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what is actually happening with the copper pipe & magnet duo? | a demonstration: [link](_url_0_) to be clear, the magnet is not attracted to the copper. this is something different, but i have no idea what it actually is. | when you send a magnet through conducting material, because the magnet is moving, thus creating a changing magnetic field, a current is induced in the copper. this is mathematically represented by faraday's law of induction. then, the current produced induces a magnetic field within the copper tube. this magnetic field interferes with the magnet's field, affecting the magnet's movement. this behavior happens according to lenz's law, where the induced magnetic field wants to resist the changing magnetic field from the moving magnet. | 3 | [] | [
"http://blog.makezine.com/archive/2011/12/dropping-a-magnet-through-a-copper-pipe.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+makezineonline+%28MAKE%29&utm_content=Google+Reader"
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i overheat easily. my girlfriend cannot retain heat. what makes us this way? | this is a spin-off from [another post](_url_0_), but thought it warranted it's own askscience question. i overheat very quickly, in cold or hot temperatures. i'm not out of shape, so i'm certain it's not exhaustion or over-exertion. if i'm wearing pants and a heat-retaining jacket, and i walk outside in sub-zero temperatures, i still overheat (sweat in the pits and such). in hot climates, i overheat all the time. on the flip side, she's always cold. in the summer, unless heat is directly on her body, she's too cold. in the winter, she experiences actual pain in her extremities (fingers, toes, nose, ears). i almost never feel too cold in my extremities. i understand this has something to do with circulation. more blood flow to the surface of the skin radiates heat, but why do i over-radiate heat, while she under-radiates? note: fun sidebar, this has done wonders for our relationship. cuddling is so much better when both parties can act as temperature regulators for the other. ;) | it may depend on muscle mass. the more muscle mass you have the more heat you tend to put out. this is why athletes such as american football players need to be super conscious of heat exhaustion. their size and muscle mass is so much more than a normal person's that they overheat much easier. this is what killed [korey stringer](_url_0_); he was 6'4" and about 335 pounds and a large amount of that weight was muscle, not fat. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/lqb2w/what_is_our_bodys_main_functioning_radiator/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korey_Stringer"
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"you breath in a single atom of julius caesars final breath every breath you take." how far can this be extrapolated? | it is said that you breath in a single atom of julius caesars final breath every breath you take. given that there's nothing special about either ceaser or which breath it was, can this be extrapolated to say we breath in an atom from every breath that any person who ever existed took? (or maybe from before a certain date of death - i doubt i breath any atoms from the most recent breath of someone on the other side of the world to me, right?) how far can this go? i presume it becomes unreasonable to say that if some oxygen breathing creatures existed on a different planet in a different solar system that any of their atoms would have made it to here? | the extent of it depends on a thorough mixing of atoms, and is therefore limited by diffusion. working out diffusion on a global scale is not easy at all, so it would become very difficult to pinpoint exactly where in the world at each point in history this holds for. in terms of the question of other oxygen breathing species: if they required oxygen to breath as we do, it would have to mean that their planet had a sufficient mass to stop oxygen being able to exit the atmosphere, as we go here on earth. therefore, the amount of oxygen being released by such a planet would be more or less nil. added to this that the chance of even a single atom being able to travel from another solar system to ours make it so improbable that it is basically impossibile, even when you are playing with the number of atoms in a single atmosphere. i got bored and decided to prove the idea of us breathing in caesar's last breath, for anyone interested working with a breath being a full lung capacity (to maximise the amount of atoms julius caesar breathed) that gives us 6l of air to work with. wolfram aplha gives this as 7.65g. the mass of the earth's atmosphere is usually given as 5.1*10^18 kg, so 5.1^10^21 g. converting this to numbers of atoms gives 1.59*10^23 atoms in 1.06*10^44 atoms, so one atom in every 1.5*10^21 was part of caesar's last breath. when we breath in, we take in about 500ml of air, or 1.33*10^22 atoms. that means that on average, we breath in 10 atoms that were a component of julius caesar's last lung capacity. | 31 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.zyra.tv/lbreath.htm"
] | [
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synchronization of watches and simultaneity in relativity. | sparked by a recent discussion on this subreddit: there is a famous thought experiment concerning the simultaneity of events (paraphrased with simpsons characters) > itchy and scratchy are standing on opposite ends of a moving train car. there is a fuse lit in the middle by apu (referee #1) who is riding on the car with itchy and scratchy. when the fuse explodes, it flashes brightly. there is a second referee (martin, referee #2) standing on a stationary platform, watching these events unfold. so martin will observe that itchy and scratchy are reached by the flash at different times and apu will report that the flash reached itchy and scratchy at the same time. both observations are valid. however, i got myself confused as to what happens if the moving observer switches its frame of reference to that of the staionary observer. imagine itchy and scratchy also have a watch identical to that of apu and each of them records the time as the light "hits" them. afterwards they stop their train walk up to marten and show him their watches. the watches were synchronized when they were on the moving train and in their system of reference they recorded the event simultaneously. for marten however, the moment at which they should record the time is not simultaneous, but happens at two different times. i see two possible resolutions for this: 1. both watches show the same time and marten did observe that both itchy and scratchy set their time incorrectly (i.e. one set the time too early, one set the time too late). 2. upon stopping (i.e. during the change in the frame of reference) the watches of itchy and scratchy go out of sync and end up showing different times. i favor option 1, but i see that it has its problems as it would mean that two events which happen at the same time *and* the same place are simultaneous in one frame but not in the other thoughts on that? during a discussion in this subreddit a question came up where i got myself confused. | when itchy and scratchy separate after synchronizing their clocks on the moving train, they will have a different velocity relative to marten. thus he sees their clocks move at a different pace, and he will observe that while their clocks show the same time when the light hits them, it will not be simultaneous in his frame. when itchy and scratchy get back together, the effect will be reversed and by the time they meet, their clocks will be in sync again even in marten's frame. then they halt the train, get off, meet marten, and obviously option 1 is the case. edit: only the first part of option 1 of course. they did set their clocks correctly. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can synaptic bulbs 'fall away' from the other nerve cell? | the classic image of a synapse in most textbooks is of 2 bulb-like structures which are not connected physically but communicate through neurotransmitter chemicals. now if they are not physically connected, can they be shifted away from the other nerve cell from a high energy impact or something similar? this sounds like a silly question but i'm interested to know what the answer is! | well first of all, the synapse is connected physically by proteins that bridge the gap. here is a free article that you can read about this _url_2_ an impact to the head can certainly cause things like [axonal shearing](_url_0_) and certainly the disruption of synapses that you are talking about. perhaps more interestingly is that synapse buotons are changing all the time, disappearing and re-forming as they make new connections. we refer to these as "dendritic spines." this can actually be visualized with 2 photon microscopy. you can watch how it's done here _url_1_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_axonal_injury",
"http://www.jove.com/video/51520/two-photon-vivo-imaging-dendritic-spines-mouse-cortex-using-thinned",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3312681/"
] | [
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why aren't there any "objects" at 10^-12 and 10^-13 meters? | i took my first trip to the hayden planetarium last weekend and was impressed with the ["scales of the universe" display](_url_0_) there. as i walked toward the smallest scales, there were two panels -- i believe they were 10^-12 and 10^-13 meters -- that simply said, 'there are no known objects of this size.' why is that? specifically, what it is it about the structure of atoms and their constituent parts that leaves these order-of-magnitude gaps at this level? to be clear, the display limited itself to depicting actual "objects." i believe the smallest displayed there was a quark. | 10^-12 m is approximately the radius of muonic hydrogen (a proton with a negatively charged muon instead of an electron). since muons decay, they're not stable though. it hints at the reason though. the biggest determinants of why atoms are the size they are, is the ratio between the mass of the electrons and the strength of the electromagnetic interaction. since there aren't any other stable negatively-charged particles around, we're stuck with atoms on the order of 10^-10 m, until you get to nucleons and nuclear forces instead at 10^-15 m. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.amnh.org/rose/scales-moreinfo.html"
] | [] | [
