or whatever to get a mate, or good parenting skills, or some cultural trait encouraging lots of children, or resistance to infertility-causing health problems or chemicals. probably the biggest problem to determining what technology will do, though, is simply the speed at which it changes. we live very differently than we did 100 years ago, or even 50. probably another generation will have a new set of selective pressures, making it hard to predict. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the 80/20 rule apply to territorial animals? | as in, are there any other animals where 20% of the individuals control 80% of the available territory? i was having high thoughts today about human property rights and how we came to the point of that rule applying to us. so i got to wondering whether the same principle applies to any other animals, to see if such an inequality was more common throughout the animal kingdom or whether it's a purely human thing. | the 80/20 rule, or 'pareto principle', is just a special case of the more general pareto distribution. and the pareto distribution is itself just one of a large class of power law probability distributions. it turns out power law distributions are just incredibly common across all of biology (and many other fields) and they arise spontaneously for any process that has some fixed generative ratio. so you see them in the distribution of species in a taxonomy, scaling of body mass, the distribution of protein folds in genomes, step length in ungulate animals, protein-protein interaction networks, animal space use as a function of body size, the list is literally endless. _url_0_ power law distributions are the classic long tail distributions. and what these graphs tell you is that when you look at some system you'll frequently find that there is a very large class of common items (the left shifted peak on the distribution) but as you move right on the graph you find a few rare items. that is 80% of the things you are measuring are in the common/average category but there are a long tail of rare exceptional things. _url_1_ this isn't my field so i don't have an example off the top of my head but i do not doubt for a second if you go looking you'll easily turn up species whose territorial holdings are distributed on a power law. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Long_tail.svg/450px-Long_tail.svg.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_law",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth_inequality_in_the_United_States"
] | [
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is it theoretically possible to balance anything on another object? | weight and wind and other uncontrollable factors aside, is it possible to balance anything on another object? for instance is there some point on a penny, where i would be able to balance 4 books and just keep stacking things on top? moreover, is there a specific point on objects where anything will be able to balance, given that the object being balanced has its weight evenly dispersed. | not stably, no. to be stable, an object must have its centre of mass above the region that's in contact with the other object. if this region is sufficiently small, then any sufficiently small perturbation ("little shove") is going to make it fall over. this perturbations always exist - even without wind etc, there's at the very least the thermal wibbling about of the atoms etc. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how am i able to breathe "through" two sections of my body? | the question is worded oddly since i have no better way to ask it. since we have one set of lungs, how are humans able to breathe using either their chest or stomach? when i say "using" or "through", i mean where that section of our body expands while breathing. are there any pros and cons to each different area? | in order for air to move into your lungs, you must create a pressure differential between the atmosphere and your lungs. i.e. you must make the pressure in your lungs lower, so that air will flow into them. this can be achieved by "chest breathing" in which your rib cage moves outwards, or by "stomach breathing" in which your diaphragm moves toward your abdomen. both do effectively the same thing - increase the volume of your chest cavity, so lowering the pressure within it. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how do internet browser programs and operating systems 'treat' tabs and windows differently? | if i have two browser windows open, each with five tabs, does that 'look' exactly the same as if i had one window with 10 tabs? or five windows each with two tabs? or ten windows? does memory get allocated differently? (i'm not a computer guy, but that's really the only difference i can think of off the top of my head). | for google chrome, [each tab is a separate process.](_url_0_) this means that, to your computer, each tab looks like its own program. it is similar to opening two different windows in any other program, except chrome displays them all together. this requires a significant amount of ram (memory) because each program needs to be individually handled, but it makes the browser more stable, and if one tab is slow or freezes, the others are unaffected. other browsers, to my knowledge, only use one process, so they look to the operating system like a single program, regardless of the number of tabs. this makes the browser require less ram, but it also means that if any tab crashes or freezes, they all go down. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.howtogeek.com/124218/why-does-chrome-have-so-many-open-processes/"
] | [
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would this be a cheaper and safer alternative to liposuction? | there are several hormones that triggers the process of [lipolysis](_url_0_) in the body. simply stated, they are hormones that trigger the release of stored fat from the cell. now if said energy is not used up within 8 minutes, the body restores the fat back into a cell, through esterification. i had the idea then, that if a person was hooked up to a dialysis machine and pumped with an appropriate hormone, that the fat could just be filtered out of the blood, instead of the invasive procedures used today. is there any reason why this couldnt work? | i foresee several issues with this particular solution 1. time. yes we can stimulate lipolysis through beta-adrenergic stimulation (such as using isoproterenol or other agonists) but the rate at which this would stimulate lipolysis and remove a significant amount of tg stores would be rather slow compared to the blunt approach of liposuction where kilograms of fat can be removed in a matter of an hour or so. 2. side effects. treating a subject with sufficient hormone/agonist or whathaveyou to stimulate large free fatty acid release from adipose would have a large amount of negative consequences through beta-adrenergic stimulation of other organs (mostly the heart) resulting in increased blood pressure, heart rate, and potential for cardiac arrhythmias. 3. potentially toxic levels of free fatty acids (ffa): ffa released into the blood can activate a number of inflammatory pathways in tissues exposed to them. this becomes more of an issue with the visceral depots where venous drainage feeds to the portal system first, so in order to attenuate this effect via dialysis catherization of the portal system would be required, not a pleasant prospect. additionally subcutaneous depots around the body would be likewise releasing ffa in somewhat large amounts leading perhaps to an acute inflammatory response in surrounding tissues if albumin in the circulation cannot transport it effectively 4. albumin itself: perhaps the most damning issue to this approach. fatty acids are usually bound to albumin and through a system not terribly well understood, they are released at tissues that require the fatty acids for energy. so in dialysis, one would have to free the fatty acids from the albumin by some method (i'm not entirely certain this can be accomplished by a simple concentration gradient, but the issue still is present) so there is a lot of potential problems with the procedure that may cause more harm than is worth the few kg of triglyceride removed. | 6 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipolysis"
] | [] | [
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what is the observed frequency-size distribution of bolide impacts, and can this be extrapolated to predict the frequency of tunguska-like events? | maybe bolide isn't the right word. | here's an older, simplified diagram in terms of impact energy: _url_2_ a tunguska-level event is predicted every century or two. (so maybe we're due another one?) a more recent paper by [bland (2005)](_url_0_) gives more detail, but it's in terms of impactor mass rather than impact energy. to convert mass in kilograms to energy in megatons tnt for asteroids (17 km/s impact velocity), multiply by about [3 x 10^(-8).](_url_1_) _url_3_ these graphs are based on two kinds of data: frequency of very common small incoming objects which make a fireball but don't hit the ground, and frequency of large, uncommon objects that make visible craters on the surface. unfortunately tunguska-sized events sit right in the middle where the events are too rare to get good statistics on, and too small to leave obvious craters over geologic time, so uncertainty is high. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1837/2793",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=0.5+*+1+kg+*+(17+km%2Fs\\)%5E2+in+megatons+tnt",
"http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/rwoclass/astr1210/im/asteroid-impact-frequency-NASA.gif",
"http://d29qn7q9z0j1p6.cloudfront.net/content/roypta/363/1837/2793/F3.large.jpg"
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how did the tinfoil protection on the lunar modules work? | i was watching apollo 13 this morning, and they mention that some of the shielding on the lunar module was as thin as a tinfoil. i also remember going to the space and rocket center in huntsville, alabama as a kid, and they said that some of this shielding could easily be ruptured with as little as a finger poking through it. if this shielding was so weak, how was it able to sustain the air pressures inside the lunar module during the flight to the moon? | the pressurized lunar module was build using 'normal' materials for their strength, the very thin tinfoil is wrapped around that as its only purpose is to keep the module cool, by reflecting sunshine on the 'hot' side and prevent radiation on the 'cold' side. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you determine the largest sized square you can fit into a specific shape? | i was bored the other day at work, and my desktop background was a map. i spend five minutes or so trying to see the largest sized square i could fit into a few of the countries without crossing the borders. how do you determine the largest square (eg. with the select box dragging thing on a computer.) im gathering that its going to be pretty hard to determine a parametric equation for the border since... well they are usually pretty irregular, does that make it harder to determine? what about other shapes? which would be the most efficient single shape that would fit into a random shape? | if you can come up with a parametric equation for the border, then you could simply use that equation to write the area of the rectrangle as a function of the parameter of a single vertex and maximize the area using traditional calculus. otherwise, you are left with sampling. this is actually a typical problem in numerical analysis. say you come up with a numerical solution to a series of differential equations governed by some parameter. for example, the mass of a neutron star governed by the tov equations as a function of the radius. you can plot the radius-mass curve and sort of isolate where the maxima approximately is, then you just implement methodology such as bisection to get as close as you want. you can compute the solution to arbitrary precision. this can be automated. in your example, a problem arises because there will be local maxima. so first you can uniformly sample a bunch of points along the border. next you find the global maxima of that set (the points should be close enough together to not miss the global maxima). then you refine the sampling around that maxima. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there any shape that's impossible to calculate the area of? | when calculating the area of a weird shape, what you normally do is break it up into easier shapes to work with, like triangles, squares, etc. i'm not aware of any other way you can calculate the area of more irregular shapes. & #x200b; so is it possible to create an irregular shape that is impossible to break up into other shapes, making it impossible to calculate the area of that shape? | this is essentially what calculus is for. any shape that can be described analytically (i.e., with a mathematical function, either piecewise or in its entirety), can be solved either analytically using calculus, or approximated to arbitrary resolution using numerical methods. even fractal boundaries with theoretically infinite perimeters will resolve to an area solution. the only shapes which you might not be able to calculate areas for are shapes which can not be described explicitly (free form, hand drawn, etc.), for which the describing functions are unknown. even then, any curve can be approximated to arbitrary resolution with a polynomial of some degree, so the problem is not one of impossibility, but pragmatism. imagine breaking any shape you can think of into slices, and approximating each slice with a rectangle. the smaller you make the slices, the closer the sum of all the rectangular element areas approaches the true area. as it is not possible to create a 2d shape that you can't slice into smaller areas, it isn't possible to create a shape that you can't calculate the area of, although in truth you are merely approximating it to arbitrary fine resolution. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-measurable_set",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_choice"
