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what causes scoliosis? | aside from hereditary factors, neuromuscular conditions, birth defects and injuries, what causes scoliosis? they say it's often idiopathic, meaning the cause is unknown, but surely something must cause it. additionally, why can't i stretch the scoliosis out of my spine? would using a rack (one of those medieval torture devices that stretches you out) help? | well, it's idiopathic because we literally don't know. you've listed some of the known causes of scoliosis. not really sure what you're getting at? i don't know if a medieval torture device would have any beneficial effect. probably because you'd have to be in that thing for a tremendous amount of time before the tissue started to model appropriately (if it ever did depending on the underlying condition). also i don't know if the axial stress by one of those is really what you want. scoliosis is a disease of lateral deformity. i'd probably want an orthopod throwing rods into my spine if i had it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i saw a bright stationary light in the sky flashing red, blue, and green. what was it? | well, those lights are very common with aircraft. the aircrafts are supposed to have a green and red light on the tips of the wings. the blue light i'm not sure about. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what would really happen if a small piece of candy entered the abdominal cavity during surgery and was sealed inside like in the seinfeld episode "the junior mint"? | could it cause an infection? how does the body get rid of it? let's say it's a junior mint if that makes any difference. | we refer to these kind of objects, be they junior mints or otherwise as foreign bodies. a retained foreign body in the abdomen can undergo two types of response - a non infective or an infective response. if the object is relatively biologically inert, then its likely to cause a mild response from the body, just resulting in a fibrinous coating around it. this results in what is called a granuloma, which can often sit quietly in the abdomen causing no symptoms whatsoever. granulomas may be completely undetected ,or be discovered accidentally during scans for other reasons. they often require no treatment. other types of foreign body though may stimulate a more active response resulting in a a florid inflammatory reaction, often ending up as an abscess. this is much more serious and can cause all kinds of complications, including obstruction or perforation of the gut, or fistulas which are abnormal connections between the gut and outside world which leak abdominal contents and can be very difficult to treat. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would anyone be able to roughly estimate how high above earth this is? | i recently launced a high altitude balloon with my school's science club and was wondering how high it actually went. everyone in the club is saying that it went up between 90k-100k feet but i wanted to validate this claim before i tell everyone else. thanks! see image: _url_0_ see video: _url_1_ | the 100k feet estimate is probably fairly accurate. if you want a more precise estimate, i think you cam determine this if you know the horizontal angular field of view for the camera. do you have this information? edit: distortion of the camera, it seems, may make this difficult to do. an alternative, however, would be to note that the sky above is completely black in the picture. so the amount of atmosphere above is so sparse that it does not scatter any appreciable sunlight for the camera to detect. the height at which this occurs is somewhat subjective, but a safe bet seems to be 60000 feet (source: google searches). so you can assume with reasonable safety that the balloon was at *least* this high. | 7 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/YlY8yiB",
"http://youtu.be/5uyPWkHKY3s?t=26m46s"
] | [] | [
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] |
how does the lewis structure of no2 work? | i know it's an exception to the octet rule because it has uneven number of electrons. i want to know how it's possible for nitrogen to have less than the octet in it's valence electrons, as no2 can have 7 or 9 valence electrons for nitrogen | it has to do with shifting electrons from the oxygen, and it has to do with resonance. resonance is something oxygen is really good at doing, and in organic it is one of the most important principles. here: _url_0_ on the wikipedia for resonance, no2 is actually an example at the top right. also look at this [video](_url_1_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0XTkO8KypUY"
] | [
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in what ways does microgravity induced osteoporosis differ from osteoporosis gained in normal gravity? | as well as this, how is osteoporosis induced from microgravity treated differently to other types of osteoporosis? | bones are living tissue, composed of several cells that actively remodel the bone structure through constant deposition and resorption of calcium salts. essential part of bone homeostasis is pressure. this should come quite naturally as we developed under constant pressure , since you know gravity. so, in space this stimuli is lost and eventually resorption predominates leading to bone density lost. osteoporosis is quite more complex and is mainly due to the lack of hormonal and endocrinological stimulation of calcium deposit. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do we value free goods or services less than goods or services that we pay for? | there is some research in behavioral economics which suggests that people choose free options more (and higher priced options less when there is a free option in the set): _url_0_. however, is there any research examining whether people value goods or services received for free less than goods or services that have a cost? and how does that value interact with other mitigating factors such as overall wealth or income of the person or the utility of the free good or service (e.g., a free pen vs a free car)? one hypothesis would be, for example, that we value free stuff as much as we value things that we pay for; an alternative would be that we value free stuff less. for example, i'd like to know what to predict for the following scenarios: suppose i receive a free pen (that i like) and i purchase an identical but identifiable pen (that i also like). in a month's time, which pen is more likely to be in use on a daily basis? am i more likely to lose the free pen than the purchased pen? or is there not really any difference for this low-valued good? now imagine a different scenario where the options are free on-line courses that i can attend any time i like vs structured, paid university education? assuming that i can get the same content from both sources (probably untrue in a lot of cases but for the sake of this example, let's assume that this is true), do i value the knowledge received in the same way? any pointers to empirical research on the basic question of the psychological value of "free" would be much appreciated. [edit: i don't know how to do this but can this post be tagged as psychology instead of or as well as economics] | absolutely. i haven't got the research on-hand, but this is something you can see people doing all the time: if somebody buys an expensive novelty, such as an outdoor grill, they feel compelled to utilize it frequently in the immediate aftermath to justify the expenditure. items received for cheap or free require no justification and are commonly ignored. regarding your pen example, if the pens are identical, no reasonable person could tell them apart, so there would be no difference. if the pens are merely equivalent, then yes, the more expensive pen is valued more. regarding online classes for free vice paid university classes, these two are very much not equivalent because paid courses are worth college credit, whereas online free courses are not, so it's an apples-to-oranges comparison. lastly, consider the studies about wine tasting: the only factor that strongly correlates with the perception of quality of any wine is its listed price, but only when the individuals rating the wine can see the price, and not when they can't. | 3 | [] | [
"http://web.mit.edu/ariely/www/MIT/Papers/zero.pdf"
] | [] | [
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how has the observance of "bs meson decay into a muon" hurt the supersymmetry theory so much? | from [this article](_url_0_) (bbc), supersymmetry theory (susy) has been hurt by this discovery. i'd like to know a little more about what's going on here; what's susy, and why this particle doing this so rarely has hurt it so much? | there's the standard model of particle physics, the one we all know and ~~love~~ put up with. it works really well, so well in fact that it leaves us quite a bit baffled about some of the other questions we have about particle physics; ie, the answers to these questions likely don't lie in understanding the sm better, but in adding new stuff onto the sm. well one of the easiest additions we thought to make was supersymmetry. the rough idea is that for every fermion or boson, there's a partner boson or fermion (respectively) that exists. we had a bunch of mathematical motivations for this idea, it's not just pulled out of the air. well, if susy exists, there are a number of ways we can formulate it. and those extensions to the sm modify measurements we expect to see. in this case, there was expected to be an enhancement of b_s to mu mu-bar (we'd see a bunch more of those decays) if these brands of susy were right. well the experiment found... the sm predicted values. in a way, great, woohoo, more data supporting the standard model. in another way, wtf lies beyond the standard model? | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-20300100"
] | [] | [
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what is wrong with this muon decay equation? | we were learning about muon decay in class a couple days ago, and today i saw an email from the teacher clarifying something she apparently said wrong. at first she said mu^- - > e^- + neutrinos and energy. but then she said this breaks conseration laws, and the equation is actually mu^- - > 2e^- +e^+ + neutrinos + energy, and that follows all all the conservation laws. i know the electron and positron in the second one will probably annihilate with each other and it will end up the same as the first equation, so how does that help it follow conservation laws better? | the main decay channel for the muon is : mu^- - the electron carries the electric charge. the neutrino_mu carries the muon "lepton family number" charge. the antineutrino_e cancels the electron "lepton family number" charge. the charge "lepton family number" is not exactly conserved in the standard model, because of neutrino masses, and chiral anomaly as well. but it is a good approximation, at least in the muon decay. so the term "neutrinos" in your teacher's equations contains one neutrino_mu and one antineutrino_e, and both equations are admissible. _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://pdg8.lbl.gov/rpp2013v2/pdgLive/Particle.action?node=S004"
] | [
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why do eeg leads pick up such low frequencies while being so small? | so i have a question for the brilliant minds of the medical and physics world... how does an eeg lead, which tends to be like, four centimeters in diameter if i were to take a guess, detect electrical signals with wavelengths that are, at the highest, around 30 hertz? using my rudimentary knowledge of the subject, i found that the wavelength in centimeters would be absurdly long at such a low frequency, and i also read at some point that small bugs survive in a microwave because the wavelengths of radiation aren't small enough to harm the bugs, which tend to be only around a centimeter long, when they would have to be more than three centimeters to be harmed. so why is it that an eeg lead picks up electrical signals with wavelengths around 999308193.3333 cm long in each oscillation? i apologize for any confusion or lack of terminology, i'm not very well educated on this subject being an autodidact. please ask any questions and i'll get back with a clarification as soon as possible. | eeg leads are electrodes, which measure voltage differences across someone's body. what you are talking about is electromagnetic radiation, which are oscillations in the electric and magnetic field that propagate through space. they aren't the same thing. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how to know which substances exist in an object | hello, i have some seeds morning glory, considered hallucinogenic. i want to know if this kind that i have, has quantities of lsa. also wanted to know if there are toxins and poisons in the seed. it is easy to discover in the laboratory? how long it would take to make a table with existing substances? | if you're talking about trying to identify all the compounds in the sample, that will require many different techniques of analysis and will be quite difficult, if not impossible. if you're looking for lsa specifically, or just certain organic compounds, you could try a coupled gas or liquid chromatogram and mass spectrometry. with a biological starting sample though, it would need to be processed first, and possibly some chemical separations started before hitting the column. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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center of population math question: globe vs map | let's say you calculate the center of population (the point at which the total distance traveled by everyone is minimized) on a map, and find it to be somewhere near bangladesh. then, you calculate the center of population for the three dimensional earth, and find it to be somewhere near the center of earth's core, maybe up towards where asia would be on the surface. my question is, is the center of population of the globe directly below the center of population of the map? to put it another way, if you draw a line segment between the two dimensional center and the geometrical center of the earth, will the three dimensional center of population fall on that line segment? if the answer is yes, can this be proven? if the answer is no, but not always, can you show me the simplest example where the points do not line up? | assuming you are measuring distances on the surface of a globe when you say "on a map", the answer is no, even when the center of population is defined. consider the case of only three people on the earth: one lives at the north pole, and the other two are at (0,0), the intersection of the equator and the prime meridian. on a globe, the center of population is 30 degrees north of the two people (one-third of the way along the angle between them). in three dimensions, the center is one-third of the way along a line segment joining them. these points do not line up in the way you suggest. see this [sketchpad diagram](_url_0_). we only have to consider a great circle rather than the entire globe in this example. | 39 | [] | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/Ov1qO",
"http://www.gpsvisualizer.com/map?format=google&units=metric&lat1=30.14512718338&lon1=116.279296875&lat2=-22.91792293615&lon2=-57.83203125&convert_format=&gc_segments=&gc_altitude=&tickmark_interval=&show_wpt=3&add_elevation=&trk_colorize=track",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_circle"
] | [
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i am teaching about graphs - what are some of the most important graphs in scientific history? | the results from [cobe](_url_0_) would be my pick. the data points matched the theorised curve pretty much exactly, showing that the universe used to be very hot everywhere - a very strong argument for the big bang theory. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer#Black-body_curve_of_CMB",
"http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1929CoMtW...3...23H&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf"
] | [
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|
how do you get the initial batch of water for the "pure" side of a reverse osmosis system? | i know how reverse osmosis works (_url_0_) but i can't figure out what is used as clean water when the system is first used if you haven't made any yet. if you use bottled water isn't your reverse osmosis (osmosisized?) water only going to be as good as what you started off with? | perhaps you don't understand how these systems work. you put in water that has high ionic content. you end up with _two_ output streams. one stream has greatly reduced ionic content - this is called product water. the other stream has increased ionic content - this is called brine. you toss out the brine and keep the product water. you do not need to bootstrap the system with purified water. i build my own reverse osmosis systems from components on ebay to deal with well water with a very high ionic content. if you have any questions, fire away! cheers | 6 | [] | [