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can r/askscience help me unravel a genetic mystery? | i'm trying to understand how a tresk gene mutation and msg affect migraine headaches. the facts are these. according to [this](_url_0_) report on _url_3_, a mutation of tresk is linked to migraine. tresk is activated by glutamate, the business end of msg, which has long been known as a trigger for migraines. the national center for biotechnology information says [here](_url_1_) that glutamate activates tresk. so far everything seems to make sense, right? well this is where the mystery begins. [here](_url_2_) is a bbc article with one of the doctors who discovered the relationship between the tresk mutation and migraine. the article states: "[dr. zameel cader] told the bbc's today programme the research showed the defective gene in migraine patients was under-active, therefore causing the headaches. 'so what we want to do is find a drug that will activate the gene,' he added." conundrum! msg triggers migraines. msg contains glutamate. glutamate activates tresk. mutated, under-active tresk triggers migraines. shouldn't glutamate activate the mutated tresk gene and thus relieve migraines? | i'll start of by saying that i am a geneticist, but i know nothing about these genes or pathways at all, however, i think the issue is that the gene mutation that affects the tresk protein is a dominant negative mutation. this essentially means that the tresk protein (both the mutated and normal form) are defective and non-functional. this means that any downstream genes or pathways (possibly affecting migraine biology) will be inactive, and adding stuff that might activate it would not help as the protein is already dead in the water. however, the drugs that the scientist talks about in the bbc article may help by restoring the function of the protein somehow. i don't think glutamate could do that. the other issues is the relationship between glutamate levels and tresk. sometimes channel proteins like tresk act in response to different levels of a ligand (glutamate for example). maybe normal levels of glutamate can normall activate tresk, but higher levels can saturate the tresk channel and cause migraines? maybe the mutation in tresk that is linked to migraines affects how tresk and glutamate interact with each other? the other issue is that the paper you cite suggesting that glutamate activates tresk is from cell culture work (hamster cells), and the tresk mutation paper is from human patents. while cell culture work in informative, it is often done in a different context than studying a mutant phenotype in whole animals. the literature is full of conflicting data between how things differ mechanistically between cell culture studies vs. whole animal work. hope that helps clear some stuff up. *edited for spelling. wrote migration instead of migraine. i've been reading a lot of papers on cell migration lately :) | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v16/n10/full/nm.2216.html",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=search&term=18190784&dopt=b",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-11408113",
"nature.com"
] | [] | [
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] |
why does the fine-structure constant vary with time or energy? | i've read that the fine-structure constant does change with time (very very slowly) and it also changes with energy (~80 gev; alpha - > 1/128). now considering that i always see alpha as being a combination of e^2 /(4 pi epsilon_o) * 1/(h-bar c) can i point to one of *these* individual constants changing somehow? as far as the changes concerning energy, does it somehow have something to do with electromagnetism and the weak interaction unifying into the electroweak interaction? i guess i'm just looking for some elaboration about alpha. | you are thinking of two different phenomena here. the first you mentioned, that the fine structure constant may vary across spacetime, has not been measured (well, certainly not conclusively: see e.g. this [post](_url_3_) by sean carroll from 2010). the fine structure constant, or equivalently the physical charge of the electron, certainly does vary depending on what energy scale we're doing an experiment at. the reason for this is that we've had to use [renormalization](_url_4_) to find the physical equations of motion. we do this because when we try to calculate scattering amplitudes naively, we get infinite results, which correspond to the classical fact that the force between two electrons would become infinitely big as the distance between them tends to zero. to account for this we have to [regularize](_url_2_) the calculation, to use some mathematical trickery to get rid of the infinities. one way is to ignore everything above a certain energy, [another](_url_1_) is to pretend we live in a non-integer number of spacetime dimensions 4 − ε, which actually makes the equations give finite answers! the big idea of renormalization is to take the contribution from those high energy modes, or from that ε of spacetime, and "absorb" it in a redefinition of the electron's charge and mass. it's very surprising to me that this works but it does! the neat thing is that the final renormalized calculation is independent of the particular regularization scheme we used to make our answer finite. but notice that now the electron's charge and mass aren't some fixed numbers, but are defined in such a way that the infinities in the calculation all cancel. the particular form of the infinities depends on the energy at which the process occurs, so the electron's apparent charge and mass *also* must depend on the energy. the exact way in which the charge and mass depend on energy is governed by the [renormalization group](_url_0_). renormalization group flow is important for understanding asymptotic freedom in qcd, which means that quarks which are very close together interact weakly, as though the qcd coupling constant (analogous to the electron charge) is small. of course, all i'm doing here is giving a vague picture; if you want to understand properly then sadly there's no way that i know of without going through the calculations yourself to see how it all fits together. if you have access to it, i recommend reading a. zee's *qft in a nutshell*. i remember watching a leonard susskind video where he gave a hand-waving explanation of renormalization in terms of charge screen by virtual electron-positron pairs, but i can't find it. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renormalization_group",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_regularization",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regularization_%28physics%29",
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/cosmicvariance/2010/10/18/the-fine-structure-constant-is-probably-constant/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renormalization"
] | [
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when you stand on your head for a long time, why doesn't your stomach acid come down your throat? | the esophagus has two major sphincters in it, an upper and a lower. assuming you have proper nerve innervation, the lower esophageal sphincter will remain toned, and no acid will come through no matter what position you're in. improper sphincter tone allows acid through, which is what causes heartburn. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
experimental cuts in particle physics | what exactly is meant with an experimental cut in the context of particle acceleration? | particle accelerators produce huge amounts of data. finding the signal you're looking for is like finding a needle in an enormous haystack. so rather than looking over all the data (from all the events generated), you make a *cut* to restrict to a subset of the data that meets one or more criteria. the idea is that in this restricted subset of the data, because of the way you've made your cut, it will be easier to find the signal that you're looking for. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is habituation and homeostasis an almost universal aspect of biological systems? is there an overarching physical property that leads to this? | there's no physical property that perfectly fits the bill (entropy is the closest match but even then you need to make some stretches). so let's do a logical proof and assume the opposite conclusion. say instead we have an organism with no mechanism regulating homeostasis. what you end up with is an organism that continues to consume a resource, and doesn't let it out in any form. even if the organism survives this constant increase of that particular resource, it will be constantly changing. imbalance of consumption forces an organism to change. consuming more calories than you release as energy will increase your weight, for example. and an organism that is constantly changing can't guarantee that its form tomorrow will be able to survive the way it did yesterday. so the most concise answer i can give is, homeostasis is a survival trait. it's not natural selection in the way you usually think of it. instead, it's the ability to *retain* a certain property once it has found the goldilocks zone. no matter how much creatures mutate, if they weren't able to maintain and regulate the successful parts of their system, the successes would be meaningless and evolution would fall apart. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is the fine structure constant called "fine structure"? | atomic spectra have gross, fine and hyperfine structure. the gross structure corresponds to the energy levels which result from non-relativistic solutions to the schrodinger equation, with no allowance for the effects of electron spin. fine structure results from taking account of relativistic effects, and of interactions between electron spin and orbital angular momentum. this has the effect of splitting what would otherwise be single energy levels into closely spaced ones. it is the fact that these levels - and hence the resulting spectral lines - are closely spaced that leads to it being referred to as fine structure. hyperfine structure is an even smaller effect due to interactions with the nucleus. the fine structure constant was given that name because it appears in the equations for calculating the size of fine structure corrections. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if disorder increases over time how does that explain complicated natural objects? | so my example is the tree i see outside my window or the human brain. the way i understand it is that organized patterns of molecules came from seemingly unorganized material. is there something i'm not getting? | disorder does not increase over time. entropy increases over time, which is only the same as disorder in a few situations. entropy can locally decrease by increasing elsewhere in the system. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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anderson localization and general disorder of matter? "perfect" localization possible? | two quantum physics questions for folks, specifically about anderson localization (hope the smart folks out there can help!): just did a little bit of (layperson) reading about anderson localization and disorder in crystal structures. here's my question: shouldn't all matter contribute to 'restricting' the wave function of e.g., an electron, whether it's in a crystal structure or not? that is, what's specific to a finite disordered lattice and anderson localization? that is, shouldn't things like an electron moving through water molecules (highly disordered) force localization of the electron wave function in a similar fashion? as a more 'extensive' example, if you consider, e.g., that single electron, and all the matter in, say, the observable universe, shouldn't the interference of all of the wave functions together effectively force the localization of the electron to some very small region? (since the matter distribution has reasonably large entropy) or is it that the interference effectively 'averages' out in some way? in the extreme case, it looks like, in the anderson model, it should in theory be possible to localize e.g., an electron, perfectly (i.e., to squash the wave function down to a delta function), if there is sufficient disorder. but this clearly can't be the case, as this would violate the uncertainty principle. is this an issue with the model? | yes, in general there are no wave functions in which electrons have some enormous macroscopic extent. anderson localization involves the study of systems where, in the absence of disorder, electron wave functions would be extended throughout some material. this is true in metallic systems - in a metal the electron wave functions extend very long distances. then the result is that when you add disorder to a metal, eventually the electron wave functions become localized. since the high conductivity of a metal is due to delocalized electrons, this also results in the metal becoming an insulator. why do you think this? as you yourself say, that would violate the uncertainty principle. in the localized limit, the electron wave functions decay exponentially, where the length scale in the exponential is known as the "localization length." | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would