] | [
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why can you see sine waves in videos? | can you guys help me understand why this [video](_url_2_) is or isn't fake? i've seen other videos using this technique like [this](_url_1_) and [this](_url_0_). i understand that it has something to do with syncing the frequency of the wave with the frame rate of the camera, but the guitar video seems too good to be true. | this video is taken from an iphone, which uses a rolling shutter. basically, this means that the images are being captured from left to right. at the moment of each capture, the string is in a different place. because it takes x amount of images per second to make the video, it creates the visual effect of sine waves. if the camera had a more mechanical shutter, it would seem more visually realistic. | 9 | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/cxddi8m_mzk",
"https://youtu.be/uENITui5_jU",
"https://youtu.be/cZgl7rJKs3A"
] | [] | [
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what kind of glass/conditions would allow for this type of projection to occur on a wall through a window? | i woke up in an oklahoma city hotel downtown and was surprised to see this projected on my wall. keep in mind the curtains were closed with a small slit in between where the light shone through. [pictures of projection](_url_0_) the original pictures i took look completely black and had to use photoshop express on my iphone to brighten them up. if anyone's interested in having a stab at 'em, i'll post them. | you experienced the phenomenon exploited by a pinhole camera via a slit in the curtains most specifically that light rays from an object pass through a small hole to form an inverted image. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/fOFXu"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinhole_camera"
] | [
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the earth's nutation period and the precession period of the lunar nodes are same (18.6 yrs). how are they related? | what is the relationship between the lunar node precession period and the earth's nutation period for them to be equivalent to each other? this seems to odd to be a coincidence. | i found this nice paper on [ads](_url_1_) that briefly describes this connection in the introduction section: [williams, j. g. 1994, aj, 108, 711](_url_0_). **tldr**: the nutation of the earth is due primarily to the deformation of the earth from lunar tides. this means that the nutation is sensitive to the location/orbit of the moon -- including the orientation of the lunar nodes. the lunar nodes precess due to tidal torques on the moon from the sun. so, in the end, it's not a coincidence that these two periods are the same: they are dynamically coupled. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1994AJ....108..711W&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf",
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/"
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where does the scientific community stand on the issue of dr. jaworowski's ice core work? | apparently dr. jaworowski had some issues with measuring past atmospheric co2 levels using ice cores. from the little i know, it was his assertion that drilling processes contaminate/alter co2 values and that they shouldn't be used as proxies for past measures of atmospheric carbon dioxide. what does today's scientific community think of his viewpoint? | his criticism of ice core results has been universally rejected by the scientific community. even if all the ice core research in the world was destroyed tomorrow, we have other independent measures [which tell us exactly the same thing.](_url_1_) the oxygen isotope results from benthic forams, tiny dead sea creatures are one example. * waelbroeck et al. sea-level and deep water temperature changes derived from benthic foraminifera isotopic records. *qsr*. 2002. _url_3_ * shackleton, opdyke. oxygen isotope and palaeomagnetic stratigraphy of equatorial pacific core v28-238: oxygen isotope temperatures and ice volumes on a 10^5 year and 10^6 year scale. *qr*. 1973. _url_0_ * lisiecki, raymo. a pliocene-pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic delta^(18)o records. *paleoceanography*. 2004. _url_2_ | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0033589473900525",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/MilankovitchCyclesOrbitandCores.png",
"http://lorraine-lisiecki.com/LisieckiRaymo2005.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379101001019"
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what are the processes/steps to go from the raw data of a 'laser scanner' || radar || ultrasound transducer, to a point cloud in xyz? | from an image processing side there is a lot of information and libraries on point clouds. equally from a signal processing side there is a lot of theory available on signal processing, data acquisition, and the theory behind time of travel of a pulse. can anyone provide a high level explanation to cover my knowledge gap in between these two aspects? | i'm not sure i fully understand what you're asking, but i'll take a stab. i can only speak about laser scanners and faro arms.. the laser scanner collects data representing an array of points. a coordinate transformation is done onboard to convert the data from polar coordinates to cartesian coordinates (or in the caes of a faro arm, the hardware must measure the angle of each joint, and perform the appropriate transformation). each scan is done into a local coordinate system, and the user can put multiple point clouds into a global coordinate system. is that what you're asking about? if you grasp the concept of how one point is measured, there's not really much else happening to get to a point cloud, and from there it's generally up to the user to merge multiple locally-defined point clouds into a global coordinate system, as well as any post-processing. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible that we as a species of this planet are missing out on a sensation because of our environment and/or anatomy? | for example, imagine an alien race that doesn't have the ability to hear anything (for whatever reason), yet we know that under the right conditions, sound exists. | absolutely, there are many things that humans can't sense that other animals can (and we don't even have to leave earth to find them). for instance, some animals can sense magnetic fields (some birds and insects) and some can sense electric fields (many fish) [(source)](_url_2_). in addition, you can also consider that there are plenty of animals that can hear [higher or lower frequency sounds than we can](_url_3_). many animals can also see beyond the visible spectrum of light (into the [infrared](_url_1_) or [ultra violet](_url_0_)). not to mention all of the chemicals that we cannot smell or taste. there are signals all around us that we can't perceive. many of them can be perceived by other animals. | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_vision#Ultraviolet_sensitivity",
"http://www.mapoflife.org/topics/topic_311_Infrared-detection-in-animals/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense#Electroreception",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearing#Hearing_in_animals"
] | [
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does someone who is "in shape" run a mile using less atp than someone who is not "in shape"? why? | it depends on a lot of factors. to simplify things we'll assume identical weight and body composition between the two people, because different masses will require different amounts of work to move the same distance. so now we have two different people of identical weight and body composition running a mile, one is fit and one is not, so which one uses more atp? it depends, "fitness" is a multifactorial phenomenon, there are dozens of individual components to fitness that act independently and also interact with each other. if we isolate some of the more important performance factors for running, we can determine situations in which they might use the same amount of atp, and situations in which they won't. two of the most important factors that determine running performance are critical pace (pace at lactate threshold) and vo2max. if these are the only differences between the individuals they will use the same amount of atp to run a given distance, the more fit individual will just be using a smaller percentage of their maximum atp production capacity. the other two most important factors in running performance are *efficiency* (how well an individual converts fuel substrates into atp, measured as an amount of atp produce per unit of oxygen consume, or p/o ratio) and *economy* (how well an individual converts atp driven muscular contractions into forward movement). efficiency doesn't vary greatly between individuals who are reasonably fit, so we'll assume efficiency is the same. economy on the other hand, varies tremendously, so much so that it may turn out to be more important than maximal aerobic capacity as we research it more. so if the individuals are identical in every way except for their economy, they will use different amounts of atp to cover a given distance. you can picture this difference by imagining smooth, quiet, graceful runners (mo farrah) to someone who stomps along, banging loudly with every footstrike, waving their arms around, rolling their head side to side, and having too much up and down movement - that person would obviously require more atp to cover the same distance. tl;dr - it depends, people with the same body composition and economy will use the same amount, with different economies they will use different amounts. it depends how you define fitness. edit: ps - an interesting side note is that up to a certain point, the speed at which this mile is run doesn't matter! as long as an individual is running at a pace at which running is more comfortable than walking, they will use the same amount of atp, regardless of how fast they complete the mile. | 91 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
simple harmonic motion analogy: mass on a spring vs. ac rlc circuits, how does this analogy work for mass/inductance? | considering a mass oscillating on a spring, you get the differential equation: mx''+cx'+kx=fext(t). for the rlc circuit the equation is lq''+rq'+(1/c)q=v(t). i understand the connections between c and r as well as k and c^-1 , but what are the similarities between the mass and the inductance? in other words, my question would be "if you remove the mass from the spring, is it equivalent to removing the inductor from the circuit"? if not, why does the analogy fail here? if so, how are the two systems still analogous? | the analogy doesn't fail but the system becomes a lot more complicated. this is because the spring has a mass which you'll need to account for if you remove the mass from the system. similarly, every circuit will have a self inductance since it will have at least one complete loop. so you'll need to account for that in the circuit model. chances are, the mass of the spring will cause a more significant effect than the self-inductance of the circuit. so you're very likely to hit an underdamped system for the spring but an overdamped system for the circuit. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does tetanus cause a red line to form on your arm? | [deleted] | tetanus is a bacterial infection that enters the body at the site of injury. if left untreated, the bacteria can enter the bloodstream and travel to other parts of the body, where it causes muscle spasms, respiratory distress, fever, and a ton of other serious problems. that red line is the infection spreading up the blood vessels in his arm, heading towards his vital organs. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about food validity. | my girlfriend claims that freezing food some days before the expiration date is a way of essentially halting the expiration. then when you unfreeze it again possibly weeks after the expiration date you can still eat it normally for some days. for example ham comes in large quantities here and we freeze half of the ham and eat the other half while it's still good. when we unfreeze the other half of the ham after the expiration date it looks and tastes fine. i would like to know if what she claims has any truth to it and if there is some bacterial process going on that we are unaware of that could potentially be dangerous. | there are a number of responses out here that are addressing bacterial spoilage. which are generally true, freezing a food will halt microbial reproduction until you thaw it. one thing to keep in mind is that your food spoils for a number of reasons and not only through microbial means. there are a number of off flavor reactions that degrade food and make people not want to eat it. depending on the food product the expiration date is established based on its 'mode of failure' which generally can be either through microbes, or chemically (off flavor formation, discoloration, ets. that being said, freezing dramatically slows the rate at which these spoilage chemical reactions happen. you can essentially think of freezing as putting the expiration date on hold, three days left when you froze it? three days left when you thaw it. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i recall reading about negative temperatures in kittel and kroemer - what type of system and in what state would this situation occur? | i recall reading (ages ago when i was taking thermal physics) something about temperatures that can go from 0 k to + [infinity k], and then from - [infinity k] to -0k. can someone remind me of the system that allows this sort of thing to occur, and how one calculates temperature in this scenario. i would drag out my k & k but the usps (media mail) lost all of my physics books and then replaced them with a few law books and a *cosmetology* exam review. *sigh* | weakly coupled two state paramagnet. cool it then quickly flip the external field. i'd have to drag out my books to do specifics, but basically, each individual particle has two orientations. (low and high energy) and by flipping the external field, you're effectively exchanging those. if you start by cooling it lots, say, close to absolute zero so that almost all of them are in the low energy state, then flip the external field, almost all are now in the high energy state. since the entropy of the system itself will be max when about half are in low energy state and half in high energy, (_exactly_ analogous to how when flipping a coin a bunch of times, "roughly same number of heads and tails" will have much higher multiplicity" than "almost all heads" or "almost all tails"), it's in a state where losing energy would actually increase its entropy. hence the temperature is negative. make sense? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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ferrets are classified as being unrelated to mongoose and fossa, which in turn are not closely related to civets. why do these unrelated animals look so similar? | i get that they most likely evolved to fill the same niche, but they have the same long body, short limbs, and arched spine. why would they share all of these traits if they evolved independently? | it's a principle known as convergent evolution. it's why a dolphin looks much more like a tuna than it does a hippo, despite being much more closely related to the hippo. animals that live in a very similar way tend to solve the same problems in the same way. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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internal energy and temperature | if the internal energy remains constant, is it necessary for the temperature to remain constant too? of course considering all other forms of energy are zero: - the variations in potential energy and kinetic energy are zero. - there is no heat addition or removal. - no work is done by or on the system. more specifically, if we take an insulated vessel (constant volume v), separated in half by a membrane. half of the vessel has a fluid at some temperature, and the other half is empty. if we break the membrane, the internal energy will remain constant, but wouldn't the change in pressure and volume cause a variation in temperature? | in general, no it is not necessary for the temperature to remain the same. see [joule-thompson effect](_url_0_) which describes the exact experiment you are asking about. for an ideal gas or any other equation of state where u=u(t), then the temperature will not change. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule%E2%80%93Thomson_effect"
] | [
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in many worlds, how do observed probabilities arise? | if you're measuring something where you'd expect result a with a 50% chance, and result b with a 50% change, that's fine - the system decoheres into two "worlds", and since you can only subjectively experience one of them (though there is another "you" in the other, over repeated trials you'll observe the expected 50/50 probability. but what about a measurement where you expect the breakdown to be 75/25? if there are still only two results, wouldn't you still only get two worlds? and if there are only two worlds, how do we account for the observed probabilities? | a good question and one that is still not settled in the literature. in order to avoid a situation where we end up branch counting (which is incoherent since qm gives us no way to define branch numbers), deutsch and wallace have unsuccessfully tried to provide a decision theoretic argument based on a rational agent trying to maximise betting rewards based on quantum outcomes. their axioms fail to be consistent with each other in the end (aside from this surely the agent always wins any bets or at least some copy of him does - which one is actually him? if we follow this any further we stray into crazy territory...). some authors have gone as far as showing that the only consistent set of decision axioms from the original d & w formulation actually forces you into the dreaded branch counting scenario. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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physicians: what do you think of the new xa inhibitors? do you prescribe them instead of warfarin or waiting for more evidence? | do i prescribe them instead of warfarin (coumadin) acutely? you bet i do. the evidence is compelling enough to get fda approval for dvt, pe, some kinds of a-fib, and prophylaxis for thromboembolism. i can diagnose you with an acute dvt, and send you home with *pills* that you take instead of *injections* that you need to be taught to administer -- pills that don't require you to have levels checked weekly, doses titrated, fiddled with & c. if you actually take them as prescribed, they work well. i would treat one of my friends or family with one of these agents without hesitation. yes, there are sometimes adverse effects, but this is true of any anticoagulant. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does hyperventilation increase oxygen saturation in the blood? | in a normal healthy person in normal atmospheric, no it does not. by the time oxygen makes it from the arterial to venous side (deoxygenated to oxygenated) of the lungs, it has reached its saturated state. however if you are hyperventilating in the setting of increased o2 demand, like if you are running a marathon, then it would likely improve oxygen saturation. the reason this is the case is because the cardiac output is so high that blood rushes through your capillaries too quickly to get 100% oxygenated. this however is just in the setting of increased cardiac output when comparing normal ventilation to hyperventilation. of course keep in mind the concentration of oxygen dissolved in blood, which is how it eventually hops onto hemoglobin, wouldn't be larger than the concentration of the air breathed in as diffusion occurs down it's gradient. the point being if you're at 100% saturation, breathing harder would never increase your sat (unless someone threw an o2 mask on to cheat). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
based on this sleep study, i have been considering a cycling sleep pattern: 8hrs/6hrs/8hrs/6hrs. am i interpreting the data right? | the times article that gave me the idea: _url_0_ | i'd say you're *interpreting* the data correctly, in the sense that the schedule you suggest should be their next study. the only potential issue i see is this: they show that 6 hours is not enough to fully recuperate, and that this defecit is cumulative. they haven't shown that a single day of 8 hours sleep is enough to restore normal function. if a single 8 hour sleep isn't enough, you'll still see deterioration, but probably over a much longer time frame. i'd say, give it a whirl, and tweak it if it's not working... maybe: 6-8-8 6-7-8 6-9-6 | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/17/magazine/mag-17Sleep-t.html"
] | [] | [
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tetrasilver tetroxide...can someone shine a light on this subject? | you can patent anything, so the fact it has a patent says nothing about its efficacy. you can patent perpetual mothion machines for example. this patent is bullshit anyways. the device molecular crystal contains two mono and two trivalent silver ions capable of "firing" electrons capable of electrocuting the aids virus, pathogens and ism wtf does this even mean? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would you lose strength if you exercised and then consumed no form of protein? | [some studies in exercise science say consumption of protein immediately after working out increase muscle protein-synthesis rates.](_url_0_) i find that plausible, but, as the review mentions, most of the recovery will be done by glycogen stores, so carbohydrate replenishment might be more important. the size of effect from any of these approaches is an open question in my book. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21116024"
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|
how is computer science a science? | computer science would be better called *computing* science. it's a branch of mathematics which deals with how to calculate certain mathematical quantities (someone can be more specific if they want). it's not the study of electronic computers. a typical computer science question would be "what is the least number of steps would it take to sort this many numbers from highest to lowest." | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do you mass produce an antiserum? | you can't - to do so would be equivalent to farming people like they do in the movie daybreakers. this is because antiserum is defined as the blood serum of naturally immune individuals. you can, however, do something that would approximate the same effect. it is possible to extract and isolate the b-cells responsible for producing the inhibitory antibodies, expand them, and harvest the antibodies they produce. you can also sequence their genome to identify the variable regions of the antibody and make synthetic antibodies artificially. in both cases, you can then transfuse the antibodies and it would, for all intents and purposes, mimic transfusion of antiserum. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does iodinated ct contrast cause patients to feel warm and flushed? | the leading hypothesis is that it due to contrast being hyperosmolar (a higher concentration of dissolved things) compared to blood. this results in increased blood flow to the area of injection and thus increased warmth around the site of injection. generalized flushing is relatively rare ( < 5%) and may be associated with the release of histamines, etc. it can also be caused by too quick of an infusion rate leading to fainting like symptoms (vaso-vagal) as a result of blood going too much into the periphery. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what's up with the double covering of so(3) by su(2)? | is there a nice way to visualize this? i checked out sattinger and weaver, and the mobius stuff gives a pretty neat description that i'm pretty satisfied with. it's just that there's 2 matrices u and -u in su(2) that correspond to a rotation in so(3), yeah? the sign just divides out from what i understand. please forgive me mathematicans for asking for a way to visualize higher dimensional shit :d then the science part, i'm kinda curious if this double covering ends up leading to any interesting physics of spin, what the math turns out to be when moving to spin 1, spin 3/2 particles. this spin 1/2 stuff seems oddly specific :d | this is (sort of) visualizable. su(2) looks like (and is in fact diffeomorphic to in a straightforward way) the quaternions of norm 1. so su(2) looks like the 3-sphere sitting in r^4 centered about the origin and acts on itself in a straightforward way. now, the quaternions with norm 1 act on r^3 like rotations, except that there's a sign problem. so, getting rid of the sign problem leaves one with just the rotations on r^3, and that's just so(3). so the claim is essentially that the three-sphere looks like a doubled copy of so(3) which may help visualize things a little bit. two things to note about this, is that the corresponding lie algebras for su(2) and so(3) are the same so this helps show the limits to how much information one can get about a group from its lie algebra. second, this construction depends heavily on the existence of the quaternions. since there's no higher dimensional analog of the quaternions that does what we want (the octonions don't associate) this really is dependent on the exact dimension. but, one might guess that since one has not just division algebras but outright fields for the lower dimensions that one can get an analog if one goes down one dimension. but this doesn't work because su(1) is just the identity and so(2) is obviously not, so there can't be any onto homomorphism from su(1) to so(2). so there's something subtle going on here, where multiple coincidences seem to be working in just the right dimensions. unfortunately, i'm a math grad student and don't know enough about the physics to say anything about what this means for particle spin, so someone else will need to chime in on that end. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/Group-Theory-Physics-S-Sternberg/dp/0521558859/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1326960089&sr=1-1",
"http://www.amazon.com/Modern-Quantum-Mechanics-Revised-Sakurai/dp/0201539292"
] | [
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] |
what species can the earth do without? | would ecosystems collapse if we got rid of certain nuisance species? for example grain moths or cockroaches. | apparently, a world without mosquitoes would be fine [1]. however, it is not undisputed [2][3]. source: [1] [nature on a *world without mosquitoes*](_url_0_); [2] [conservation biology](_url_2_); [3] [blog by *pz myers*](_url_1_). | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100721/full/466432a.html",
"http://scienceblogs.com/pharyngula/2010/07/a_war_against_mosquitoes.php",
"http://misquitoeexistance.blogspot.com/2011/01/world-without-mosquitoes.html"
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what is the fluid in your scrotum? | edit: the phrase "it's killing me" seems to have given people the reasonable conclusion that i was in pain. however, i just meant that i am very curious. what are you testicles dangling around in? | i assume that everyone else is correct that the "killing me" means you've been dying of curiosity, not pain. if it's pain, obviously talk to your doctor. anyway, what you're asking about is [serous fluid](_url_0_) that is released by a membranous tissue called the tunica vaginalis. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serous_fluid"
] | [
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{calling all histologists} how to histologically color diptera (calliphoridae) imature (l3) and not coloring historesin, just estructures? | i'm currently using harris's haematoxylin and eosin but historesin turns low pink. toloudine blue is an option? thanks | i would say use a negative molecule. from what i've just gathered with the [product's](_url_0_) page : historesin is composed of **methyl methacrylate** and n,n-dimethyl-p-toluidine, which respectively looks like an nucleophilic and an organic molecule. so hematoxilin is a good choice, try using something else than eosin (use a base like toludin blue). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.biosystems.ch/default.aspx?globalid=11975&lang=FR"