"http://science.howstuffworks.com/reverse-osmosis.htm"
] | [] | [
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] |
what information can we get from our bodies in real time? | i've had this idea after seeing the first ironman film. what if we could have a hud that displayed everything we needed to know about our body, just like tony/ironman could about his suit? we could access information about our heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar levels, fluid intake, alcohol levels, etc. it could even get silly and let us know when we need to eat before our stomachs tell us we're hungry. i was thinking the device similar to the one they're working on in google (i saw the posts about project glass which is why i decided to ask these now) would be connected into your bloodstream or similar. my questions are: what information can we get from our bodies in real time? what are the ways we could achieve this without looking like a patient hooked up in a hospital, or a sci-fi cyborg? how about if one didn't care about time and what was connected into him/her, what additional information could we get? thanks | with tech that exists now? a lot. you can get heart rate, bp, blood sugar, and with the right tech, you could test for tons of chemicals in the blood. these would indicate how tired you are, how hungry you are, etc... its really amazing what you can do. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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by what mechanism are the latent pacemakers' intrinsic firing rates adjusted to prevent pvcs in individuals with extremely low resting hrs? | my understanding of the latent pacemakers in the heart (i.e. av node, bundle of his, purkinje fibers) is that they will only become pacemakers if sa node firing dips below their intrinsic firing rates, which are 40-60bpm, 40bpm, and 15-20bpm respectively. i assume that their intrinsic firing rates are depressed in highly trained athletes who have resting heart rates in the low to mid twenties, otherwise they would have constant pvcs. the sa node's firing rate is adjusted by the autonomic nervous system, but which does not control the latent pacemakers. by what mechanism are the latent pacemakers' intrinsic firing rates adjusted to prevent pvcs in individuals with extremely low resting hrs? | it is my understanding that both the sa and av nodes are innervated by the parasympathetic nervous system, which would decrease the spontaneous depolarization of both nodes simultaneously in athlete's heart. also just to clarify, the lowest resting heart rate ever recorded (to my knowledge) is 28 bpm. i truly am stumped about the bundle of his though. i would guess that since the funny na channels are slowed in the sa and av nodes by parasympathetics that there would be a similar mechanism occurring in the bundle of his as well. i say this because the only common abnormal heart sound found in highly trained athletes is an s3 due to hypertrophy of the heart. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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wtc 7: how did this fall down (at free fall acceleration) from fires? | i'm not here to bait anyone, nor am i here to discuss the federal reserve or the cia (etc...). i just want to know the science behind this tower collapsing at 9.8m/s^2 from fires. groups such as [architects and engineers for 9/11 truth](_url_0_) make a compelling case, but i feel as though i don't know enough about the subject to make informed decisions. | this is an exact duplicate of a question that was [submitted yesterday](_url_0_). please use the search feature or skim the new queue to avoid submitting duplicate questions. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hZEvA8BCoBw&feature=player_embedded"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/js15r/how_did_all_of_the_wtc_buildings_fall_vertically/",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/0143-0807/31/4/023"
] | [
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if the cmb was released when it was cool enough for recombination to happen, how are different parts of cmb hotter than others? | so i heard that the reason cmb is not perfectly smooth, is because when recombination happened, some places of the universe were sligthly denser, and therefore hotter. here is what i have trouble with understanding. the recombination supposedly happened when matter became cool enough for electrons to be "absorbed" by atomic nucleus. this should mean that no matter the density, recombination will always happen at a specific temperature. therefore the released blackbody radiation (cmb) should always be of the same temperature. therefore the cmb should be perfectly smooth. if some places of the universe were hotter than others, the cmb should have just been released at a different time depending on location, but the temperature should be the same. | quantum mechanics is all probabilistic. "cool enough for recombination" means the bound state energy was just larger than the thermal energy. the thermal energy for an electron gas is an average energy. some have more some have less. there also wasn't a perfectly even distribution of protons and electrons at that time. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can two objects ever be in the exact same rest frame? | i'm by no means an expert in relativity, but two objects can be in the same relativistic rest frame relative to one another. however, looking at the quantum end of things, heisenberg's uncertainty principle seems to say that two particles can't ever *really* be in the exact same rest frame to arbitrary precision. how do we reconcile these two things? what am i missing here? | no and yes, it depends on how much you want to get out of your rest frame. if you're content with only knowing that two objects are at rest (that is, you measure the two momentum states of the particles down to a dirac-delta), then of course you'll never know where the two particles are relative to one another. you wonder if it makes sense to call two particles "in the same frame" if you have no idea where they are. the trade off is, by finding out where they are, they start occupying more momentum states, which won't be the same, and hence by establishing a location again at a later time, the two particles are no longer in the same rest frame. this is *entirely* classical. considering your lorentz-factor is momentum-state dependent, the way in which you could establish a reference frame becomes somewhat occluded, because the range of relative times experienced by each particle varies. a perfectly precise reference frame becomes a bit meaningless in the context of quantum mechanics. you have to be content with working with ranges and short-term predictions. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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reddit, do you guys/gals think this type of a system can actually lift, say - an entire building as they are praising their system in being capable of? how can we vet this? any structural engineers out there? it looks absolutely crazy to me. | _url_0_ | rough calculation, air density = 1.25 kg per m3 helium density = 0.17 kg per m3 so approximately 1kg of lift per m3 of helium. assuming a rectangular airship of 60 meters by 10m wide and 10m high we have 6000 kg of lift. this is well within the weight of a portakabin or trailer home. in theory therefore one can build such a system. practically, you'll need to ask an airship engineer whether current engineering allows it. my intuition says it probably would. | 2 | [] | [
"http://skylifter.com.au/"
] | [] | [
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would it be possible to harness endothermic reactions to do work? | for example, could the flow of heat into the reaction be harnessed on its way from outside the system to the system? | yes, the ability of a heat engine to do work is ruled by its temperature difference, or delta t. the most common configuration is to use an exothermic reaction to make zone of high temperature, and the delta t is relative to the environment. you could do the same thing if you used an endothermic reaction to create a zone of low temperature relative to the environment. the carnot cycle is the upper limit for efficiency of a heat engine, and it is: efficiency = 1- tc/th tc=absolute temp of cold side th=absolute temp of hot side what is important is the ratio of tc/th, not the temperature difference. if you want an upper limit of 75% efficiency, you need to get tc down to 72.5k, or about the temperature of liquid nitrogen. this would be similar to a diesel engine upper efficiency limit, though in practice they achieve between 40-50% due to losses. the reason exothermic reactions are used for energy generation is because they are spontaneous. the gibbs free energy of a reaction must be negative for it to be spontaneous: δg = δh - t*δs for endothermic reactions δh is positive, and for exothermic reactions δh is negative. δs is always positive, and is very high if the reaction is making a lot of gas. from this equation we can see that it is very tough to make a spontaneous endothermic reaction, since a larger value of δh also correlates with larger energy of reaction. common exothermic reactions like combustion are a triple win because they have large negative δh, large temperature, and very large δs because they make a lot of gas. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoelectric_generator"
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what is the difference between xvid vs h264? | i just got told that i should encode my recorded videos with h264. i have always been using xvid until now with no problems. & #x200b; i use virtualdub to encode my videos. i encoded a 1.72gb video with both codecs on the highest quality that virtualdub would allow. h264 gave me a 1.1gb file xvid gave me a 710mb file i can't really tell the difference in quality. & #x200b; what makes h264 better than xvid, if anything? and what is the main difference between the two? | xvid is an encoder for h.263. h.263 and h.264 are both encoding standards, though they would be better named *decoding* standards. they define a language that can be translated into video. image a language something (simplified) like this: * frame 1: < full picture data * frame 2: take frame 1, move it slightly left, darken the lower left, and rotate the area around 74x65 by 3 radians. * frame 3: take the top from frame 1 and the bottom from frame 2 shifted to the right. this way, a video can be efficiently compressed because it is much cheaper to describe changes than entire frames. however, the quality and the compression depend entirely on the *encoder*. there are countless ways in such language to describe a frame in terms of changes to previous frames and it's not easy to find the optimal one. h.264 is an improvement over h.263 but this is marginal to the improvements that can be made in encoding. both these standards could theoretically enable encoders that are vastly better at compressing *using the same standard*. you have just tested that xvid is pretty good at encoding. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what’s the cellular cause of glaucoma? | i’ve been researching glaucoma for school, i can’t seem to find the specific causes for it. i know that close angle is caused by the iris blocking the drainage angle. but open angle is always referenced as a failure to drain due to blockage, i think it’s because calcium builds up in the drainage, i don’t have precise proof but is it because of calcium build up in the drainage angles. the question i need answered is what malfunctions on the cellular level but any information is helpful? | think of it like a water pipe. intraocular fluid (aqueous humour) is continuously produced by ciliary epithelium. close angle is when the exit is blocked, caused by anatomical defect; decreased angle between iris and cornea. there is no physiological reason for this, just anatomical one. exit is blocked, pressure build up, causes glaucoma. open angle is when the trabeculae meshwork that the fluid passes through causes increased friction to the liquid causing it too drain slower, build up, increase intraocular pressure and cause glaucoma. the causes or pathophysiology is not understood. i spent the last 20 mins looking for medical journals only to have them tell me about indicators of glaucoma but not direct causes. you should also research: how to diagnose it, its prognosis, treatment, and risk factors, | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is this bleaching of the great barrier reef a repeated event? | given that out last ice age ended ~11k years ago and we are in a period of global warming, and that this back and forth in global temperature repeats, does the great barrier reef or the equivalent reef of the time go through the bleaching we are experiencing now every time we hit the threshold for bleaching during the warm period? | there are examples of calcareous fauna undergoing bleaching events throughout the geologic record. here is one of synoptic foraminifera in the eocene: _url_1_ as for the great barrier reef, i'm not too keen as to its history. i did find this in a precursory search for some background: _url_0_ no reason to believe that the great barrier reef, in whatever form it was in, has experienced some degree of bleaching in the past. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.livescience.com/6290-great-barrier-reef.html",
"http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/148813/3/Luciana_etal_2010.pdf"
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how do 95% confidence intervals work in nutritional studies? | this study looked at protein requirements for female cyclists: _url_0_ the mean protein requirement was 1.6g/kg, but one woman required 2.8g/kg to reach nitrogen balance, a huge disparity. the authors reported that the upper end of the 95% confidence limit was 2.2g/kg, and suggested it as a guideline. so in this case, are they saying that 95% of all women studied had their protein requirements met by 2.2 g/kg, and that the woman requiring 2.8 g/kg was an outlier in the highest 5%? | a 95% confidence interval [of the mean] works the same in a nutritional study, as it does in anything else. the authors are saying that, assuming certain assumptions are true, that if they repeated this experiment 100 times, then the true mean of the population would fall within their confidence interval 95 times. so they are certainly not saying that 95% of women in their sample (or the population) fall within the confidence interval. if you want that kind of data, you want to look at the standard deviation of their sample. again, assuming certain assumptions are true, then you would expect 95% of subjects to fall within the mean +/- 2 x standard deviation. so to be clear: the 95% confidence interval is not a measure of the distribution of the sample/population. it reveals what kind of confidence you can have in the mean of their sample. | 10 | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24476478"
] | [] | [
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why is the measurement for pressure not separated into force per unit volume and force per unit area? | pressure (si unit pa) is force per unit area = nm^-2. i don't understand how that can then be applied to 3d areas (i.e. volumes). why isn't there a unit for force per unit volume? how are we able to measure force in a volume using pascals (or equivalent 2d units)? | because pressure doesn't push on volumes. it pushes on the surface which contains it. edit: it also doesn't scale with the volume. 1 cubic meter of air at 100000 pascal applies the same force to a square meter of its container as a 100 cubic meters of air at 100000 pascals does. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what determines how far one can see? | at first glance, i can think of two main factors that determine how far one can see. first, there is the biological factor relating to how densely the cones/rods are packed in your eye. this will determine the "resolution" that your vision has, and thus determine your overall visual acuity. for instance, eagles have a fovea that is extraordinarily dense with photoreceptors, thus contributing their extraordinary vision. also, it depends on what type of vision one wants. cones give great spatial resolution, but require significantly more light to be activated. rods, on the other hand, are very sensitive to slight changes in light intensity, but do not give great resolution for details. second, the eye's lens needs to be able to bend the light rays appropriately so that the incoming light rays converge onto the fovea. this is the same idea as when you focus a projector, altering how much the outgoing light rays are bent and trying to focus them onto a wall. this is the same idea behind why people are farsighted and near sighted. [here's a quick diagram i drew out explaining this concept of light convergence](_url_0_) | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/709t8F9.png",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/raylei.html"
