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what makes 'lock and key' enzymes work? | what about the binding increases the speed of the reaction? i am learning about it in school currently, but there is nothing that actually explains why the rate of reaction increases. | the lock and key model is somewhat outdated, but it works well to give you a sort of conceptual model initially. the current model is known as "induced fit". basically what's happening is that as the substrate (reactant) is entering the active site, weak molecular forces are changing the conformation (shape) of both the active site and the substrate. this works to lower the energy of activation by stabilizing the intermediate state. weak molecular forces in this case might be something like putting a bunch of negatively charged r groups around a portion of the substrate that will be positively charged in the intermediate state, thus creating a more favorable environment for the intermediate state. the intermediate state can be thought of as a halfway point between reactants and products. it's usually much less favorable energetically so if you can use the enzymatic protein to sort of wall it off and create an environment in which the intermediate is more stable then you'd need less energy to reach that point. so finally you might have seen one of [these](_url_0_) diagrams at some point. the peak in the middle, labelled eact is the energy of activation. that is a fairly high peak, requiring a bit of energy to overcome. by using the enzyme/catalyst to lower that hill, you'd be able to push reactants into the product state with less energy. because you're using less energy, you're doing it faster. imagine a car driving up that hill. if the hill is higher then it takes somewhat longer and uses more fuel, but if you can lower the hill, you'd save fuel (energy) and the process would be faster. | 9 | [] | [] | [
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could taking a gaba suppliment at night increase gaba tolerance, therefore reducing sleepiness during the day? | so the other day i took some picamilon, gaba bonded with vitamin b3 to cross the blood brain barrier. unsurprisingly i was incredibly tired after taking it (i have idiopathic hypersomnia = increased sensitivity to gaba). so i take a whole lot at night (when i want to sleep), would that make me less sensitive gaba during the day, thus reducing eds(excessive daytime sleepiness)? | across the brain, gaba is a neural inhibitor (really, the principle inhibitory transmitter in most cases). however, due to the complex nature of neural circuits, the effects of just dumping gaba (or any neural transmitter) in the brain is highly unpredictable and would certainly have a variety of effects depending on where and how it was active. basically, in many cases, you would end up inhibiting neurons that work to inhibit other neurons, thus actually increasing activity within many second-order neurons while decreasing activity in others. so, again, the effects of global application of neurotransmitters such as gaba on emotions, behaviors, and physiology depend entirely on where and how the chemical is acting and is specific to the microarchitecture of neural circuits--not just merely the identity of the chemical. thus, any specific effects of just throwing gaba into your brain in a general sense has very unpredictable effects. it's just unknown at this point because the circuits are too complex and have yet to be mapped out in any meaningful way. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to calculate wind speed using the angle the rain falls? | you'd have to know the mass of the rain moved and the angle of each raindrop if you wanted an accurate reading, which is practically impossible but theoretically possible. it's simple trigonometry, if you theoretically knew it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how did attlesnakes evolve? | i know that rattlesnakes use their tail to make a warning noise but how did it evolve so far when the "first versions" of it didn't even make a noise? | *"rattlesnakes aren’t the only dangerous snakes to shake their tail; several other, closely related pit vipers exhibit the behavior. cottonmouths (agkistrodon piscivorous), copperheads (agkistrodon contortrix), cantils (agkistrodon bilineatus) and terciopelos (bothrops asper) all shake their tails when frightened."* *"harry greene asserted three possible goals of tail shaking behavior in a 1973 study published in the “journal of herpetology.” the goals listed were all defensive: diverting the attack to the tail, confusing the predator and inhibiting an attack by advertising their venomous bite. tail-shaking behavior and morphology is most developed in rattlesnakes, but a rattle is not necessary to produce a buzzing sound, as many snakes simply vibrate their tail against the leaf litter to produce a loud buzz."* [source](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://animals.pawnation.com/snakes-shake-tail-confronted-5476.html",
"http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/9/35"
] | [
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] |
why are most of the "superacids" non-corrosive? | what makes them different from the "strong" acids which are far more corrosive despite being much weaker proton donors? | most superacids are corrosive. perhaps you're thinking about carborane acid, which is unusual in it's lack of corrosivity. maybe this article will help: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/2004/041115/full/news041115-5.html"
] | [
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how does the movement of elementary particles work? | say a photon is moving at the speed of light. during its movement, does it at different points of time position itself in all points of space between its origin and destination? if so, what is the smallest possible distance between two such points? if movement does indeed work this way, wouldn't the particle effectively be teleporting in space from one point to the next during its trip? alternatively, could the particle be moving "smoothly"? this is very hard for me to imagine because how would one coordinate the particle's position at each point in time if the distance it travels is an infinitesimal? | we can never infer any specific path the photon or electron may follow, from experimental data, that's why feynman formulated the sum over history or [path integral](_url_0_). these integral takes into account all possible paths the particle may take and may take into account, specifically, any potential disruption (fields) and gives the wavefunction of the particle at the destination. the best we can do is finding the evolution of a wavefunction through time. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_integral_formulation"
] | [
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what is causing the elementary particles to move? | i've been taught that electron surrounds the nucleus and is always at motion. the diagram that you see of an atom shows the probably of finding an electron in a region while nucleus is in the middle. where does this electron get the energy to constantly not be one position? doesn't that break the thermodynamics law that there is no such thing as a self-perpetuating machine? | electrons are not solid little balls. they are quantized wavefunctions that sometimes act a little like particles. when in a stable state in an atom, an electron acts mostly like a 3d wave, which we call "orbitals" or "clouds". the electron is not *in* the orbital, the electron *is* the orbital. when people say that the probability density tells you the probability of finding an electron at this location, they are using highly misleading terminology. a better way of saying it would be: the probability density tells you the probability of finding an electron at a certain location *after* you have collapsed the electron from a wave state to a particle state by trying to measure its exact location. with that in mind, an electron in an atom is indeed in motion, but this motion is more like a vibrating guitar string\* and not so much like a ball bouncing around. if you pluck a guitar string, it just keeps going and going. eventually, the waving motion of the guitar string dies down because it loses its energy to sound waves, heat, etc. but an electron in the ground state in an atom has no lower-energy state to transition down to. because of conservation of energy, if the electron were to lose energy, it would have to transition down to a lower energy state. but it can't because there are no lower states. so the electron just keeps on vibrating. this is not a paradox, but a prime example of one of the foundational principles of physics: conservation of energy. an object in motion tends to stay in motion. you seem to misunderstand the concept of perpetual motion. perpetual motion is indeed impossible, but "perpeutal motion" does not mean that an object in motion tends to stay in motion (that concept is actually newton's first law, or equivalently the law of conservation of momentum). "perpetual motion" means that an object in motion stays in motion *even when* energy is being extracted from the object (e.g. by friction, by sound wave being emitted, by a person trying to get energy for free). this clearly breaks the law of conservation of energy and is not allowed. but an unmolested electron in the ground state of an atom has no energy being extracted from it, so it can continue on vibrating with no problem. with this in mind, an electron in the ground state of an atom is not an example of a perpetual motion machine. it is an example of energy conservation. as a separate case, an electron in an excited state will indeed transition down to a lower state, slow down in the process, and emit to the outside world the energy it has lost (e.g. it emits a photon, or gives its energy to another atom). electrons in an atom will indeed slow down (i.e transition down to a lower state) until they reach the lowest-energy unoccupied state. \*update: the guitar string is only a rough analogy. a wavefunction is complex-valued, so that both the real part and imaginary part vibrate in such a way that the magnitude squared remains constant. also, the wavefunction of a stable atomic state vibrates only in time and not in space, i.e. the wavefunction does not stretch out to some other point in space and than snap back. rather, it's more like the "vibration" of a blinking light turning on and off (in the sense of an oscillation in time and not in space). [take a look](_url_0_) at this simple example of two different stationary states (the top two animations) in comparison to a non-stationary state (the bottom animation). | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation#mediaviewer/File:StationaryStatesAnimation.gif",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/ADCC_Submission_Wrestling_World_Championship"
] | [
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] |
is it possible to collect usable current from overhead power lines? | my vegetable garden is about 100 meters behind my house. a set of three 115kv transmission lines passes directly over it. the distance from the ground to the lines is about 30 meters. i do some data collection in the garden (temperature, light levels, etc) with a jeenode and send it back wirelessly to the house. i was wondering if it's possible to build a coil that would induce enough current from the lines that i could rectify to dc and run the jeenode, which uses about 5 milliamps @ 5vdc. is this possible, in theory? | here's an article about a device which actually does this. _url_0_ it mentions a draw of a few milliwatts, but hangs directly on the power line. i suspect you may need to mount your coupling coil on or very near the line as well, as field strength will fall off proportional to r^2. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.military.com/features/0,15240,158240,00.html",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=5+milliamps%2C+5+volts",
"http://www.cpuc.ca.gov/environment/info/aspen/deltasub/pea/16_corona_and_induced_currents.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_power"
] | [
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is water unusually weird? | there's a lot of talk about the strange properties of water (ice being heavier than liquid water etc.). does water really have less predictable characteristics than other substances, or has water just been studied and talked about more because it's importance to us? | water is a little weird, but not *that* weird. mostly it's just remarkable (like literally, worth remarking on) because it's extremely common. a lot of it's weird properties are because it is made of very polar, light atoms. light atoms are extremely common in the universe, so there is a lot of water. the lightweight atoms let it be so polar, which in turn makes it crystallize dramatically, make it a really good solvent, and make it super dense and good at absorbing heat. that covers a lot of water's weirdness right there. other common liquids like oils etc are made of larger, less polar molecules, which means they interact less and behave more predictably. it isn't until you get to the less common liquids that they act more weirdly. still, you'd be surprised how many common liquids have incredibly bizarre properties once you look closely. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the fastest i'm ever travelling sitting on my couch? | okay, the way that i understand it is that our solar system is travelling at 558,000 mile per hour *within* our galaxy and our galaxy is traveling though space at roughly 666,000 mph. the earth is moving within the solar system at 66,000 mph, and the rotation of the earth (at my latitude) is in the neighborhood of 600 mph. i'm assuming that you can't just add these all up, as they're not necessarily on the same vector, the rotation of the solar system in the galaxy, for example, could be 180degrees to the rotation direction of the galaxy as a whole, or it could be 110 to the left and 35 degrees down. (i'm sure that made an astronomer cringe, i'm sorry, i don't know how to accurately express that idea with left/right/up/down all being totally meaningless, but i'm sure you understand. also, it would seem that once per day the earth rotation speed might line up with the direction the solar system is going, but then again, it may never, depending on the axis of rotation vs. the direction of the solar system's rotation. i'll admit there are two reasons for this question... 1) i really want to know, and 2) i really want to have a technically accurate answer to the question, "so, son... do you have any idea how fast you were going?" feel free to correct anything i've gotten wrong. i've got an english degree, for god's sake, so my math simply cannot be trusted when dividing up a dinner check, much less astronomical calculations. | our velocity is relative to our reference point. you can say relative to the sun we move at xyz. relative to the galaxy we move at abc. relative to a hydrogen atom whirling through intergalactic space.... relative to andromeda...relative to sagitarius a*... or you can just describe yourself as perfectly motionless and the entirety of the rest of the universe moving relative to you. or you can pick an imaginary reference point and say we're moving at 30 mph. or 300,000 mph. and so on. they'll all be different, and they'll all be valid. there's no "fundamental value" to find. the confusion from this arises from the fact that here on earth, we have an overarching 'stationary frame' which is with respect to the earth. but that's simply convenient. as you yourself realize, our 'standing still' is actually still whirling about through the cosmos with respect to other objects, we're simply standing still with respect to the single most significant object in our every day experience. there's no such valid frame for the universe at large. velocities are simply measures of the change in distance between two reference points over a span of time. when we say "that car is going at 50mph" we unconsciously mean "with respect to the surface of the earth." if you don't have that assumption, then 50mph doesn't really mean anything. we could just as easily say it is going at 5000mph, and it just so happens that the earth beneath it is going in the same direction at 4950 mph. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does cosh(x) = cos(ix)? | we learned about the hyperbolic trig functions in calc 2 recently, i looked up coshx in wolfram alpha and got cos(ix) as an alternate form. i asked my professor and he didn't really explain it other than saying it's higher mathematics. | one way to define the functions is as cosh(x) = (e^(x) + e^(-x))/2 and cos(x) = (e^(ix) + e^(-ix))/2 which makes that identity very clear. you can justify that these definition match with our other understandings of trigonometric functions by considering the taylor series. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much of what we know about construction, engineering, and materials science is specific to earth versus an arbitrary planet? | suppose we're building things on another planet. when we do load testing, stress analysis, and things of that sort on structures here on earth, how much of our knowledge is relevant to the other planet? is it just a matter of adjusting some parameters in a model like the strength of gravity, or do we basically have to discover new materials science to enable us to build on these worlds? | side from the availability of materials and the type of ground you're working with, the remaining factors are temperature, atmosphere/weather, and gravity. obviously material availability is an issue. if you have to bring the materials with you on your space ship it's going to be very hard to make a sturdy building. other worlds could be poor in metals. there's plenty of variety in ground on earth, and the properties we have to consider should be enough to analyze any alien terrain. you would have to consider seismology as well. earth is the worst planet/moon in our solar system as far as earthquakes go, but i'm sure worse planets are out there. not having to worry about earthquakes would make architectural engineering easier. the chemical properties of the atmosphere could affect the materials and coatings that you want to use, though is could just as easily work in your favor as against it (oxygen is nasty stuff). the temperature is a factor. lunar surface temperatures vary between -153 c and 107 c on average. that could put a lot of stress on a structure. the weather could be a factor. wind might be a problem. gravity is probably one of the simplest problems to approach, though high gravity could be difficult to deal with, especially if you want to build a bridge. this is generally just a term in your equations though. frankly i think huge temperature variations might be the biggest issue, though building underground could help with that. then of course there are planets like venus that will melt lead and have a large atmospheric sulfuric acid content, but i doubt you were thinking of situations like that. so yeah, mostly parameter adjustments for an earth-like world. for less earth-like worlds, temperature variations might require some materials development. air conditioning might be an issue. life support is the big obstacle right now. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