] | [
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most inefficient weight loss plan ever? | when we alter the earth's overall mass by sending probes and such into outer space, at what point will we affect gravity enough to be noticeable? also, how far away does a satellite have to be before its mass is no longer a part of the cumulative mass of the earth? and how would we be able to measure the difference? | the earth weighs 5.972e24 kg...that's: 5,972,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms the international space station weighs: 370,131 kilograms and it cost: $100 billion so to reduce the gravity of earth by 1%, we would need to send 1,610,000,000,000,000,000,000 space stations beyond our solar system. this would cost about $1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (assuming generous economies of scale). this figure is 22,400,000,000,000,000 times global gdp so is unlikely to happen any time soon. the main issue is that we don't have enough rocket fuel to send it all up there, and would probably have to invest in a very expensive and powerful magnetic rail gun. this would then need to be powered by electricity which is in limited supply given we haven't sussed nuclear fusion yet... so, to answer your question, we will probably never affect gravity by sending stuff to space, making it very inefficient. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do we know if a physical event runs the same amount of time, like the definition of the second regarding cesium? | what do you mean by "the same amount of time"? the radiation emitted/absorbed from cesium is the definition of time. it takes the same fraction of a second by definition. we know from many comparisons that all processes happen at the same relative speeds everywhere. you don't need to use cesium, you can use everything that makes a reliable clock. different observers will (in general) see time for others pass at different rates. that is okay. that's just how the universe is. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why don't wound capacitors have significant inductance? | conductors in a coil typically exhibit inductance. why isn't this an issue for wound capacitors? i've got a guess but i wanted to see if anybody knew for sure. my guess: the two plates are wired such that the magnetic field generated by the current flowing into the positive plate is roughly cancelled by the magnetic field generated by current flowing *out* of the opposing plate. | actually they do have some inductance (often noted on data sheets as esl, "equivalent series inductance"). you're right that the opposing currents largely cancel, though. electrolytic capacitors have a self-resonant frequency at which their inductance resonates with their capacitance, like in an lc tank circuit. and *above* that frequency the inductance dominates and they look more like an inductor than like a capacitor! when designing a circuit that has this type of capacitor in it, you have to take into account that your large capacitor won't look much like a capacitor at high frequencies. usually this is dealt with by putting another small capacitor, of a type that has better high frequency behavior, in parallel with the electrolytic. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does it save energy to turn down your furnace (or ac) during the day? | i posted this to r/physics and amazingly got many different answers. at one point someone even posted "why isn't someone giving a definitive answer here?!" so while this question might seem simple, for some reason i cannot find a serious answer, so i am posting here. the common answer is that your 'furnace needs to run harder when you come home' so it is not worth it. for some reason, people seem to ignore the fact that your furnace or ac ran *less* during the day. the problem is, was the extra run time in the evening worth the savings during the day? wouldnt the energy saved to say, drop the temp from 70f to 60f once you left the home be the same amount of energy required to raise the temp back to 70f from 60f? if so, there is a net energy savings during the time that your furnace cycled less often, to maintain the lower, 60f setting. this would mean though, that if you only left for (for example) an hour, and your furnace never even reached 60f, or even just reached 60f as you returned, that there would be no net savings. for some reason, this doesn't seem right to me. any help is appreciated, as i said, in r/physics, i got multiple intelligent sounding answers, and although they all said it was better to turn down your furnace, they all had different reasons why it was so. | the answer relates to [newton's law of cooling](_url_0_). to calculate how much heat leaked out of (or into) a house, you only need to know the *average temperature difference* between the inside and outside. so we have two scenarios: tracy wastrel leaves the house for some interval, and leaves the thermostat untouched. the furnace works while she is gone to maintain room temperature. sally smartie leaves the house for some interval, and turns the thermostat down. the house cools down toward outdoor temperature, and warms up when she returns. since thermostats work to counteract heat leakage, we know that the average temperature of sally's house was closer to ambient than the average temperature of tracy's house. so by newton's law of cooling, we know that less heat leaked out of sally's house than tracy's house. now here's the kicker: **since the final temperatures are the same, the amount of heat added is equal to the amount of heat that leaked out.** therefore we can conclude that it *never* uses more energy to warm the building up than you saved. **edit:** if it's good advice for furnaces, it's even better advice for air-con. because air-conditioners pump heat outside, the energy use is a function of the *square* of the temperature difference (twice as much heat leaks in, *and* the air-con works twice as hard). tl;dr less heat leaked out, so there's less heat needs to put back | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convective_heat_transfer#Equations_.28Newton.27s_law_of_cooling.29"
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is it possible to uncook something? | just wanted to know =) | no. cooking causes irreversible changes to the structure of whatever's being cooked. proteins will be denatured by the heat which permanently changes their shape, and for something like baking bread chemical reactions occur which you can't undo. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are quotidian events stored differently in memory? | every day i do very similar things: take shower, put contacts in, take medicine, fill water bottle in backpack, etc. sometimes it's genuinely confusing to remember if i did or didn't do something, because i've done it hundreds or thousands of times before. this seems to fall between long- and short-term memory. i know where my contact case is in a strange hotel, even though i put it down somewhere 12+ hours before. i can find it in the dark the next morning. but a day later, there's no particular trace of these daily events. i probably couldn't even describe the hotel room with accuracy. are these types of events creating long-term memories that are ruthlessly pruned because of no reinforcement, or are they stored differently? | there is some pruning going on, if you remembered every detail from your daily life you would be a rain man and probably not function "normally." it could also be mentioned that a lot of memories are stored in relation to your physical environment. for example, if you returned to that hotel room you'd probably easily recall the exact spot you put your contacts before, because that memory was stored in association with your memory of that location. as far as repetitive things like showers, it's easy to forget if you took one today because you have e a ton of competing/overlapping memories of the same thing, and your brain has to search thru them for the most relevant incidence. not sure if that fully answers the question but there ya go. out of date psych degree here. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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nautiluses and their spiraling shells. how did they get them to spiral? | i'm currently watching david attenborough's natural curiosities, and i've just finished the episode on spiralling/corckscrews that occur naturally in nature. what i'm curious now is how it happens/happened. i understand that it take a long period of time. but how did they make them curve over time? i.e.: was it some sort of a collective "will" of nautiluses, or it was through a "process of elimination"... etc. i'm curious about the "thing(s)" that make evolution/physical-adaptations possible, with living things. | it comes down to the spiraling geometry being the strongest. imagine that shell stretched out straight, it would be too weak to be safe. through natural selection, the creature that hit on the most compact and strongest shell was the most to reproduce. all others went extinct. if you are asking how it built the shell, that may be a closely guarded secret. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cyrtoceras_NT_small.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nautiloid_trilacinoceras.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthoceras",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautiloid"
] | [
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is it viable for vasimr to accelerated hydrogen and oxygen plasma instead, then combined them in a secondary magnetic chamber? | i don't know much about plasmas, would you still get a combustion like effect with both hydrogen and oxygen in plasma forms? | it would be inconsequential. the whole point of electric propulsion is that you can inject far more energy into the propellant mass than would be possible with chemical reactions. when you burn hydrogen and oxygen together you end up with superheated gases which have a characteristic speed of around 4.5 km/s or so. with vasimr you could achieve exhaust velocities ten times that, which translates to a hundred times as much kinetic energy in the exhaust. also, you wouldn't get combustion regardless, as the exhaust from vasimr is a plasma instead of neutral molecules, so you wouldn't get a chemical reaction when combining the ionized hydrogen and oxygen together. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could satellite take picture of street as if you were to take it standing in middle of street by looking at side of planet? | so kinda hard to explain what i mean but i will try: if satellite that can take images was to be pointed at the edge of planet/sphere. would it be able to take image from such horizontal angle as if you were to take it with your mobile phone? if not - would it be possible with bad quality/how bad and why not? here's simple paint drawing (red is line of sight/focus): _url_0_ (i dodn't draw land on side but imagine there is a big city). not sure of flair, technology or earth siences but i imagine earth sciences know more about atmosphere and it's effects. | yes, that's technically possible. a view angle that's near-tangential can allow for views that might seem more natural for humans. but it's not particularly practical -- much of the value of satellite imagery is being able to avoid obstructions. getting the satellite to just skim the earth's surface would also be difficult. imagery at high off-nadir angles of 70° or so (what you're suggesting is closer to 90°) exist and maybe higher, but the fine control given elevational differences on the globe would be an engineering challenge. there are also other technical problems with the processing and analysis of high off-nadir imagery. accurately geo-locating the data, that is, positioning it on the globe would be difficult and might not even make sense depending on how high the angle is. another issue is that the image is acquired through a much thicker column of atmosphere than when looking straight down. this means images are more likely to be obscured by clouds or 'dense atmospheres' if acquired using visible or ir, so a better bet may be to use radar. if using existing satellites and just tilting them, the angle also introduces exaggerated pixel distortions, misregistration of bands, and color skews -- things that are 'easy' to fix, but would require a new calibration. here are some examples from the folks at digital globe: _url_1_ _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [
"https://i.imgur.com/3nLKnYH.png"
] | [
"http://blog.digitalglobe.com/geospatial/real-technology-real-benefits-part-1-pointing-agility/",
"http://blog.tomnod.com/high-angle-satellite-images"
] | [
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what is the science behind fame, celebrities, and the very distinct behavior human beings fall into when in the presence of high-status individuals? | i'm thinking of this video: _url_0_ basically, i'm curious if neuroscience has studied what's happening in the brain when an average person comes into contact with someone of high status and high position within the given social hierarchy. reminds me a bit of the complex social hierarchy of the macaques monkeys. | i am by no means a psychological expert, but i watched a special that covered exactly this and an expert was interviewed. basically it's about the campfire. at the end of the day humans crave social interaction, and social interaction requires topics to discuss. celebrities provide this, because everyone knows who they are, and because we can all talk about that person, it becomes easier to just learn about every thing they doing so we can talk about it with others. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XYU1a0lTTTw"
] | [] | [
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] |