ligo signal change for merger of larger black holes? | would the signal picked up by ligo from the merger of two moderately large black holes (1,000 suns each to pick a number) be the same only larger, or would it convey additional information not obtained by the signals so far? | at some point, black holes become too massive for the gravitational waves from the inspiral (when they're spiriling into each other before merger) to be visible in ligo. this is because the size of a black hole is proportional to its mass, so more massive black holes can't get as close to each other before merging compared to less massive black holes (if you have trouble picturing this, find some different sized marbles, and try to convince yourself that the smaller the marbles are, the smaller the distance between the centers of the two marbles gets before they touch). as the black holes gets closer to each other, their orbital speed increases (they speed up). their orbital speed has to reach a certain point before the gravitational waves from this pre-merger stage become visible to ligo, meaning that if you're talking about larger and larger black holes, eventually they'll get so large that they merge before reaching that speed. this is one of the limitations of ground based gravitational wave detectors. future generations of ground based detectors should be able to lower the speed the black holes need to reach to be visible, but there's only so much that can be done on the earth itself, which is (one reason) why projects like lisa (_url_0_) are exciting. once they've merged, the new black hole still has a bunch of energy (because two giant black holes just collided at a very high speed, even if it's not high enough to have been seen by ligo). so the final thing it does before it settles into a stable black hole is get rid of that energy through a stage call "ring down". at this stage, you can think of the new merged black hole as ringing like a bell, but instead of releasing the energy into the air through sound waves, it releases the energy into spacetime through gravitational waves. it's possible, though i don't know, that this could used to find mergers of black holes too large for us to see before the merger, though even if it were possible i don't know how much information about the pre-merger objects could be extracted. edit: i just realized i went on a tangent and didn't even answer the original question. in short, the information you get from larger systems vs smaller systems is slightly different. my understanding is that for higher mass systems, it's easier to resolve the total mass of the system because the ring down frequencies heavily depend on the total mass, whereas for lower mass systems it's easier to resolve the component masses because there's more of the inspiral signal, which comes from the pre-merger time. the thing that determines which one dominates is essentially how much of the inspiral is seen. the ringdown is really short, so if you have (just to pick some numbers) less than a second of ringdown and even 5 seconds of inspiral, you're going to be able to resolve the component masses more easily, but if you see little to none of the inspiral, then you'll be limited it what you can say about the individual components of the binary. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.universetoday.com/136133/lisa-gravitational-wave-detection-going-space/"
] | [
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] |
a stream attractor. why do things stick under a stream? | i was recently sitting on the toilet and like most people wondering about science. and like most people, getting frustrated that my turd kept following my stream. and i wondered why whenever i took a piss and a shit did my turd have to stay right under the stream and get shitty water everywhere? like any good scientist i had to mock it up with [ping pong balls](_url_1_) in the sink and found to my surprise that the intensity of the stream of water mattered, that at a low intensity the balls would float right up to the stream and get captured, but at high stream intensity the balls would have to jump over a hump of water to get captured, but then would stay in the stream like it was nobodys business. i also [tried two balls](_url_0_) and found that there was a steady state where both balls could be stuck in the stream, but this rapidly collapsed to just one. so my question is: why is it that my turds have to get stuck in the stream? | the surface water around the stream is flowing towards it due to fluid dynamics. [i did a quick picture](_url_0_) showing the principle. the reason the balls is stuck in the middle is because they are too buoyant to be sucked down. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/YI1Dx.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/dh27C.jpg"
] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/HPB1c.jpg"
] | [
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i just read the first lecture in feynman's qed. at that time he states that he has no clue as to why qed works. do we have any more information about it now? what happened between newton's theory of holes in the glass and feynman's method of qed? | it felt like a large jump from newton's thoughts of reflection and drawing arrows based on the position of a secondhand on a clock going the frequency of a given photon. is there something i could read that explains what inspired squaring the length of this line? also, what are the units feynman is using when he is measuring the glass? when he talks about .2 being the square root of 4%, what are the units of .2? | i'm not sure what statement by feynman you're referring to. in the book, he did get into into much the same thing he talks about [here](_url_1_), that at some ultimate level you never know the 'why' about _anything_. so if that's what you're referring to, then that's not changed and never will. 300 years of developing the classical electromagnetic view of light. not exactly something you could summarize briefly. there _is_ a huge jump there. but the book's intent to try to explain a bit about qed in layman's terms, not give a full account of the history of electromagnetism and how our thoughts on light have evolved. there's no _actual_ "squaring the length of an arrow" here. he was making an analogy to (or simplification of) how quantum mechanics (and qed) describes probabilities with complex-valued functions that are analogous to an arrow in that they have a phase (angle) and amplitude (length), and the probabilities in qm are given by the absolute-square of the function, which correspond to the arrow length squared. feynman writes "this is what we're _actually_ doing". but what he means by that is that his description is formally, mathematically equivalent to what you do in qed calculations, in a more simplified form. but it's not _literally_ what you actually do. you don't _actually_ draw arrows and add them up like that. the method that feynman is describing with his adding-up-of-arrows is what's known as the [path integral formulation](_url_0_), which he invented, and which is used in both qm and qed. the complex values (arrows) here are central to all quantum mechanics and date back to schrödinger finding his eponymous equation in 1926. you could say it arises from the connection that exists between waves and complex numbers, and schrödinger was trying to explain the 'wave-like' behavior of matter (in particular electrons in atoms) with his complex-valued 'wave function'. you 'had' to take the square of it, or you'd end up with imaginary values for properties like energy. schrödinger thought the square of the wave function was the electrical charge density, and it was max born who came up with the idea that it was actually a _probability_ of where the electron was located. feynman worked out his summing-up-arrows method about 20 years later, so the fact that you'd take the square to get the probability was there from the start. percentages are dimensionless. it's a 4% probability. meaning something will happen 4/100ths of the time. the square root of 0.04 is 0.2. neither has a unit, but as feynman does explain, we have a _name_ for it - "probability amplitude", or as he calls it "the arrow whose square represents the probability of something happening". he's not hiding anything there, it's not really deeper than that. that's still the only physical interpretation of this thing (probability amplitude/wave function) that we have. or at least the only interpretation everyone agrees on. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_integral_formulation",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMFPe-DwULM"
] | [
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(from my 5 year old): is there a maximum temperature? | my five year old daughter and i were talking about temperature the other day and how temperature is a measurement of energy. she asked what the lowest possible temperature was and i explained that it was 0 kelvin, which is the point where there is no energy, and then she asked what the highest possible temperature was, and i had no answer. is there a maximum temperature? it seems akin to asking whether there's a "biggest number." but perhaps there is some upper bound, a physical point where no more energy can be added to a system? | there is a concept of "[absolute hot](_url_0_)" that states the highest possible temperature for classical matter is about 1.42x10^32 kelvin. above that temperature, the theory states that there is simply too much energy in the system and that gravity between the atoms becomes as strong as the other fundamental forces, making it impossible to understand with our current knowledge. there is another theory about "[hagedorn temperature](_url_1_)" where matter would lose coherence and decompose into a quark plasma at high temperatures which complicates the thinking, but i don't know enough about the subject to comment. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_hot",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagedorn_temperature"
] | [
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] |
can someone explain how the "correcting spheres" on a binnacle works? | usually they are big red and blue balls on either side of the compass on a ship as seen [here](_url_0_). i've heard they are used to correct for ferromagnetic materials on the ship, but how does it do that? are the balls themselves magnetic? i'm trying to visualize the magnetic field lines and i'm struggling. | it's way past my bedtime, and i'd never heard of correcting spheres until a few minutes ago, so consider this all very speculative. what i gather is that the spheres are made of magnetically soft iron, which also describes the steel the ship is made out of. the notable feature of soft iron is that it greatly enhances any magnetic field that passes through it, which can affect the compass reading if it's distributed asymmetrically (if you like thinking about it this way, the earth's magnetic field is an h field but what compasses measure is b field). the idea behind the correcting spheres is to put a big chunk of soft iron right next to the compass in such a way that when combined with the steel in the ship it looks symmetric to the compass. that means that all components of the earth's magnetic field are strengthened the same amount, so the result points in the same direction. sources: i started with the wikipedia article on magnetic deviation and worked through part of [this nga handbook](_url_0_). edit: i just want to add that i thought this was a really cool question. i think i'd seen correcting spheres before and never known that they even had a name, much less such a specific technical purpose. that opened up the whole field of compass adjustment, which it had never occurred to me might exist but which is actually fascinating. so, thanks for such a solid contribution to the sub. | 4 | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/MuseeMarine-compas-p1000468.jpg"