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|
is it possible to teach ourselves to see everything upside down? | since our brain flips the image which it's perceiving, is it possible to re-learn to see everything upside down? | i cannot tell you specifically where i heard this, but supposedly there's this 3 day rule. if you were to to view things upside down for three days after those three days everything would appear to be right-side up to you even though you were up-side down. likewise if you were to go right-side up after you were used to seeing up-side down, everything would appear up-side down for three days even though you were right-side up. /i can't remember where i heard it (could have been reddit, lol), but if you search the internet you should be able to find something about it! | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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iron lung - why a huge negative pressure respirator, and not a small positive pressure facemask? | this is all i could find - suggesting positive pressure face masks came in around 1950, after negative pressure ones earlier in the century. _url_0_ there's a fuckton of hardware for negative pressure ventilators - so it can't be the positive pressure face mask would need too much in mechanics to be feasible? x-post to ask engineers - because they may know more history about hardware than the modern medicine biologists deal with. | i think face masks and tracheal intubation are not pleasant solutions for patients in need of long term ventilation. sometimes even in the short term an iron lung can come in handy. a couple of decades ago my boss broke his neck in a cycling accident. a truck turned in front of him on a downhill street, and he flipped over the handle bars onto the pavement when he tried to stop to avoid hitting the truck. long story short, he was 75, and not looking forward to a few more years completely paralyzed from the neck down, so he got set up in a iron lung, said his goodbyes to all of us, and then had them pull the plug. with a face mask or tube, he wouldn't have been able to talk to anyone his last few days alive. my daughter had a patient in an iron lung last year, so they're not completely unheard of these days. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/techniques/mechanicalventilators.aspx"
] | [] | [
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] |
is light a rope? | i wanted to understand more about what light actually is, and i ran across this video on youtube explaining that light is structured like a rope. i'm skeptical about the this video, unfortunately i don't know enough about the subject to say it's right or wrong or if it's even worth considering. thoughts? _url_0_ | you're right to be skeptical. not only is it disingenuous when presenting the state of physics, it's hokum. i wouldn't spend any time on it. | 15 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J-NB5vg7woM"
] | [] | [
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how many capacitors, or how far would technology have to advance to fully harvest the energy in a lightning bolt? | is it even possible? or do capacitors take to long to charge for a bolt of lightning to do anything? | for the purposes of this discussion, a capacitor is exactly like a big tank of compressed air, with pressure corresponding to voltage and mass of air corresponding to charge. imagine another tank of compressed air (the cloud) comes along. clearly you can't exceed the pressure of the other tank without a pump. so the best you can do is a tank of equal volume. now if you join the tanks, the pressure is halved, and the mass is halved, so the energy is divided by 4. all that said, all the energy in a lightning bolt is about as much as there is in a tank of gasoline. in other words, not enough to bother about. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does it mean when a particle has a statistical significance? | i understand that the larger the value the more likely it is to exist and be accepted but how is it measured? i ask this after reading about the lhc detecting a pentaquark in august 2016 with a statistical significance of 9𝜎. link: _url_0_ any further reading recommendations would be great! | the significance of a particle is just a proxy for the p-value from statistics. a larger significance means a smaller p-value. what they’re doing is a statistical hypothesis test. they are testing their data against the hypothesis that all they see is background. if there is a feature in the spectrum that deviates strongly from their background (assuming they know their background well), then the p-value for the null hypothesis (background only) should be small. then you’d say that the “significance” of the feature is high. in the case of a gaussian distribution, the significance corresponding to some p-value is just a z-score, which you may be familiar with from introductory statistics. but of course, not everything is gaussian. in particle physics, the convention to be able to claim that you discovered something is 5σ. that means that your data must deviate from a pure background hypothesis by a significance of at least 5σ before anybody will believe that you really discovered something new. | 8 | [] | [
"https://physics.aps.org/synopsis-for/10.1103/PhysRevLett.117.082003"
] | [] | [
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does "alpha" "beta" "omega" etc. really pertain to human society and all interaction or are these only perceived traits illustrated by animals with no higher drive than to survive? | i have been reading about these terms and while i am not an expert on psychology and human evolution i would say humans are not governed by the exact same survival principles of animals. i think these terms are comparisons made by people who perceive certain human behaviors as "alpha" or "beta" etc. i think personally some people are more dominant in situations, some people are less. people are influenced a lot by upbringing and the wide variety of life. i think some people learn to be commanding and some don't, some can't be bothered, some people make bad decisions and make terrible leaders, some people have anxiety or other mental issues. are these traits other people perceive as "alpha" or "beta" validated with actual scientific fact? can a jungle man growing up in the amazon jungle be the same alpha as a man growing up in the ghetto of brooklyn ny. or the war hardened marine the same alpha as the ruthless ceo.(of course these are obvious stereotypes used to illustrate the different outcomes social experiences can have on a person's demeanor) | alpha, beta and omega are terms that make it easy to study and describe hierarchical dominance in animal social structures. if you were to apply the same criteria, then it would be easy to establish the alpha, beta and whatnot of almost any human social structure. think of the catholic church, which has a very clear and prominent structure. the pope is clearly in an alpha position, which is made obvious through rituals and behaviours (bowing, external markings (robes), etc). this isn't all that far removed from an alpha chimp, who will take the front position of a procession to demonstrate dominance. i think the [dominance hierarchy](_url_1_) is worth a read. there is also quite a bit of research in humans looking at dominance hierarchies ([for example](_url_0_)). the question, usually, is not if humans show dominance hierarchies, but what the effects of these are and what factors influence/determine dominance. what do you mean by higher drive than to survive? i don't know how separable human behaviour is from many of our close relatives, and it is a classic problem in the human sciences where it is difficult to find traits that are uniquely human (where crows seem to show the ability to infer the mind state of other crows, you have to wonder what it is that makes humans *special*). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.jneurosci.org/content/24/30/6755.short",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy"
] | [
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why don't we withdraw from exercise but withdraw from drugs? | i understand that both drugs and exercise block neurotransmitters. in *doors of perception*, huxley writes that mescaline acts like depleting sugars in our brain. this gets us high. he types that it compares to running. i doubt we withdraw from mescaline, but i know that we withdraw from opiates and some stimulants. do we withdraw from drugs in response to fabricated and temporary rewiring that we may not get from exercise? (i'm not sure if exercise rewires our heads.) or do we withdraw from them because our brains treat them differently? (which would mean reality contradicts my simplistic understanding.) or is it something different? | *cringe* that aside, withdrawal from drugs is caused by your body being accustomed to the presence of something and down/upregulating things based upon whatever the presence of that something causes. for example, opiate users commonly experience pain and diarrhea when going through withdrawals because opiates cause decreased gut motility and work as an analgesic. this causes the body to increase gut motility and decrease the production of endorphins (the bodies natural painkillers) to bring itself back to a "normal" state. when the user stops taking the opiate they still have the increased gut motility from their body compensating for the decreased gut motility caused by opiates, but since there are no longer opiates in their system they get diarrhea. they experience pain because they no longer have opiates in their system and their body is still producing less endorphins to compensate for the excessive analgesia from the opiates, so there is an all around reduction in pain tolerance and the user experiences pain. if your body is used to the effects of exercising on a regular basis your body compensates for the effects of exercising and decreases/increases what it does to keep itself "normal". if you suddenly stop exercising your body will still be how it was to compensate for the exercise. this is pure conjecture, because i don't look up exercise and the neurochemical processes associated with it, but i would guess that it's because your brain downregulates (to some extent) the receptors for whatever neurotransmitters exercise releases and increases/decreases the production of certain substances which exercise would necessitate your body to increase/decrease the production of. when you stop exercising regularly you no longer have the increase in those neurotransmitters but you still have the receptor downregulation or you are still producing more/less of whatever substance... so sitting around and doing nothing will not produce the increased levels of neurotransmitters you would need to feel "normal" with the downregulation of the receptors or the increase/decrease in production of those certain substances. there is probably also an aspect to it which is comparable to negative mood after being unable to do something you normally do out of habit. an example of this i can think of is when i have nothing productive to do; i get bored and feel shitty because i like to have something to occupy myself with. it probably applies to exercise as well. maybe that's all just neurochemical processes as well though, maybe it's "rewiring" to be used to a pattern of action; who knows? i don't think anyone really *knows* exactly how neurochemical processes tie into emotion entirely... maybe all of emotion is tied to that, maybe not. as far as i'm aware this is still a big question. i looked real quick for some studies to support my conjecture, and this is what i found. [decreased interleukin-6 after exercise cessation](_url_1_) [reduced parasympathetic activity following exercise cessation](_url_0_) it's hard to find stuff specifically on *exercise withdrawal* though and most of what i find pretty much states in the conclusion that it isn't a well understood phenomenon. but yea.... there's my two cents. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17414813",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21438778",
"http://www.livestrong.com/article/364106-what-part-of-the-body-does-skipping-exercise-affect-the-most/"
] | [
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correlations of entangled photons in e91 qkd protocol? | so far my understanding of entanglement was that if i measure one of the entangled particles and get a certain value, i'm supposed to get the opposite value for the other entangled particle. but then i stumble into this: *"the scheme relies on two properties of entanglement. first the entangled states are perfectly correlated in the sense that if client a and client b both measure whether their particles have vertical or horizontal polarizations, they will always get the same answer with 100% probability. the same is true if they both measure any other pair of complementary (orthogonal) polarization however the particular results are completely random, it is impossible for client a to predict if and client b will get vertical polarization or horizontal polarization."* i thought that we were supposed to get opposite results if we measure the photons in the same basis. for example, if alice measures her entangled photon in vertical basis and gets that her photon is horizontally polarized, shouldn't bob get vertical polarization if he also measures his photon in vertical basis? can you also explain to me -1/2 spin in a singlet state. am i confusing bb84 with e91? i need this explanation for a paper for my college, and i want to actually understand what is happening here, i don't want to just copy/paste text. thanks in advance! | you are right that for a psi^- state you would expect anti-correlation and for any triplet state you wouldn't be invariant under rotation. so you are right that you cannot have correlation in every basis. then on the other hand from a laboratory point of view if you use two channels per photon, then you have coincidences that you associate with correlated events and coincidences for uncorrelated events. if you call your detection events, that are actually showing anticorrelation, correlations and the other way around, then that is probably not really correct, but apart from that doesn't change much. in the end the only thin that is important, is that alice and bob measure in bases with which they can (in the best case maximally) violate the chsh inequality. i'm not quite sure if i understand what you mean by that. by singlet state in this context usually refer to |psi^- bb84 doesn't use entangled photons but simply single photons, so i don't think you confuse those two. edit:formating | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happend to the rope in orbit? | imagine we have a rope of significant length, let's say 100 meters. then we position it in such a way that one end of the rope is 100 meters lower than other in altitude, what would happen to the rope after some time? | the rope will rotate about its center. it's a phenomenon in microgravity where each point of the object is on a slightly different orbit. small objects in the space station also "orbit" each other over the course of an orbit because of this. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do the eyes of people on posters seem as if they follow you even though they're just a picture? | if you see an eyeball, just the eye with no socket or lids or anything, and it's looking at you, the pupil and iris will appear to be at the center from your perspective. if it's looking away from you, the pupil/iris appear to be at the edge of the circle rather than the center. on two dimensional posters, if the eye is facing forward, no matter what angle you view it from, the pupil/iris are at the center of the eye. your brain interprets this to mean that the eye is looking at you. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do the oils in human skin really stop the formation or growth of crystals in caves? if so, how? | cave crystals are always a wonder to me, but is there any truth to what people say that touching a crystal formation will stop its growth permanently? if this is really true, what happens physically or chemically when the oils in your skin are wiped off onto a crystal? the only think i can think of is that they somehow create a water-resistant seal over the crystal (like sealant over wood or paint or something) that prevents the matter in the water or vapor from attaching. but even that shouldn't be permanent as those oils break down over time, don't they? anyway, a geologist could probably answer this question. thanks in advance! | yes, the oils in your skin inhibit the precipitation of caco3 and sio2, and because of the chemical makeup of the oils, it stays on the minerals for a long time. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