it's hotter in philadelphia this week than in nairobi. why is this? | what climactic conditions would cause it to be 96 degrees here, so far north of the equator, and only 76 on the equator itself? is the earth's axis really that tilted? are there any other factors? | the answer is that weather exists, and latitude is not the only variable that affects climate. philadelphia is on the east coast of the us near sea-level, and is in the mid-latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees from the equator, and so is prone to both surges of warmer air moving north, and surges of cooler air moving south, due to the [general circulation patterns of the rotating earth](_url_0_). nairobi, on the other hand, is at an altitude of close to 6,000 feet (1800 m) above sea level: this is higher than denver, colorado. because higher altitudes are generally cooler, and its location near the equator means that it is far from anywhere which is on average much cooler or warmer than it, the average high temperature is [between 70f and 80f (22c-27c) year-round](_url_1_). edit: the above explanation describes the major effects that answer your question but they are not the only ones that are important. for instance, being near the equator means that nairobi is never (or at least, very rarely) impacted by large-scale subsidence (sinking air) due to high pressure systems, whereas areas in the mid-latitudes are impacted fairly often by them. large-scale sinking of air causes [adiabatic heating](_url_2_) due to compression of the air, which is a major factor in the worst heat waves that impact places in the mid-latitudes like philadelphia. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfjps/1400/circulation.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairobi#Climate",
"http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter6/adiab_warm.html"
] | [
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is there such a thing as a mutator phenotype? | i came across this idea of an "adaptive mutation" or "mutator phenotype." the basis is that when an entity is under stress it slips into this "mutator" state that makes mutations more common, potentially increasing the chance of hitting upon a mutation that would allow survival. i guess this kind of goes against the traditional random mutation picture. can bacteria do this? what about cancer cells? what about human cells? i was wondering if it really exists. all the stuff i tried reading about it is pretty old or unclear. | i've read at least one paper that advocates just this! [here's one](_url_0_), titled **stress-directed adaptive mutations and evolution.** a theory similar to this is called [adaptive mutation](_url_1_) there are others papers i'm *sure* i've read, but i can't find them. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15101972",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_mutation"
] | [
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how do email spam filters work? | from taking a course in statistics i learned that spam filters use obvious cue to label something as spam; like excessive dollar signs. but what else do spam filters do to determine what is and isn't spam besides obvious give-aways? for example-do spam filters monitor if a user sends out multiple emails in a short period of time and use that information? | great question! the short answer is: "lots of different ways". basically, spam filters will use some process (we'll talk about different kinds of processes in a moment) to categorize email as either legitimate or spam. in fact, many email clients and services have a 'learning period' where they notify the user "we think this email is spam, but we didn't want to delete it. can you let us know if it is". and that way the email service doesn't paint with too wide of a brush, and can learn what spam is *to you*. so what kind of processes are used to match an email as being in the spam category? the most general process is some form of pattern matching algorithm. these range from basic filters on keywords or sequences of characters (as you've described) to full blown neural networks that take in the email holistically. one interesting technique that has not been used much but has shown lots of promise is the use of artificial immune systems. it makes perfect sense doesn't it? the same way that our immune system is constantly learning what is bad for us and keeping track of what it *shouldn't* kill, we can write programs that simulate the way the immune system works. but instead of matching against cells, we match against emails! i know it's a bit vague, but if you want to know more i can point you to some reading material. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i pour water_a into water_b and some splashes out and away from its container, are the splashes a, b, a mix of both, or would a mix depend on the direction/speed. | i suppose you could test this by using colored water and trying to quantify the relative amounts of color in a collected sample of "splash-water." i have no idea. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can i get an unbiased evaluation of the statistics in this article? concerning healthcare outcomes in several countries. | _url_0_ | **1. wealth begets health**: notice that there are many countries with equal or less wealth than the us but with greater life expectancy. these are precisely the countries the us is being compared to when we talk about its poor healthcare outcomes, so this chart isn't saying anything that's relevant to the claims this article is attacking. **2. measuring health outcomes at the point of intervention**: this is an extremely biased way of measuring the efficacy of healthcare for a few reasons. first of all, it only measures the outcomes for people who get diagnosed and receive treatment; one of the main attacks on the us healthcare system is that the many uninsured, and the financial hardship associated with having a pre-existing condition, prevent many (especially the poor, who as we saw already have worse life expectancy) from seeking/receiving treatment at all. in order for this statistic to be meaningful, it would have to show the life expectancy for everyone who *has* cancer, not everyone who gets *treated* for cancer. second, they only use the stats for breast cancer and rectal/colon cancer; the us has particularly fetishized mammograms and colonoscopies, my understanding is that they are detected significantly sooner in the us because we perform the tests more often than most medical boards would advise (though this is not my specific area of expertise, someone may be able to correct me). either way, for the statistic to be meaningful, they would have to report on a much wider range of diseases and conditions. **3. car accidents and homicides don’t tell us much about health care quality**: can't read the linked pdf from this comp, so maybe someone else can evaluate it; the validity of this argument depends entirely on the validity of this study, since the article only quotes one source. that being said, if the methodology is good this may be a convincing argument, although i would point out that the rate at which people survive accidents is heavily dependent on the healthcare system. **4. america doesn’t have one health care system, but three**: this isn't an argument against the claim at all, since the fracturing of us healthcare is part of the flawed system the article's opponents object to. furthermore, the author presents no statistic or evidence, simply saying he'd 'bet' that the us would look better if we restricted what we were measuring. overall, nothing here is really persuasive with the possible exception of point 3, which the 'update' casts doubt on (someone needs to check the original paper). at most, it points out valid issues that need to be considered, but that don't undermine the claim the article opposes. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.forbes.com/sites/aroy/2011/11/23/the-myth-of-americans-poor-life-expectancy/"
] | [] | [
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what is the 5% error allowance scientific studies? | i recently had an interview where i foolishly mentioned this 5% error rule in scientific studies despite having very little idea of what it meant. can someone please explain what this is? also, how do you determine the size of your sample population? this is another question which has bugged me. i would have thought that, with a certain population, the number of people you use in your study would need to be proportional or representative to the total population? please help! | i'm going to answer your questions/points in a slightly different order as it will make more sense at the end; this very, very much depends on the study and is typically some trade off between statistical power and the cost to sample your population. statistical power essentially allows you to establish the minimum population sample needed to detect an effect of a given size. usually the effect is taken to be significant if it has any p-value less than 0.05 (less than 5%). the intuition here is that any small effect will require your sample size to be very, very large to achieve significance below 0.05, whereas a larger effect will require a smaller population sample. the next issue is how much time and money do you have? you may calculate you need to survey 1,000 people to establish some effect but you might only have enough money to survey 50. this necessarily restricts the sizes of effects you can detect or makes it very much harder to accept statistically significant results as 'proven'. that is; you see a significant result but the population studied is too small to be able to decide between if you've proven the effect or you didn't just study a sample which happened to be anomalously biased. you'll see this play out a lot in preliminary medical studies where sample sizes are frequently below 50 individuals. well this very much depends on the type of sampling you want to conduct. if your sample size is very large and guaranteed to be a random selection of the whole population then you may not need to ensure your sample proportionally represents the whole population, that will occur anyway during a process of random selection. you can understand this by imagining an extreme example; say your population is only 1,000 people and you choose to sample 999 of them. you can see here that your large sampling is likely to absolutely represent the proportions in the full population, there isn't room for it to be otherwise. conversely if i sample only 5 people it is quite likely they may all fall into some non-representative sub-group. so you can see as the sample size gets bigger to odds of you selecting a non-representative sub-group gets less and less likely. if you can only sample small subsets, you could solve the problem by conducting multiple samples of the population, however you may not have the time and money to do so. if know your sample may end up biased and you're only going to sample once then it can be useful to constrain your selection to ensure it does indeed proportionally sample the whole population. so if my population were 80% male, 20% female i would like want to sample such that i have 80% males and 20% females in my final set, but i'd draw from within those 2 categories randomly. of course you might have many more categories or nested categories to deal with. i've never hear of such a thing. in any experiment you will try and minimise experimental error (such as instrumentation error) as best you can. but experimental error can be small or large and will be decided by the quality of the equipment you can afford, the state of the art of the technology, a scientist's technical skill and all sorts. additionally you'd require that any statistically significant effect you observe will need to have an effect larger than the experimental error. there's no immediate rule of thumb here and it requires sound knowledge of your methodology/instrumentation. there is however a 5% rule of thumb for statistical significance (used a lot in biology/medical studies). by convention people take p < 0.05 as the cut-off for statistical signifiance; that is, there is a less than 5% chance that the null hypothesis is correct (for the effect you're measuring). however this is really just a convenience measure, there is no hard and fast, fully-justifiable reason for using this cutoff. it is very much a community accepted convention and whether some p-value can be taken to be "proven" very much depends on the statistical power as discussed above. some fields require much more stringent cut-offs; for instance in particle physics they have a 5-sigma convention for particle detection; something is proven only if the p-value is 5 standard deviations away from the mean of the observations, and this translates to p-values less than 0.0000003. edit: many words. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Fisher"
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what are some (unknown) examples of vestigiality in human evolution besides the obvious (i.e. appendixes, wisdom teeth, etc.)? | the appendix is not necessarily vestigial. there is some evidence that the appendix functions to "reinfect" the intestines with beneficial bacterial communities after suffering from diarrheal disease. this is still important today because diarrheal disease is still a big problem — it is the most common type of disease on every continent today. repopulating the gut biome after diarrhea will allow normal absorption of nutrients to continue faster. see: bollinger et al. 2007. biofilms in the large bowl suggest an apparent function of the human vermiform appendix. journal of theoretical biology 249:826-831. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why isn’t the greek prsystem not used for temperature? | for length or weight etc we use the prefix like kilo, pico etc. why is this not used for temperatures? it’s unambiguously in comparison to million, billion etc which depends on country short or long scale. | it's very commonly used in low temperature physics e.g. nanokelvin physics. it's just not used much by laymen since the average person's temperature range exposure is only around 1-2 orders of magnitude, so no additional prefixes are required. this is unlike masses where objects in the milligrams up to kilograms are common experiences for most laymen. same goes for length. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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box o' light | i've always wondered this after taking physics when i was in high school. if you had a box made of mirrors, all shiny sides facing inward, and you turned a light on and off briefly, would the light stay inside? like... could you have a camera inside taking a video of light inifinitely bouncing around? | in physics thought experiment land, home of massless strings and frictionless surfaces, the light would bounce forever. but no real-world mirror is perfect, so some of the light will be absorbed each time it strikes the mirror. after a few thousand reflections, there will be negligible visible light remaining, and for any plausibly-sized box that will happen so fast as to be instant from a human's perspective. also, a camera wouldn't "see" the light bouncing around. a camera records light that strikes its recording surface, so only light that entered the camera would register. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.indiamart.com/hindhigh/metal-coatings.html",