] | [
"http://msi.nga.mil/MSISiteContent/StaticFiles/HoMCA.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_deviation#History"
] | [
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light strength | if you have a fibreoptic cable that splits in two like a y and you shine a light at one end of the fibre does the light that shines out of the two legs have half the brightness of the light source? | a device like you describe is made as a commercial product, called a fiber optic splitter. it can be designed to split the light power 50/50 or essentially any other ratio. 10/90 and 1/99 splitters are common for power monitoring applications. however, no device is perfect, and any splitter will produce some back-reflection (returned to the source) and also scatter some light out of the fiber altogether (which would be absorbed by whatever opaque material surrounds the fiber). so the total power delivered at the two outputs would total to slightly less than what's entering at the input. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what type of rocks are these? they're common and i'd just like to know what they are. | found just south of lake winnebago, wisconsin. _url_0_ thanks | /r/geology, /r/rockhounds, and /r/whatsthisrock should be able to help out. red color often means iron compounds and blue color usually means copper compounds, but that's about the limit of my knowledge here. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/J8AP9dj.jpg"
] | [] | [
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are mammals ambidextrous or have a dominant side? | i have been wondering this with watching my girlfriend's dog. when he goes to "shake" with his paw, it's always his right one, never left. but i have never been able to notice anything with my cat. | most animals prefer one side over another. male cat and dogs are known to prefer their front left paw, while females prefer their right. •elephants have a favorite side to swing their trunk. •parots have a preferred foot •most reptiles prefer their right eye, usually being dominant. •horses usually prefer their left eye. •fish have a dominate eye usually which determines which way they turn when evading a predator. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/167607/do_animals_have_a_handedness/c7tl2qp?context=3"
] | [
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if joules are understood solely as energy, how can they be negative? | i'm doing some chemistry homework and i'm ending up with correct answers in negative joules. how is this possible? how can you have an "opposite" of energy? | it depends on context. if you have some process that involves energy, like a chemical reaction, negative energy often represents the amount of energy *input* necessary for that process to take place. another example is atomic or nuclear binding energy, which is often treated as negative. for instance, the inner electrons of the gold atom have around 80 kev of binding energy. if a 90 kev photon knocks one of those electrons out, it is emitted with 90 + (-80) = 10 kev of kinetic energy. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy"
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] |
can someone explain the mechanics of a glucometre to me? (diabetic bloog sugar-testing machine) | hello all, i am a type i diabetic and thus have pricked my finger hundreds of thousands of times over my life. i get that blood goes on the strip and life-saving number comes out the other end, but i've been curious for a while *how* that actually happens. if anyone could explain, i'd be much obliged. | the strips contain an enzyme that specifically oxidizes glucose. in the process, hydrogen peroxide is formed. the peroxide can then go and oxidize another chemical that results in a color change. the meter looks for the amount of color change, which is proportional to the amount of glucose reacted. the capillary meters use the glucose oxidase enzyme like the strips, but then use something like ferrocene that can get oxidized by the products of the enzyme reaction. ferrocene can be re-oxidized by an electric current and this current can be measured to yield a measurement by the meter. _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose_meter"
] | [
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i have a question about this composite image of the sun. | this was [posted](_url_0_) in /r/spaceporn by /u/phantomsmedia myself and several others were curious about the "bands" that run along the top and bottom sections of the sun. what exactly causes the grouping of activity that we see here? also, assuming that earths orbit gives us an "up and down" as far as our solar system goes, is this image "right side up" from our perspective? as in, if i am in space looking at the earth and it is in it's familiar (to me) north/south alignment, if i looked over at the sun from the same spot, is this the orientation of the sun that i would see? more questions about what that orientation means depending on the answers. thanks guys! | i actually was just at a seminar on solar physics yesterday where this was discussed. those bands run parallel to the solar equator and have to do with the solar magnetic field. those are the places where the field lines emerge to the 'surface' and are thus the regions where most sunspots originate. this is due to the way in which the magnetic field becomes tangled due to the different rotational rates between the sun's equator and its poles. to clarify, yes, that is roughly what you would see from earth as the sun's rotation axis is roughly at the plane of the ecliptic. although i can't formally cite this, this came from a talk given by professor forbes in the summer 2013 seminar series at the space science center at the university of new hampshire. edit: [here's](_url_0_) a picture closer to the visible spectrum where you can see where the sunspots are. | 16 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/spaceporn/comments/1fpzzc/a_year_of_our_sun_in_one_picture_900x780/"
] | [
"http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/9910/sunspots_mdi_big.gif"
] | [
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what is the difference between exploratory data analysis and classical data analysis? | classical data analysis is the testing of a priori relationships in the dataset designed by theory (e.g. "can we reject the null hypothesis of this theoretical relationship to our satisfaction?"), while exploratory data analysis is the probing of a dataset for the existence of relationships that are later used to develop theories (e.g. "what null hypotheses can be rejected at what level of satisfaction, and what does that mean about relationships between aspects of this data?"). exploratory data analysis sometimes gets a bad rap for being a "fishing expedition", and some times it is. on the other hand, in some situations that's where you have to start. i'd imagine cryptography is such a field. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/section1/eda12.htm"
] | [
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|
what thermal quantity do we sense? | obviously we can distinguish between hot or cold, but what exact physical quantity do our bodies "measure" or sense? for example, temperature, thermal capacity, heat flux, heat rate, etc. i don't think we sense temperature, because a metal at room temperature will *feel* colder than a nonmetal at room temperature. what thermal quantity do we sense when we touch things? | as i understand it, the thermal sensors in your nerve endings pick up change in their own temperature. so as you gain heat from touching something warm, or lose heat by touching something cold, you will sense the change in your own skin's temp. thus, as the thermal conductivity of whatever material you're touching increases, you'll feel a corresponding increase in the rate of change. so a metal feels colder because it's pulling more heat out of your skin, and a non metal feels warmer because it is less conductive and thus pulls less heat out of your skin. veritasium did a good video on this: _url_0_ | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqDbMEdLiCs",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_heat_flow"
] | [
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] |
why can i only drum my fingers fast in one direction? | on my left hand i can tap my fingers sequentially really quickly from left to right, and the opposite is true with my right hand. but when i try it the other way, pointing finger to pinky, it's really hard! why is this? | because it's a skill you haven't practiced. i'm sitting here, tapping my fingers in either direction with similar speed in to out and out to in. when learning a motor skill, you are creating connections in the motor and premotor cortices, two parts of your brain that sit next to each other right along the middle of your cortex (the grey, folded, outer most part of your brain). the more you perform an action, the more reinforcement the part of the brain controlling that action gets. how do you get to carnegie hall? practice. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.davidlnelson.md/images/hand_anatomy_back1.jpg"
] | [
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height of geostationary orbits | i've heard repeatedly that geostationary orbits are always at a height of ~35,786 kilometres, but i don't see any reason that a particular height should be necessary and couldn't be adjusted for using a satellite that travels at a different velocity to account for the differences in distance travelled. i'd really like to know if this particular elevation above the earths surface is actually necessary and if so, why... if it isn't necessary, it would also be great if anyone could shed any light on why this value of about 35km seems to be so often cited. thanks heaps :) edit: realized the fault in my reasoning - i forgot to include the diminishing of the force of gravity as the distance from the earth increased. silly me! thanks everyone! | at each height, there is a certain speed required to maintain orbit. slower and you crash, faster and you escape. the orbital period at a radius r around a mass m is equal to 2 pi times the square root of r^3 over m times the gravitational constant. if you set this period to 24 hours (so that it rotates with the earth) then the radius will be the value you quoted. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much force does it take to split or fuse an atom? if i could magically grip and align an atom or 2 in my hands, could my bare hands split or fuse it? | let's assume that my fingers can magically grip atoms, and that i can align them with perfect precision. how much strength would it take to rip one apart or combine two atoms? how much would the required force vary for different elements to split or fuse them? bonus question, would the energy released from the reaction be visible or perceptible to me? how much would the energy released vary from the fission or fusion or different atoms? | if you could somehow focus all the energy exerted by your hands/arms onto a single atom, it would actually be very easy to split or fuse an atom. nuclear binding energies, i.e. the energy required to break up a nucleus into its individual nucleons, are on the order of a few mev (mega electron volts) per nucleon. one electron volt is about 1.6x10^(-19) joules, so one mev is about 1.6x10^(-13) joules. wolfram alpha says one joule is approximately the work done lifting an apple to a height of one meter, so 1.6x10^(-13) joules is basically nothing for a human to put out. the reason why we require so much energy in reality to combine or split nuclei is that we can't act on one atom at a time, at least not in any practical way. to a physicist one mev is a lot of energy because in the context of a single atom or just a handful of atoms that's a lot of energy to have. atoms are so tiny that those minuscule amounts of energy can make them move at speeds near the speed of light. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does hypocalcemia cause tetany? | the textbook just says hypocalcemia increases neuronal excitability. but what about how calcium is needed to release ach from synaptic knobs? how are the muscles stimulated without ach in that case? or does anyone have one of those “.edu” or “.html” links that have very simple explanations (similar to like [this](_url_0_)) which explains calcium’s role in the action potential? thanks for any help | this was confusing to me in school as well. my professor explained by saying that with hypocalcemia, you are essentially reducing the positive charges outside of a neuron, so you are especially increasing it’s excitability. with this increase in excitability, you get firing easier, this muscle contraction and tetany results when energy/atp runs low in the muscle (via overstimulation) hope this helps! | 3 | [] | [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology/actpot.html"