dyslexia experts: any research done on misspellings a la "berenstain bears"? | the sub /r/mandelaeffect has been flooded with people remembering things spelled a different way after the [vice berenstain bears article](_url_0_) came out. i'm not asking about whether or not the mandela effect is real - but is there some science on what letter combinations are often mixed up/rearranged by the mind to help explain this phenomenon? i assume people who do dyslexia research would probably have a lot to contribute to this answer. thank you! | this isn't a linguistics question (*per se*), but i researched my heart out and found nothing of value. and nothing in my education has ever really mentioned this sort of effect (besides dyslexia and simple ignorance). in fact, taking a look at that sub, there's nothing that really replicates the "phenomena" of the berenstain bears meme. and that's exactly what the "mandela effect" is— a meme. it's a flash in the pan we call the internet. however, looking back at my education, i did study child language acquisition and i feel like that's probably the closest place to start. i'm not saying this is definitively *why*, but we learn language as children in two key steps: (1) verbal language and then (2) written language. many of us read berenstain bears as children, probably out loud by our parents or painstakingly sounding out the words individually to relate it to our verbal language. in fact, i recall hearing it pronounced the way it's spelled. but as we learn written language, we make shortcuts, leading to words spelled phonetically or referencing a similar word or making assumptions. *ying-yang*, for example is in fact *yin-yang*, but we assume 'yin' should reference 'yang'. when we, later in life, thought back on the berentain bears, we made an assumption that *berenstain* should reference other last names that are similar such as edelstein or brownstein, so in our heads, we remember it as *berenstein*. so when it comes down to it, the "mandela effect" is probably not that much different than why so many people thought it was "all *intensive* purposes". | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.vice.com/read/the-berensteain-bears-conspiracy-theory-that-has-convinced-the-internet-there-are-parallel-universes"
] | [] | [
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how do they test computer microprocessors? | i'm a software engineer, but i know next to nothing about how they test microprocessors. do they have the same concepts of unit tests and assertions? can you fab up a "debug build" of a cpu that has assertions and checks all over the place? if someone could give me an overview of this, i am very curious. | it depends on whether you are talking about design validation testing, or production testing. i'll assume the latter. production testing of a microprocessor (up) is typically done at 2 or 3 discrete places in the manufacturing flow: 1. while the die are still in wafer form. contact is made via very fine electrical probes that go from the automated test equipment (ate) test head to each die. a handler is used to load the wafer onto a chuck and move the chuck under the probes in all three dimensions to test each die in turn. it keeps track of which die pass/fail for later use when putting the die into packages at assembly. this test may be done at one of various different temperatures by controlling the chuck temperature. this testing step is usually called "wafer sort testing", although variants of the term are also used. 2. after the die have been assembled into packages, they are again tested via ate, although the mechanical/electrical connections are of course now done with a socket rather than probes. testing is usually done at a temperature different than that used at wafer sort test. good parts are of course segregated from bad in different physical output bins, usually holding the parts in plastic, conductive trays. this test step is usually called "final test", although it is not the last thing in the process, and isn't even the last test step. (reason: history) 3. sometimes an additional test is done, called system level test. instead of using an ate to test parts, they are inserted into a socket on a motherboard, and some simple tests are run, such as booting windows. this can help to improve test coverage. 4. sometimes parts are subjected to a burn-in test at elevated voltage/temperature to help weed out parts with latent defects ("infant mortality"). if this is done, final test must be repeated afterwards to determine whether or not the part has died. how are the ate tests developed? some of the testing, such as for internal caches and other large memory structures uses built in self test. when properly instructed through a jtag test mode interface, a controller will tell the part to run bist and report results back to the ate. most of the non-memory parts of the chip are tested primarily through what are known as "structural" tests...tests that verify that the pieces of the circuit are working without using them in the same functional mode that they will experience in real use conditions. a technique known as "scan" or "boundary scan" uses special test circuitry to load specific values into flip-flops or combinational logic, clock the logic for n cycles, then read the result back out through the scan chain to an output pin. the loaded values vs the output are separately simulated to tell the ate what values to load and what output is correct. it's possible to do structural tests as built-in tests similar to memory bist too, although most microprocessors don't do too much of that. sometimes the bist and structural tests are supplemented on ate with functional tests. a test sequence is created and the correct output is simulated, and the ate provides the stimulus and compares the outputs to the expected outputs to look for correct operation (or not). there are also generally specific tests for certain bus interfaces, for analog circuits like plls, etc. it would take a long time to describe all possibilities. if you have more specific questions, please ask followup questions. this is an area i've worked in for many years. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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mandrills were once considered baboons but aren't anymore, and are more closely related to mangabeys. is it just coincidence that they look more like baboons? | [mandrills](_url_0_) [mangabey](_url_1_) they look so much like baboons and nothing like mangabey's, is this just because they coincidentally evolved similar traits separate from each other? or maybe because they evolved from baboons (or baboons evolved from them) and kept the physical features but their dna ended up changing a lot and being more like mangabeys? | you're second hypothesis, that the dna changed to make it seem like they are more like mangabeys, is very unlikely. to find evolutionary relationships, biologists use a set of complex methods called phylogenetics, to estimate phylogenies (trees of life). phylogenetics doesn't just ask how close dna from different species looks to each other, but estimates how likely different sets of relationships are based on the likelihoods of mutations among other means. in short, scientists tried to use a lot of information to figure out how these animals are related, and the probability of dna evolving to be so similar is smaller than the animals physically looking like ach other. phylogenetics can go wrong, just like any other science, but i would guess that in this case it probably is not. the similar appearances of baboons and mandrills could be for a variety of reasons, and probably not just one. first, despite not being evolutionary sisters, the genera (plural of genus) of baboons and mandrills are still fairly closely related; they are in the same tribe, within the family papionini. second of all, animal morphology (shapes) is often not particularly conserved – that is, morphology may change with relatively little change in the genes of animals. convergent evolution (coincidental evolution of different things to look like each other) happens across organisms much more different than these ones. [look at this caterpillar, for example!](_url_0_), so it wouldn't be so surprising for these animals, which have similar lifestyles and behaviors, and therefore similar evolutionary selection acting on them. so it could be that the most recent common ancestor (mrca) of these animals looked like baboons, and the different mangabeys changed shape the same way (convergent evolution) or the converse - the mrca looked like mangabeys, and the baboons and the mandrills changed convergently. it could be possible to figure this out based on fossils (and for all i know, someone has) but it is often the case with things like this that we just don't know! and that is why scientists always have more questions to answer. | 2 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandrill",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangabey"
] | [
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electroweak particle | i've read that the electromagnetic and weak force can described as a single force. however the w and z bosons have mass while photons do not. does the w and z boson lose mass as energy increase or that photons gain mass as energy increases? | the particles which we see in the world (w's, z, and photon) are not the ones which actually interact with the electroweak gauge theory. however, there's a symmetry-breaking effect with the mass-giving higgs mechanism which separates out the different pieces of it and gives them their masses. the bosons never lose mass, and the photon never gains mass. the effect of the mass can become negligible at high energies, since there are terms like (energy squared) + (mass squared), which, when the energy is many orders of magnitude larger than the mass, looks like just (energy squared) for the purposes of calculation. i hope this answered your question, because i don't know where you'd getting your idea otherwise. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes this effect? is it chromastrobic light? | at the link below, you can see at the 10th normal mode of an oscillating string, you get color production if the light from a projector shines on the string. does this have to do with how the projector creates white light, as well as the frequencies of the string and refresh rate of the projector being close? is this the same thing that paul friedlander uses in his chromastrobic light sculptures? an explanation would be fantastic. :) thank you. _url_0_ | i believe it does have to do with the refresh rate on the projector. if you go frame by frame from the 8th second to the 9th second of the video, you can see that the string bounces back and forth slightly about 6 times, so its fundamental frequency is roughly 6 hz, so the 10th mode we are seeing is near to 60 hz. this is a common refresh rate for projectors, as is 120 hz (not sure which this is). the projector and string are a small fraction of a hz off of eachother and we are seeing a beat phenomena. the projector probably displays its red, blue, and green right after eachother, so at different phase differences we see different colors on the center of the string. we tend to see the reds, greens, and blues alternating between the outside and inside of the string waves as each beat progresses. the patterns are symmetric so probably the projector is 120 hz. the reason this all works is that the string spends a small fraction of each 60th of a second in the center area, and during that time only one color is actually being projected by the projector. notice that the extrema of the waves (where the string spends a higher fraction of the time) tend to mostly be white or at least magenta/cyan/yellow (2 colors) | 9 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJLnabIM_v4"
] | [] | [
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inside our abdomen, what's in the gaps between organs and tissue? | are there even gaps/pockets/spaces between our organs & tissues in our abdomen? or are we just solid flesh in there? if there are actually spaces, what's in there? fluid? air? | fluid. specifically serous fluid which is excreted by serous membranes that line the body cavity. it acts as a lubricant and allows the organs to move, slide across each other, and change shape. if gas gets trapped in the body cavity (during surgery for example) it gets reabsorbed. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesentery",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serous_fluid"
] | [
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is the idea of 'learning styles' bunk? | there is no empirical evidence for different learning styles (e.g. visual vs. auditory) affecting quality of learning based on the manner of instruction (e.g. whether a "visual learner" is presented with visual materials or something else), although individuals do report that they are one or another kind of learner ([pashler et al. 2008](_url_1_); [bjork et al. 2013](_url_0_)). | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143823",
"http://psi.sagepub.com/content/9/3/105.short"
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|
what is the actual difference between a cyclotron and a synchro-cyclotron? | so as i understand it, when you use cyclotrons to accelerate protons to very high energies, relativistic effects start kicking in (proton mass increase due to high energies/speeds), which causes incoherence between the protons being accelerated and the rf switching the polarity of the dees, and ultimately reduces the proton output of the cyclotron. so they designed the synchro-cyclotron which uses a modulated/modified rf signal to change the polarity of the dees, and thus account for the relativistic effects at higher energies/speeds. i understand that because it's a variable rf, it's going to lose the protons that aren't in the gap during the polarity change and therefore also suffer a loss of output and in the "pros and cons" section of the limited synchro-cyclotron (sc) literature that's out there, they have listed "reduced or low output" as a con. do they mean 'low' as opposed to a regular cyclotron of the same energy/size/magnetization or 'low' compared to what it could have been, had that 'thinning of the beam' effect not occurred? so to sum up, what is the real advantage of an sc over a cyclotron and why are people moving towards them? do you get the same output for a smaller sized and cheaper device? does either have a real advantage over the other? and btw, this is all in regard to proton accelerators for radiation therapy (treating cancer) so these accelerators need to go upto 250mev, tops. thanks a lot. | for a 250 mev proton the relativistic gamma is ~1.27, so relativistic effects are important. the classical cyclotron with constant-frequency rf and constant magnetic field, works very well when relativistic effects can be neglected, but obviously is not sufficient for a proton therapy machine. to adjust the classical cyclotron for relativistic particles you can vary either the rf (synchrocyclotron) or the magnetic field (isochronous cyclotron) with particle energy. because the rf is constant radially it has to be varied with time to match the changing particle energy. this forces synchrocyclotrons to be operated pulsed; particles are injected, the rf changes as they gain energy, particles are extracted, rinse, repeat. the magnetic field can actually be varied radially, so isochronous cyclotrons can operate cw. the ring cyclotron at psi is a good example of an isochronous cyclotron. this means isoschronous cyclotrons can have much higher average currents at the cost of more complicated magnets. in contrast varying the rf frequency with time is relatively easy. lower average current, i.e. lower dose rate, is not a major issue for the current generation of particle therapy machines because the treatment planning is not ready to handle very large dose rates (hypofractionated doses) for charged particles (see report below). sources: working on my phd on particle accelerators. [report on particle therapy r & d.](_url_1_) [presentation on cyclotrons.](_url_0_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://cas.web.cern.ch/cas/Bilbao-2011/Lectures/Seidel.pdf",
"http://rrp.cancer.gov/content/docs/Workshop_on_Ion_Beam_Therapy.pdf"
] | [
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] |
what is the langlands program? and how is it useful? is it really changing what we know about math? | i have been reading a book written by the mathematician edward frenkel "love and math: the heart of hidden reality" and he devotes a big portion of his book talking about the langlands program. but is it really as ground-breaking and as important as he puts it? what implications does it have? and how will it affect our lives. | it combines a lot of different areas of mathematics which is why it is so interesting. it is also why he calls it a "grand unified theory of mathematics." despite the grandiose language, i am inclined to agree a little bit. let me describe one of the motivating examples he did in class last week. consider the equation y^2 + y = x^3 -x^2 where x and y are treated modulo p for some prime. for each prime there are some number of solutions, count them and call that a_p. meanwhile using the other side of the langlands correspondence you can write a function b(q) whose pth coefficient matches a_p. this function b(q) is actually pretty easy to write down. it is q (1-q)^2 (1-q^2 )^2 ... (1-q^11 )^2 (1-q^22 )^2 ... if you didn't know langlands you would be totally shocked and how you could do the hard problem of counting solutions by something you could just foil out completely. the side i like about this program is the physics side. instead of dealing with p-adics or number theoretic stuff, you do the analogous program for the non-archimedean field of functions on a tiny punctured disc. _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/?p=624",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_curve",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_Galois_problem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_group",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_function_field",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert's_tenth_problem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle_inversion",
"http://virtualmathmuseum.org/Surface/torus/torus.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_bundle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faltings'_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_%28mathematics%29",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/ModularGroup-FundamentalDomain-01.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation"
] | [