"http://www.solarmirror.com/fom/fom-serve/cache/43.html"
] | [
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how fragile are newly fertilized human eggs? and what is the needle-like instrument called that scientists use to prod them? | how easy would it be to fatally damage or crush a newly fertilized human egg with the (what's it called?) prodding instrument? i want to be accurate in the book i am writing, and i can't find answers online. so your help is much appreciated! | eggs, aka oocytes (usually pronounced something like oh-ah-sites) are actually pretty robust. it's basically impossible to rupture them. they are quite tricky to handle though: they are slippery little suckers, which is why you need the two tools you've seen: the holding and injection pipette. back in the day, you made these devices yourself from fine glass tubes (1 mm diameter) and you heated them up which allowed you to pull the glass into fine points (that process looks like [this](_url_0_) the guy giving this talk actually has repaired pullers for me, he definitely knows what he's talking about). however, i'm told these days, a lot of people just buy the holding and injection pipettes. i assume in actual clinical places where they do real human work, they buy in the pipettes, but in research labs, people will make their own. the whole process is on a microscope with inbuilt electronically controlled manipulators (i.e. like [this](_url_1_) ). i've done it on frog oocytes by hand, and that is a real pain. but not because the cells are delicate, but because they're not. it's like trying to force a beach ball underwater with a pool cue. but when you do it on a proper system with a holding pipette, it's 100x easier. | 25 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9yae2noavI8",
"https://www.nikoninstruments.com/Learn-Explore/Brochure-Downloads/Product-Brochures/Light-Microscope-Systems/Intracytoplasmic-Sperm-Injection-ICSI-Observation-Systems"
] | [
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why is a mylar blanket (first-aid blanket) effective against hypothermia/heat loss? | how can something so thin and flimsy be so good at keeping heat where it is? | space blanket's work by providing a reflective surface. a fair amount of heat that escapes ones body is due to radiative processes (as opposed to conduction [touching], or convection [breeze]). by wrapping you in the mylar blanket, any heat that is radiated from your body just bounces back! in the meantime, it also provides a barrier for convection (the surrounding air can't touch your skin) similar to the way clothing would. _url_0_ | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_blanket"
] | [
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trying to calculate lift of a rotating cylinder, but doesn't seem right. what am i doing wrong? | since i can't seem to get the applet working at nasa: _url_1_ i decided to try and do the calculation myself in ruby. the result i am getting seems way too high, so i must be doing something wrong. it could be the code or it could be invalid/unrealistic parameters. i *think* i am modeling a 1 foot long tube that is 4 inches in diameter spinning at 9000rpm and moving at just under 5mph though about 100 degree fahrenheit air. sorry about the imperial units, that's what nasa had. that seemed to result in 2533 lbs/ft. which i think would mean something that scale could lift 2533 lbs. it just doesn't seem right at all. what am i missing? this is a gist of the ruby script: _url_0_ thank you for making it this far, any help is appreciated. | most likely the source of error is unit conversion. i'm a huge fan of [factor-labeling in dimensional analysis](_url_0_) because it makes it very obvious where incompatible units are being used. anyway, here are my input variables and intermediate steps: rho = 2.20 x 10^-3 slugs/ft³ v flow (you did not give this) = 50 ft/s radius = .167 ft spin = 150 rev/s vr = 157 ft/s g = 164 ft²/s f/l = 18 lb/ft so a 1 foot cylinder spinning under these conditions, moving through flow at 50 ft/s (34 mph), will generate 18 lb lift. seems reasonable. i'll leave it to you to figure out where you went wrong. | 2 | [] | [
"https://gist.github.com/anonymous/0654c84cc7e12b7a010f",
"https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/cyl.html"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_analysis#The_factor-label_method_for_converting_units"
] | [
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if an object is 1000.000 ºc but has a heat transfer coefficient of 0, could we pick it up with our bare hands? | heat transfer coefficient refers to conduction. heat is also transferred by radiation. at 1000.000 c there would be a lot of radiation. you could pick it up with your hands but you would likely be horribly burnt. | 21 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if i have a description of a time-symmetric continous system (say, a set of random differential equations or a cellular automaton or something), how exactly would i get a formula for the conserved quantity as per noether's theorem? | [deleted] | your physical system has to be derivable from a lagrangian. the conserved noether currents and charges can then be found by a straightforward formula [given here on the wikipedia article](_url_0_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether%27s_theorem#Mathematical_expression"
] | [
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why haven't non-functioning, vestigial genes mutated into gibberish by now? | humans and apes have defunct genes for tails and vitamin-c. birds have defunct genes for teeth. since there is no selective pressure to keep them from accumulating mutations over time, and since they are millions of years old, why haven't they become gibberish whose original function is unintelligible? | genes that have lost their functions but resemble their "original" gene enough to be identified are called [pseudogenes](_url_0_). if a gene has mutated completely to gibberish ie. lost all gene-like features it would be indistinguishable from background dna sequences. so possibly some (or maybe lots) of genes have mutated as you described, but we'll never be able to find them. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudogene"
] | [
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does 99942 apophis actually pose a significant threat to the planet? | it could, but it is currently not a high risk. the inherent problem in answering that question is uncertainty in the orbit and changes in the orbit caused by gravitational perturbations as it passes by earth (or other large bodies). basically, if it flies very close to a planet, it can have a significant change on the orbit, which obviously can determine whether the asteroid will or will not hit earth. but no, in 2013, after passing by earth, it was reevaluated _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99942_Apophis"
] | [
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|
can tir only occur if the second medium has a lower reflective index? | the formula for the critical angle is arcsin(n2/n1), and as sin only takes values from 1 to -1, n2 always has to be smaller for it to work. is it impossible for it to occur if n2 is greater, if so why? or is there a different formula. | that's correct - the second medium has to have a lower refractive index for total internal reflection. however there is a similar situation where light with polarization parallel to the surface is totally reflected at [brewster's angle](_url_0_). in that case, the second medium has a higher refractive index. it's just not tir. e: /u/iii-nitrides is totally right - i had a brain fart. second part is wrong. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewster%27s_angle"
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is it logically consistent to draw conclusions from the multiplication of different studies' p-values? | i apologize if this is the incorrect subreddit for this post, but to my knowledge there is no "askmath." please let me know if there's a better place to put it. consider the following: i know that the p-value for a regression that examines whether or not there exists a relationship between 'x' and 'y' is 95%. i also know that the p'value for a regression examining whether or not there exists a relationship between 'y' and 'z' is 95%. can i then say that there is a 90.25% chance of the existence of a relationship between x and z (95% x 95% = 90.25%)? perhaps i'm over-thinking it and would have known the answer to this question in third grade. | there are two parts to your question. but first, i'm going to change your numbers around a bit. a regression p-value wouldn't *confirm* existence of a relationship; it only *rejects the null*. therefore, that's why we always say p < 0.05 *this relationship is due to chance*. --- now, onto you actual question. i'm also going to use p = 0.1, because inequalities makes it messy and 0.1 is an easier number to work with. the first is actually a probability question. you didn't specify whether we're looking to see if there *is* or *isn't* a relationship; this detail matters. i'm going to partially ignore your actual question about statistics and just deal with probabilities here. consider the possibilities: x --- y --- the probability of x --- the probability of x -/- --- the second part addresses you question about statistics, but still includes some probability theory. recall that you can only multiply two probabilities and interpret them as independent events (that is, the outcome of z isn't influenced by x) *only if they are truly independent*. i'm assuming you don't know if that's true. an easy way to get around this would be to just make a pair-wise data set of (x,z), and only using y to pair them up. the p-value you get for the regression is still valid, and it's a direct way of giving you your answer without having to consider independence. this only works if you collected x, y, and z at the same time and they correspond to the same point. --- **ultimately, you can just simply multiple any random (x,y) and (y,z) regression p-values**. what p-values actually tell is the probability of beta = 0 (the slope of the regression). what multiplying the two p-values gives you is just the probability that, in these experiments, both beta's are not equal to zero (that is, both are simultaneously actual relation) but doesn't offer any information into the actual regression confidence (given by rho-squared). also, there's [r/statistics](_url_0_) that functions as a discussion (read:ask) board. check it out, if you're interested. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/statistics/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis"
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question, may save soldiers lives. how much water would be needed to stop artillery shrapnel / concussion. | hey bud, ad army w/ 2 tours. check da pam on survival, i know it gives the thicknessess of different materials to protect against nuclear blast / radiation, it might also give it for fragmentation. good luck an give em hell | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a rigorous system used to categorize the different sciences? | similar to [this xkcd comic](_url_0_), is there a set organization of the different sciences and the way they relate to each other? like maybe chemistry - > biochemistry - > biology - > anatomy - > zoology - > primatology - > neuroscience - > psychology or something along those lines? with more and more specific subsets of each science all in a line? or maybe a tree? if there is no set organization, or it's not possible, why? are the sciences not as clearly defined as i think? are they not capable of rigorous definition due to their nature? | not really. the way the various scientific disciplines are related to each other does not fit into a nice linear order or even a partial order. it'd be a graph with no particular structure. for example, biophysics applies physics directly to biology without 'going through' chemistry, but physics also feeds the other way through various paths. furthermore, when you get really specific, particular sub-disciplines are not clear cut, because scientists work with each other across disciplines and ideas move between different groups of scientists. there's another reason, and it's that such a classification doesn't really have a use for scientists. people like to put things into neat little compartments and create a nice relationship between them, but at the most fundamental level, the world isn't like that. you don't gain anything useful from trying to cut up science and put it into nice boxes. | 8 | [] | [
"http://xkcd.com/435/"
] | [
"http://www.scimago.es/benjamin/USA-2002.jpg"