] | [] | [
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hurdles for underground living and transportation systems? | what are the major technology hurdles to living underground and why aren't we building down as often as we build up? wouldn't it be easier to build tubes or track networks underground that wouldn't require as much maintenance? | it's just not cost effective. the first thing is ground water, rain water goes down, even in the ground, but it also will fill up a hole you dig. it needs to be more waterproof when underground, in practice you will always need a working sump pump. that is more expensive than maintaining something above ground, where a simple waterproof roof is enough. the other major issue is digging is not cheap, especially if you want deep and hit bedrock. blasting a hole for a two story house in bedrock is more money than building the house in many areas. now talking about tracks, above ground you need to get a level surface and put rock down with track on top. below ground you have to dig a level tunnel, often through rock/mud, waterproof it, pump it dry, and then place the tracks down there. also you have people so ventilation and lighting needs to be taken care of, above ground that's free. we have all the tech to build underground, many places do it (crystal city, va has a whole network of underground shops and such), and it connects to the buildings. but it's expensive, the only time we ever build underground is when above ground is prohibitively expensive, so much so that blasting through rock becomes the cheap option. in places like nyc, that is the case, they are building the second ave subway line, right down the center of second ave. if they build an above ground subway it would be much cheaper, just build a steel support structure above the road as they have in a few other areas and it can be done only closing small sections of the road for a short period. but if they did that they would be putting tens to hundreds of thousands of peoples front doors under train tracks, the complaints and lawsuits would be enormous, they would lose the political backing required for the funding, it's just not possible, so they're spending a few billion dollars to dig a tunnel a couple miles long. the wiki says [$17bn+ for about 8.5 miles of track, much of which is in existing tunnels](_url_0_). but a tunnel is unseen and nobody cares, so it's cheaper in nyc. in nyc they actually tried building an above ground train to the airport (lga), the lawsuits were too much and it got canceled. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Avenue_Subway"
] | [
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is there any scientific basis behind the concept of "detoxing"? | my friend has become a huge proponent of detoxing. you've probably met someone like this. she puts all these additives in her drinks, claiming that she's experienced a whole host of beneficial effects, from her skin clearing up to gaining more energy, etc. i guess i could believe that some chemicals from processed food might remain stored in your body, but to be honest it all sounds like some hokey bs to me. is there any truth in the idea that some "natural ingredients" (one that i remember her talking about is dandelion juice) will flush these toxins from your body? and if they do, will you experience any palpable health benefits? | no. the human body is quite capable of removing most toxins itself and none of these products have been shown to have any real effect in removing "toxins." | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain how to calculate time dilation in a simple way? | when i look at the official time dilation formula my head kind of explodes. is there a way i could estimate the dilation rate fairly accurately without a lot of math? i'm looking for a dumbed down rule of thumb. | a simplified version of the formula for estimating the dilation rate given the speed in terms of c would be simply: sqrt( 1 - v² ). for example, you're travelling at 0.5c relative to something: sqrt( 1 - 0.5² ) = sqrt(0.75) ~= 0.866 for one second on your clock, their clock will advance only about 0.866 seconds. with 0.9c: sqrt( 1 - 0.9² ) = sqrt(0.19) ~= 0.436 one second on your clock is about 0.436 seconds on their clock. remember that velocity is relative as have been pointed out in the comments. they will experience the same time dilation in regards to your clock. your clock is slow to them, their clock is slow to you. edit: the above is wrong. i'll edit in a short while. edit2: there, should be correct now. edit3: and [here](_url_0_)'s a graph as you approach light-speed. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sqrt%281-x%C2%B2%29+from+0+to+1",
"http://leapsecond.com/great2005/"
] | [
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when psychologists say that a two year old should know between 200 and 300 words, how do they test that? | what kind of test would be given to quantify the vocabulary of children? is there any other way a psychologist might measure the speech of a child? | my wife is a speech language pathologist, she said you would basically count the number of words they know (understand or use). she uses assessments to do this. one assessment she might use is the ppvt, the peabody pearson vocabulary test. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i can use the lorentz transformation to work how how time and length contract w.r.t. velocity. is there a similar calculation i can do w.r.t to gravitation? | as in can i calculate time dilation effects (gamma) for a mass m at distance r from it? | /u/midtek gave a really good answer on calculating time-dilation in the weak-field limit of gr a little while ago. perhaps he will answer the summons and link that. edit: for now note that by making certain approximations you can calculate that the time dilation due to gravity factor is 1-v/c^2 where v is the gravitational potential. so that is 1+gm/(rc^(2)) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i had some superconducting wire and made a coil, could i just keep pushing more amps through it for a stronger magnetic field? | is there a limit to how powerful of a magnet i could create with superconducting coil of a given size if i had a nuclear power plant worth of power to push through it? | yes, there is. superconductors have a critical magnetic field they can sustain before the superconductivity is destroyed in the material. there is also a critical current beyond which the material becomes resistive. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v452/n7187/fig_tab/nature06837_F4.html"
] | [
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] |
could someone please explain bernoulli number? | every thread that i found has no comments, and when i tried to make a thread in /r/explainlikeimfive , no one commented either | i don't really understand what you want. the definitions found on the [wikipedia page](_url_0_) do not seem too complicated to understand for someone with a reasonable mathematical background. (and someone with no mathematical background should have no reason to be interested in those numbers in the first place). you have the sum s = 1^(m)+2^(m)+...+n^(m) this expression is not directly given in terms of n. you can reformulate it to an expression of the form : s = a*_1_* n + a*_2_* n^(2) + a*_2_* n^(3) + ... + a*_m+1_* n^(m+1) with a*_k_* being a certain rational number. a*_k_* is not directly the k-th bernouilli number but it can be easily recovered from that. (see the formula from the wiki page). is there something more specific that you want to know about these ? | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli_number"
] | [
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] |
after watching the recent black mirror episode "nosedive" and comparing it to my own experience with services like uber, i am wondering what does science say about 5-star rating systems, and what alternatives might work better? | there are different rating systems with different properties. five star is often used because it's very simple. five star rating systems ask raters to give value 1-5 to the rated object and the final rank is arithmetic average of the received votes. in the "nosedive" episode ranking was not simple five star. five star was just the input method. the ranking of the person giving the star affected the rank of the person being rated. there are real world rating systems that value votes differently. some give more reasoned ratings than others. [google page rank](_url_0_) is one example of this. instead of points, web sites have links to other sites that can be seen as rating the linked page valuable. google's page rank algorithm iteratively values the links according to the rank of the linking pages. one way to improve ranking is to make people to do comparisons. give people two options and ask them to rate one better than another. [elo rating system](_url_1_) can be used to calculate final ranking. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PageRank",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elo_rating_system"
] | [
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|
how do arthropods shed their exoskeleton and leave it more or less intact? | look at this picture: _url_0_ how does that cicada get those pants off without ripping it apart? they look like a tight fit, and the chitin must be stiff too. | arthropod molting or ecdysis is a multistep process. the first step of the process is the secretion of enzymes that cause the arthropod's old cuticle to separate from the underlying epidermal layer. the epidermal cells then secrete digesting fluids which are initially inactive. after their secretion, the arthropod produces the first layer of its new cuticle to protect the epidermal cells. the digesting fluids are activated, and they digest the internal layers of the old exoskeleton. the arthropod reabsorbs these compounds. these compounds are then used to construct a new exoskeleton under the old one. once the new exoskeleton is complete, the arthropod will molt. however, it still has to harden the new exoskeleton upon emergence (sclerotization). this is why recently emerged cicadas are pale green but those that have been out for a while are much darker. nc state has a [more detailed explanation](_url_0_) of this process. | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lyristes_plebejus.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/tutorial/morphogenesis.html"