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what does it mean that ∏ is "never repeating"? | i have heard countless times that ∏ must contain all information possible because of this. never repeating on what level? does a sequence of 1-2 happen more than once? yes, so what does this statement really mean? | the statement that pi "doesn't repeat" and that it "contains all possible information" are not the same claim, so let's deal with them separately. "not repeating" is just the statement that pi's decimal form cannot be written as a finite sequence of digits followed by another finite sequence repeated over and over. for example, 1/3 is .33333..., which is just "3" repeated over and over. 1/99 = 0.010101..., and 2/139 is 0.0xxxx... where x is a string of 46 digits (x=1438848920863309352517985611510791366906474820, in fact). 2/139 + 1/100 would be 0.0yxxxxxx... where y is the same as x but with the first 1 turned into a 2. it can be proven that such a representation does not exist for pi, and thus pi is not "repeating". this is because pi is *irrational*, that is, it cannot be written as the ratio of two integers. obviously this doesn't mean no sequence of digit repeats; that would be impossible. even in the first few digits 3.141 the sequence "1" repeats. in fact, for any n, if you take at least 10^n +n digits, then you're guaranteed that a sequence of length n repeats. you should try to figure out why that's true. so yes, pi contains many repeats of finite sequences. but it's not repeating in the sense that it never becomes just one finite sequence repeating forever. the idea "pi must contain all information" is not really well-defined, but it's a very rough way of saying that pi is believed to be what is called "normal." this is not the same property, and it also has not been proven for pi. before explaining what "normal" means, first let's see why irrational doesn't imply "contains all possible information." consider the following number: .101001000100001... now, this number is irrational, as it should be pretty easy to see that there's no repeating unit in the decimal expansion. however, you'd be hard-pressed to make a claim that this number "contains all possible information" - you'll never find a single sequence with a 9 in it, for example, and you'd never find the sequence "010101". on the other hand, i said pi is believed to be "normal." a number being normal means that if you pick a random finite sequence in the decimal expansion, then you're equally likely to get any particular sequence of that length. as an example, rational numbers are not normal. consider, say, 1/99 = .01010101... if you pick a sequence of length 2, the probability that you get '01' is 1/2, '10' is also 1/2, and all other possible sequences ('11','09', anything) have probability 0. likewise the number i discussed earlier is not normal. on the other hand, for pi it is believed that the probability of getting any particular 2-digit sequence is 1/100, no matter what sequence you choose. in this sense, every possible sequence of digits appears in a normal number and thus pi, if it is normal, contains all possible finite strings of numbers that you could write down. edit: minor rewording and formatting fix. | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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fundamental units? | here's an idea: the value of every constant known to me depends only on the used unit system. for example c = 3e8 m/s but it could be any value i want, assumed i come up with the right units. could it be, that there is a "fundamental unit system" so every constant become one? i'm aware that those constants wouldn't get obsolete just because there value is one but it would simplify math and it would be nice to know, in what dimension such units would be. thanks ins advance! | as sirkkus said, those are 'natural units'. but it should be pointed out that you can't set _every_ fundamental constant to one. the units would still have the same _dimensions_ though; for instance area is length squared, regardless of how you measure length and area. the same goes for the rest. so there are multiple sets of natural units depending on which constants you want to set to 1, which depends on the equation you're trying to simplify. in my field, we use hartree [atomic units](_url_0_), where the electron mass is 1, and so is the coulomb constant and reduced planck constant (as a consequence, the derived unit of length is the bohr radius of hydrogen is 1 and the unit of energy is twice the ground-state energy of hydrogen) | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_units"
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can anyone explain the concept of flux in electromagnetism? what is it? is there any simple analogy? | my favourite analogies have always involved water, think of current as water flowing in a stream. then potential can be described as the height of a waterfall for example. in this scenario, imagine dipping a net into the stream. flux is then the water flowing through the net per unit area. this analogy relates to electric current best probably but you can relate it to magnetism by thinking of your stream as consisting of magnetic field lines. the more field lines that are encompassed by the area of your net, the more magnetic flux there is. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when a part of the body becomes inflamed, is the pressure and volume of the intercellular fluid increasing, or are the cells themselves expanding? | this isn't my area of expertise, but i'll give it a shot. firstly, i think there's a need for a small clarification of terms. inflammation the term for the process of repair of damaged tissue; the swelling that is often seen is called an edema. edema basically means excess fluid volumen - cellular edema would be the swelling of cells, while interstitial edema is excess fluid in the space between cells. this clarification is mostly necessary because much of the inflammatory process is either only indirectly or tangentially related to swelling, which i think is what you're asking about. edema is basically caused by excess fluid. most swelling associated with acute inflammation (e.g. when you stub a toe) is interstitial - occurring in the space between cells. a lot of that space is extracellular matrix - basically a collection of proteins and sugar chains that form a cushion for cells. usually, this is what is swelling; the matrix is taking on more fluid volume. as to the mechanics of fluid flow, my understanding is that mostly governed by a few things, all of which can be pathological in certain circumstances: 1. the required flow of proteins and cells required for the repair process, which requires vasodilation and sometimes angiogenesis - which is essentially blood vessels opening up further and new blood vessel formation respectively. 2. the balance of osmotic pressure being disturbed by the extra protein presence, where water is drawn towards the site due to the influx of proteins in 1. 3. increased permeability due to disruptions in the tissue barrier causing both fluid and biomolecules to leak into the interstitial space (the latter of which can result in triggering 2. tl;dr: either fluid leaks or is pushed from blood vessels into the inflamed area's glop of proteins and sugars, making your toe balloon. a loooot more detail can be found in the textbook chapters available [here](_url_1_) and [here](_url_0_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK348/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53445/"
] | [
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|
how does subsurface water work? | so, apparently ganymede might have a [subsurface ocean](_url_0_). how does this ocean, and things like the water table actually work? is it something like completely saturated dirt (similar to what you see at the beach, where you step on sand and water comes out) or is it an open pool of water in a giant cavern? i imagine aquifers and ganymedes oceans are not the same, but i'm not understanding how the entire moon can have solid parts of rock "floating" on water. | on earth, groundwater is saturated 'dirt' (sand, silt, clay, etc.) or rocks. the crust of earth is heavier than water, so your intuition is correct - earth's crust could not 'float' on a subsurface water ocean. ganymede's crust is different. it's not made out of rock, it's made primarily out of water ice. and since water ice is less dense than liquid water, you can have a crust that "floats" on a subsurface ocean. earth, in a way, has a subsurface ocean that the crust floats on too. the outer core of earth is dense molten liquid, while the rocky mantle and crust, which are less dense, sit on top. | 5 | [] | [
"http://arstechnica.com/science/2015/03/jupiters-moon-ganymede-has-a-salty-subsurface-ocean-too/"
] | [] | [
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if you placed a combination of molten metal inside a centrifuge that is inside a furnace, would the metals separate in the same way as it does when placing blood in a centrifuge. heavier metals going to the bottom and lighter to the top? | i'll defer to someone with more specific expertise, but here's my take: in the case of blood separation, you're dealing with relatively large solid particles suspended (not dissolved) in a fluid. in the case of different liquid metals mixed together, it would depend on whether the metals are miscible (soluble in one another), or not. in the case that the metals are miscible a concentration gradient of the different metals would likely form due to differences in the mass of the molecules, but you would only get a sharp separation with immiscible metals. solubility/miscibility are also a function of pressure and temperature. tl;dr: you could probably generate at least concentration gradient; would depend on which metals and what conditions. edit: language for clarity. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how chimeric is the normal person? | i read a pulpy article talking about chimerism called the you in me, by sam kean in psychology today., such as children and mothers exchanging cells in utero and the prevalence of cells with the y chromosome in the brains of women. i was wondering if their is anything like a normal curve for chimerism in humans. thanks in advance! | we don't know what the normal curve of chimerism in humans is because we haven't done enough genetic testing to make a conclusion on that. genetic testing has been too prohibitively expensive to take the effort to run multiple genetic tests on random people, until recently. we will probably have a good guess on the average rate of human chimerism in a decade or two. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimera_(genetics)#Human_chimeras"
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] |
what does the ln stand for in , λ = ln2/t^1/2 and how do i use it? | [natural logarithm](_url_0_) your calculator should have it, but it's often rounded to .693 or .7 for the half-life formula you seem to have there. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_logarithm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_logarithm"
] | [
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|
what's the deviation of the standing wave equations? | the equations f_n=(nv)/2l and f_n=(nv)/4l for open and closed resonance tubes, respectively. if it's possible to not use calculus, please do not. | first consider the closed tube. what does it mean for a standing wave to exist inside of it? if the wave is to exist in a closed container, then the ends of the tube have to remain still. in other words, the nodes (zeroes) of the wave pattern will appear at the two ends. but a sinusoidal wave has more than one node; in fact, there are an infinite number of nodes and therefore an infinite number of modes that are allowed in the tube. to find which ones are allowed, convince yourself that the statement "nodes on each end of the tube" implies "the length of the tube (let l be the length of the tube) is an integer number of half-wavelengths (let x be the wavelength)." mathematically, l = n x /2 the speed of any wave is equal to the product of its wavelength (x) and its frequency (f). substituting that piece of information, l = ( n v ) / ( 2 f ) or f = (n v) / (2 l) the open ended tube is nearly identical, but one end of the tube is allowed to move, so it will be a maximum of the sinusoidal shape. edit: by the way, i'm assuming you meant "derivation." | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the neurological description of determination and will? why is it that some are more focused/determined than others? | [deleted] | well, this might not be an orthodox view, but it's still a view many neuroscientists hold. it's the idea that there are two competing sources of influence in your brain. one is retrospective and shaped by phylogenetic and ontogenetic conditioning. the other is prospective and based on mental representations of your environment. roger sperry wrote about downward causation in 1993. since then (well, also before), this has become a topic of interest to many researchers. the idea of complex systems defying determinism is under a lot of discussion. you can think of it as having to do with consequences. if an animal does something that leads to its death, that's a consequence with a significant impact. the species will be shaped by individual occurrences of this sort. in the same manner, if through random genetic mutations an animal ends up with something that leads to better consequences, this mutation will be "favored" by evolution. the past of a species shapes its future. even in the life of a single specimen this is the case. if you give a dog electric shocks whenever it is located in a certain area of its cage, it will avoid this area. if it is given morphine in an area, it will spend a lot of time in this area. its behavior is shaped by classical and operant conditioning in addition to evolutionary (phylogenetic) selection (or non-random elimination, if you will). the point is that the consequences come first, and the outcomes after. this is important. in the basal ganglia, habits are acquired and selected for based on consequences. its direct dopaminergic pathway, employing d1-family-receptors, learns beneficial consequences (leading to approach motivation). the indirect pathway, employing d2-family-receptors, learns detrimental consquences (leading to avoidance motivation). meanwhile, something interesting is going on in the neocortex, and especially in the prefrontal cortex. somehow, we have become able to reverse-engineer this process. by constructing a mental representation of our environment in our hippocampus, we can use this representation to do something really cool. we can start with an outcome, and work out the consequences that would take us there. "i want to learn how to play guitar," you might think. even if you've never before played guitar, you should have representations in your brain that can help you reverse-engineer your way to success. perhaps your idea is that skill is a consequence of training, training is a consequence of discipline, and discipline is a consequence of good teaching. so you sign up for lessons. congratulations; you just acted in a way that defied the evolutionary shaping of your species and the conditioned responses you have attained in your lifetime by an act of will. so how does this work? one idea is that this has got to do with prediction. the idea that the neocortex extracts the statistical regularities of its environment and uses this information to form predictions is pretty popular. the idea that dopamine is used as a signal that gauges deviations from expected consequences is also pretty solid (the reward prediction error hypothesis). with this, we have the competition of conditioned and planned responses. let's say you sit down to study. based on conditioning, you might rather want to watch netflix. retrospective control, as we can call it, is only concerned with immediate consequences because that's the way this system works. immdiate consequences--good or bad--are learned and used to predict outcomes. prospective control we can call this other system. this system also predicts outcomes, but it does it, as we mentioned, backwards. it starts with the desired outcome and finds consequences that will lead to the expected outcome. let's say the desired outcome is an a. a is the consequence is hard studying, you might believe, and so you sit down and open your textbook. or you might have an undesired outcome (flunking), and believe that the consequences of not studying will lead to this outcome. this is also based on prospective control. what determines whether you will be influenced by the retrospective or prospective system? it's hard to say. but there are clues that neuromodulation plays a big part. deprive a rat of serotonin, and it will not be able to control its impulses. it will fail the marshmallow test. so levels of serotonin should be important for being able to use the prospective system. what controls levels of serotonin? the major influence on the raphe nuclei is the lateral habenula. this is an evolutionary ancient epithalamic structure (you can find it in lampreys). it seems that this structure can act as a sort of test mechanism for your mental representations/prefrontal cortex. if you expected that action a would lead to desired outcome b and it didn't, the lateral habenula is excited. if it led to an even better outcome than predicted, the lateral habenula is inhibited. and the lateral habenula influences the neuromodulation of serotonin based on this information, in effect deciding whether your plans are "trustworthy" enough to allocate control to the prospective system. too much failure, and you should stick to the tried and true retrospective system. this might not be the full story, but i believe it's better than the awful glucose hypothesis of willpower. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do blackhead cleansing scrubs with micro beads do what they say or even work? | blackheads are excess oils that have hardened to form a darkish colored mass of shit in pores that are wider than ordinary epidermal pores. scrubs, micro beads, or whatever work to essentially "grind" away the hardened shit (formally, blackheads) away so that nothing is obstructing the enlarged pores on the epidermis. watch this and savor the flavor: _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KCKh0-vTRAE"
] | [
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i've always assumed that by buying used, i am not responsible for the fixed costs for producing that product, only the variable costs for using it. how true is that? | for example, by buying a used car, i am not party to the environmental damage done by actually making it, only the environmental damage done by driving it around. however, by buying it used, i am providing demand in the resale market, which makes the product, as new, more attractive to at least some consumers, raising demand in that market as well. for how much of that fixed cost am i actually responsible, then, as a resale buyer? | what do you mean by 'responsible'? let's consider two almost-identical worlds. in the first world, person a buys new cars and person b does not buy cars at all. in the second world, person a buys new cars and person b buys used cars from person a. in the second world more cars will be produced. the resale price of used cars means that the net cost of buying a new car for person a will be less. because buying a new car is cheaper in this world, person a will do it more. so by contributing to the resale market for used cars you are still increasing the number of cars produced and sold (and so increasing the amount of environmental damage generated by the production of cars) compared to a world where you did not buy cars at all. whether that's a reasonable world to compare your actions against is another story. but your used car purchases definitely do have environmental consequences. the exact amount would depend on the increase in car production. so the marginal increase in new car quantity produced caused by the increase in new car demand caused by the increase in the price of the used cars caused by your marginal demand contribution to the used car market. that is the increase that is uniquely dependant on your action. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the physics behind a transverse arrest tug maneuver? | this question has been bothering me for a while, and you guys are my last hope! basically if you have a tug-boat, it has thrusters that can produce a certain amount of thrust- measured in tonnes (newtons for 1 tonnes under earth's gravity i assume). lets say 70t. now if a ship is moving and a tug is attached by a line out the back and uses its thrusters in the forward position (sending the tug backwards) a force of about 70t will be produced and the ship will slow down. now this is where things get wacky.... if the tug instead directions it's two thrusters (btw they have two that can be oriented in any direction) at right angles to the motion of travel- one in each direction (90/270) the amount of force produced is massively more than 70t- like 140t, 150t. more than double! how does this work? i don't understand at all. the tug people explain that the big curtain of water on either side of the tug is like deploying a huge curtain but that can't be right. unlike a curtain which would be rigidly attached, once the water has left the nozzle it can no longer affect the boat. so why? here is a little page on the maneuver with diagrams _url_0_ tl;dr: why do you get greater resistive force shooting jets of water outwards 90 degrees rather than in the opposite direction to your travel. | a lot of drag is generated by detached flow around the stern, and great amounts of effort are put into keeping this flow attached in normal conditions. by directing the thrusters outwards, you force the flow away from the tug's hull, enlarging the region of low pressure behind the tug (usually small by design) and creating a very large drag force. the "curtain" explanation isn't totally wrong, but quite heavily simplified. source: naval architect | 26 | [] | [