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what happens at the "edge" of our vision? | we can focus on things we're looking at and see things in our peripheral vision, but then what? is there a hard "edge" where our vision stops and our brain just ignores it? does it just fade away? we don't have 360-degree vision so it obviously has to stop somewhere, right? i originally posted this in /r/answers, but it might be better to ask here. | wofflecopter is not quite correct. while it is true that there are almost no rods in the [fovea](_url_1_), the sensitivity to light doesn't exactly increase as you move away from the fovea. at first the density of rods does increase (it has to as it was very low in the fovea) until around 20 degrees, where the density of rods hits its maxima and then gently falls as you move to the periphery of the retina. what this really means is that the eye is [foveated](_url_1_ted_imaging). there is increasing distance between rods and there are more rods connected to each neuron in the rgc bundle - this blurs the intensity patterns. [here](_url_3_) is a pretty good representation of what is happening. this however doesn't fully account for not seeing an "edge" in the visual field. the visual cortex also plays a part here in further diminishing the perception available from the periphery by having relatively few neurons "connected" to the inputs from the periphery of the retina. this is generally called the [retinotopic map](_url_0_). so coming back to the original question: there isn't a hard edge because the *concept* of an edge of the visual field doesn't really exist in the visual cortex. | 44 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Visual_map",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fovea",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foveated_imaging",
"https://ece.uwaterloo.ca/~z70wang/research/fovea/fovea_model.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/igqn1/what_happens_at_the_edge_of_our_vision/c23n5wg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perimetry",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_field#Visual_field_loss"
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have we ever seen an example of recursive programming? | apologies for title, not sure how to word this... what i mean is, has there ever been an example of some code that can re-write itself and evolve randomly/naturally? i ask because i've been reading a lot about ai lately but would be interested to know if we've ever created any code that updates or improves itself over time. | there are three things that are close, but not quite, what you are asking for. the first is a quine. this is a program that outputs itself. in some sense this is a truly "recursive" program but it isn't very useful. just a neat parlor trick. the next is genetic algorithms. in this case we have one program that runs a genetic algorithm on another separate program. the first program alters the second program and runs tests to see if it improves and then performs a sort of natural selection on the versions of the second program. eventually you can get a version of the second program that does what you want. so this is code improvement, but a program is not doing it to *itself*. the next is recursive neural nets (or many other kinds of ml for that matter). in this situation there is a circuit of sorts (called a neural net) that has a bunch of weights that tell it how to answer questions. as you feed it more question/answer pairs it updates its weights to be more and more correct. again, the program that answers questions improves but it isn't improving itself. some other program is feeding it question/answer pairs. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how come different allotropes of an element have such drastically different characteristics? for example, the major differences between diamond and graphite. | i have never studied chemistry, but i know that allotropes differ from one another based on the way the atoms are structured, but how come some of them are so different? for example, diamond vs graphite - both are made of carbon, but diamond is very hard and clear while graphite is soft and black. | the carbon atoms in diamond and graphite bond to each other differently, which leads to different crystal structures. graphite is a layered 2-dimensional structure, and graphite is a more 3-dimensional structure (you can easily find pictures on the internet of how the atoms are arranged). graphite is soft in the out-of-plane direction -- the layered planes are not very strongly coupled to one another so they can slide and cleave pretty easily. but within a single plane, it is in fact very strong, even stronger than diamond. diamond, in contrast, is not a layered structure so all of this sliding doesn't take place. their crystal structures also lead to different electronic properties. in diamond there is a large energy gap between the electrons' highest occupied state and the lowest unoccupied state. in graphite, the energy difference is equal to zero. so diamond is transparent to visible light because the energy of light is smaller than the size of the large energy gap -- an electron in diamond needs more energy than a photon of visible light to be excited across the gap. graphite is black because its gap is zero and it absorbs all frequencies of light. this is also why graphite has higher conductivity. electrons can be easily excited and moved around in graphite, but require a large kick before you can move them at all in diamond -- they act as insulators because it's hard to excite the electrons across that energy gap. the different size energy gaps come about because of the crystal symmetries of the lattice -- atomic orbitals bond or hybridize in different ways to become crystal orbitals -- and the way this happens differs according to the geometrical arrangement of the atoms. | 6 | [] | [] | [
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found this bone at the beach today i was wondering if anybody could identify the animal it belongs too. | my friend found this [bone](_url_0_) at the beach today. we live in naples which is in southwest florida on the gulf of mexico. if anyone could help i would be very appreciative. | it's a vertebra, possibly lumbar, definitely not cervical. very tough to id the animal if this is the only bone. based on it's size, i'd say a large animal, but other than that i got nothing. | 7 | [] | [
"http://sphotos-a.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-ash3/558388_10151223211315320_1948848082_n.jpg"
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moon base...feasibility and whether or not its worth it | so we have the iss which is a pretty impressive feat and allows us to conduct experiments in space and keep a presence there. why not a moonbase? i've read some of the obvious reasons such as cost and not believing there are many useful resources there. although this article: _url_0_ says: "scientists believe that precious metals and helium-3, a rare isotope that has potential for power generation, could be extracted from the moon’s surface." so clearly they can find some useful resources there. more than that though, why have the goal of sending a manned mission to mars before establishing a presence on our own moon. i understand it isn't as 'exciting' since we have been there and its not technically another planet, but wouldn't it make more sense to take steps such as these? if we established something on the moon that could semi-sustain itself, complete with a landing/launch pad wouldn't that make reaching mars much easier? launching from the moon rather than the earth? just seems like since we have been to the moon it is overlooked now, but wouldn't it be a very useful stepping stone to more difficult tasks? i have more thoughts on the topic, but want to hear other people's thoughts who are more qualified or who have more knowledge. thanks edit: just wanted to thank everyone for the replies...i understand and agree with the top points made. i guess we are just still not quite "there" yet. as in anything involving space is just so expensive and throwing humans into the mix further complicates. (i recently finally read ender's game so that also explains the desire for us to be better at space-type badassery) | the scientific value of human space exploration is very small, because of the huge overheads in cost which are required to get humans safely into space and keep them healthy up there. instead of sending 70 kg of human, you could just as well send 70 kg worth of robotic equipment which can do far more science, and doesn't need food or water. sadly, this is evidenced by the close-to-zero scientific return of the apollo program and the underwhelming scientific achievements made at the iss. a human mars program would be equally worthless from a scientific point of view, the money is much better spent doing really cool stuff like sending submersible probes to the saturn moons for example. as to the economic viability of mining moon: there just isn't a business case to be made at the moment. no business would ever be able to convince investors that it's worth gambling on a moon mining station which may or may not start producing something in 50 years from now. there's just too many unknowns, like for example how are you going to get stuff reliably back down to earth at a price which doesn't outweigh the profits? while it might be feasible to build and maintain a small moonbase with our current know-how, it will still be a very risky undertaking, which could be wiped out any moment by known and as-of-yet unknown dangers. | 18 | [] | [
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/space/9141416/Russia-to-finally-send-man-to-the-Moon.html"
] | [] | [
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question regarding li, be, and b. also, some more questions about chemical elements. | _url_0_ this image has this caption: *abundances of the chemical elements in the solar system. hydrogen and helium are most common, from the big bang. the next three elements (li, be, b) are rare because they are poorly synthesized in the big bang and also in stars. the two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier.* my questions are: 1) why are the elements lithium, berylium, and boron (li, be, b) poorly synthesized in the big bang? 2) why does the atomic number being even or odd cause the alternation pattern we see? 3) if this is the abundance of chemicals in the solar system, how accurate/good of an estimation is this for the rest of the galaxy or universe? my assumption is that the older the galaxy gets the heavier the elements are in that galaxy, therefore, younger regions will have a more positively skewed graph while older regions will have a more negatively skewed graph. also, is there a known natural process that can make heavier elements become lighter elements? for example, supernovae create heavy elements from lighter elements. is there anything that does the reverse? | 1) the big bang produced pretty much only hydrogen and helium. large stars produce the elements up to iron, and supernovae produce elements larger than that. iron is an outlier because it is the most stable element. 2) i'm actually not sure about the reason for the alternation. i assume it has something to do with the processes for fusion involving alpha particles, which have two protons. 3) i think that the more times a particular mass has been part of a star, the less of it is h/he and the more of it is other elements. of course we can't easily measure elemental composition outside our own solar system, but i'd believe that we can assume a similar composition from our nearby stars, and a different one from a star-rich globular cluster. heavier- > light elements occur through nuclear fission, which isn't energetically favorable unless the atom is quite large. | 2 | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e6/SolarSystemAbundances.png"
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has there ever been a study on jinxing oneself? | we were talking about jinxing yourself at work, and i was wondering if there has ever been a study done that suggests that there might be a correlation between "jinxing" yourself and something related to the jinx happening soon thereafter. | i'm not aware of any studies that have looked "jinxing yourself", and i'm not completely sure i get what you mean by that, but [self-fulfilling prophecies](_url_0_) are a common observence. at the most general level, a self-fulfilling prophecy is any prediction that becomes true by virtue of being a prediction, through some sort of positive feedback cognition and behaviour. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy"