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what can and can't get through our skin? is there a general rule? | why do nicotine patches work, yet putting a fruit smoothie on my arm won't absorb any of those nutrients? are there chemicals that can or can't penetrate the skin barrier? topical products? | not necessarily. a number of factors contribute to skin absorption. the epidermis is the main protective barrier of the skin. the dermis below is where absorption into the blood stream occurs. abrasions or cuts in the skin will allow chemicals to directly enter the blood stream. hair follicles and sweat glands, which cover the skin, can also be an entry point. solvents and several chemicals can enter the blood stream by irritating and degrading the epidermis of the skin. but generally, absorption has followed the 500 dalton rule: 1) virtually all common contact allergens are under 500 dalton, larger molecules are not known as contact sensitizers. they cannot penetrate and thus cannot act as allergens in man; 2) the most commonly used pharmacological agents applied in topical dermatotherapy are all under 500 dalton; 3) all known topical drugs used in transdermal drug-delivery systems are under 500 dalton. _url_0_ although there is some evidence that this rule is outdated. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10839713"
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is it possible for a virus or bacteria to become trapped in a blood clot and/or abscess and only be released when that object is popped or burst? | not sure about viruses but bacteria in an abscess, yes. "an abscess is a collection of pus. pus is a thick fluid that usually contains white blood cells, dead tissue and germs (bacteria)." | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how are boreholes drilled in antarctica? | i was reading about a borehole dug into the ice above lake vostok in antarctica, and the article claimed that surface water of the lake was found at a depth of roughly 3,800 meters. how are holes such as that dug in those inhospitable conditions? i've seen where large machines are used in oil fields, but it must be quite difficult to assemble such a thing on an ice sheet. | you're right, it is very difficult. the drilling rig is flown in on transport aircraft and/or hauled across the ice to the drilling site. otherwise, it's really not all that different than any other drilling. the big difference is in the drilling fluid. in conventional drilling, you do that with varius "muds" mixed with water. they provide the density and pressure to keep the hole from closing up on itself. in the case of the vostok boreholes, they obviously couldnt' use something water based, at least from one of the sources i saw, they used a mix of kerosene (jp8 jet fuel) and freeon. _url_0_ has some interesting information. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.southpolestation.com/trivia/10s/lakevostok.html"
] | [
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] |
how does adding energy to an e- move it to an orbital further from the nucleus? | i understand that electrons in higher orbitals have higher potential energies, but i dont understand what it is that changes in an electron that having a higher energy moves it further from the nucleus. | it is the same way that an object placed on top of a ladder has more potential energy. the nucleus and the electron attract each other just like a rock and the earth attract each other. (except with electromagnetic force instead of gravitational) moving the electron to a higher orbital requires that some energy be expended to counteract the force that attracts the nucleus and electron together, this is stocked as potential electric energy. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it "safer to leave it in."? i am asking about bullet wounds. | edit: bump | you can't just stick forceps in and pull out a whole bullet. you have to do a lot of cutting and digging to find the fragments. that's a lot of damage to do. often, the actual bullet path is small and many parts heal on their own. the fragments are fairly sterile, and the body will isolate them. leaving them in doesn't do much harm, in most cases. tl;dr: it's the lesser of two evils. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does this reaction occur? | in this reaction: 2li + 2hno3 -- > h2 + 2lino3 the lithium replaces the hydrogen. no3 has a higher standard reduction potential so why is the hydrogen replaced? | g = h - tds g is the gibbs free energy: the absolute energy in the system. h is the enthalpy, or energy contributed by bond cleavage and formation. t is temperature. s is entropy, the energy contributed by the 'disorder' of the system. the more negative the gibbs free energy, the more favourable the reaction. gas is more entropic than solution: it has more possible orientations for the molecules to be in. the entropy is the driving force in this reaction. even though the bond energies (or reduction potential) make the reaction seem unfavourable, the formation of the gas is sufficiently favourable that it overrides the enthalpic contribution. in short, the production of h2 gas increases the entropy of the system enough that the reduction potential of no3 doesn't matter. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are people "built" for a sport? can someone never be a runner? | basically, my question is this: are some people always going to be a "football player" and never be able to be a runner. i hear all the time coaches saying "that player is built to be a runner, not a hockey player" or things along those lines. is this true? could someone be just born "fat" and never be a runner? thoughts? | it is easy to see that some people are better built for different activities and/or sports. the perfect example is basketball. the taller you are, the more likely you will be better. i do not feel this question fully comes down to science however. personal perseverance plays a giant role in these things. as with anything if you work hard at it you can do it. there are people who are under 6 feet who play basketball after all. there is science to support this philosophy as well. you see it all the time with patients in the medical world. there are times where either due to a disease or trauma there will be patients who exhibit sever physical disability and when confronted with this information there are 2 responses you often see. primarily you see those who just accept it for what it is and accept they will be disabled. but then there are those who instantly will instantly push to overcome these disabilities. this is why you see musicians who have lost the use of a hand, or athletes who play with prosthesis. these are of course the extreme cases but, you see it in less severe cases as well. while there are somethings that can never be overcome, it seems like a lot of perseverance can push people to do amazing this. i know this doesn't answer you question exactly, but i guess what i'm trying to say is, that while someone may fit the mold of a runner better it doesn't mean they can be the best football player ever. i hope this helps | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much data do the eyes process in a single day? | let's assume the my eyes process 12 hours of high-definition 3d video (understatement). what does that convert to? | eyes, like neurons, are analog, so you can't truly measure their function in digital terms. (think about measuring the capacity of a vinyl record in any unit other than duration of play.) "3d video" isn't a very meaningful phrase either; what your eyes get are two slightly different 2d inputs that your brain cleverly upmixes into 3d. that said, if you just want a number and don't care what it means, let's go with the amount of data it would take to keep two eyes entertained with "hd" displays for 24 hours. i suppose we have 2 eyes × 1920 pixels wide × 1080 pixels high × 30 bits (color) per pixel (hdmi spec) × 30 frames per second (ntsc spec, but remember even the "framerate" of eyes is analog) × 24 hours = about **40 tb** before any sort of compression. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do newly hatched angler fish survive? | how do newly hatched angler fish survive? wouldn't the bacteria's light at the end of their... "thing" attract predators? i understand that adult angler fish can handle themselves but surely the adolescents and newly hatched must fall prey to something? while other fish can hide until adulthood how can something with a light on it in pitch blackness hide? | not much is known about angler fish, so some of what i am saying is speculative. first of all, the light that their organ produces is filled with bioluminescent bacteria, and they are the ones making the light. no animals are born/hatched with the bacteria in place, so while they have the organ, it still needs to be 'infected' with the right bacteria, which will then have to grow inside, before the organ can be effectively used. also, bony fish undergo a true metamorphosis, which means that many juvenile fish do not at all resemble their adult counterparts. so much so that marine biology keeps finding that two very distinct species in their registers are, in fact, the one and same species. now for angler fish that means that the fish larvae can look very different than the adults and do not necessarily have a luminescent organ. i do not know if juvenile angler fish have been identified yet. they could have a very different physiognomy and way of life than the adults. at this point i should point out that we are only talking female angler fish here - the males have no stomach and live a very, very alien life. but that is another matter. so i *assume* that juvenile angler fish do not lure prey with light, which would be too large in most cases anyway, and that instead they live off 'marine snow', organic matter consisting of remains of eaten animals and plants, feces and other organic matter that is produced in the photic zone and then slowly sinks through the depth. they consist on that, growing until they produce the active light organ upon which time they change their lifestyle and begin to live as predators. and of course the juveniles run great risk of ending up as food for something bigger; this is normal for most fish species. but remember that at this stage they *probably* do not announce their presence with a flash but hide in the darkness. oh yes just to make sure - that luminescent organ there only gives off intermittent flashes; it is not 'on' continually. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
can someone explain the tennis racket theorem? | the explanation on [wikipedia](_url_0_) is pretty good. if you have an object which is asymmetric, so that it has three distinct principal moments of inertia, the equations governing rigid body rotation admit solutions that are stable when the rotation is about the smallest and largest principal axes, and are unstable when the rotation is about the intermediate axis (where "large", "small", and "intermediate" refer to the order of the three principal moments). so if you place an object in free rotation about its intermediate axis, the motion is unstable, and you see it do weird things [like this](_url_1_). | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_racket_theorem#Theory",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1n-HMSCDYtM"
] | [
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] |
|
how do they construct the wheel portion of large ferris wheels like the london eye or the singapore flyer? | if the strength of the wheel comes from its completed shape how do they support a wheel of that size before the arc is completed? | for the london eye, they assembled it horizontally on piers before lifting it into position. [here's a promo video on it](_url_1_) the singapore flyer was assembled using steel supports, as shown in [this timelapse](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2IymrnRueSw",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XTvcYSjYrfk"
] | [
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] |