"http://www.towingsolutionsinc.com/technology-escort_tugs.html"
] | [] | [
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] |
can someone explain how gas chromatography works? | i need to understand how the actual process works for a college paper (i study archaelogy) but i'm having a hard time figuring it out with only a highschool chemistry background. can any kind souls explain how it works, or link me to any good sources on the subject? | in essence any chromatography is separating compounds into their constituent elements, and gas is just another way to do that. chromatography uses mobile and stationary phases, with the mobile phase in gas chromatography being typically an inert gas like helium or argon, and this carries the sample to the detector where it interacts with the liquid stationary phase in the column of the chromatograph. the time at which each compound interacts with the column is called the retention time, and it is how you identify sample, namely by the time at which each different compound elutes. put very simply gas chromatography measures the time it takes each compound of interest to vaporize, and based on that time (under controlled conditions), it is compared to known standards and you can identify which compound(s) you have. by connecting a gc to a mass spec (gc-ms) you can identify things much more precisely, especially if you have unknowns. edit: [here](_url_0_) is a chromatogram from one of my samples. this is from a sample of algae and we are looking at their lipid composition. gas chromatography tells us what fatty acids are in the sample, e.g. 16:0, 164n3 etc. by calculating the area under each peak (they are very thin in this chromatogram but there is still area underneath) it lets me know the concentration of the analyte in question. the x-axis is time *t* and y-axis is the detector signal which in this case is picoamps, but the units for y-axis change depending on the detector. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/5ypWk9T"
] | [
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what information can be attained from liquid/gas chromatography? | if i were to run a perfume through gas/liquid chromatography, would i be able to isolate and identify every unique element? | so in chromatography we have a mobile phase and a stationary phase. the stationary phase is whatever tube you are pushing the stuff you are interested through. the mobile phase is the stuff you are pushing. your perfume would be the mobile phase. you can choose all sorts of things to the stationary phase. different stationary phases will interact with different chemicals more, or less, as they pass by one another. if the stationary phase interacts strongly with a molecule as it goes past, then the molecule will be slowed down and held back from the rest of the molecules around it. as the sample goes down the tube, the molecules in the sample are split up by how strongly they 'stick' to the walls of the tube. if you chose the stationary phase carefully to match up with your perfume you might be able to isolate all the individual compounds (i presume you meant this by the word element in your question - chromatography won't break bonds to give you the individual elements of a molecule) contained within that perfume. having said that, they are usually very complicated mixtures so choosing the set up so that each unique molecule comes out of the far end of the tube at a different time without mixing with other chemicals (therefore giving you pure samples) will be tricky! nb: i've oversimplified by not including the choice of eluent (an inert gas or liquid that you use to push your sample through the tube) and this will impact separation also. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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has science determined the most effective way to study while in school? | i know there's a lot of dimensions to the act of studying, i.e duration, intensity, specific study strategy ( e.g outlining, making note cards, etc). i've heard people talk about the pareto method as the best duration and my teachers have always brought up things like outlining, etc. is there any one combination that is the best across subjects? conversely, is there any method that works best when studying mathematics? | not sure if this is what you had in mind, but here are a few thoughts. also, this isn't my main area of study, so if someone has new thoughts to add, please do. spacing is better for retention than blocked studying. adaptive spacing is even better. most people do this naturally when they have something like flashcards: if you get an answer correct, you put the flashcard at the end of the stack or further back; if you get an answer wrong, you put it only a little bit deep in the stack to have it reappear again soon. this method is better than blocking (studying only one item at a time for a long time). i believe this research has been going on for a long time, all the way to the beginning of the 20th century if not sooner. for example, see [perkins (1914)](_url_1_) or [edwards (1917)](_url_3_). see [melton (1970)](_url_5_) for something a little more recent. and [here](_url_4_) is an article (from 1988!) wondering why spacing effect literature has had little effect on classroom/teaching methods. see also [richland et al. 2005](_url_0_) for some more recent thoughts on the matter and [kornell and bjork (2008)](_url_6_) for applications to category learning. testing is a memory enhancer. so testing yourself actually improves long-term retention. this is sometimes called the testing effect (e.g., [roediger and karpicke, 2006](_url_2_)). there's some work on "desirable difficulties" (the part of the malcolm gladwell's new book that is under some criticism) that suggest that making study more effortful will increase retention (bjork, 1994 < - book chapter, so i don't have a link). similar ideas have been mentioned with respect to difficulty of retrieval as opposed to encoding, e.g., [pyc and rawson (2009)](_url_7_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://learninglab.uchicago.edu/Publications_files/5-CogsciIddeas2005.pdf",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1914.tb00113.x/abstract;jsessionid=3B9B1E8A77075E08EE3979FC9C95A866.f04t04?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=false",
"http://pss.sagepub.com/content/17/3/249.short",
"http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=search.displayrecord&uid=2006-05077-012",
"http://andrewvs.blogs.com/usu/files/the_spacing_effect.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022537170801074",
"http://pss.sagepub.com/content/19/6/585.short",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X09000138"
] | [
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how do the laminas work with epithelial cells like the basal and apical laminas? | i'm not really sure what your question is asking but the laminas are bands of extracellular matrix, produced by the epithelium. they sort of act as a tether point for the epithelium to grown on. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
[personal] what is the easiest and most efficient way to pick up computer science basics ? | i got into a russell group uni applying for compsci with as in physics, economics and geography (this was '08, before a* was a thing). no maths, no it. so it's totally doable. i actually applied for geography and changed my mind at the last minute, so my personal statement was all about geography. i think i got in because one of the things i talked about was how i was so interested in ecology that i'd written a computer simulation of an ecosystem, with all the animals preying on one another, and keeping track of water levels and vegetation and so on, so they knew i could code. i taught myself to code using game maker, of all things. so maybe i'm not a good example. but just letting you know that universities are primarily looking for smart people who can learn, the specifics of prior experience is less important than many people think. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what's this strange cyclic ring in this molecular diagram? (link inside) | [i happened upon this wikipedia page](_url_0_). that carbon ring has two odd properties to me, as a layperson. first, it has two oxygen molecules bonded together. second, it seems to have a secondary ring within itself, kind of like a dual connection. what can you tell me about these properties? is it common for organic molecules to be like this? are molecules like this less stable or more stable? is it harder to form them? do they have any special or interesting properties? just curious! | the double-oxygen-bearing ring is an example of a cyclic peroxide. in contrast to hydrogen peroxide, the peroxide group in prostaglandin h2 is fully organic, having organic groups attached at either end. there are other such examples of cyclic peroxides [here](_url_1_). the reactivity of peroxides means that natural examples thereof are comparatively rare (they undergo scission in a vareity of circumstances). their formation is driven by strong reducing agents or is effected by exchange reactions with hydrogen peroxide (now made using a catalyst and h2 and o2). the second ring can only really be visuallised in 3 dimensions: the first ring has an extra arm that links its top and bottom positions. this is not unusual, for a simple example have a look at [norbornene](_url_0_). the specifics of their formation, use and stability would be better answered by an organic chemist, but i hope this is enough of an answer for you to be able to do some further reading. | 4 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostaglandin_H2"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbornene",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peroxide",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicyclic_molecule",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peroxide",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclooxygenase",
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-1033.1980.tb04828.x",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox_signaling",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species"
] | [
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how big can a forehead be? | how big can a human (male) forehead be? i've seen what they call "5head" in my days, but i don't believe i've seen anything bigger than [this](_url_0_). is there some kind of illness that can enhance one's forehead to look like this? | this is a rare disease caused by salt and cancerous twitch spam. it could have been cured if he went to a doctor or scientists in right time but playing tinder seems to have taken all this individual's time and is no longer in sight of ever having a normal forehead again. pray for this poor soul. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/03ah9J8.jpg"
] | [] | [
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] |
why do we see this picture in colour when it is black and white? | _url_0_ | it's called a "negative afterimage." when you stare intently at the center of the photo, the receptors on the periphery of your vision are being stimulated by the blue light from the sides of the image. after a while of consistent stimulation, they need to "recharge," which they can't do if the light is still stimulating them. after the image shifts to grayscale, the "neutral" color should stimulate all your photoreceptors evenly, but because one set (blue, in this case) are worn out, you see color where none exist due to one set of your cones responding weaker than the others. | 10 | [] | [
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will you help me identify a snake? pictures in comments. | _url_0_ location is southern nicaragua just across the border with costa rica very close to the forest. i think its a boa, but am concerned it might be a type of pit viper. any help is appreciated. thanks | it's neither a boa nor a viper based on the head shape (too narrow/not triangle-shaped). that leaves the elapids and colubrids. i can't do much research on my phone, but the lyre snake (trimorphodon) looks like the one. i'm guessing it's about 40cm? not quite an adult. they are venomous, but rear-fanged and thus unlikely to envenomate a person unless you put your fingers in their mouths. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/AhBUP"
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does the human sinus cavity hold pressure? | hi there. all paranasal sinus cavities are continuous with the outside world [(via ostia)](_url_0_) and should not hold pressure unless in a pathological state (sinus infection, tumor growth, sinusitus, etc). animals also have paranasal sinuses, and in some species they are very large and elaborate. [this picture](_url_1_) gives a good representation of horse sinuses, and [this one](_url_2_) describes how a bull's horns actually contain extensions of the caudal frontal sinuses within them (so, theoretically, a bug could fly into a bull's nose all the way up into its horn). edit: links, clarification, examples. | 120 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranasal_sinuses",
"http://d1uhp0uy75me04.cloudfront.net/31/37b240309c11e0996a0050568d634f/file/PV_0211_waguespack_f1.png",
"http://fce-study.netdna-ssl.com/images/upload-flashcards/back/3/4/32743957_m.jpg"
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|
how do digital balance scales work? do they actually measure mass, or do they just measure the force and divide by gravity? | i was thinking about the differences between mass and weight, and it made me realize how difficult it would be to actually measure mass. would a 5kg object on a digital balance scale read the same on earth and the moon? what about a mechanical triple balance scale? | digital scales use strain gauge load cells that measure the difference in resistance on a printed circuit board and send out an electrical signal. this signal calibrates the force it would take to "bend" the load cell. it is just measuring the force and is calibrated for the earths gravity. balances can measure mass on say the moon because the counter weights will change in direct proportion to the object you want to measure, where the digital scale would still be calibrated to earth. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you accurately predict if you are going to remember something long term? | have there been any studies relating to people predicting whether they will remember something much later? do we have a sense telling us if something is in long term memory rather than only short term memory? | ...no comments yet. well, to start with, [here's one study,](_url_0_) which will give you good search terms (e.g. "metamemory", "judgments of learning") if you're still looking on your own. well, the paper i linked to says so that's a "yes". i wouldn't necessarily describe this as though. consider: you and i are going to see a movie later. i ask "which will you remember more: the names of the main characters, or the names of the secondary characters, or the names of characters that never appear on screen?" based on your experience with previous movies (it's easier to remember the main characters of back to the future, doc brown and marty mcfly, than it is to remember marty's mom's name, which is easier to remember than the first name of marty's mom's brother, "uncle 'jailbird' joey") you should be able to predict your memory abilities. maybe not *well*, but above chance. yet, the information (characters' names in a movie you haven't seen) isn't yet available to you. it's fair to say that your past experience with and sensibilities about your own memory will influence your prediction of later recall abilities. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.csulb.edu/~wkelemen/K2000.pdf"
] | [
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when you force a wave function to collapse, does it do so immediately or in the effective past? | on the topic of entanglement, when the collapse of the wave function of a certain particle affects the state of another, has the state of the other particle *always* been so? or has it only just adopted its state as its partner particle is observed? | the observation (measurement) causes the wavefunction to collapse immediately, and is not retroactive into the past. consequently, when two particles are entangled, and you measure one, the second particle only adopts its state once the first has been measured, and has not been in the state all along. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does having my blackberry 6 inches from my balls 12-15 hours a day have any adverse effects to my body? | has new cell phone technology reduced or removed the radiation emitted by our cell phones, or am i hurting myself by doing this? | phone radiation, radio wave and microwaves, are non-ionizing. they are not energetic enough to cause electrons to be ejected by atoms. when electrons are ejected from an atom in a structure the atom becomes a "free radical" which can react chemically with things around it. this is caused by ionizing radiation, which is a concern. examples of ionizing radiation: uv-rays, gamma rays, beta particles, alpha particles, and neutrons. these particles can lead to dna damage and cell death. anytime i see a study on cell phones being harmful i shake my head. to my knowledge, with what we know today about radiation of all forms, cell phones are perfectly fine for our health. but then again, i get happy when people think cell phones are harmful for their health because they use them less. people need to get the fuck off their phones once in a while. edit: **this shit pisses me off so much that i had to do the calculations. the 3g cellphone bandwidth is 2155 mhz (_url_0_). a photon of this frequency has energy e= h f = 8.91236×10^-6 ev; where h is planck's constant and f is the frequency. the lowest ionization energy occurs at around 5 ev. so you would need bare minimum of 0.5 million cell phone photons to hit the same atom at the roughly same time, for it to ionize. ** edit #2: thank you **wnoise** for the ionization energy corrections. i used hydrogen's 13.6 ev before as the "lowest of all ionization energies". it isn't. i corrected my 13.6 ev to 5ev in order to depict the easiest ionizable atom as seen on _url_1_. 13.6 isn't a bad number at all though, seeing as most of the body is water, which contains two hydrogens. | 109 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_frequencies",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization_energy"