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if you were to have a perfectly spherical ball of water, and you were somehow able to poke the center of it, how would the "shockwave" from the ripples look and what direction would they travel in? | the title says it all. any info on this? | you can actually do this by using a focused laser to create a collapsing vapour bubble at the center. the shockwaves propagate outward. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i have been under the impression that primitive organisms and invertebrates (fish, bugs, etc.) lack the cortical structures necessary for emotion; but what about octopi? sharks? | i've learned that fish lack a complex frontal cortex as well as some other structures involved in emotion. their response to pain is a purely physiological one and their attachment to their young/species is simply for evolutionary purposes. mammals, on the other hand, have these structures and therefore there is little doubt as to whether they experience emotion. however, i also know that octopi are extremely intelligent animals, often referred to as "honorary vertebrates"; able to use tools and problem solving techniques. upon looking up the structures in octopi nervous systems, i learned their brain is set up very differently from the brain that i am used to interpreting. i don't have enough knowledge to make inferences about their emotional capacity, so that's where you come in, reddit! is there anyone out there that has knowledge of octopus brains that might be able to provide me with some insight? also as a side note, what about sharks? **tl;dr:** fish are dumb and probably don't have emotions. octopi, however, have a really complicated nervous system. does this mean they have emotions? | this is a hard question to answer, it is similar to starfish and other echinoderms who have only a simple nervous system but can remember where to go to for food | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are the weights of body parts (the hands, head etc.) measured? | i remember my teacher once asking this question in class, and after much confused debate involving immersing body parts in liquids, ending the discussion by saying there is no way except to cut and measure body parts from a fresh corpse. is this true? | not a direct answer to your question, but there is a method of calculation for surface area (for burns and the like) called the rule of 9's; each area of the body is apportioned as a factor of 9: head - 9% each arm - 9% front and back torso - 18% each each leg - 18% groin/pubic area - 1% i don't know if there is a comparable method for weight, but i'd think it would be something along the same line of thought. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why aren't most drugs prescribed on a per mass basis? | the concentration of a drug should be inversely proportional to my volume (assuming absorption is the same, which may not be even approximately true), right? and it's the concentration which determines drug activity (modified by binding coefficients, of course) i think? so why do huge people get the same dosages of most drugs as tiny people? | er, they are. most grown-ups fall within about a factor of two in weight (between ~100 and ~200 pounds), and most drugs have an effectiveness range in mass/mass concentration that is far wider than a factor of two -- so one dose level fits virtually all adults for most druge. but pediatricians will definitely calculate dosages based on mass of the kid -- after all, normal kids from birth through adolescence vary in weight by a factor of about 40 (~5 pounds min through ~200 pounds max) | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
can anyone identify the mission of a strange low flying science aircraft? | its a twin engine 4 - 6 person aircraft in white and red with what looks like a white 4 inch tube extending straight back from the tail for several feet, 30 degree angle up for ~2 feet, then straight back for ~3 feet with a black/grey half dome on the end. on some clear days at what looks like a cruising speed (180kts?) it hugs the terrain at a few hundred feet altitude going from a to somewhere in a straight line. it does not land at the local airport. this is in an extremely rural area in the northern us and has some older locals spooked. some rumblings of monsanto and spraying things but i have never seen a tiny twin converted to a sprayer and why? some mining prospecting and logging in the area so i figure a geo magnetic sensor or some high speed camera? google bird view? any google search only returns lots of tinfoil. i love aircraft so please ask science help me find a real answer. anywhere else i should ask let me know! | does it look [something like this](_url_0_)? sounds kind of like a plane for doing an [aeromagnetic survey](_url_2_). most aircraft for imagery or high resolution topography have the instrument in the belly of the plane or sometimes mounted on the wing, [e.g. these pictures of aircraft for acquiring lidar](_url_1_), as opposed to something off the tail. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://mcpharinternational.com/high-resolution-aeromagnetics.html",
"https://www.google.com/search?q=airborne+lidar+plane&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwif1pupzP_MAhUKymMKHfZeDRkQsAQIIQ&biw=1279&bih=729",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeromagnetic_survey"
] | [
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why does ischemia produce coagulative necrosis in some tissues, but liquefactive necrosis in the brain? | rising 2nd year med student asking: most material i have seen gives the reason that there are microglia in the cns; they are macrophages, so they have digestive enzymes, which liquefies the damaged tissue. what confuses me, though, is what is so special about microglia compared to other macrophages? kupffer cells in the liver, dust cells in the lungs, etc., there are macrophagic cells all over! why do the microglia cause liquefactive necrosis but none of the others do? | because the brain doesn't have a lot of connective tissue or albumin but does have high amounts of digestive enzymes, and also has a very high percentage of lipids comprising its tissues. dead cells therefore can be readily digested by their own enzymes, and without the connective tissue forming a framework or albumen becoming denatured to form a gel, liquefaction rather than coagulation results. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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anthropologists: how did so many groups of people independently gravitate towards a monarchy style of rule? | many civilizations in the world seem to have historically had hereditary monarchies, even ones that were isolated from the rest of the world. even if they weren't called "kings," they were effectively the same. how did this occur? are there theories regarding ancient connections, or is it human nature, or is there another explanation? | jared diamond gives a description of this in his book guns germs and steel. to summarize, eventually groups of people get large enough that not everybody knows each other, and they need mediators to resolve disputes. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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recently saw total recall. how possible is 'the fall?' | my question completely disregards the heat at the earth's core. so assuming we can disregard the heat, are there any gravitational or other geological issues? more specific: * i do know that according to newton's law of gravitation, the force of gravity approaches infinity as the distance between two objects decreases. does this mean have any effect on the vessel as it passes the core? * what affect would this gravity fluctuation have on a human? * if the vessel manages to pass the core like it did in the movie, would there be a need for any mechanical propulsion system to propel the vessel to its final destination, or is the velocity that was built up from falling (to an increasing gravitational force) enough to to push it to the end before the new gravitational force slows it down? | gravity at the core is zero. newton's law of gravitation (which treats bodies as point masses) only holds true when above the surface of the object. once you go underneath the surface of a planetary body, to find the force of gravity you have to integrate for the entire solid, and it comes out to being equivalent to the gravity at the surface of a solid sphere with a radius equal to your distance from the core. essentially, all the dirt above you doesn't count. of course, this doesn't mean anything, since you're in free fall and won't feel the force of gravity anyway. finally, if there's no friction or drag in the tunnel, you will fall all the way through with no need for propulsion because the energy gained from the fall towards the core is precicely equal to the energy lost falling away from the core. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would be the effects of "the fall" from the total recall remake | i watched the rather weak total recall remake last light. i was very distracted for the first third or so by the ludicrous idea of the fall. basically, there's a borehole through the planet connecting london and some vague point in australia. it's a couple hundred feet wide, and is still in a solid medium when it reaches the midpoint. the zero-g effect when they reach that midpoint would seem to imply that the filmmakers were intending that the tunnel actually goes through the core, but lets assume that it's actually curving to remain in the mantle and the filmmakers know even less science than they thought they do. - would boring through the mantle even be possible? - how deep would such a borehole be able to pass into the earth while staying in the mantle? - could such a borehole be close enough to vertical to allow the use of gravity to accelerate the vehicle in the first place? - what would the air pressure wind up being like in the middle of that borehole, and what effect might that have on the vehicle trying to "fall" through the middle of it? | i'm afraid i can't answer most of those questions, but [qi covered this a little bit](_url_0_). if you drilled a hole through the earth from any point to any other point, it would take 42 minutes and 12 seconds to fall through it, assuming no air resistance/friction. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DcIh180wsjY&feature=player_detailpage#t=134s"
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what laws of physics govern this specific effect? | _url_0_ i'm completely baffled to explain how this works. my only guess is that the thing "floating" is super cooled ferret magnet or something similar. could you please tell me what is happening here? thanks in advance. | i chuckled a little bit :) it's "ferro" magnet what you mean. ferro is italian (?) for iron. now to the real question. what you see is [flux pinning](_url_0_). essentially, you trap magnetic lines in a superconductor. changing the position of the superconductor requires much more force than it's weight, so it levitates and remains in it's orientation to the field. | 24 | [] | [
"http://pics.kuvaton.com/kuvei/explain_to_me_how_this_works.gif"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flux_pinning",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/nic31/would_burning_alive_be_excruciating_or_would/c39fx88",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t-zGy_QgQcE",
"phys.org",
"http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-10-quantum-levitating-video-viral.html"
] | [
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how come acl injuries are so common among athletes but practically non-existent in kids under 10? | is it that they don't have the weight behind them to tear the ligaments, or that they're way stronger? | children weigh less and have less muscle strength relative to the strength of ligaments. children are also generally more flexible than the average adult. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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basic question on hvac | if a server room full of computer equipment uses, for instance, 15kw of electricity, would that mean that there would be 15kw of heat that needs to be removed from the server room? all the electricity used by the equipment turns to heat in the end, in accordance with the first law of thermodynamics, doesn't it? do even the photons emitted by the leds also eventually turn into heat energy? i think this is correct, but i wanted to make sure before asserting this and potentially making a fool of myself. edit: this question is posed theoretically, assuming a closed system, with no air/sound moving outside it, and perfect heat insulation. | everything will eventually turn to heat. note that just the amount of heat in kw does not describe the situation well, you need to know the temperature it's available at. if the temperature difference with the outside is big enough you could potentially extract energy from it. edit: source: chemical engineering msc. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is overcharging a thing and how does it work? | when it says charge this device for 2 hours. if i charge it for 6 will the battery life of the device shorten? if so how does this happen? | if it's a smart charger then the charger istelf will turn off once it 'thinks' the battery is chagred at (assuming it's a 12 volt system) 12.65 v. sometimes if there is a bad cell or whatnot in the system and doesn't reach the full voltage then the charger will keep cranking it i there and can dry up the battery, or casue other issues. if it's free a cell phone you'll be fine. if it's for a car on a smart changer you will also be fine. but if it's on like a power sport lead acid battery then i'd be mindful and take it off the changer at 2 hours. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i carried a battery with me and connected the positive end to my skin with a wire, would that drain any static i would normally build up so i would no longer get shocked? | no. it would have next to no impact. the potential of the battery posivite end would become the same as your skin potential, and this still could be very different from earth potential. so when you eventually touch something connected to the earth, you still get shocked. if you want to avoid getting chocked, you can use a wire to connect your skin to the bottom of your shoes. in that case, you won't be chocked when touching something connected to the earth. although you could be chocked while shaking hands with someone else. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how close, technologically, is the collective governments of the world to being able to create a "jager" from pacific rim? | we definitely wouldn't be able to create the "two pilots one mind" functionality yet. neuroscience hasn't progressed that far. though i don't really understand from the trailer why two pilots would be needed in the first place. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what properties does alcohol posses that allows is to pass through the placenta? | been having trouble finding a good explanation for this, any help is appreciated. (allow it*) | ethyl alcohol (the alcohol we drink) is amphiphilic, meaning it has regions on it which are both polar (charged) and non-polar (non charged). membranes within our bodies are generally made from fats, which are non-polar and only allow other non polar substances to pass through. most biological molecules are polar, and they are unable to cross membranes into the placenta. however because alcohol has non-polar areas, it's possible for it to cross through membranes that other polar molecules can't, which is how it can get into the placenta. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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