let's say a person ate a chocolate at exactly 11am everyday. would they be able to tell it is 11am on the days they didn't eat the chocolate? | if so, could one build their own body clock based on cravings for different foods throughout the day? | you can reset your biological clock by fasting for around 16 hours and then eating. your brain will think that this is "breakfast" per say and that the day has begun. it's also the easiest way to reset your sleep schedule. say that you did this, but with chocolate for "breakfast", and it will be the same effect. edit:here's a quick summary of saper's research findings on clocks & rhythms: _url_0_ here's a summary of it: > "so, in this case, simply avoiding any food on the plane, and then eating as soon as you land, should help you to adjust — and avoid some of the uncomfortable feelings of jet lag." cbc (quoting study published in the may 22 issue of science). | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scivee.tv/node/10889"
] | [
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scramjets and entropy - the reason for thrust? | i have taken thermodynamics i and ii in college. i was reading through my textbook and it said that there is a velocity drop in a supersonic flow stream when a heat transfer to that system occurs. if this is the case, how does it produce thrust? | mostly the same way other jet engines work, expansion of gasses due to combustion produces the needed thrust. in the case of a scramjet the air is compressed simply due to the high speeds while being forced into the inlet and decelerated to a lower mach before combustion. the exhaust is then raised back up to a higher mach through a convergent-divergent nozzle. interestingly, scramjets will only operate properly at near hypersonic velocities. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to be under the effects of both hyperthermia and hypothermia at the same time? | in a technical sense, no. hypothermia/hyperthermia are defined as your core tempurature reaching above/below a certain point. you only have one core, and it is probably going to always be roughly the same tempurature throughout. you can suffer negative effects of both at once, however. you can get frostbite while your core is too hot, and you can have a heat stroke in your brain while your core is freezing. both are unlikely. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why aren't lettuces toxic? | many plants are toxic to some degree since they don't *want* to be eaten. some seeds/legumes/leaves contain toxins in order to keep animals from eating them. avocados, chocolate, nightshades, cyanide in seeds, all have some amount of toxicity. [[reddit post showing]](_url_0_) why don't iceberg/romaine lettuces have toxins? do they *want* to be eaten? i don't understand this plant. maybe they have toxins that i don't know about? how does this help them reproduce? | lettuces do contain some defensive compounds to help protect against pests, but none of them are harmful to humans at the concentrations present in the plants. remember that lettuce is a heavily cultivated plant, so the lettuce we consume today is probably very different from the wild lettuce first cultivated by ancient egypt. "modern" lettuce is riddled with problems: nutrient deficiencies, invertebrate and vertebrate pests, diseases, and being out-competed by weeds. humans have cultivated lettuce to the point where it needs them to grow and thrive. if a strain of lettuce evolved the ability to produce toxins, humans would get rid of it. humans are artificially selecting lettuce that best suits their needs. it's still beneficial to the lettuce species as a whole. think about it, what was once a weed is now grown and distributed all over the world. even its breeding and propagation is taken care of by humans! cultivation has worked out very well for lettuce. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/CrohnsDisease/comments/2tspzu/the_role_of_klebsiella_in_crohns_disease_with_a/co2o96q"
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what happens to the nucleus in the plasma state? | i read from my teacher's lecture notes that when you heat atoms to a certain point it basically becomes a cloud of ionized gas when the electrons break free which we call plasma. does this mean the nuclei break down as well and plasma is all universally the same? or are there differences depending on what element has been heated because of the nucleus size? | no, the nucleus stays intact in a plasma. it takes much, much more energy to disrupt the nucleus. in fact, it's rare to have atoms become entirely ionized; it's usually just the valance electrons that come free leaving a positive ion. when you smash two nuclei together at near the speed of light, then you can start to break it apart, in extreme cases getting something called a quark-gluon plasma, where the protons and neutrons melt. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the diffrence between epileptic seziures and other types such as grand mal? | i was googling the diffrence between seziures and now im confused about the diffrence between epileptic seziures and other types. from the diffrent documents i was reading it sounds like epileptic is like a blanket term for all seziures types. | epilipectic seizures refer to seizures with abnormal electrical activity in the brain, which would include "grand mal" seizures. non-epileptic seizures refers to diseases(psychiatric) that result in episodes that may clinically look similar to an epileptic seizure with the absence of abnormal electrical activity. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does this image of a bacteriophage comes from an electron microscope or is it cgi? | it looks like a real sem, but it does not look like a real virus. edit: yup. dlc fib on si substrate. real image, fake virus. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://geometrymatters.tumblr.com/post/55950708193/artificial-nano-t4-bacteriophage-t4"
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|
if you're a nasa scientist working on voyager, what's a typical day like? is it considered a "bad" assignment? | there are no longer any nasa scientists working full time on voyager. it is now a secondary assignment for a few members of the deep space network team to check occasionally. as for analyzing data, there may be people at nasa or elsewhere who use the data voyager has collected full time as a part of specific research. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
besides humans, is there any species that turned from prey to predator? | are there any examples of the prey/predator relationship between two species reversing with time? | any lineage of carnivorous animals that has increased significantly in body size has, at some point, become larger than a previous predator. a good example is the dinosaurs, who started as fairly small reptilians being hunted by larger synapsids, then grew and came to prey on the synapsids' descendants, the mammals. then, 180 million years later, the mammals were hunting the dinosaurs' descendents, the birds. although, of course, some birds now hunt mammals. it's not a particularly unusual phenomenon, on a large timescale. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is this newly discovered state of matter called supersolid? | you are probably referring to recent experiments with cold atoms claiming to have found a supersolid phase. such a phase combines crystalline properties with superfluidity. in an ordinary superfluid, such as a cold helium-4, there is no such crystalline underlying structure. | 61 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when studying electromagnetic forces, how do you picture them? | while studying physics, i was always worse at these fields, such as electricity and magnets, for i couldn't picture them in my head as i could with kinetics and thermodynamics. how does your minds eye see these forces, if not as themselves? (i often pictured simple circuits as rivers for example) | i found that the best solution is to stop trying to visualize stuff like electromagnetic in terms of what you already understand, because they are not like something you already understand. you should ofcause gain knowledge of how they work, but i like to rely on the equations and try not to reason to much about anything other than the math. | 4 | [] | [] | [
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how can you distinguish an object from its properties? | i am curious to know how or whether in scientific theories there is a distinction between an object ("ball") and its properties ("mass", "momentum", "charge" etc). do the properties of mass, momentum, charge etc "hang" on the object or is the object basically just properties which we conveniently call object x? like when you do physics problems in high school, the problem goes something like "the red ball of mass x collides with the yellow ball of mass y". and i was always thinking what is the difference between the "ball" and "the mass x + redness" or "mass y + yellowness"? i think this is a topic that is relevant for both cognitive science and theoretical physics, but i don't know exactly where to place it. thanks for clarifying this. | in psychology this is known as the [binding problem](_url_0_). your question appears to have been flagged as spam by another moderator. personally, i'm inclined to concur. i don't believe that it is a line of inquiry likely to end in any interesting insights, particularly in the field of physics. but on the other hand, there are plenty of academics (in pyschology/neuroscience at least) who *are* interested in this topic. i have therefore reset the flair to psychology and approved. given the time elapsed (and perhaps the wording of the question too) this question will likely sink without trace now, but you could try rephrasing and asking again in a few days if you still want an answer. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_problem"
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am i a supertaster or what? | you may be a supertaster (your preferences are certainly consistent with it). you can get tested. you can easily get some [phenylthiocarbamide](_url_0_) which tastes bad for supertasters and tastes bland to non-supertasters. warning: as a supertaster who found out this with minimal warning in an intro psych class, let me say that this stuff tastes wretched if you are a supertaster. make sure you have a glass of water or something stronger ready to get rid of the taste if it turns out you can taste it. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylthiocarbamide",
"http://www.livescience.com/10301-adult-picky-eaters-recognized-disorder.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_eating_disorder"
] | [
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|
what effect is responsible for water flowing in spirals in thin tubes? (example video included) | hello askscience, a friend of mine posted a [video](_url_0_) in which you can see water spiraling down a transparent plastic tube. in his description he assumes that gravity pull and temperature differences are responsible for this phenomenon. is he on the right track there? | your friend is on the wrong track. temperature has no real effect here. obviously gravity is driving the whole flow since otherwise it wouldn't fall at all, but it affects everythingn equally so it's not very interesting. the spiraling itself is mostly just a result of surface tension combined with conservation of angular momentum. upstream some geometry of the tube causes some angular momentum and this is conserved as it falls. it's not much different from a similar effect pouring out of a spout. | 8 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8gEmdm0fCgs"
] | [] | [
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why does the ula delta 4 heavy use an asymmetrical engine startup? | the three engines are arranged in a line. i saw a post today about a scrubbed launch, and one of the details in the linked cbs story was that the hold order was given "...a half second before the first of the delta 4 heavy's three side-by-side common booster core engines was scheduled to ignite and throttle up to full thrust, followed two seconds later by the center and left-side cbcs." i'm certain there's a good reason for doing it this way, but all i've found through google is the sequence, not the reasoning behind it. | they ignite them one at a time to reduce the charring of the boosters because the preignition releases a bunch of unignited hydrogen gas. the first ignition causes a downdraft that prevents the other ignitions from burning anything higher than the nozzles. they start from the starboard engine because its farthest from the launch tower, so also prevents damage to that. | 99 | [] | [] | [] | [
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looking for an analogy regarding tensile strength | i'm writing a paper about rupture of patellar tendons, and i'd like a good analogy to say how strong they are... i want to say something like "the tensile strength of a human patellar tendon aged up to 50 years, is [64.7 mpa](_url_0_)... this means it would take **3 double decker buses** to pull them apart!" but i'm not sure what to put in bold as i have no idea how strong 60mpa is. many thanks in advance. | tensile strength is measured in units of force divided by area. specifically, the pascal is one newton over an area of one square metre. therefore, the tensile strength is the maximum force a material can take per unit cross-sectional area. i don't know the cross-section of the average tendon, but it's pretty easy to calculate the force one can take once you do - multiply the tensile strength by the area. (i advise doing this in google calculator and specifying the units to make sure you don't make conversion mistakes.) once you've got the force, you can look for comparisons. the simplest comparison is probably to work out the weight they could support. gravity applies a force of about ten newtons per kilogram, so divide the maximum force it can take by ten to get the mass in kilograms of the heaviest object a tendon could support. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7983555"
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which one of the four principal forces causes the tensile strength? | as i try to pull two ends of a steel bar, something prevents me from tearing it. it is probably not due to gravity, because it is too weak. what exactly is the force keeping the bar together? | it's the electromagnetic force. pretty much everything you encounter in day to day life, other than falling, is due to the electromagnetic force. this is the force responsible for atomic bonds and chemical reactions. so things like tensile strength and spring forces are ultimately due to the electromagnetic force. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how many humans do we need to be able to repopulate? | i asked this 8 months ago, but i didn't get an answer :( edit: i mean if there was an earth with no humans, how many would we need to be able to fully repopulate with healthy humans? edit 2: no technology, but general knowledge an adult would have at this moment in time. | robin hanson assumes, based on information about groups of people which colonized polynesia and new world, that group about one hundred people could repopulate the earth. source: _url_0_ | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Robin_Hanson2/publication/228903654_Catastrophe_social_collapse_and_human_extinction/links/00b4951facaf5ed5af000000.pdf"