how are organs kept in place? why don't sudden movements cause them to be moved oddly? | how are they like, kept in place, what keeps them in place? also, why don't they move around/dislocate, upon sudden impact (of the outer body)? | _url_0_ if you've ever slaughtered an animal, you've seen that stuff. it's usually a thin, i would call it diaphanous membrane that's easily cut or pulled away, but strong enough to stabilize positions of organs in situ. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loose_connective_tissue"
] | [
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when two identical waves of 180 degrees phase difference meet they cancel out.where does their energy go? | as /u/rantonels pointed out, for the waves to cancel out at all times they must be traveling in the same direction. if two identical waves 180º out of phase traveling in opposite directions meet, they produce a standing wave whose amplitude is zero at two instants of time per period. at those moments, the energy is stored in the kinetic energy of the medium. if you think about a standing wave on a string, the individual points on the string are moving fastest when their displacement from equilibrium is zero, and they are instantaneously at rest at their maximum displacement (where all the energy is instead in some form of potential energy, depending on the kind of wave). | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a marked difference in the gut fauna of people who have different lifestyles? | i'm thinking of athletes versus sedentary people, vegans versus meat eaters or vegetarians, people with wildly 'unhealthy' diets or who are alcoholics to give some example. | yes! there are significant differences. one study shows that obese people have a far less diverse gut ecosystem within them than non-obese people. a common core microbiota between obese individuals and their lean relatives? evaluation of the predisposition to obesity on the basis of the fecal microflora profile m. ellia, , , o. colombob, a. tagliabueb other studies are also comparing lifestyles, conditions, and microbial flora. _url_0_ | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0007125",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=red-meat-clogs-arteries-bacteria",
"http://arstechnica.com/science/2013/04/feeding-our-gut-bacteria-meat-may-enhance-heart-disease-risks/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3493718/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20535027"
] | [
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] |
on a cellular level, what happens when you cut through organisms? | for example: does it cut through the actual cells or are you just breaking them apart? | it depends on how sharp the blade is. if the edge of the blade is larger than cells (such as with any steel knife, then yes you're just separating the tissue rather than cutting cells. blades made of glass or diamond, such as those used in [ultramicrotomy](_url_1_) and preparation of samples of transmission electron microscopy are capable of cutting cells. a diamond blade of a microtome can slice a red blood cell into 100 slices! [diamond blades](_url_0_) are even capable of slicing viruses which are much much smaller than cells. blades made of [obsidian](_url_2_) are also amazingly sharp, producing an smooth edge 3 nanometers thick. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_knife",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultramicrotomy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidian#Current_use"
] | [
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gaps in the evolutionary ladder. | based on the approximate scale of darwins theory of evolution, rise of man, & natural selection. the basic theory involved is our basic relation to the chimp and the scale is used as such. the 7-8 stages of mans evolution from chimp to upright man. but what happened to the stages in the process? serious answers only please, this really has my brain ready to explode. if natural selection is correct and we evolved from chimps, and the stages followed leading to our current state, then there should be active civilizations in existence currently of at least one or 2 of those in-between states, correct? because if natural selection & evolution caused chimps to evolve and breed, and evolve and breed again, eventually the chimp, in the original state would either be extinct or convoluted to the point of obscurity. but chimps in their comparitive state, still actively exist, which is where we base this theory. i hope this makes sense and someone can explain. thanks! edited for clarity: i understand we didnt come from chimps, but a common ancestor. | as kernco explained, humans and chimps evolved from a last common ancestor and i would like to explain this in more detail. **how does speciation proceed?** simply put there are two major types of speciation: first, when one species becomes two or more new species. (i.e. when species a becomes species b and c) or when one species transitions into a new species but the original species remains (i.e. when species a becomes species a and b...). now species a may remain around for a while or it may go extinct, likewise in scenario a (where species a becomes species b and c) we may find that species b goes extinct but species c survives. using a human example: species a = last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, species b = humans and species c = chimpanzees. in our case, our last common ancestor has gone extinct and humans and chimpanzees have both survived. remember that evolution has no goal or direction and that it is completely plausible that all other hominid species have gone extinct because they could not adapt to their changing environment. finally, not all fossils that we have found are in our direct lineage and so have not effected our evolution. so it is entirely possible that certain species go extinct without effecting our evolution because they are not part of our direct linage but some offshoot branch of our family tree which did not make it (comparable to a sister or aunt dying in your own family - they don't effect our survival or evolution, but they are still part of our family tree). the clincher is trying to figure our from fossils who is part of our direct linage (our mother, grandmother, great-grandmother) and who is just an offshoot (aunt, sister, cousin, great-aunt etc). **what is a last common ancestor or a most recent common ancestor?** the most recent common ancestor ([mrca](_url_3_)): "...is usually used to describe a common ancestor of individuals within a species. it can also be used to describe a common ancestor between species. to avoid confusion, last common ancestor (lca) or the equivalent term concestor is sometimes used in place of mrca when discussing ancestry between species." suffice to say that lca's or mrca's are the last ancestor that link all living and extinct descendants. i will explain this with an example and it will become more clear to you (i hope). so scientists use terms called last common ancestor (lca) or most recent common ancestor (mrca) to help illustrate evolutionary family trees. often times we have no idea exactly who this ancestor was because we don't have the actual fossil...we have an idea of what this ancestor look and acted like based on fossils of similar age which belong to that part of the family tree. basically we *infer* from fossils what our lca's or mrca's looked and behaved like. for example: [look at this picture](_url_1_). these are all apes (including humans). all apes share a last common ancestor that probably lived in asia. this lca was an ape but it was not any of the living ape species we have today. this ape lca would evolve into over many millions of years into the 6 different ape groups we see living today and many other extinct groups. wherever two lines meet on that picture represents an lca between all the species (living or extinct) that come after. so: chimps and humans share a mrlca. however, humans, chimps and gorillas also share an lca. again: humans, chimps, gorillas and orang-utans share a distinct lca. again: humans, chimps, gorillas, orangs and gibbons share an distinct "ape" lca. hopefully you are starting to get a picture of how species undergo speciation. **where did we evolve and who did we evolve from?** humans and chimpanzees share a mrlca that lived in africa about 6 million years ago. *this mrlca was not a human and it was not a chimp it was its own species.* however, it probably looked like and acted more like a modern chimp than a modern human. this mrlca would split into two groups, one lineage would give rise to the chimps and bonobos. the other would give rise to humans. i will now talk about the human lineage. but before humans (homo sapiens) evolved there were several other species that came before us in our lineage. here is an overview of the major fossil categories in our lineage, starting from oldest to youngest: 1. last common ancestor with chimps (it was neither a chimp, nor a human but its own species): ~ 6mya 2. the earliest fossil we have in our lineage is [sahel](_url_6_) ~5-6 mya. found in africa. 2. one of the earliest complete groups that we have the best fossils for are the [australopithecines](_url_2_): ~ 4 mya all found in africa. 3. the genus *homo* diverges from some australopithecine species: ~ 2-3 mya. the first homo species is [h habilis](_url_0_) although the placement of this fossil is debated. all found in africa. 4. evolution of the homo lineage - our genus. the exact placement of these species is debated but here is one hypothesis that is a strong contender. * *h habilis* evolves into *[h. ergaster](_url_4_)* in africa. * *h. ergaster* (africa) migrated out of africa and became *h. erectus* in asia. * *[h. heidelbergensis](_url_5_)* evolved from either h. ergaster or h. erectus in africa and/or europe. * *h. neaderthalensis* evolved from european *h. heidelbergensis* in europe ~600,000 years ago * humans evolved in africa from a small population of *h. heidelbergensis*. then we migrated out of africa where we encountered: neanderthals, and *h. erectus*. these two species went extinct and we lived. anatomically modern humans (*homo sapiens*) appear in the fossil record about ~200,000 years ago. **eli5 version** * humans and neanderthals are sisters and we come from the same mom (h. heidelbergensis). neanderthals were "born" first in one place (europe) and we were "born" second (in africa). our mom continued to live even after we were born. our mom "died" first then our older sister "died" next, but not too long ago. * to take this further our mom had a mom herself, our grandmother (h. erectus). our grandmother had other children besides our mom (our aunts - like h. floresiensis). h. floresiensis did not directly contribute to us being here but they are still part of our "family tree". our aunt died before she had children. * the further we go back the more our records become muddled. was sahel our great-great-great grandmother or just some random great-great-great aunt who died without children? the same can be asked for all the other fossils we have (like the australopithecines) are they our direct ancestors or some branch of our family tree that went extinct before it managed to evolve into a species that could compete? **recall: the clincher is trying to figure our from fossils who is part of our direct linage (our mother, grandmother, great-grandmother) and who is just an offshoot (aunt, sister, cousin, great-aunt etc).** in our giant family tree we are the only ones left alive. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_habilis",
"http://www.answersingenesis.org/assets/images/articles/ee/v2/apes-and-humans-tree.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australopithecus",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_ergaster",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahelanthropus"
] | [