] | [
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] |
so how could our lifestyles by changed by a large flare/cme? | someone suggested in [this comment](_url_0_) that our lifestyles could be changed by a large flare/cme. how might it change? | my therapist (who has given me no indication in the 3+ years i've been seeing her for marriage counseling, that she is bug nutty batshit crazy) started talking, saturday, about the large solar flare that just kicked off. she was saying how whenever the magnetic fields of the earth get changed, it affects us, blah blah. closest information i could find was _url_0_ website looks like a _url_1_ website. shrug. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/space/comments/qneut/close_up_of_region1429_it_is_going_to_be_pointed/c3yztfy"
] | [
"http://www.carliniinstitute.com/how_recent_solar_flares_are_affecting_us",
"members.aol.com"
] | [
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] |
what is the probability of getting at least one black ball if i were to draw from a bag filled with 99 white balls and one black ball (replacing all balls once drawn) 100 times? | i ask because, intuitively, the answer should be 100% - 1% chance times 100 draws - but a single moment of thinking and it's clear that this is not true. so, what's the actual chance, and why? | chance to pull a white ball: 0.99. chance to pull only white balls after 100 draws: 0.99^(100)=0.366. chance to pull at least on black ball: 1-0.366 = 0.634. so there is a 63.4% chance. if you repeat a process where only a or b can happen and where the chance of outcome a is p, then the probability that b happens at least once after n trials is 1-p^(n), since p^(n) is the probability of only a happening and the probability of all outcomes must be 1. also relevant is the [binomial distribution](_url_0_). | 37 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_distribution"
] | [
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separating water | would it be possible to separate and collect hydrogen and oxygen via a process that uses less hydrogen to fuel the reaction than hydrogen produced? (by burning hydrogen to create the energy needed) | the reaction equation for electrolysis: 2h₂o - while the reaction equation for combustion of hydrogen is: 2h₂ + o₂ - you'll see that these two equations are opposite of each other. therefore the amount of energy required in the electrolysis is _exactly equal_ to the amount of energy released during combustion. there will also be a net loss in energy in the entire process, as each step is likely less than 100% efficient. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how long of a time period is, "19 my"? | the authors are using *my* as an abbreviation for *million years*. you will often see this abbreviated as *myr* or *myr*. when capitalized, the *m* specifically refers to the latin prefix *mega*, or 10^6, which is equivalent to one million. you may also encounter *mya* or *mya*, which stands for *million years ago*. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do humans get "the shakes" from cannibalism? do animals experience this? | it comes up in video games and movies all the times, like fallout and the book of eli and others. my question is, why does this happen? do animals experience this too? is it evolutionary maybe? | the disease state you are referring to is kuru, which is caused by prions. prions can be viewed as a protein "poison". it is a misfolded protein that, upon contact with its non misfolded form, causes the normal protein to misfold. this ends up causing a deadly cascade of misfolding of proteins which leads to neurological problems (among many) and death. this prion is not in everyone, only people who have been "infected" by it. this means that the only way you can get kuru is to eat someone who has kuru. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuru_\\(disease\\)"
] | [
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a couple of evolution questions. | you mean like using tools? dolphins do that. they have been observed using sponges and shells for hunting of small fish. otters also use tools, specifically rocks, to smash open clams while they are floating. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
odd question about flatulence | how fast, collectively, can the bacteria in your digestive tract produce gas, under optimal conditions (for the bacteria)? i ask because i seem to be flatulating more than the volume of my own body. | i don't know the answer to your question specifically, but i'd like to point out that intestinal bacteria is *not* the only source of gas. [flatulence is also caused by swallowed air](_url_0_) in the same way burps are--but your burps get burped up, and flatulence ends up passing through the intestine. i don't have a source for this, but i recall reading that most of your flatulence is swallowed air. i could be mistaken. also, i believe that the (nearly) odorless flatulence is caused by food and swallowed air, while the smelly components are contributed by bacteria. while this may not have directly answered your question, it may be helpful to know that the large volume of gas you're experiencing is not just due to intestinal bacteria. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/tc/gas-flatus-topic-overview"
] | [
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what is the scientific definition of odourless? | i recently had an inconclusive discussion about the nature of odour, and the question came up; is 'odourless' based on whether a human/known animal can smell it, or is it actually a chemical property which makes a compound odourless to every possible lifeform? | odor or smell is not a real property of anything. it is based on our perception. our noses contain receptors that can bind certain chemicals that causes our brains to perceive a "smell". different chemicals that bind in different combinations to these receptors causes different smells to be perceived by our brain. if there is a certain chemical that cannot bind to any of our limited receptors in our nose then it is considered odorless. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does light and in particular relfection work in this case? | hi, i have this strange question about light that i've always wanted to ask: we know that light is an electromagnetic wave, so since it is "also" a way it propagates in every direction. so, why for example in this image ( _url_0_ ) we see the light reflected from the water only on a small portion of the sea ( i circled it in red) and not everywhere? shouldn't it be equally reflected by every "part" of the sea? thanks and sorry for my bad english. | it does reflect "everywhere" you're just not in the other spots to see them (the other "bright areas"). imagine you have a huge group of people to stand 100m apart from each other, spread out along the shoreline and you have the beach labelled with flags every 100m. if they were to report where the "bright spot" landed relative to their location. you would get answers like 0m-100m, 100m-200m, 200m-300m and so on... because the earth is round, you are only going to see a certain area of the sea that is bright. when you look at a silver marble, you see a "bright spot" where-- based on the position of the light source, where you're holding the ball and where you're sitting-- light is meeting your eye. if you had a friend sitting across the room looking at the same marble, his/her "bright spot" will be slightly different than yours. it is simply because not all of the light rays made by the sun are meeting your eye. they are many rays going elsewhere. if the earth had parabolic shape and you were to stand at the focal point, the entire ocean would have a blinding light as bright as the area you boxed in. does that make sense? i know that may not have been the best way to put it, but it's simply because the earth is round and only some of the rays produced by the sun are meeting your eyes. edit: bad grammar, missing words and wrong forms of words and all that. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/P31Zv2S.jpg"
] | [] | [
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it's a common trope on reddit to hear women using sperm from used condoms/blow jobs to get purposefully pregnant. how possible is this? | extremely possible. it only takes a single sperm cell to fertilize an egg and sperm can survive for days under the right conditions (at least 5 days in the female reproductive tract, according to [wikipedia](_url_0_)). i don't know if the urban legends are true and i don't recommend taking them at face value, but it's a very plausible scenario. also a horrible thing to do. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperm"
] | [
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|
what causes some rocks/minerals to naturally form with right angles and straight edges? | i saw a picture of naturally occurring fluorite in a chemistry textbook and wondered why is it naturally forms a near-perfect cube. | the rocks and minerals all have a certain type of crystal structure. the nature of structures is such that the atoms want to be as close to each other as possible so as to increase the stability and decrease energy, which results in a close packed structure. crystals are such that you have a specific arrangement of atoms/ions which repeats indefinitely. fluorite itself has a cubic close packed structure which means that the arrangement the ions is in a cubic manner and that extends outwards indefinitely until you "run out" of fluorite, so to speak. the right angles are because of the way the calcium and fluorine are joined, which forms a cubic shape. the flat faces are the lines of weaknesses (i.e. bonds) where the structure can be cleaved. edit: added a word | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i stuck my hand in water that was magically under 1000 bars of pressure (same as the mariana's trench bottom) what would happen to it? | would i even feel the difference? organisms live down there and they don't seem like they are any tougher than what i am made out of. also, i have another two questions perhaps someone knows the answer to: does water behave differently under this kind of pressure. if so, in what way? edit: removed additional question, i thought it would be better served in biology. | it would be something like [this](_url_0_) but with your hand. the video demonstrates what happens due to air pressure which a thousand times less than that on the bottom of the mariana's trench. it's the difference in pressure that squashes things. the cans in the video get squished because there is a big pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the can (between almost 0 and 1 bar). the reason we don't implode like that is because the insides of our bodies are at about the same pressure. try this experiment - close your nose and mouth and try to take a breath by expanding your ribcage. you can't really do much because of the atmospheric pressure. by expanding your ribcage, you increase the amount of space available for the gas in your lungs which lowers the pressure of the gas inside, creating a difference in pressure between inside and outside of your body. this is what will happen at the bottom of the ocean, just much much faster and much worse. it would probably be a lot like smashing your hand with a big, heavy hammer. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVayky_b-6U"
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intuition of wave function | according to wikipedia, the wave function describing a particle in one dimension is ae^i(kx-omega*t) . why does it take this form? why is there a need for a complex valued function? i understand euler's formula and that it is cos(kx-omega\*t) + isin(kx-omega\*t), but why does it need a cosine and sine term, and why is the sine term imaginary? is it just the way the math works out, or is there an intuitive way to understand this? thank you. | the only good answer to the "why" is due to symmetry arguments. if you get higher into physics and learn some group theory, you learn how to approach a physics problem from scratch. we assume that we are looking at a particular type of field/particle and we try to find it's governing set of equations. (if you have some mechanics background, we start with a lagrangian.) from here, we assume anything can happen; that is, any term possible can be a part of this lagrangian. we could say it's psi x the magnetic field x the shape of the shoes i'm wearing to the power of their size. whatever you'd like. then we realize that physics must agree with certain symmetries. ie rotational, 4 dimensional space time boosts and translations, global u(1) gauge invariance, local su(3) gauge invariance, the fact that my shoe size can't effect what is happening to a positron in bangladesh, whatever. plus the units must work out properly. and some other basic arguments. eventually what you find is that there is only a few possible terms that could exist in the real world. the one representing a free particle gives us a divergence of a gradient. and it just so happens to have solutions of the form exp(i(kx-wt)). we are stuck with a wave function of that form because nothing else works. if we were to assume some other form of the wave function, we'd find weird things like the wave function preferred to travel left rather than right, independent of what is happening otherwise. and since we know that nature doesn't actually do weird things of this sort, we end up with an equation that says exp(ikx-iwt). if you know ug physics, i could go further. if not, it probably would be a bit too mathematical to understand. if you are asking why do we have fields in the first place? that's rather philosophical and i don't know how to answer it. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the handedness of a subject important to know for doctors and scientists, and if so, why? | i've seen a couple of medical tv shows recently where they talk about patients or test subjects as follows: > patient is a right-handed man in his 50s in generally good health etc. etc. i'm just wondering whether that's considered important in real life and if so why? my doctor has never once asked me which hand i use, for instance. | if it pertains to musculoskeletal or rheumatologic disease then handedness does indeed matter. right hand pain in a right-handed, older mechanic is more likely arthritic or degenerative in nature as opposed to right hand pain in a left-handed person. bilateral pain can sometimes be worse on the dominant side as well, also giving clues to a diagnosis. in terms of other diseases handedness plays less of a role, and is likely included for thoroughness. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i've read a little bit about the affects of thc on cancer. is any of this research substantial or is it just not known enough? | here is a link to the article that i am referring [link](_url_0_) | the research done in this paper was done to cell lines so it was not quite *in vivo*. the pathway they are testing here is very specific, so the researchers need to test it in a living specimen to see if they will get the same results. a lot can change from *in vitro* to *in vivo*. but it still is a cool study on thc. it was published in 2006 so there may be more modern articles | 6 | [] | [
"http://mcr.aacrjournals.org/content/4/8/549.long"
] | [
"http://profiles.ucsf.edu/donald.abrams",
"http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/cannabis/healthprofessional/page4"
] | [
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] |
why is it critical to have extremely accurate time, for electricity distribution networks to function? | i over heard a couple of engineers at an electrical power plant discuss the importance of having extremely accurate time through atomic clocks (something like 1 second of error over 3,000 years is minimum acceptable). hoping some one could explain, exactly why such time accuracy is required, what does it enable? | well, strictly speaking your premise is false: large-scale electrical grids have been around long before atomic clocks. so the pedantic answer is "it's not necessary". when multiple generators are connected to the same power line, their phases have to be carefully matched. in a typical ac generator, the oscillating voltage/current is actually determined by the physical rotation speed of the rotor. if the output voltages of two generators aren't matched, or if they peak at different times, the resulting voltage imbalance causes huge currents to flow, which in turn exerts a force on the generator. so when bringing a generator online, you can't just flip a switch; you have to [match the frequencies, voltages and phases](_url_0_), so that when you close the circuit, the phase difference is small. you don't need a clock for this, though; you can just compare the two voltage curves to each other, independent of any time reference. however, there's another reason for using accurate clocks that has nothing to do with the functioning of the power grid itself. by keeping the frequency very stable, it can be used as a reference point for other equipment that needs to keep accurate time. for example, cheap alarm clocks can keep time very accurately if they're plugged in, simply by counting the cycles. the frequency can vary slightly from 60hz over the short term -- for instance, if the power demand increases faster than the generators can keep up, the frequency drops slightly. if that happens, the power plant operators can make up the difference later, so that the total number of cycles per day or per year is still accurate. in this case, the "1 second of error over 3,000 years" is simply the target accuracy that they've decided they want to maintain. | 35 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronization_(alternating_current\\)",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RGPCIypib5Q0",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phasor_measurement_unit"
] | [
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what is the average insolation in the local interstellar medium? | watts/m^2 ? edit: i mean, what is the expected amount of energy falling on a square meter surface from starlight in our local neighborhood. | huh, i never really thought of this before. it should be approximately equal to the luminosity we get on earth from all stars except the sun, as we are of course not in any particularly special place in the galaxy. you can probably look that up somewhere - [here](_url_0_) is a *really* old paper that estimates it's equivalent to about 2000 1st magnitude stars. a 1st magnitude star provides something like 5x10^-6 w/m^2 , so that gives us 10^-3 w/m^2 . | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1910Obs....33..123B&amp;data_type=PDF_HIGH&amp;whole_paper=YES&amp;type=PRINTER&amp;filetype=.pdf"
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how the human body chooses an energy source? (in other words: how it decides when to use either lipids(fats) or sacharides (glucose, glycogen...?) | lots of factors are involved. different tissues have different preferences. the brain doesn't use fat, mainly because it doesn't cross the blood brain barrier and some byproducts of metabolizing fatty acids can be particularly damaging in the brain. its primary fuel is glucose but can also use ketone bodies. [_url_0_](_url_0_) the heart can use anything however since gets dietary fat as lipoproteins before any other tissue, it metabolizes fat really well. [_url_1_](_url_1_) , [_url_3_](_url_3_) skeletal muscle will use different sources based on the demands put on it and, typically preferring to make and store its own glycogen and use it first, then rely on glucose fueled glycolysis, and finally if extended medium metabolic demand persists switch to fatty acid oxidation. [_url_2_](_url_2_) & #x200b; the body system as a whole likes glucose as a ready energy supply because biochemically it generates energy very rapidly. however fat is a better storage molecule providing more more energy per molecule than glucose so depending on your energy usage and diet you'll find your body undergoes numerous cycles of glucose and fat inter-conversion and storage | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3790936/",