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are there any concepts in psychology, sociology, or other human sciences that are accepted as readily as some of the physical "laws"? | in something like physics, it would take a huge amount of evidence and a paradigm shift to upheave, say, conservation of energy. but in psychology it looks like there are schools of thought that can sometimes be in complete opposition to each other and coexist for long periods of time. what are some ideas of psychology that are held on to by almost everyone and are taken as a given in any psychological (or sociological, etc.) experiment? | at the qualitative level, yes, but quantitatively no. most of the widely agreed upon stuff was revolutionary in its time but seems pretty humdrum to us today (and there are always people calling themselves psychologists who take some different positions). most of the really solid stuff falls into the realm of neuroscience, but there is a general consensus in academic psychology that the brain is the basis for the mind and thought (as evidenced by the strict/replicated relationship between human psychology and brain injury, drug application, etc.) innate, species-specific, genetically determined brain systems influence the trajectories of development of psychological traits (for example, these determine the difference in language learning ability between chimps and humans) many psychological states are influenced by learning, which in turn can be influenced by things like reinforcement, attention, etc. human perception, memory, and retrospective self-report are highly fallible (i'd say that the the unfolding revolution in the use of witness testimony in the judicial system is one of the greatest contributions of experimental psychology in our century) ...there are more similarly non-exciting things. maybe someone else will come along to drop a bombshell, but you will not be seeing anything like the competition between physical models which have precise quantitative predictions and can decide who's right very quickly when a new kind of data becomes available. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible that one basic, unifying physical principle is responsible for all physical properties/laws? | i know, for instance, that electricity and magnetism were thought to be separate forces, and now are known to be the same force. i know also that space was previously thought to be empty, but according to my physics doctoral candidate friend, that actually may not be the case. it seems like our most basic understandings about science are often turned on their head by new discoveries. could it be that gravity and electromagnetism and time and space are all one single force? or is there a contradiction to this thought? (ie, we know that gravity cannot be directly consistent with/consequent of the same principles as electromagnetism because ____________.) i suppose this is more of the scientific question. does our current understanding suggest a contradiction between these things being necessarily separate? are they more useful when treated as separate? i'm not really a scientist, but i am curious of the physical consistency of our universe, i suppose. hope this doesn't violate any rules. thanks for reading. | edit: toe not gut [strike]so what you are asking is the primary questions in physics. it's called the gut or grand unified theory. string theory, membrane theory, and quantum gravity, are all attempts to find or approximate the gut. so far they aren't fitting in well. it may be that the gut prohibitively defines whether or not it can be described. it is definitely possible that it may allow for it to be understood by humans though.[/strike] | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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say your at sea level and gradually all the water on earth disappears, how would this affect the pressure of the atmosphere at your level(what was once sea-level). | it depends on what you mean by "disappears." if you mean a literal disappearance (into another dimension, teleported to space, etc.), then you would experience a rush of downward air as several million cubic feet of space once occupied by water get filled. expect decreased atmospheric pressure, but much larger waves over a short period due to the sudden atmospheric disturbance. people living at higher altitudes will laugh at us as we start wheezing due to decreased oxygen concentration. of course, that assumes there is still enough oxygen at those altitudes to survive... if the water suddenly evaporates enough to cause a substantial drop in sea level over a short time frame, then we've got a massive amount of saturated air hanging rather low over the ground. normally, this is just fog, but with the amount of water we're talking about, every inch drop in the water level would lead to several yards of fog blanketing the entire world. the ambient pressure at sea level is approximately one bar, which makes the density of steam .59 kg/m^3 and water has a density of 1g/cm^3. if you do the conversions, that makes steam almost 1,700 times less dense than water. every inch drop in sea level is equivalent to over 140 feet of fog. if we assume that this layer forms only over the oceans, then the pressure differential between the present land weather systems and this tall mattress of moisture would likely cause massive storms around the world as the air begins mixing, causing hurricanes, blizzards, and who knows what else. most costal cities will get a deluge lasting days with winds making hurricane sandy look like a midday sprinkle. with power gone, costal cities, ports, and major economic hubs flooded, and communication lines down, people huddle together in what shelters remain, wondering if this was the modern day deluge of noah coupled with the overturning of sodom. the rain stops, the sea level rises again, the sun finally emerges, and people begin to rebuild. ps: thanks for the awesome question! i hope it's as much fun to read as it was to write! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if everyone had to go to the doctor once a year, would this result in more or less work for the health service? | preventative medicine is well known to reduce health care costs and improve health and quality of life. an annual trip to the gp might not be the best way to achieve this but measures such as regular screening for certain condtions and vaccinations help. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does the additive color system work with regards to superposition? | hi, for example, see [this](_url_0_) graph. in the additive color system, red and green makes yellow. in [this](_url_1_) chart, that means that 550nm and 700nm waves of light add to yellow (600nm). now, pure yellow has a wavelength of 600nm. i am under the impression that this means that pure yellow light would be a sinusoid with a wavelength of 600nm. however, you can see from the chart that the superposition of the 550 and 700nm wavelengths (blue) is a more complex waveform than the pure yellow (red) waveform. is this purely a biological thing? for example, we have red, green, and blue light detectors on our retinas and the frequencies are averaged? this doesn't match the chart, as the average between 700nm and 550nm would be 625nm. so, would this virtual yellow be slightly different, visually, from pure yellow? edit - reddit broke the google link, what i pasted into the box was sin(5.50 * 2 * pi * x) + sin(7.00* 2 * pi * x), sin(6 * 2 * pi * x) but the first link above goes to the same spot. | the superposition of 550nm and 700nm light does not create 600nm light, physically speaking. the resulting wave would instead just be a superposition of the two component waves, i.e., e = aexp(i[k^700nm x - w^700nm t]) + bexp(i[k^550nm x - w^550nm t]), where e is the electric field vector, k is the wave vector, and w is the frequency. the fact that 550nm + 700nm is perceived as yellow is more or less just coincidence and doesn't have to do with us having evolved to see the average of two wavelengths. in [this additive color chart](_url_0_), blue and red combine to create magenta, which is not only not the average of 400nm and 700nm, but doesn't actually correspond to a color on the electromagnetic spectrum at all. thus, you can't just write a function where you input some combination of light wavelengths and get out a perceived wavelength. white is another example where the averaging idea would break down. instead, our perception of colors is depends at first on the three different [cone photoreceptors](_url_1_) in the eye (which have peak sensitivities at 430nm, 540nm, and 570nm). because the sensitivity functions are actually spread out instead of sharply defined, one wavelength of light usually activates multiple photoreceptors. a 490nm light wave, for example, will activate a blue cone just as well as a red cone. further, since cone photoreceptor sensitivity functions have two sides, there are actually two wavelengths that will activate any given cone to the same degree (unless the wavelength is the peak sensitivity). in downstream visual processing, perceived color signals are often determined by comparing the differing activation levels of the three types of cones in a certain part of the visual field. | 2 | [] | [
"http://tinyurl.com/cl8jupk",
"http://www.skidmore.edu/~hfoley/images/spectrum.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.d.umn.edu/~mharvey/colorwheel.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell"
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do metal pipes, say copper, which have pressure fluctuations over long periods of time, eventually work harden and become more brittle? | i was just thinking how pipes have pressure changes all the time and if would make a difference on reusability without reheating and annealing if you wanted to bend old pipes. or for say power lines, which take wind strain, could they get brittle over time and break? there are some beautiful old copper power lines in toronto where you can see the green of the copper oxide on them if you look closely, the tar and woven casing long rotted away. i wonder how long they may last. longer than the wooden posts? | in theory, when you are using a material, you're going to have it operate in the elastic region of deformation. so under a simplistic model, it will not work harden because you're not operating it in a regime with plastic deformation. however, this disregards 'fatigue^1 ', which is often seen in cyclically loaded materials (even if the cycle stays within the elastic region). on the microstructural level, there are sometimes stress concentrators (e.g. inclusions, microcracks, etc) that can cause local stress to be high enough for plastic deformation. after many cycles, these stresses can cause cracks to grow and ultimately failure. an example of research in this area is the metals used in heart stents (e.g. nitinal). they have a high strain and need to last a whole lot of cycles (heartbeats), and fatigue is a big issue! i don't know the answer to how long powerlines last, but in general, fatigue failure is an important aspect of material selection and design choice. [1]_url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_(material)"
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] |
eli not a cardiac physiology researcher: the mechanism of a unidirectional cardiac conduction block. | you may find [this](_url_0_) helpful. it explains it, but i just can't seem to wrap my head around it. i have a decent grasp of normal cardiac physiology but the mechanism by which a unidirectional block could occur in an electrically homogenous medium is perplexing and the subsequent explanations of conduction block in heterogeneous media rely upon it. | imagine the heart. you have your regular [cardiac myoctyes](_url_1_) and you have your specialized conduction pathways. [look at this diagram](_url_2_). you have your signal originating in the sa node spreading to the av node then out through the right and left bundle branches and the purkinje fibers. when the signal is out in the purkinje network there is the potential for a pathway to have altered excitability (due to drugs, infarction, premature beat, etc). if, for example, the effected cells have longer refractory times, an initial impulse will travel down the abnormal and normal pathways and terminate. the normal pathway regains excitability, the abnormal pathway is still refractory. another impulse reaching the bifurcation will preferentially travel down the normal pathway. eventually the signal comes back around and the abnormal pathway has regained excitability. all of the sudden we have a reentry arrythmia that could result in [atrial flutter](_url_3_) (if it occurs in the atrium) or [ventricular tachycardia](_url_0_) (if it occurs in the ventricle). [this](_url_4_) is the diagram everyone uses to explain reetry and unidirectional block. | 3 | [] | [
"http://physrev.physiology.org/content/84/2/431.long#VI.%20MECHANISMS%20OF%20UNIDIRECTIONAL%20CONDUCTION%20BLOCK"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricular_tachycardia",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_myocyte",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ConductionsystemoftheheartwithouttheHeart.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrial_flutter",
"http://www.cvphysiology.com/Arrhythmias/A008_Reentry.gif"
] | [
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cycling downhill and galileo | the fastest will be the person with the best technique, who chooses their line carefully and judges their speed perfectly to go as fast as possible through corners without crashing. in a "real world" context, that will be the biggest factor. i'll leave other people to answer in a purely scientific sense. edit: changed the word abstract for purely | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are the physics principles going on in this video? | hey all you science guys out there! i need to do a physics experiment for my ap physics course and was thinking of doing [this demonstration](_url_0_) but am unsure of the principles going on in the video. can anyone explain them if any? thank you in advance for your responses | - wave mechanics (frequency, amplitude, wavelength) - non-newtonian fluids (viscosity, response to *shear* forces) - chaos (behaviour of the fluid over time is not uniform/easily predicted) the sound waves from the speaker are causing a force to be exerted upon the fluid (via it's container). when a force (e.g. *acceleration*) is applied to this non-newtonian fluid, the viscosity of the fluid increases, causing some of it to 'freeze' in mid-air. because of the nature of the sound waves (*sinusoidal*, contrast with *square*, *sawtooth*, & c.), the force is applied according to a particular *function*, resulting in periods where little/no force is applied to the fluid. when this occurs, the viscosity of the fluid decreases, and it (to some extent, momentarily) returns to it's original state. as the sound waves emerge from the speaker, they interact (via the atmosphere, *pressure*) with the container, causing it to vibrate. due to the nature of *wave propagation* (*spherical*, outwards from the speaker), some regions of the container will have a larger or smaller force exerted upon them than others. contrast with simply placing the fluid container on a flat plane and accelerating it upwards - nothing much happens. in an ideal version of this experiment, where the container and fluid are perfectly uniform, and the speaker is an ideal emitter, you would expect to see a set of concentric circles (like you see after dropping a pebble in a pond) corresponding to the frequency of sound being emitted. where the waves are in a maximum (a 'peak'), you would expect to see more viscous fluid, and vice versa (a 'trough'). however, this isn't an ideal experiment. neither the fluid, the container, or the speaker are ideal, and so we see predominantly chaotic behaviour (it is difficult/infeasible to predict the future configuration of the fluid given it's present state, without knowing everything about the system). an interesting idea would be to experiment with different types of wave (not sure if speakers are capable of that), observe the effects of amplitude, frequency, and so on. unfortunately, it's not much of an experiment, because there isn't much you can measure or describe properly, without getting into some wacky fluid mechanics. it's really more of a curiosity. edit: i should add that i have no idea what 'ap physics' is, specifically what level of education it inhabits. if this is a higher education course, this might be inappropriate. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LYTP6OXFWYo"
] | [] | [
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(repost) from r/pics. bone cancer | _url_0_ why does the body do this to itself? what causes it? | it's likely this is osteosarcoma, the most common primary malignant bone forming tumor. although usually found in metaphyseal region of long bone it can occasionally occur here in the skull. bone is laid down haphazardly in the periosteum, the outer layer of bone. this periosteal reaction in osteosarcoma is characterized by a 'sunburst' pattern because bone is laid down steadily but too rapidly. these connective tissue fibers that connect the periosteum to the bone are called [sharpey's fibers](_url_0_), and they eventually ossify - giving the 'hair on end', sunburst pattern you see here in the photo! as for why the body does this to itself - in this case, it is due to mutations in tumor suppressor genes. osteosarcoma is known for inactivating mutations of the retinoblastoma and p53 genes. these are genes that regulate the cell cycle (g1 to s phase) and if disrupted, the mutated cells proliferate/replicate too much and cause the bone cancer. this is a very brief summary of what happens but i hope it helps. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/ENQDw.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharpey's_fibres"