"https://healthyeating.sfgate.com/fats-absorbed-directly-bloodstream-12269.html",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005844/",
"https://academic.oup.com/cardiovascres/article/45/2/279/332544",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Human_Metabolism_-_Pathways.jpg"
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|
does a threaded metal fitting have the same thermal transfer properties as a solid pipe? | i am trying to figure out if i can add a threaded coller to the end of a pipe in my fridge to cool the opposing end, or if i need to just buy a longer pipe. | are you trying to use the pipes for cooling, or as a way to transfer heat from a to b (cooler)? if it's the case of cooling: you need to look at the surface area of the pipes and fittings and then compare them. the bigger the surface area, the faster the pipe can cool down (faster heat exchange). this is only if the pipes are made up of the same materials. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is cold fusion, why was it thought to be promising song and why is it now considered impossible? | very brief description: nuclear fusion occurs when two atoms combine with one another to form a heavier atom. the nuclei of the two elements fuse together, as the name suggests. the sun releases energy due to fusion: it combines hydrogen and helium to form heavier elements. when the fused element's nucleus has 26 or fewer protons, energy is released. when the end product has more than 26 protons, it requires energy to fuse. so... why can't we take a bunch of hydrogen, fuse it to make helium, and harness the energy? well... atomic nuclei are positively charged. as you know, positive charges repel one another. in order for fusion to occur, the atoms have to be very close to each other. it's extremely difficult to bring hydrogen atoms into the proximity at which fusion occurs: they repel each other too strongly at almost all imaginable conditions. the energy that's required to bring the two hydrogen atoms together is called the "activation energy." this activation energy is ginormous. many physicists supply this activation energy by using extremely high temperatures. many physicists believe that it is physically impossible to supply the atoms with the necessary activation energy at "cold" temperatures. that's what cold fusion is... the idea that it is possible to fuse atoms at cold temperatures. then... a couple scientists came along and claimed that, in the presence of palladium (a rare metal that is similar to platinum), hydrogen atoms can come so close to each other that they actually fuse together at room temperature! they ran this reaction in a container filled with water. their "evidence" that cold fusion took place was that the temperature of the water skyrocketed almost instantaneously. they published their results in a very low-tier journal, and apparently, the editor was so pleased to see a "high impact" paper ending up in his journal that he didn't even proof read it. thus, the paper wasn't really peer reviewed. nobody tried reproducing it before it was sent out the door. it was just published. once word got out, people all around the world starting trying to reproduce it, but not a single soul could. the experiment itself is really easy. anybody that does electrochemistry has tried this reaction (by accident or not). my lab studies completely different reactions (obviously, as no self-respecting scientist believes the original result), but we set up systems that should reproduce this result hundreds of times a week. you can try it yourself for almost no money. you'll need a beaker, some table salt, some water, a thermometer, a battery, and a small piece of palladium. feel free to try and reproduce it! if you can, you'll be the next trillionaire! source: i'm a phd student in physical inorganic chemistry. i have a master's degree in electrochemistry, and my advisor was around when all of this went down. he tried reproducing it for years (as did every electrochemist at the time) with no success. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in what period of time did humans (or their ancestors) jump to the top of the food chain? | in terms of evolutionary growth, there was clearly a point in which we weren't at the top of the food chain. perhaps when we more closely resembled apes than humans. at what period did we unanimously reach the top? sorry if i'm wording this poorly. it just came to my mind while i was eating a can of tuna. | i'd say after the end of the younger dryas (c. 10,000 years ago) when we started developing agriculture, i.e as soon as we started domesticating cereal crops and livestock. moulding our environment to our needs. so actually, way later than many people would think. in the aeons of pre-farming prehistory humans were far from the apex predator. edit: for reference, i'm an archaeologist. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question on water displacement in a pool | situation: when moving under water (walking, punching, kicking, etc.) it seems that one "displaces" water (you walk a in the pool and as you walk, the water seems to push and fill in where you were). if you use an open palm with fingers kept together (imagine the shape one uses to slap someone), and push towards another person in the water, they can feel "something" (as if you are "pushing" the water at them). question: what is that "something", and what causes it? is the "pusher" actually pushing water (not in the sense of a box, but more of how a fan "pushes" air)? and are there ways to manipulate how the water moves? besides having more force behind the "push", could one create more surface space/change the angle of the push/change the shape of the surface space to send this "force" farther or with more intensity? for example, could i create a shape with my hands/body to generate more force (picture your typical street fighter game and one of the characters sending out an "energy blast"). i lack the proper wording/understanding to fully explain what i'm looking for, and after much googling, i have been unable to find any explanation of this. i've also haven't been able to get much out of google, because i lack to word to properly explain the situation. if you need more explanation/clarification, please ask. thanks for your thoughts, -g | this is all **fluid mechanics** and **fluid dynamics**, hopefully one of those panelists can give you the more in depth information.. essentially, while you walk through water, you are created a fluid cushion in front of you. and the "hole" you left behind is filled back in because water attempts to fill its container as much as possible. different shapes, presented in different orientations will cause different effects within a fluid. there are a few "virtual air tunnel" applets out there that will let you experiment with these effects. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hDx-mQqzYNw"
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how big of a role does drag play in atmospheric reentry breakup? | & #x200b; | all of it. when an meteorite enters the atmosphere from space, it’s often going several kilometers per second. drag increases at an exponential rate, with the velocity squared, so an object going ten times the speed has roughly 100 times as much drag. when it hits the atmosphere the drag and pressure created from it pushing air out of the way causes it to heat up and burn, and the force of drag is often enough to break the object into multiple pieces. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
can someone explain what's going on in this physics demo? | [here's the video.](_url_0_) why is it that the penny "prefers" to stick to the coat hanger rather than the magnet? must the coat hanger have certain magnetic properties for this to work? | basically, the magnet moving along the bottom is inducing a small magnetic field in the metal wire. as a result, the penny is pulled between the force of gravity and the induced field. in this case, gravity is weaker so the penny sticks to the wire. it is then pulled along the wire by the strong field of the natural magnet. notice that there is a wooden surface that serves to distance the penny from the magnet. if the surface were metallic, or even extremely thin (think paper), the penny would not "prefer" the wire to the magnet. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4xtKEjvzr0I"
] | [] | [
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what's up with the results from princeton's pear lab? | you might want to consider x-posting this to /r/asksciencediscussion. they typically support more speculative discussion which is what your answers will inevitably be, since i don't think there's any real answer to your question (yet). | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does princeton's pear carry any validity in the scientific community? | more specifically, i'm wondering about this article right here: _url_0_ it's a very interesting read. | i have only briefly skimmed the article. from what i gather, they had a mechanism which dropped balls in such a way that their distribution roughly aproximates a normal (gaussian) distribution. they asked the question whether observers could psychically influence the direction of the distribution of the balls (e.g., more fall to the left or right), just by observing them fall and having the intention that the balls fall one way or the other. the scientific consensus is that psychic abilities do not exist. it is possible they followed 'questionable research practices' (qrps) in order to achieve their conclusions, such as p-hacking. a few things that jump out at me - they report a p value of .001, which is usually considered significant. however, it was a one-tailed test, instead of the usual two-tailed test. reporting a one-tailed, instead of a two-tailed test might be a sign of qrps. so the p value may actually have been .002, which isn't always accepted as 'significant'. they also split up their data according to whether their observers were' succesful or not - a big no no. finally, look at the histogram on page 166 - they don't even begin to look like normal distributions, suggesting that a lot more data collection would be needed before any meaningful conclusions could be made. finally relying on p values comes with problems about what conclusions you can actually draw,and there is now a movement away from them. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.princeton.edu/~pear/pdfs/1988-operator-related-anomalies-rmc.pdf"
] | [] | [
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askscience: how are we able to recognize visually dissimilar objects as being the same? | i'm sure there's a better way to phrase the question... but this is the example that brought it to mind: would someone who hadn't grown up around video games -- "old school" nintendo games in particular -- be able to tell that [this character](_url_1_) and [this one](_url_0_) are one and the same? what is the psychological process that allows me to connect the two? is it simply because i was shown the first some twenty-odd years ago and told, "this is mario," then shown the other more recently and told, "this is also mario"? or is there more to it? if this topic has been breached before, or if you feel i've posted this in the wrong subreddit, please point me to the appropriate thread or subreddit. thanks. ------ **edit:** everyone, thanks for your input. | if you want to think about it from a signal processing standpoint, the pixelated mario and the detailed mario both share (roughly) the same low-frequency components, it's just that the detailed mario also has many more high-frequency components. if you resample the detailed mario at a much lower sampling rate (i.e. reduce the image dimensions to something like 20x20), you lose those high-frequency components by the nyquist theorem. and now it looks a lot like the pixelated mario. (except not really, as the pixelated mario was drawn by hand so it can exploit symmetries and be pixel-exact, whereas taking a much larger image and simply reducing it will generally result in a soupy mess.) or conversely, the blur filter is a low-pass filter, so you can think of pixelated mario as being the result of taking a much higher frequency image and passing it through a blur filter, like what happens when you squint. | 5 | [] | [
"http://blog.8bitlibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/super-mario-bros.jpg",
"http://admintell.napco.com/ee/images/uploads/gamertell/8bit_mario.png"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_psychology#Invariance",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience_of_visual_object_recognition",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_memory"
] | [
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are all color properties (e.g., hue, saturation, and brightness) subjective to the viewer or are there discrete properties? | after reading wikipedia i found "brightness is the subjective appearance of how bright an object appears given its surroundings and how it is illuminated. saturation is the colorfulness of a color relative to its own brightness. hue is the degree to which a stimulus can be described as similar to or different from stimuli that are described as red, green, blue, and yellow." but it sounds like all this is subjective to the viewer. | they are somewhat subjective, but also objective. brightness, for example, depends on the amplitude of the electromagnetic waves that enter into our eyes. saturation is more subjective since it has to do with the way we perceive the colour relative to its brightness. we see individual colours with photocells in our eyes, and since everyone's cells are different, some people may have fewer photocells than others, making saturation subjective. when the light goes into these photoreceptor cells, photoreceptor proteins in the cells absorb the light, which changes the electric potential of the neurone. the specific wavelengths (colours) that will get absorbed by the proteins will be the same for everyone since that is determined by the molecular structure of the proteins. edit: deleted one word. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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secret behind numbers which are power of 2 | i had this math problem: which lowest triple digit number can't be produced by summing two or more positive natural numbers which come in succession. 6 = 1 + 2 + 3 7 = 3 + 4 100 = 18 + 19 + 20 + 21 + 22 turns out that any number which is power of 2 (2, 4, 8..128, 256..) can't be produced that way. why so? what's the math behind such numbers? | think i got it (in a form more simple than the polite numbers thing). sum of (1+2+3...n) = (n(n+1))/2 any series can be thought of as x+1 + x+2 + x+3 .... x+n or nx + (n(n+1))/2 = 2^y (where y is some int) combining we get 2nx + n(n+1) = 2^(y+1) then factor out n gives n (2x + n + 1) = 2^(y+1) we know all factors of a power of 2 must also be a power of 2 so n must be a power of 2 and (2x + n + 1) must be a power of 2 since n is a power of 2, know n is even, so n = 2z for some integer z so that leaves 2(x+z) +1 as a power of 2 but 2(x+z) +1 is odd for all integers x so there is no integer x where nx + (n(n+1))/2 = 2^y | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/ProofOfAllPositiveIntegersArePoliteNumbersExceptPowersOfTwo.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polite_number"
] | [
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does this tsa out of out pants video really debunk the efficacy of body scanners? | this video on the front page reveals that the tsa body scanners are a scam to make rapiscan billions of dollars and that the technology is flawed. the proof on the website hardly looks convincing to me (shaky camera shots through airport security, and static images). is it true that these body scanners detect potentially hazardous objects solely by contrasting "light" and "dark" areas? or is this reveal whack? _url_0_ | they can ask you to turn sideways for a third and fourth scan. this video works with the current front/back scan. the tsa will likely ask for a scan of all sides of the body to prevent this loophole. | 8 | [] | [
"http://tsaoutofourpants.wordpress.com/"
] | [] | [
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blood cots and evolution | this is basically an argument for irreducible complexity, a hypothesis that was presented in a book by behe in the 90's. it's been generally refuted, but the principle was alluding to intelligent design. he claimed that blood clotting mechanisms were so complex that if you were to remove any part of it, it would cease to function, as it was "irreducibly complex." in the book, he cites a mousetrap as something irreducibly complex, as the trap could not have "evolved" in a stepwise fashion. since he published that book, all of his examples have been refuted, including the blood clotting mechanism; nevertheless, intelligent design's main argument continues to be irreducible complexity, a hypothesis that has been directly shown to be incorrect. the "arch theory" has been one of the biggest refutations of it, making an analogy that while an arch is something that is irreducibly complex, meaning that without all of its parts it cannot work, it does *not* preclude the fact that one can, in fact, *build* an arch in a stepwise fashion. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
what should i do to help my new bat neighbor? | so, there really isn't much more to this. i thought i was going nuts and my walls were squeaking, but it turns out a bat is living in/around/under my wall-mounted ac unit and windowsill. i love bats and don't really even mind having him around, but is there something i can do to make his stay more pleasant? it's starting to get cold here (southeastern united states) and it makes me sad to think of the little critter out there all alone. | while it is important to be cautious, there is no need to panic. "a total of 49 cases of rabies disease were reported in the usa between 1995-2011; of these, 11 are thought to have been acquired abroad. almost all domestically acquired cases are attributed to bat bites" so knowing is half the battle. understanding that bats pose a risk is important but they are not all rabid killing machines. if he is living in an area where you frequently would encounter him/startle him then it might be worth considering relocating him. many dedicated wildlife rehabilitation centres will relocate animals rather than kill them. you obviously want to make sure the bat does not have access to internal wiring etc. this could be a problem to the safety of your home. instead of encouraging him to live in your home, get him a [bat box](_url_1_) or a bat house. cover up the hole to his indoor home (at dusk/night when he is gone to get food) and then place the bat house beside / near the ac unit. [more on bat houses](_url_0_): canadian resource [bat houses](_url_2_) [more on bats and people](_url_4_): international source [bats and people](_url_5_): new hampshire [how to make your own bat house](_url_3_) | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cwf-fcf.org/en/what-we-do/habitat/gardening-for-wildlife/animals/mammals/building_projects_for_mammals/putting-up-a-bat-house.html",