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what causes the executive function abilities, as children age, to manifest in ways that do not reflect the nature of their external environment or upbringing? | such as with uncharacteristic displays of emotion | executive functioning is "a set of mental processes that helps connect past experience with present action. people use it to perform activities such as planning, organizing, strategizing, paying attention to and remembering details, and managing time and space." (from the national center for learning disabilities _url_0_) in this context, and as a school psychologist, i am afraid i don't really understand your question. "uncharacteristic displays of emotion" is really more of an emotional regulation problem, and not a deficit with executive functioning. executive functioning difficulties are often caused by either a skill deficit (organizational skills, planning skills, attention skills), a physiological/neurological problem, or a combination of the two. neurologically, most of the executive functioning takes place in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlpfc), the anterior cingulate cortex (acc), and the orbitofrontal cortex (ofc). these areas of the brain are used to control and integrate working memory, impulse control, and emotional drive. can you clarify your question? edit: punctuation. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"www.ncld.org"
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is the coefficient of friction we use in the equation f=μn just a heuristic device of lower-level physics? there seems to be no practical way to predict the fricative force that will act on an object without already knowing it's μ. can it be determined by its physical/chemical traits? | so say you've got a simple situation with a block on an inclined plain. is there a way to determine the force of friction that will be opposing the gravitational force both without measuring it and without knowing μ beforehand? | you can derive the coefficient of friction by simulating the interactions of many individual atoms, like they've done in this paper: _url_0_ | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://physics.aalto.fi/~asf/publications/10.1007_s40544-013-0021-3.pdf"
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is the black drop effect related to the phenomena that shadows merge? | so after reading the post about the venus event tomorrow i learned about the black drop effect. while reading it, i was reminded of what happens when you move two shadows together - they seem to merge before you expect they would. this is known as the shadow blister effect; [a brief description.](_url_0_) i then read [this](_url_1_) which give some rather up-to-date details about theories on the black drop effect. the author claims that part of the black drop effect is caused by the fact that the edge of the sun is darker than the center. are these two the same phenomena? is it possible that the entire tear-drop effect is explained by the shadow blister effect? if not, how would you show that it is not; that is, how do you calculate how big of an effect you will see from the shadow blister effect? thanks! | yes, the "black drop effect" has to do with shadow penumbrae and stray light in images. it is an optical/visual effect, not a physical one. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_Blister_Effect",
"http://www.transitofvenus.org/faq/298-what-causes-the-black-drop-effect"
] | [] | [
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do you need to sleep? is there any proof? | what does sleep do for your body? can you die from willingly not sleeping? why do you hallucinate from a few days of sleep deprivation? | you can't die from willingly not sleeping because you can't stay awake from sheer willpower. pathological conditions and artificial conditions (torture) have led to people become so sleep deprived they die. the enzymes in your brain that repair it can only operate during periods of low metabolic activity. stay awake long enough and your brain turns to mush | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what a ischaemic heart disease really is and what happens to the heart? | ischemia means reduce blood supply. thus in ischemic heart disease the blood supply to the heart is reduced or blocked fully due to atherosclerosis and causing conditions like myocardial infarction, angina and cardiac death. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what's the physics behind hourglasses? | as an example, how can one calculate the amount and granularity of sand that is needed for an hourglass to last t time, given the hourglass' shape, size, and radius of the orifice? also what does holding an hourglass at a certain inclination imply? can "sand" in this case be considered a thick fluid, and would this fall under fluid mechanics? thanks. | flow of granular solids is definitely *not* the same as flow of fluids. in particular, flow rate of a liquid through an orifice would change as the pressure in the liquid changes (so the flow rate of a "water-glass" would drop as the water level in the top bulb dropped), while for granular materials the flow rate tends to remain relatively constant. [this paper](_url_0_) discusses a mathematical model for the flow rate of granular materials through an orifice, including equations. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/0707.4550v1.pdf"
] | [
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what actually causes death when someone suffers an air embolism? | an air embolus is when a large amount of air gets pushed into a blood vessel, but what specifically causes death and how quickly does it occur? | it's the same mechanism as an ischemic stroke. venous air (or any gas) emboli often do not make it into circulation as they often dissipate in the vasculature of the lungs, though it's certainly possible. arterial air emboli are much more dangerous, as they simply block blood flow to a certain area once said air embolus is too big to squeeze through a given artery/arteriole/etc. like any solid embolus (e.g. plaque) an air bubble simply blocks blood flow. a stroke and a myocardial infarction have the same mechanism; blood flow is blocked to a crucial organ and the body suffers. **in short**, it's often a stroke or heart attack. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there anything that can't be described exhaustively by the properties that the base si base units measure? | here is muh question: do we currenly posess any scientific knowledge of any properties of anything or any phenomenon which could not be measured/described in the [7 base si units](_url_1_), and could not be reduced to properties which can be measured in the 7 base si units. also i notice that there are units for temperature as well as for time, and length. temperature, to my understanding, is just a description of the speed of a group of particles, so couldn't we theoretically also make temperature a [derived unit](_url_0_) if we possessed some obnoxiously compicated algorithm to convert speed to temp? anything similar going on with luminosity or electric current? the reason for my query is more philosophical, i'm trying to formululate a clearer definition of physicalism/materialism, and i'm wondering if a good one might be: "the stance that the universe can be exhaustively described in terms of legnth, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, luminous intensity and amount of substance." and i'm wondering if that claim jives well with current science or not. to clarify, i'm not asking about the actual difficulty of measuring. i'm more asking if there are any known properties that can't be reduced to these - if anything known invalidates the claim put forth by my definition of physicalism. thanks! | the 7 base si "units" are sufficient to describe everything that we're aware of. with respect to temperature -- temperature is a macroscopic measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules -- otherwise you'd need to be able to accurately measure the kinetic energies of the molecules within the material you're observing, which is not trivial (or even possible, according to uncertainty principles). this site mentions a few of the "oddities" of units, but nothing to suggest that the 7 base si units are insufficient for describing our known physical universe. [_url_0_](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_derived_units",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_SI_units"
] | [
"http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/scenario/errorman/units.htm"
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artifact found in my hometown, can anyone tell me what it is? | _url_0_ this and a few more like it were found in the river back home, and posted on a community facebook page. nobody has offered any good explanation and few even educated opinions. so i've come to you, reddit! i'm excited to maybe learn a little more about my home's history, and share it with the community as well. what kind of bone is it? is it even a bone? were the notch and hole carved? maybe it was a tool or part of one? what group would use such a thing? :) found in the shiawassee river, in michigan (us). | i hate to be a buzzkill, but that's just an ordinary unmodified deer bone. the notch is natural and the hole is where a blood vessel connects with the marrow inside the bone. | 40 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/myF2E"
] | [] | [
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thailand uses military hardware to generate marine life. how come the metal does not pollute by getting rusty? | here is a [video](_url_1_) at [2min1sec](_url_0_) a man says that metal does not rust if it isn't in contact with oxygen. but there is oxygen deep down the sea isn't it? | because its a boon. your dropping a massive amount of resources to sustain life, this is why they do it. iron doesn't technically rust on the seabed it's eaten by bacteria. the people saying oxygen levels, salinity and dissolved oxygen content are wrong to be blunt as all it does is slow the rate of consumption of the metal. rust blooms on the titanic, for an example much deeper, colder, deoxygenated and more saline than thailand's dumps, are colonies of iron eating bacteria. the metal is eaten by bacteria, which attracts small organisms which attract larger organisms. the metal creates a small biosphere and being rather durable it creates a safe haven from currents allowing the biosphere to form. | 10 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/U6zAZ-nHQuo?t=2m1s",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U6zAZ-nHQuo"
] | [] | [
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why is routine bloodwork not recommended for children? | why do we not perform or recommend yearly bloodwork screenings in children as we do in adults? is it simply because being children they are less at risk? | among other things. first of all, we do actually test children for some things regularly; that's the point of having regular healthcare. however, many things that we need to regularly test children for (for example, malnutrition) can be done without bloodwork; things that require bloodwork (for example, genetic disorders) in children usually only need to be tested for once. in adults this is different because children are — by definition — at lowe risk of chronic diseases. second, from an effectiveness perspective (considering cost and other healthcare burdens), there is always a point where the risk of treating someone who doesn't have a condition outweighs the risk of not treating someone who does have the condition. for a condition that is very common and very burdensome, and for which treatment doesn't have a lot of side effects, that point is very high — meaning that you are better off screening more people. an example of this is anti-viral flu medication; if someone shows up at a doctors office with flu-like symptoms in the middle of flu season, it's a good idea to prescribe them tamiflu based on their symptoms even without confirming that they have flu, because cost and risk of tamiflu are low, whereas cost and risk of flu are high (especially in the young, the old, and the sick). for a condition that is very uncommon and very mild, and for which the treatment is very expensive or harsh, the point is very low — meaning that you are better off not screening people, to avoid inflicting the treatment on many who don't have the condition you are testing for. in fact, this effect might be so strong that sometimes you are better off not treating people even if you know for sure they have the condition, if the treatment is very harsh. an example of this might be cafe-au-lait spots on your ass — cal aren't common, they cause no problems, and having one on your ass means it will almost never be seen, and the treatment (lasers) is expensive and can cause worse skin problems. of course, almost everything else falls somewhere between the extremes, and the best answer is often not obvious. this is why you find that screening guidelines for some things are changing every couple of years. notable recent examples: breast cancer screening with mammograms, where it's been shown that screening too often leads to over treatment but not to a decrease in cancer mortality or morbidity; prostate cancer screening with psa, which is completely useless despite the fact that celebrities like claiming it saved their life. but in children, because of their inherent low risk for many diseases, many screening tests are less effective than in adults — sometimes even worse than not testing at all, when you consider the burden of testing and the burden of potentially treating non-existent conditions. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do we live in an inertial reference frame? | first conventionally. second, is that still true if dark energy actually exists? | a couple of things. first, the rotation of the earth about its axis is assuredly non-inertial. this leads to things like the coriolis force, which you can locally detect. ok, but let's say we don't care about that part, and we want to know if other than the earth's rotation about its axis, are we in an inertial frame? well, here is the interesting part- it is impossible to determine if any frame is absolutely inertial, but you can only talk about being locally inertial. so, the earth is in orbit around the sun, which is free-fall. free-fall is (locally) the same as free-float, which means there is no local experiment that can be done to determine the difference. however, by observing distant stars, we can tell we are accelerating. thus, we may say "ahh, the frame of reference where the sun is stationary is inertial" and once again, locally it is. but once you can see outside of our galaxy and see other galaxies, you can tell that, in fact, we are in a free-fall (instead of a free-float) in orbit around the center of our galaxy. this can keep going, and it is a principle of relativity that it is impossible to tell the difference between "locally inertial" and "globally inertial." i feel maybe a discussion about what i mean by locally inertial is in order. the easiest way to imagine it is "put a big box around your 'system' that you can't see out of, and see if there is any experiment that you can do which would distinguish between being accelerated or floating." so, for instance, get in a sound-proof box and get tossed out of an airplane. as you fall, you will float. and there will be no experiment you could do which would help you distinguish between the two. the only way you could tell is if you could look out a window and see the earth rushing up towards you. similarly, if you didn't observe anything outside of the earth, there is no experiment you could do to tell we are in orbit around the sun. no fictitious forces appear, like they do for the earth's rotation about its axis. thus, if you are doing an experiment that only takes place on earth, you can safely ignore the earth's motion about the sun. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the body process plant sterols? | so i know that high cholesterol diets increases the risk of heart disease. and if i recall correctly, plants do not produce cholesterol, but instead synthesize their own unique sterols. my question is, why is it that health advisories only warn us against cholesterol, but not phytosterols? in fact, some food commercials even advertise their products containing phytosterols. shouldn't phytosterols have similar effects to cholesterols in the body? how are they metabolized differently? | that's is a good question but it has a very simple answer. plant sterols are very [poorly absorbed] (_url_1_) by the small intestine (0-5%). those that do get in the cell eventually get gut pumped back into the lumen of the intestine for excretion. humans inability to process plant sterols can be demonstrated by the rare genetic disorder [sistosterolemia](_url_2_), which results in a defective copy of the efflux transporter protein (abcg5/8) that would pump sterols of the cell into the lumen. because this protein is no longer function sterols build in the body due to the fact that they cannot be processed like cholesterol interestingly, the reason why plant sterols are recommended for lowering the risk for cvd is because they are theorized to act as a competitive inhibitor for membrane bound protein (npc1l1) that takes cholesterol in from the lumen of the intestine to intestinal cell (enterocyte), however the science is [inconclusive]( _url_0_) about the benefits of plant sterol intake | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://m.eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/content/33/4/444.short",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12840653",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitosterolemia"
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some questions about airloy aerogel, a strong ultralight nanoporous material with remarkable insulating properties. | [for those unfamiliar with it.](_url_0_) how much heat can it withstand? could you build pottery kilns out of it? is it toxic? does it decay or fall apart over time? it seems to me that this is a wonder-material. why is it not manufactured on a mass scale for common use (in house insulation, in ovens and other appliances and machines, in battery casings, etc)? is the cost of manufacture especially prohibitive? is it simply not as useful as i imagine it is? | less than bulk silica, the high surface area makes it start to soften and deform relatively easy. you could use it as insulation but it would not be a good first wall material as it would melt and deform. no it is usually just pure silica, there is silica in food products. yes it can absorb water and degrade over time, it is also physically weak. it is very expensive to produce on the industrial scale, requiring supercritical solvent extraction to form the aerogel structure. spun fiberglass on the other hand is cheap to produce in enormous quantities. it is very useful but only in specialized applications where the performance outweighs the cost. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=k8OhJKR3AA4"
] | [
"http://www.cabot-corp.com/Aerogel/Apparel"
] | [
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what about the scale of an object causes it to be unobservable using photons / light waves? | basically: there are things large enough to resolve with light, and other things which require something like a electron microscope. i'm trying to get an understanding of the interaction between the lightwave and reallly small stuff, which causes them to be unobservable with light. | one simple way to think about this is to appeal to the particle nature of light: when you image something you are essentially shooting light particles (photons) at an object and then looking at what bounces back into your detector. the following thought experiment is not rigorously correct from a physics or math perspective, but it will help you get a basic feel for the physics. imagine for a moment that your particles are tennis balls instead of light, and that you would like to image a fence. for this purpose, we will assume the fence is constructed of vertical boards with gaps between them. so you throw tennis balls at the fence, one by one as you walk along it, and then measure how they bounce. if the fence is much larger than the tennis balls, then some will bounce back off the boards, and some will go through the gaps, and into your neighbors yard! however, from the tennis balls that bounce back, you can begin to construct a picture of the fence. if you were to very carefully throw tennis balls at the fence at right angles, and exactly record their velocity and position on the return trip (or lack thereof if they go through) and graph this on a sheet of paper, you will eventually have a drawing of the fence! now lets imagine shrinking the fence down to a size such that the tennis balls can't make it through the gaps anymore. then what happens is that all the tennis balls bounce back, and you don't get any information about the structure of the fence; only that if it varies, it does so on a scale smaller than your ball. of course, you can always use something smaller, say golf balls, to get around this. conversely, if the fence was huge compared to the size of a tennis ball, then you would have a lot of bounces per board as you walked along the fence tossing balls, and so you would have a very sharp picture of the size of the fence. essentially, your uncertainty in the size of the fence is directly related to the size of the tennis (or golf) ball you are using to do the measuring. of course, the way light interacts with matter is much more complicated than this, but this little gedankenexperiment serves to illustrate the main point, which is that it is the physical size of the photon that limits resolution. if you want good resolution, (fence size to tennis ball size ratio) then you need to use a photon that is much smaller than the average size of variation in what you are looking at. there are lots of tricks you can play with lenses, and more recently, with metamaterials to get around this fundamental resolution limit, but those don't fit neatly into this simple analogy, so i shall save them for another day. as a final note, if you are interested in the actual size of your photon, you just need to know its energy (or color for visible light), planck's constant, and the speed of light (i'll leave the formula as an exercise to the reader in googling). red photons are about 700 nm, and blue ones are about 350 nm. radio waves on the other hand are photons that are on the scale of meters, which is why your car radio fuzzes in and out if you drive slowly while you have a weak signal. i only bring up radio waves, because we use them to image things in space which are huuuuge, so it doesn't matter that the 'tennis ball' is so big. electron microscopes really do work almost like the tennis ball analogy, except they are so much smaller than photons that we can use them to look at smaller stuff! the resolution of an electron microscope is limited (in part) by how 'small' you can make an electron. the higher the energy you use to shoot your electron at your sample, the 'smaller' it is thanks to wave-particle duality. i'll leave you to look up that one on your own too, but you can start by researching a guy named louis de broglie. i think that's enough for now. happy googling! edit: spelling | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how strong is our world economic system? is a meltdown feasible? | this article: [mit predicts that world economy will collapse by 2030](_url_0_) is the closest i could find addressing the question. it seems to be predicated on natural resources running out in the near future. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/Looking-Back-on-the-Limits-of-Growth.html#"
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|
moose man? | i would doubt that fertilization could even occur since it requires a precise match of proteins on the surface of the egg and the head of the sperm. however, if it were done clinically somehow, i believe that the mismatch of dna would cause conflicting development and the fetus would likely not be carried to term. additionally, people with down syndrome have decreased fertility even when not trying to produce offspring outside our species. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why do we use ln when we do logarithmic differentiation? | it seems kind of arbitrary to me that the integral of 1/x is always lnx and not log x or some other base. and even when differentiating, why do we always use ln? why not log? | we don't just choose to use ln, it's what you get when you evaluate derivatives. to evaluate a derivative, you have to look at the definition of a derivative. the derivative of a function f(x) is the limit of (f(x+h)-f(x))/h as h- so if a is a positive real number, what is the derivative of f(x)=a^(x)? the difference quotient is * (a^(x+h)-a^(x))/h and we have to take this limit at h=0. now, a^(x+h)=a^(x)a^(h) do we can factor out this from the numerator, and we can pull it out of the limit because it does not depend on h. what we then get is that the limit of (a^(x+h)-a^(x))/h at h=0 is actually a^(x) times the limit of (a^(h)-1)/h at h=0. now, the limit of (a^(h)-1)/h at h=0 is just some fixed number that depends on a and not x. we can give it any name we want, so let's just say that it is l*_a_*. what i have shown is that the derivative of a^(x) is l*_a_*\*a^(x) where l*_a_* is our limit. this values l*_a_*, whatever it is, naturally comes out from the definition of the derivative. it may not be obvious, by l*_a_*=ln(a). what you can actually do is use this to *define* the value of e. you can define "e" to be whatever number a has to be so that l*_e_*=1, and then do some more work with properties of derivatives to show that e^(l*_a_*)=a. finally, from the fact that e^(ln x)=x (which is the defining property of logarithms), we can find the derivative of ln(x). implicitly differentiate both sides to get * (dln/dx)e^(ln x) = 1 but e^(ln x) = x and so we get * dln/dx = 1/x since ln(x) is an antiderivative of 1/x, it follows that we can use the fundamental theorem of calculus to evaluate the integral of dx/x from x=a to b to be ln(b)-ln(a). ----------------------------------------- the moral is that **we don't choose ln(a), it chooses us!** the derivative of a^(x) looks like l*_a_*a^(x) where l*_a_* is just some logarithm. because this logarithm is definitely special, as it pops out of the derivative all on it's own without any manipulation by us, we can then say that the base of it is special and assign it the symbol "e". since, then, log*_e_* is special we call it the "natural logarithm". the fact that it pops out all on it's own without us having to do anything is super important. so important that when mathematicians write "log(x)" we usually mean "ln(x)", we don't even consider the possibility that other bases of logarithms could ever matter. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does the area under a titration curve represent? if it represents anything at all? | i know that using the second derivative of the curve allows you to find the equivalence point via using the point of inflexion, but i was wondering whether the integral of titration curves would have any use, since i was completely unable to find anything related to this online. | you can't get much meaningful info out of this integral because the volume of base added is linked to the [h+] by a complex set of functions. if you were comparing [na+] to the volume of a nacl solution added, the integral would tell you the total amount of na+ added, however in this case there's a lot more to the story. it's not that the integral doesn't contain information... there are just easier ways to get at this information | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a connection between bernalism (the communist philosophy of science) and the current reproducibility crisis in science? | don't now if this is the right place, but i am interested in literature to answer the above. | in short, no. one aspect of being a scientist is knowing about scientific history. it sheds tons of light on why, how, and what kinds of science and research we do today. so bernalism is the concept of researching only topics and ideas that would benefit the the basic human needs the best. while the concept can be validated as beneficial, one of the great things about basic research is that we end up discovering something that we had no idea was even there to begin with. that is where the idea of never really growing up goes hand in hand with science. having an imagination can yield some pretty exciting leads (as long as you can provide evidence for your actions). now onto the topic of the reproducibility crisis. there are a couple different reasons for this, and they don't really correlate with bernalism. one reason proposed is that influential theories/hypotheses have been formed from work that may be difficult or impossible to reproduce. yet, the scientific method is in such a way that we should be able to reproduce results to further support a claim, but nowadays there's a lot more going on. not getting desired results, specially if the study is to replicate someone who is very notable, can have political repercussions. which brings me to the second reason, which is the one i feel to be more accurate. it's easier to publish something that no one had published before. (this excludes "in the moment" high profile topics.) replicating someone else's work to determine the validity is extremely important, but it will be harder to publish. and that's the unfortunate name of the game for many university labs, they are almost forced to publish. to conclude, bernalism does not have a direct connection to the reproducibility crisis. though i'm pretty certain someone could find a connection. this is just what i have witnessed in university labs. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to make artificial cells such as cones or nerve cells? | so i'm only a sophomore in college but i have a strong interest in neuro-ophthalmology and i was wondering if nerve cells and other cells such as cones in your eyes can be artificially made. i understand stem cells are a possible way to regenerate but is there a way to artificially create those types of cells given the knowledge of biology and chemistry? | if you means starting from a bunch of chemicals and mixing them together until you get a cell, then not presently. there's only one example of artificial life i can think of, [mycoplasma laboratorium, or synthia](_url_0_), and that was just an artificially created genome implanted into an already existing bacterial cell. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma_laboratorium"
] | [
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what do you end up with if you tear something apart at a 'molecular level'? | this may seem like an odd question; but we have an add on tv that proudly presents it's product as (a blender) able to tear apart food at a 'molecular level'. creating 'super infused super food'. that got me thinking; if you began tearing food items apart at a molecular level; what exactly would you end up with? would it still be the same substance? | well first, that sounds like garbledeygook ad copy, so i wouldn't put much stock in the scientific value of that tv spot. as for what breaking something at a "molecular level" would mean, that would depend on the nature of the substance. for crystalline materials, breaking a single crystal, you just get two smaller crystals. for many biological materials, breaking them would just separate some molecules into the respective parts. for large covalently-linked materials like rubber or cellulose, at some point chemical bonds would have to break, meaning you get new "molecules", but the nature of those molecules are poorly defined to begin with because the entire mass is connected by covalent bonds. is that a single molecule? not by most definitions. could a blender break a single small molecule? no. could it break a larger one like a molecule of nucleic acid or protein? yes, the shear force could lead to breakage of a bond. technically a "different substance" but with most of the same properties. the more important function of a blender is disrupting the arrangement of various molecules with respect to each other, not their action on individual molecules themselves. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do medicine and other fields use mmhg (millimeters of mercury) as opposed to the more standard si unit pascals? | i work as an assistant/technician to an optometrist, and i noticed that the tonometer (a device used to measure the interior pressure of the eye) measures said pressure in mmhg, as opposed to the standard imperial or si units (psi and pascals/kilopascals, respectively). why is this? i know various other medical measurements (intracranial pressure, blood pressure) are taken this way. why not use the more generally accepted units? | it's probably because of the mercury sphygmomanometer, the device that's been used for over a century to measure blood pressure. since it actually measures pressure in terms of a column of mercury, that's how pressures are described. people still describe a "normal" blood pressure as 120/80 (mm of hg) rather than 16k/10.6k (pascals). mercury sphygmomanometers are traditionally considered the most reliable instruments for measuring blood pressure. in many countries (including the us), there are federal requirements to use them when reporting blood pressure in clinical trials, for example. for high-risk patients, where knowing the exact blood pressure is essential, mercury sphygmomanometers are preferred. part of this is simply because of long use. most studies where blood pressure measured by a sphygmomanometer was validated against directly measured intra-arterial pressure [were done on mercury sphygmomanometers](_url_2_). studies on the accuracy and repeatability of electronic or aneroid sphygmomanometers [are routinely verified against the mercury gold standard](_url_1_). in fact, most aneroid and electronic sphygmomanometers sold in the market come with pamphlets advising the user to periodically calibrate them against a mercury sphygmomanometer. that's not to say that mercury doesn't have its own drawbacks. they require periodic maintenance too, they need to be properly used (the mercury column must be perfectly vertical), there is error introduced by the nurse or clinician listening to the korotkoff sounds, there are environmental concerns over mercury as a toxin. but because of long use and the sheer number of studies that have validated their measurements over a century, there's a lot of trust given to them. the american heart association [recommends using them](_url_0_). one reason for this reliance is simplicity -- it's just a column of liquid behaving as liquids must under gravity. verifying that it's in working order is easy to do without any specialized equipment. you can look at the column to see there's no breakage, no mercury "stuck" somewhere. you can ensure that it's vertical with a spirit level and plumb line. this is much harder to do with an aneroid machine. has the spring weakened? how would you know, unless you had another machine that was known to be accurate to check the readings against? or the newer electronic machines with piezoelectric sensors and fancy electronics. they need a technician and probably factory equipment to check. mercury machines also are more reliable in the hands of a trained physician or nurse. it's not very hard to learn to recognize korotkoff sounds and to use them. on the other hand, electronic machines that depend on oscillometry have problems when the patient has hardened arteries (arteriosclerosis) or arrhythmias or paradoxical pulse, or a number of conditions. in cases like these, most physicians would rather trust their own judgment than rely on the electronics. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/37/2/185.full",