"http://www.eparks.org/wildlife_protection/wildlife_facts/bats/bat_house.asp",
"http://www.bestbathouses.com/",
"http://www.batconservation.org/drupal/free_plans",
"http://www.batcon.org/",
"http://www.wildlife.state.nh.us/Wildlife/Nongame/bats/homeowners.html"
] | [
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is spraying lysol on my hotel bed beneficial? | i travel quite a bit for my job, and my work associate brings lysol to spray his bed before he sleeps in it. is there any benefit to this practice? | the benefit is largely psychological. lysol certainly won't remove any unwanted fluids from the bed, bodily or otherwise, and the rare infective material is likely to have either been removed by washing or has long since died because blankets are not a preferred media for growth. i'm unaware of any infection that is commonly transmitted through contaminated bed sheets, and if it did exist it is not certain that lysol would kill it. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does gravity affect the speed of nerve impulses? | so i guess what i'm really asking is, would an action potential travelling say, down the spinal cord, travel quicker than if it was moving up the body? and if so, is it a significant difference? | short answer: no, for a variety of reasons. primarily because the things that are moving are so small and affected so strongly by other forces that gravity isn't going to matter. long answer for the question you didn't really ask: action potentials (nerve impulses) are essentially waves traveling along an axon (the long skinny part of a nerve cell, what most people think of when they think "nerve"). this is a huge oversimplification of how an action potential works, but it does help. a bit. ok...imagine a long hallway packed with thousands of birds. there are doors lining the hallway, and these (apparently anthropomorphic) doors follow 3 simple rules: 1) if three birds exit through the door next to me, i open. 2) when i open, i will close exactly 5 seconds later. 3) if i have opened, i will not open again for one minute, no matter what. open a door at one end of the hall. birds will rush out that door...once three get out, door #2 opens. three birds go through it and door #3 opens. by this time, door #1 will probably close and door #4 will open....and so on. from the outside, you will see a wave of doors opening and birds flying out. ok, turn the hall on its end and make it a tower. repeat. the wave will be completely unaffected. hallway = axon door = voltage gated ion channel bird = ion wave = action potential | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/v/electrotonic-and-action-potentials?v=gkQtRec2464"
] | [
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] |
what are these straight line formations in the middle of australia and what caused them? | [this](_url_1_) is the phenomenon i'm referring to. the very weird straight drainage patterns it results in can clearly be seen on the [beautiful map](_url_2_) of the continent's river basins seen on [this reddit post](_url_0_), which led me to ask the question. is this natural? how did it occur? why is it unique to that area in australia? does a similar phenomenon occur elsewhere on earth? | i believe the other answer is incorrect. the algorithm is getting it right. [simpson desert](_url_0_), the location of the straight lines, has very long parallel sand dunes up to 200 km long. they're up to 30 m tall, so a detailed elevation map is likely to have captured them. the algorithm is showing where water would be flowing if there was any to speak of. it would flow through the valleys between the sand dunes. | 26 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/Map_Porn/comments/6m1zzs/river_basins_of_australia_in_rainbow_colours_3686/",
"https://www.google.com/maps/place/Australia/@-24.7934378,136.982672,71440m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x2b2bfd076787c5df:0x538267a1955b1352!8m2!3d-25.274398!4d133.775136",
"http://i.imgur.com/KOY6jss.jpg"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson_Desert",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2015JE004892/pdf",
"http://edtech.mit.edu/fcgi-bin/pgt?part=1.5.1",
"http://www.nationsonline.org/maps/australia-topographic-map.jpg",
"http://pro.arcgis.com/en/pro-app/tool-reference/spatial-analyst/how-flow-direction-works.htm"
] | [
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can someone help me understand, in simple terms, what exactly the ggr cell line is? | _url_0_ referenced here and the more i read it, the more i have no clue how it works or even what it physically is | it is a cell line that has been engineered to have controlled expression of ccr5 and cd4 (cell surface proteins that hiv exploits to enter into t cells). some cell lines don't have these proteins, and others have been engineered to have them, but have variable amounts that don't match what happens in the body very well. the cell line also has a gene that encodes a secreted luciferase-like protein. this protein can break down a chemical and create light, which can be sensitively detected to determine how much of the luciferase-like protein was made. this is important because this luciferase-like protein's expression is controlled by tat-rev, a set of regulatory proteins encoded within the hiv genome. this means that the cell line only produces the luciferase-like protein when it has been infected with hiv -- and does so pretty quickly, since the light created can be detected at 17 hours. all in all, that means that this cell line can have its surface tailored so that is matches what happens in the body very closely, and can start emitting light when it is infected by hiv, which allows you to study the biology of infection and assay the usefulness and kinetics of drugs. | 2 | [] | [
"https://techtransfer.universityofcalifornia.edu/NCD/23054.html"
] | [] | [
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is there such thing as a disease, or any temporary condition, that provides a positive effect to humans? | for example, you catch an airborne bacteria that allows you to run slightly faster for a week, or perhaps helps your short term memory for a few days until your body fight it off? would this even be possible? i understand there are man made drugs that have certain effects on people (steroids, ritalin) but is there anything that can have this effect that occurs in nature that a person could just run into or catch? "steve coughed on me, so now i can bench press 10 more pounds, but i'll probably get over it by thursday". | i don't know of anything in the likes of what you suggest. but for instance falciform anemia or sickle-cell disease (a genetic disease in red blood cells that is characterized by an anomalous shape of the cell) provides a defensive advantage agains malaria (parasite that infects blood). | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the brain recognise a circle? | is there evidence of sensory input of a circular object 'meeting' a virtual mathematical *ideal* object as a pure potential? what i'm trying to get at is that while perfect circles do not exist, they do as abstracted mathematical objects. while i understand that visual interpretation of what we see has to be learned and what we see may resemble our idea of perfection (i.e. a line *appears* as perfectly straight), is there evidence that the brain 'calculates' such virtual objects and uses that abstraction to form a class of objects called 'circles' or for that matter *perfection*? in other words, how do we get to the idea of an *ideal* circle or any *ideal*? i am a philosopher, not a scientist, so forgive any incoherent terminology and feel free to reformulate my question if you get the drift of what i am trying to get at. | i study this question in my research. unfortunately the answer to your main questions is: we don't know. here are several ways in which we can approach this problem. first, i'll talk a bit about it from the neuroscience perspective since that's kind of the zeitgeist / what most readers will expect / be interested in. however, there's a deeper, conceptual problem here that i think is much more interesting and which i'll get to second. shape perception and mid-level vision in general is kind of a big black hole in our understanding of perception. one of my favorite examples of this is probably [this](_url_20_) figure from [poggio and bizzi (2004)](_url_23_). note the fantastic use of ellipses: we start off with a bunch of small, localized edge detection units, we add a few of them together to get larger units and corners and then we add those together ... and shapes! [here](_url_5_) is another version of this figure from [serre, oliva, and poggio (2007)](_url_24_) where they just left those middle representational stages blank. we're beginning to fill these missing a tiny bit. anitha pasupathy has been doing a lot of work on the receptive fields of v4 neurons and it seems like they are doing something like encoding contour curvature + figure-ground / occlusion relations (pasupathy and connor [1999](_url_4_), [2001](_url_32_), [2002](_url_28_); [cadieu et al. 2007](_url_12_); [bushnell et al. 2011](_url_6_); [yau et al. 2013](_url_21_); [kosai et al. 2014](_url_30_); for a recent review, see [el-shamayleh and pasupathy 2016](_url_0_)). a shape model might therefore look something like [this](_url_2_) from [rodriguez-sanchez and tsotsos (2012)](_url_19_). there are a number of behavioral studies that suggest that we do explicitly encode contour curvature ([attneave 1954](_url_11_) < - pdf!; [richards, dawson, and whittington, 1986](_url_31_); [koenderink and richards 1988](_url_13_); [kristjansson and tse 2001](_url_8_); [habak et al. 2004](_url_7_); [feldman and singh 2005](_url_27_) < -pdf!; [gheorghiu and kingdom 2008](_url_17_); [loffler 2008](_url_29_); [garrigan and kellman 2011](_url_33_) < - pdf!). (edit: retinal ganglion cells and cells in the lgn have circular receptive fields. in that sense we have "circle" detectors and therefore explicit representations of circles in the environment. or, more properly, donuts, since they have center-surround properties. at the vision sciences society meeting last year, there was a special session called "are there donuts in vision?" where it was discussed whether such circular receptive fields might occur deeper along the visual representational hierarchy. two or three years ago there was a poster at this conference from a group that tried to model all receptive fields as combinations of circular fields at different scales -- that is, that the visual system *only* detects circles in the environment. i don't think they ever published this.) to summarize: sticking electrodes into parts of the brain only gets us so far. we sort of have a grasp on the receptive fields of some neurons in early visual cortex (although see [olshausen and field 2005](_url_10_) < - pdf!). once we get into v2, v3, v4... it gets messy. the receptive fields are larger, respond to a broader range of stimuli, and, in general are more complicated. take a look at [this](_url_26_) (now slightly old) figure. v1 is near the bottom. it's main input is from the lgn (and then there's a bunch of feedback, which complicates things). as you go deeper, the interconnection of the regions increases and it becomes more difficult to understand the receptive field properties of cells in those regions. there's a deeper, and, i think more interesting problem here, which requires us to take a bit of a step back and ask what a shape is in the first place. here are some examples of squares: [1](_url_25_) [2](_url_16_) [3](_url_22_) [4](_url_1_) [5](_url_9_) [6](_url_18_). note that color, orientation, texture, and position don't matter. it doesn't even have to have 4 corners, straight sides, etc. from a receptive field perspective, the hierarchical models discussed above would have a very difficult time recognizing all of these objects as having similar shapes. again, we don't really know what the abstract shape representational code is, so we don't know the answer to this question, but it's an active area of research among a few small groups. lots of people have given up on the problem and are pursuing more popular areas of research like face perception; that's why you get models like the first figure with edges ... objects! it's important to distinguish between shape perception and object recognition, however: we're not asking why all of these objects fall under the category "square", that's a different question and you get at it a bit in the text of your post. you seem to be asking about whether we have a [prototype](_url_3_) style representation of the *category* of circles for which we have an "ideal" or "prototypical" circle as representative of the category. this is a whole other topic that i would be happy to talk about if there's interest, but it would require a different post. i recommend reading the wiki article i linked and doing some background reading first, including [this article](_url_14_) on concepts from the sep. edit: for one group's take on the problem of mid-level vision and the kinds of representations that might exist, see [kubilius, wagemans, and op de beeck (2014)](_url_15_). | 12 | [] | [] | [
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help identifying a metal. | background: spent a month in an african country and befriended a relatively well-off local who has spent months in the congo on un peace keeping missions. he often talked about how much gold he got in the congo for cheap. before i left, he gave me a small figurine of unknown metal. as the price of gold climbs, i can't help but wonder what the figurine is made of. i don't have a chem lab around my house and even things ive found on google are too complicated. i roughly know the mass and volume using household objects but i don't think this is reliable. tl;dr: i need to identify a metal using basic methods. edit1: i want to thank everyone for helping me out with this. after using a combination of suggestions, i determined it's not gold. if it was, i wouldn't sold it and bought you all reddit gold. edit2: a photo: _url_0_ | for a rough guess, you can try a couple of mineral tests. gold is a mineral, and should exhibit some distinct characteristics. *first off: hardness test. find a penny, a nail and a piece of glass. take the penny and try to scratch the figurine. didn't scratch the figurine, but scratched the penny? the metal is harder than a penny. next try a nail. didn't scratch the figurine? the figurine is harder than the nail. try the piece of glass. if the figurine scratches the glass, it is harder than the piece of glass. for gold, the penny should scratch the figurine and the nail definitely should. why? the penny has a hardness of 3.5, the nail has a hardness of 4.5. gold has a hardness of 2.5-3, so anything with a hardness greater than 3.5 should scratch the item with a lower hardness. see [here](_url_0_) for more information. *secondly, try a streak test. i do not mean running naked through the streets. what i do mean is finding something harder than gold that is light in color. if you have a ceramic plate, that would be perfect. take the figurine and draw a line on the ceramic plate. if the color of the line is yellow, you might have gold. if it is greenish-black (pyrite), or any other color, it probably is not gold. other mineral tests that i've taught my students aren't relevant here (crystal structure, color, etc.) because the mineral has been shaped into something else. of course another thing to be aware of is the coating that may or may not have been placed on the figurine. this coating could invalidate the two tests described above. tl;dr if the figurine can be scratched by a penny and leaves a yellow line when scratched against something lightly colored and hard (like a ceramic plate), it could be gold. otherwise, most likely not. | 9 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/shc7K"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness",
"http://csrri.iit.edu/periodic-table.html",
"http://reactor.engr.wisc.edu/naa/contact.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_activation_analysis"
] | [
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what is the ideal time frame of when to start studying for a test that mainly requires memorization? | such as a history test that requires remembering specific dates and details, or for memorizing definitions? | the earlier the better. memorization requires a lot of repetition so the more you see it before the exam the more likely you'll retain it. [spaced repetition](_url_0_) is a commonly used technique for memorizing information. i just read your other comment and you were asking about how long you'll remember something once you read it. that really depends on a lot of factors such as focus, interest, etc. a common tactic for memorizing things is to try to recall the information in more than one way. for instance, if you're trying to remember that lincoln was assassinated april 15, 1865 and you make a flash card of it you can alternate which side you look at first so you make the connection both ways. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition"
] | [
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do motivational sayings actually help people in any way? | i think what you're getting at is the "power of positive thinking" idea that's been gaining popularity for the last few decades. the idea is that believing you can do something will make you more likely to succeed at that task. i've read in several places that this sort of thing may actually have a negative effect. when things don't go well, people blame themselves for not thinking positively enough, instead of acknowledging that the task may have been difficult or that they may have failed for reasons outside their control. i know the book 59 seconds by richard wiseman has a section on this and the book bright sided by barbara ehrenreich is all about this topic, although i have not read the latter. i'm pretty sure i have heard this topic addressed in podcasts, but i can't think of which ones right now. anybody else have some sources for this? | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810011002686"
] | [
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|