"http://ajh.oxfordjournals.org/content/13/3/276.full.pdf",
"http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/88/5/2460.full.pdf"
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what is standard procedure for taking care of someone in a vegetative state? | it depends. some patients, though vegatative, can breathe on their own. in that case all that is needed is a feeding tube, usually placed via a surgically placed hole in the abdomen (a gt tube). in other cases, when the patient has some ability to breathe, a tracheotomy is done allowing adequate spontaneous respirations. if the patient doesn't have adequate respirations even with the trach a ventilator is necessary. in any event round the clock nursing care is required to maintain the trach/vent/gt and to administer feedings as well as hygiene and turning at least every two hours to avoid bedsores. in addition medications may need to be given as well as ongoing stretching exercises (rom) to minimize contractures. there are a variety of other considerations, but this is the basic care. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
the aspect of time and how it can affect length of exercise. | i want to know how the aspect of time can affect how long you workout. i can not find any studies on how this changes our workout. -will people workout (running vs walking) longer if there is no clock, distance counter, music or anything that a person and use as a measurement of time? has anyone done or heard of a study? i am currently searching galileo, but i can not find anything on it. the md who teaches my class loved my topic used it as the example of what a good question is, but even she could not find a previous study. (she only looked for a short time) any help would be so helpful and if you help me find a study that i use i'll try to do something for you. | eskimobrother, in my undergraduate studies i do recall one of my professors talking about some recent (recent as in 2007-ish) studies indicating that subjects who exercised on a treadmill while listening to music felt that time passed by more quickly than subjects who ran with no stimulus at all. let me try and find a source for you. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can't you count the number of things touching you in a certain spot? | if someone poked me in the back with multiple fingers and asked me to count how many fingers were on my back, i would not be able to come up with an accurate number. i don't mean getting poked in the arm and on the hip because those are two separate places and it's obvious; i mean getting poked in one area with multiple fingers. obviously it gets more difficult the closer together those fingers are, but regardless it's still nigh impossible to count correctly if they're all in one region. why? | you have multiple types of neurons. some neurons are responsible for sensing input/mechanical change from smaller areas, other neurons are responsible for sensing input/mechanical change from larger areas. by areas, i mean a spot on your body/skin. look up homunculus and nerves. you will find a grotesque humanoid model. the larger the body part of the homunculus, the more nerves/brain matter you have dedicated towards feeling things in the body part. for example, the end of your finger tips will have a denser concentration of finer nerve endings because of an evolutionary need to be able to differentiate between fine textures or multiple bumps,ridges, whatever. different story for, let's say, your elbow. since our ancestors didn't feel the need to feel things out (no pun intended) with their elbows, they'll have a more spread out concentration of nerve endings than your hand, palm, finger tips. so, you can't count the number of things touching you in a certain spot because you have less nerve endings there, or you just have a neuron that registers input from a larger area as opposed to multiple neurons that register input from smaller areas. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-point_discrimination"
] | [
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can cartilage regenerate naturally or with supplementation? | i see supplements like msm, chronditin, hyaluronic acid and collagen type i, type ii claim to help in cartilage regeneration, is this a scientifically proven fact. how come we lose cartilage as we age and not as active kids and teens. is cartilage loss similar to hair loss(age related process instead of being directly correlated to amount of physical activity). so my questions are, do we know the cause of cartilage loss?, do we understand cartilage regeneration?, why is supplementation necessary if we did not need it as a kid? | cartilage is barely alive. it is one of the few tissues without blood vessels running through it. there are living cells in there - chondrocytes, and a handful of immune cells - but they are basically buried alive in collagen and ecm. diffusion of oxygen and nutrients through cartilage is not fast. maintenance and repairs are extremely slow even under good conditions. cartilage loses water with age and slowly wears down. if you live in the united states, you will see a little disclaimer that your supplements are not intended to diagnose, treat, prevent or cure any disease. the rest of the packaging will give you the opposite impression. the list of dietary supplements that i'd take is short. all of the joint supplements are completely ineffective, which makes sense given the inability of things in the blood to easily reach the cartilage. generally speaking, protein drugs are delivered by injection anyway to get past the stomach. there was some excitement about directly injecting hyaluronic acid into the joint for osteoarthritis but that does not work either. people are working on ways to use stem cells to speed up repairs. this is not simple. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how are more accurate tools made from less accurate tools? | sometimes it's practical techniques. a flat plate can be made by touching two plates together with a powder between them, then filing down the spots that touch (use three plates and swap them out continually to avoid two non-flat but complementary shapes), but that can only get you so far. math helps a lot with the higher end stuff. around the time of the industrial revolution this became more and more important, things like steam engines and accurate rifles need straight lines down to fairly small tolerances. being able to get the shape you want out of simple mechanisms (levers, joints, etc) is really useful. if you want a great read on the subject, i'd highly recommend [how round is your circle](_url_0_), which gives a pretty good history on the rise of accurate measurements and engineering. things like being able to trace an even curve around a mountain for a railroad, when you don't have access to the center of the circle you're trying to trace, or moving a point back and forth in a straight line when you can't rely on your own rulers were really tricky engineering problems back in the day. | 49 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.amazon.com/How-Round-Your-Circle-ebook/dp/B005EINSVQ"
] | [
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|
is there any reason a walrus couldn't live in a forest river? | okay, so i'm wrestling with my son this morning (he's 6). he says he's a sabre-tooth tiger. i say i'm a walrus. we wrestle a while, and then he says, "daddy, a walrus can't live in the forest. what are you doing here?" and i said that i was being transported by airplane from one zoo to another and had air trouble. that i parachuted out of the plane into the forest. his reply, "daddy, a walrus couldn't live in the forest." "how about in a forest river?" i ask. my wife suggested i ask reddit. so, zoologists of reddit, could a walrus that parachuted out of an airplane expect a reasonable lifestyle in freshwater? is there anything about their physiology that would require seawater? | i'm not a marine biologist, but a little google searching came up with a related explanation about dolphins living in freshwater: [can dolphins live in fresh water?](_url_0_) "river dolphins such as the platanistidae (ganges and indus river dolphins), the iniidae (the boto or amazon river dolphin) and the pontoporiidae (the baiji and the franciscana) all live in fresh water. one species that can be found both in fresh water (the amazon river) and in coastal sea waters is the tucuxi (sotalia fluviatilis). salt water species don't do well in fresh water. although they can survive for some time, they will be exhausted by the lack of buoyancy in fresh water. also, after a while their skin will start to slough as the fresh water does not support their skin or eyes and they can develop serious infections." which confirms what i suspected, which is there is no acute reason why walruses can't live in freshwater rivers, but there are a bunch of smaller issues that make it quite difficult for them to. | 39 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.imms.org/dolphinfaq.php#q19"
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what exactly does 'freeing megahertz of spectrum in a band' mean? | i was reading an article about how the fcc freed 100 megahertz of spectrum in the 5 gigahertz band to make public wifi faster but i don't get what that's supposed to mean. how exactly do they free it up? | i don't know the specific bands, so ignore the numbers: the fcc allocates certain sections of the band to certain uses. if you try to use a part of the band not allocated to you, it will get interference, and if they track your transmission you can get fined / arrested for it. so previously, lets say 5.0 gig - 6.0 gig was reserved for military use. trying to use any of it for public wifi would result in breaking the law, and interference. by changing the band to 5.1 gig - 6.0 gig and "freeing" 100 megahertz, it tells the military to stop using 5.0 - 5.1, thus freeing it from interference, and then that band is clear and legal to use for public wifi. its all regulatory. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are price-inelastic markets caused and do these markets and their condtions benefit or harm anyone? | most businesses want to charge more. the thing stopping them are customers ability to shop next door. but that doesn’t work when there’s no option next door or anywhere else. the easiest example is comcast, both owning and servicing the same line. they win and customers loose. we don’t have the political will or wisdom to separate the two (infrastructure from bandwidth), so we are stuck waiting for the infrastructure to go obsolete. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
ok so energy doesn't decrease it simply changes state, please expand how this is possible. | for instance, i pick up a brick using my energy, the brick has potential energy, i drop it, it has kinetic energy, it lands, then what happens? does it turn into a whole bunch of fragments of energy that dilute? eg sound would be made, do the sound waves just exist forever but spread out and become almost nothing? | energy isn't real. it's a mathematical tool that we noticed is "conserved" for all purposes. the mathematical relationships between movement and position in a potential are consistent enough so that we can create a term called "energy." sound isn't a magical flowing ether either. sound is particles moving in a way that we detect as noise. think of sound like you would water. when you drop a rock in water, it creates a wave crest. this wave crest expands in diameter but decays in height. it never disappears, just the disturbance and motion changes forms and positions ad naseum. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if only mass-energy consenves, does that means energy balances in engineering are wrong? | if so, what other property should i balance in my sytems in order to keep degrees of freedom at 0, because if that is wrong, my momentum balances are wrong too, what are the properties that can be balanced? | in all but the most extreme of cases, your energy balances are just fine. it's true that technically it's mass-energy which is conserved, but most systems especially in engineering do not experience significant mass changes--any changes that would be present, say from heating or chemical reactions are much *much* too small to make a noticeable difference in an industrial setting. think of it this way, we ignore the gravitational effects of venus when designing the trusses for a skyscraper--they are just too small care about. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain how the following two phenomenon happen scientifically? | in an argument about creation vs evolution, my creationist uncle asked me to explain the following two questions. if anyone can provide answers or links to answers, i'd surely be grateful: "what about the fact that stinking dong at the foot of a rose is turned by that soil into fragrance in the rose flower?" "or two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen, two odorless and tasteless gases, combine to produce water, without which life on earth would just be impossible." he then says something else and asks: "but can science, again the basis of explanation of evolution, account for how they (the two above questions) are done?" thanks guys! also, i should mention that he was quite offended when i retorted with a "hee hee" at "stinking dong" of a flower. :) **edit: i think by "dong" he may have meant "dung", but i'm not sure. english is not his primary language.** | the problem with answering these questions is that they are "loaded". he is making an aesthetic argument rather than a scientific one. how a plant utilizes fertilizer, how hydrogen bonds to oxygen to form water, etc is very thoroughly documented. what he is asking is "why is it that a rose will turn dung into something beautiful?", and "why is it that the universe would work out in such a way to allow water to form in the first place?" neither of the questions he is actually asking has a scientific answer because they are fundamentally philosophical. if you want to know exactly how the rose bush works, look [here](_url_0_), or for how water bonds [here](_url_1_). neither of these will give him an answer that he finds satisfactory though. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizer",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond"
] | [
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