would it be possible to create a biological engine? | that's actually pretty much what a fuel cell is. you take some chemical compounds and rather than combust them directly you react them on an electrode surface and draw a current. this is driven by the oxidation that occurs at the terminal. the problem with anything enzyme-related as i think you are picturing is that enzymes are relatively fragile and it doesn't take much to lose their activity. much better are inorganic catalysts. the current problem plaguing fuel cells is that oxygen in a little stubborn to reduce, unfortunately. so we need to find some new catalytic methods to get oxygen reduced at the cathode. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do we care so much about privacy if talking about sex? | animals don't mind to mate or to defecate in public. humans do. a lot! what's the reason for this? i mean, why do we care so much about privacy and animals don't? why do we feel ashamed to talk about our sex life in public? is there any biological/evolutionary reason to this? | it has everything to do with culture and pretty much nothing else.. people weren't always as sexually repressed as many cultures are today, like america.. back in roman times people were far more open and free with sex and sexuality. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is every device showing a low-pass characteristic? | according to several engineers, every electronic device shows a low-pass behaviour at inputs. why is that? from control system theory i know that a system is only realizable if it is proper. strictly proper would mean that we have an increasing attenuation at higher frequencies, but a proper transfer function is also called realizable and would be flat for higher frequencies. what is the physical reason for this? | keep in mind that, when discussing realizability, the literature often assumes 'perfect' components, i.e. components which act exactly like their mathematical models. for example an ideal op amp has infinite voltage gain, infinite input impedance, zero output impedance and so on, al of which are impossible to achieve with a real component. therefore it is not possible to build a physical circuit that is equivalent to that transfer function 'on the edge'. in practice, if nothing else, parasitic capacitance is going to limit your achievable bandwidth, even if the 'device' under consideration is just a piece of wire. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about relativity on a trip to alpha centauri? | i'm an undergrad, and during a conversation with a friend, we came up with something far beyond our knowledge, and i was hoping someone could shed some light on it for me. you are on earth, and want to visit alpha centauri(4.4ly, 4x10^16 meters). you build a spaceship that can accelerate at 9.8m/s^2 so it will feel like home. the first half of your trip, you use it to accelerate, but when you reach the halfway point you flip it around and begin using the same engine to decelerate. how long would it take in both observed time and proper time, and what would you measure the distance between them to be? full answers, while very much appreciated, aren't 100% necessary, just someone showing me how to start this problem. thanks in advance | **edit:** some factors of 4 were changed to 2, since the original formulas were for round-trip times. everything should be correct now. --- **edit 2:** yes, this problem is very much like the classical twin paradox. if we considered the round trip to alpha centauri, we would see that the traveling twin certainly ages less than the twin back on earth. it is a general fact, even in gr, that geodesics between events *maximize* the proper time between those events. in other words, the time between the event of departure of the travelers and the event of arrival back on earth of the travelers is maximized by a geodesic between those events. in sr (no gravity), the geodesics are just straight lines: so the person who stays back on earth, which is approximately inertial, moves in an approximately straight line through spacetime. hence the twin on earth maximizes the proper time. the traveling twin is actually not traveling on a geodesic, but rather some accelerated path. so his proper time is strictly less than that of the twin on earth. (the acceleration in the current problem is obvious. the acceleration in the classical twin paradox occurs when the traveling twin switches inertial frames at the turning point and when he initially accelerates/decelerates when departing/arriving at earth. if you want a detailed explanation of the classical twin paradox, you can read [my post here](_url_0_). --- **if you assume no gravitation, you can do the entire calculation within the realm of sr. no gr needed.** (**edit:** emphasis added, since there are some questions about my calculation below about traveling to the edge of the observable universe. the expansion of the universe is not considered at all since we are assuming no gravitation. *a fortiori*, there are no horizons in this example, particle or cosmic. so questions that (correctly) imply that light signals emitted now at certain points of the universe will never reach us, although they are interesting and good questions, cannot be answered in the framework described below. the framework for this particular problem is with *no gravitation*.) although the accelerating object is not in an inertial frame, we can consider the so-called momentarily co-moving reference frames (mcrf). this is a sequence of inertial frames, each of which is at rest with respect to the accelerating object only for an instant. the proper acceleration α of an object is the acceleration of that object, measured in the mcrf. so you are describing a problem in which the proper acceleration is *g* for some part of the trip and then -*g* for the other part. (this is because you say you want the passengers themselves to feel an acceleration of *g* to mimic earth's gravity. so this is an acceleration as measured by the travelers.) the general problem of the motion of a particle with constant proper acceleration can be solved exactly, and i suggest first taking a look at the section on the relevant wikipedia article for [one-dimensional round trips](_url_2_). there is even a good animation that shows the trip from both the perspective of some inertial observer on the sun and the perspective of the traveler. the problem can actually be solved because in one dimension, the proper acceleration α and coordinate acceleration *a* = dv/dt are related by if α is constant, this differential equation can be solved exactly. it turns out that the coordinate position and time lie on a hyperbola. so sometimes constant proper acceleration motion is called "hyperbolic motion". the "midway point", the point at which you begin to decelerate, should be the midway point as measured by the inertial observer back on earth. there are several ways to do this in practice. one solution is for the observer to emit a light signal some time after the traveler departs, such that it will reach the traveler when he is exactly halfway to his destination, as measured by the observer. (**edit:** yes, you can just calculate ahead of time how much the ship will be traveling, and just decelerate halfway through. i just thought the light signal method was interesting. it wouldn't work if earth would be dead by the time the signal has to be emitted though.) if you just want to know the final answer... if the inertial observer measures the trip from earth to the destination as *t*, then the traveler will measure a proper time of s, given by where a is the constant 2c/g (which is about 1.9 years). if you are not familiar with the hyperbolic arcsine, [here is a graph](_url_1_). the quantity sinh^(-1)(z) is always less than z for all z let's measure time in units of a. if t = 1, then s = 0.88. if t = 100, then s = 5.3. if t= 10,000, then s = 9.9. notice that s does not grow very fast at all. if the distance as measured by the inertial observer from earth to the destination is l, then the proper time s and the distance l (note that they are measured in different frames!) are related by the equation so how long does it take to go the edge of the observable universe, a distance l = 46 x 10^(9) light-years? well, substituting all the values in this last equation [gives](_url_3_) in contrast, the [time as observed by earth](_url_4_) is t = 46.1 billion years. so you could theoretically get to the edge of the currently observable universe in one lifetime, and at the end of your journey, earth will have been dead for about 35 billion years. of course, the energy required to maintain that constant proper acceleration is impossible by any engineering standards for a long time, but it's nice to know. :d | 389 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3iub5h/how_does_the_twin_paradox_work_surely_the_rate_at/cujsnak",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=graph+of+hyperbolic+arcsine",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_acceleration#Viewed_from_a_flat_spacetime_slice",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%282*c%29%2F%28earth+gravity%29*ArcCosh%5B1%2B%28earth+gravity%29*%2846*10%5E9+light+years%29%2F%282*c%5E2%29%5D+in+years",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%282*c%29%2F%28earth+gravity%29*Sinh%5BArcCosh%5B1%2B%28earth+gravity%29*%2846*10%5E9+light+years%29%2F%282*c%5E2%29%5D%5D+in+years"
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] |
nbc made the mistake of saying that felix broke the speed of light. assuming it was possible to break the speed of light in freefall, how high up would he have to be to reach those speeds. for ease, assume there is no wind resistance. | the escape velocity at the earth's surface is a meager [11.2 km/s](_url_0_) (compared to c~=300,000 km/s), so no matter how far up he started he could not exceed that speed (11.2 km/s) before hitting the ground. the earth's gravitational field is not capable of accelerating an object to relativistic speeds. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_velocity#List_of_escape_velocities"
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|
how does recondensation of liquid (during cavitation) produce shockwave? | basic process of cavitation goes like this: 1. lower pressure reduces saturation temperature of liquid, thereby vaporizing liquid 2. after sometime, local pressure normalizes to surrounding pressure, thereby recondensating liquid | the gasbubble implodes (opposite of an explosion) - the gas obviously takes up way more space than its fluid phase so when it condenses back into a fluid, the additional space it used up has to be "reclaimed" by the surrounding fluid. because the condensation happens very fast, the bubbles also collaps very fast which creates a schockwave. again it's strongly linked with the process of an explosion. the only difference is that an explosion is a rapid expansion of volume which leads to a "push" on the surrounding medium whereas an implosion is a compression of volume which leads to a "pull" on the surrounding medium. however, as you can easily confirm with a simple guitar string, whether you push or pull the surrounding medium, both will create rapid vibrations aka shockwaves. edit: so i'd say one could probably compare it to that waterhammer phenomenon linked below if you imagine that the pipe is also the surrounding fluid. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
when a fetus is forming, how do the cells know to put the heart, etc. on the left side, rather than making the mirror image couterpart? | i would like to explain but i have to leave the computer, so i'll post [this wiki link to a condition where organs and stuff *are* mirrored](_url_0_). hopefully i can come back and write more! okay, cool! just to clarify, hox genes specify body plan, but they do not specify the "handedness", if you will, of the body. it is indeed determined at a certain stage of development where a number of cells have hairs that rotate in a certain direction (let's say clockwise). this rotation of all of the hairs at once creates a slight flow and a certain signaling molecule gets pushed to one side of the embryo instead of the other size. the presence of said molecule initiates the continued growth of the embryo and the absence of it on the other side of the embryo prevents initiation on that side. the embryo thus grows normally with the organs situated on one side rather than the other. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situs_inversus",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_ciliary_dyskinesia",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v466/n7304/full/nature09129.html"
] | [
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|
why are internal alkenes more stable than their terminal counter-parts? | recently, i saw that [(e)-pent-2-ene](_url_0_) had a b.p of 36°c and [pent-1-ene](_url_1_) had a b.p of 30°c, i checked a couple other alkanes and their alkene counterparts and saw that the trend continued. i was wondering why this trend occured. | there are a few issues here, firstly the stability of the compound it not necessarily related to the boiling point, the stability of a compound is related to the electronic structure it has and how forces in the molecule interact. the stability of a molecule is also related to its environment a molecule stable in hexane may not be stable in water per say and in space where collisions are rare very exotic molecules can occur. here though you are talking about the collective properties of loads of molecules acting together, it is these intermolecular interactions that determine the boiling point of a liquid. for simple hydrocarbons the main source of intermolecular are forces are so called instantaneous dipole-instantaneous dipole interactions which in laymans terms can be though of like this the atoms in a molecular contain electrons, these electrons whizz about in orbitals (which can be though of an area where the electron is likely to be found) if you imagine a snap shot in a point in time the molcule may find itself with more electrons in one area rather than another, this will create areas of positive and negative charge, this will effect the electron distributions of molecules nearby, which will create another dipole, you can imagine these dipoles as kind of like magnets which will attract each other. these fluctuations in the electron density are constantly changing but the net effect it a positive but quite weak attractive force. these forces are strongly distance dependent, so molecules that can pack effectively due to there shape will be able to get closer together, and therefore the force will be stronger there for harder to break the interactions to boil the liquid. | 7 | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Trans-2-pentene.svg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/1-pentene.svg"
] | [] | [
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does anyone know the principle or mechanism for the preparation of samples for direct pcr? | for direct pcr from forensic reference material, some pretreatment solutions are commercially available, but there don't seem to be any diy protocols freely available. the method is very powerful, but only seems to work on certain types of samples. other samples yield some strange precipitate and can just not be amplified. if i had some idea of what's going on, i could possibly adapt the method with some pre-pre treatment. suggestions anyone? edit: i should clarify, by direct pcr, i mean the method where you skip dna extraction and purification alltogether by just adding a lysis buffer and incubating to prepare the sample for the pcr reaction. the commercially available pretreatment solutions somhow prevent all the 'crap' (like polysacharides, calcium, etc.) from interfering with the reaction. | the protocol you use can and should be very much adapted based on how you extract the dna you're running the pcr on and how dilute your sample is. i wish i could help you with more specifics but i don't work on human dna, just plants and i don't think the sample prep process is in any way the same. i will tell you that for lab purposes we have several steps of purifying the dna precipitate before we are able to run pcr on them. the differences you're seeing could be what types of tissue you're trying to purify, as there are mechanical and chemical barriers depending on what exactly you're getting the dna from, and this can dramatically alter your preparation process. the primary goal is to get nothing but dna from your desired source in your sample dilution, so getting rid of organelles, cellular membranes, any extracellular junk is absolutely necessary. as an example, extracting maize dna from leaf tissue vs meristem tissue is a very different process. the leaf has a waxy outer layer and a very thick epidermis that must be degraded, and we use a specific treatment to break down that barrier so we don't get a bunch of crap in our pcr wells. tl;dr, if you want specific help, you need to ask a more specific question. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do we measure ocean wave direction, speed and intensity? | so i've been staring at [this](_url_0_) supposedly live animation of the earth. i'm really confused as to how we can measure things like chemicals in the air and ocean currents etc. are these done through complex mathematical calculations? are there sensors scattered around the earth to pick up on this, or via satellites? i suppose there must be some form of guess work involved, because i'd assume something like this would be used for weather forecasting. btw that link contains some real eye-candy! | it's a mixture of all of those things. mainly there are bouys all over the planet off the coasts that measure a whole mess of things, wave height, wather conditions, current patterns, temperature, salinty. noaa has a map of all of them _url_0_ . apart from that ocean currents are mapped and calucated with data from those bouys and satellite images. as for uses, almost everything that deals with the water needs this. surfing data, shipping effeciency, navy maneuvers, storm watches, coastal flooding. | 4 | [] | [
"http://earth.nullschool.net/#current/ocean/primary/waves/overlay=significant_wave_height/orthographic=-15.56,48.51,1136/loc=21.041,49.696"
] | [
"http://www.ndbc.noaa.gov"
] | [
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please clear things up for me about the great barrier reef. how much is gone, how much is bleached, can it be saved, what are the long term effects? | *apologies in advance for a lack of scientific sourcing. if you would like anything sourced better, let me know.* coral "bleaching" is the algae having left the "coral". that is, the coral itself is literally the skeleton, so being "bleached" is literally to be dead. _url_2_ but, since the "coral" is [mostly] just the skeleton, new algae can be reintroduced to the skeleton. however, if the cause is not mitigated, then recolonization of the coral is very unlikely. whatever caused it to bleach, would prevent it from coming back. in this case, the main causes seem to be particulate pollution (eg sediments), increased temperature, increased acidity and increased nitrogen. edit/correction: as per /u/wog, the coral is the skeleton of an animal, collectively known as "polyps". it is the algae that give coral their color, so bleaching is the algae leaving or dying. the polyp, which relies on the algae for food, will die soon after, though some have other means of feeding. as per the below source, corals can recover if some polyps in protected areas manage to survive. however, the coral is actually alive, and can actually die, rather than just being host to things that die. /edit _url_3_ the latest survey shows 900 miles (of ~1,400) have bleached *since 2016*. see the below source for a nice "bleached - not bleached" map. i'm searching for an overall percentage, but most either address a certain section (eg the northern portion or shallow-water portions), are for a certain time-frame, or address "bleaching" rather than "bleached". i will edit if i can find one. _url_0_ whether it can be saved is more of a political question - given enough resources and global commitment, certainly humanity is capable. actual steps being taken are to decrease various pollutants in run-off, which can include the run-off itself (eg fresh water), sediment erosion and fertilizers. (sorry, i recognize this is a partial answer. hopefully, someone else can fill in how much will be required over current efforts to stave off further destruction.) _url_1_ | 34 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/energy-environment/wp/2017/04/09/for-the-second-year-in-a-row-severe-coral-bleaching-has-struck-the-great-barrier-reef/?utm_term=.b00bdf548d40",
"https://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/urgentissues/oceans/coral-reefs/ways-to-help-coral-reefs/index.htm",
"https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html",
"http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20140916-the-corals-that-come-back-from-the-dead"
] | [
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