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how do emulsions stay together? | [deleted] | let's take 2 immiscible liquids (water and oil).you know they can't mix. they don't form any kind of interaction between them. let's say you put few drops of oil in water: oil will tend to form a huge drop on top of water. moreover oil will try to keep a circular form, in order to keep its contact surface with water to the minimum. if you stir you just break the drop, forming smaller drops inside water. as soon as you stop stirring the oil drops will coalesce once again on top of water (it'll happen pretty fast). & #x200b; the whole story changes if you insert a surfactant (let's say you put soap in the water and oil solution). soap is an amphiphile, meaning it has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic nature. as you put soap in the water and oil solution (and stir) the hydrophobic chains of the soap will form non-covalent interactions with the oil. at the same time the polar heads of the soap (hydrophilic) will try to keep close to water molecules, due to polar interaction with them. the result of this is the formation of micelles. micelles are spherical particles, exposing the hydrophilic polar heads on the outside surface (in contact with the water solvent) and keeping inside the hydrophobic chains in contact with oil. micelles are infact "storing" oil inside _url_1_ sounds like a stable solution now, doesn't it? micelles are dispersed inside the water solvent, carrying the oil inside where the environment is hydrophobic. the point is: what happens if 2 micelles get closer and closer? they will coalesce, creating a bigger micelle (still circular! it rearrenges itself pretty fast, since oil wants to stay inside, as far as it can from water) formed by the 2 previous _url_0_ micelles are randomly diffusing inside the water solvent they are more likely to encounter one another as time passes. so if you leave your solution still for some time (usually atleast hours) you'll start seeing a phase division: oil will start forming the phase on top of the water as you saw happening in the solution without soap. this phase on top of the water forms as a bigger and bigger micelle is formed inside the solution (the bigger the micelle the more the difference in water and oil density will play a role. gravity pulls friendo!). moreover you'll notice soap under the oil, as it will keep hydrophobic chains in contact with the oil on top and polar heads still immersed in water. if you now stir your solution again you'll reform small micelles. & #x200b; usually this is what happens. otherwise it can be a big difference in density of solute and solvent, which can slowly cause separation as gravity exerts its endless role. | 2 | [] | [] | [
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road salt and road longevity | i've heard a number of different people say that road salt has an adverse effect on roads. i had always figured that roads that were cracked and full of potholes were the result of plows and water/ice expanding in holes in the ground. is there any chemical and/or physical effect the salt would have on roads that would make them deteriorate faster? | road salt increases the number of freeze/thaw cycles that you mentioned, which in turn causes faster deterioration. i would also think that the chloride ion in salt could cause corrosion in bridges reinforced with steel. edit: [gotta have sources](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/11/121105081505.htm"
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if i setup a funnel to catch the wind, would it speed up the wind's speed? if so, to what degree and what is the maximum of this? | ignoring some confounding complexities, the conservation of volume alone yields a very simple relation: a x v = constant, where a is the cross-sectional area of a pipe and v is the velocity of the fluid. so if you restrict the cross-sectional area by half you double the speed of air flow, for example. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
got 1.5 hrs of sleep last night, but ran my easiest mile in a month tonight. why would that happen? | protip: you won't get a definite scientific answer to fitness related questions most of the time because there are too many factors at play. in your case, it could've been a 100% mental thing as well as hormonal changes working to your advantage. hydration levels and changes in metabolism also come to mind. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if solitary hunters such as raptors, ferrets, minks, and cormorants can be trained to cooperate with humans to catch prey, does this mean that pack hunting is an entirely nurture acquired trait? | i think is one nurtured arguably and not instinctual. i think the instinctual process comes down to the evolution of predator behavior-recognition of dominance would be an example of lions. group behavior is learned. going off of lions, females tend to pack hunt since they their own hierarchy within the females; outside of the dominant male lion over the whole pride. females are also smaller and are more stealthy due to size and less outstanding features, making them ideal for hunting prey. males do not hunt in packs. other than the instances with rogue males trying to establish their own prides, where it does benefit to hunt together. why it pays off for males to take over a pride with a pack of females to hunt for them. they offer new genes and protection of the females from other rogue males challenging the pride’s male and killing the offspring. females are less capable to fend of males due to size. also the females that team up to kill the new male that has also slain the old male would be pointless and leave them without breeding abilities and another male would come in to take over. so i would argue there isn’t a set rule if a lion must be in a pack to kill prey. i would argue it depends on the conditions. the animal has to adapt the the environment around it, or it will die. isolation and diverse environments can bring out different behaviors and what would be more beneficial and give a higher likelihood to survive. i don’t believe a group of domesticated dogs that eat dog food everyday and never experience hunting period, would instinctually turn to be successful at chasing down a cat. i hypothesize they would all chase independently out of instinct. doubtful they would be successful in a pack mentality without having learned and failed together, but only successful in this instance from their own personal abilities. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is their such a thing as a poisonous snake? | obviously there are venomous snakes, and poisonous snake is often used interchangeably, incorrectly. but is there a poisonous snake? there are poisonous frogs, but i can't think of any poisonous reptiles at all. google searches are overflowing with incorrect uses of poisonous. | so our quick definitions are: **venomous:** venom is injected and you are harmed **poisonous:** poison is ingested (eaten) or absorbed and you are harmed [(source)](_url_1_) i'll first say that i'm stunned how many published article in scientific journals used these word synonymous. i also had difficulty finding reliable information. i was able to find two closely related species of snake that sequester toxins from their prey and become poisonous ([snake 1]( _url_2_) [snake 2]( _url_0_)). this is the exception rather than the rule. the majority of snakes are not poisonous and can be safely eaten. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://faculty.virginia.edu/brodie/files/publications/williams%20et%20al%20JCE%202004.pdf",
"http://www.diffen.com/difference/Poison_vs_Venom",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/104/7/2265.full"
] | [
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] |
is the observer paradox in the double split experiment because we are looking or a result of the instruments we are using to look? | i'm talking about the fact that when we look at it which hole the particle is going through we get a different result than if we don't look. do we know what the cause is? | consciousness has nothing to do with quantum effects. as pablita5 already said, "observe" is scientific jargon for "measure". in the double-slit experiment they put a detector over one or both slits. it's the interaction with the (physical) detector that causes the waveform to collapse, not any person. in fact, there is a modification of the double-slit to prove this. if you perform the experiment again but don't measure the output of the photon detector the waveform still collapses. no person involved. this is actually one of the unsolved problems in quantum computing, which is where my familiarity with this subject comes from. we don't yet know how to build a quantum computer that doesn't unintentionally observe itself too early and collapse its own superposition. (as of circa 2006 when i last looked into this.) | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it actually possible for a camel to go through the eye of a needle if it goes fast enough, or do i just not understand relativity? | because of length contraction under special relativity, if we accelerate a camel at a high enough speed, shouldn't we be able to make it go through the eye of a needle (theoretically)? | length contraction happens in the direction of travel only. a high-velocity camel going past you forwards would be observed not to be very long from nose to tail, but just as wide and as tall as the more common nearly-stationary camels. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens physiologically during exercise that can help us not only prevent osteoporosis, but even cause an increase bone mineral density? | i know about the bone remodeling with osteoblasts and osteoclasts, but what actually happens to this process when forces are applied to bones that causes an increase in bmd. furthermore, when astronauts are in space and their bones are not under normal forces due to mechanical unloading they can lose up to 1-2% of their bone mass per month on weight bearing bones (accelerated by a factor of 10). what is happening on this side of the spectrum that causes bmd to drop so significantly? | the remodeling of the bones is very responsive to mechanical stress. when you exercise, you place stress on the bones, and they respond by laying down more bone matrix, thus increasing bone density. astronauts in space are not experiencing the same gravitational pull from the earth that they normally would. therefore, when they are out in the zero-gravity environment of space, their bones are experiencing much less mechanical stress than they are on earth, and their bones respond by decreasing the amount of new bone matrix they lay down. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how far in the past would you need to go before the air becomes unbreathable to humans? | friend of mine and i were debating this earlier - if you were hypothetically transported back in the past, how far could you go while still being able to breathe the air? | from a few minutes of cursory research, it looks to me like a typical human will die at oxygen levels of 6%, meaning unconsciousness will occur at levels above that. according to [this chart from wikipedia,](_url_1_) useable oxygen levels hit 10% around 600 million years ago, so you would probably survive as far back as that. however, the feeling of suffocation doesn't come from lack of oxygen but rather from abundance of carbon dioxide. the further back you go, the worse it would feel on your lungs. although you'd technically be able to breathe 600 million years ago, you'd feel like you were breathing water because the co2 content was potentially as high as 25 times what it is today [chart](_url_0_). | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phanerozoic_Carbon_Dioxide.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj2.png"
] | [
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what do i have to do to be able to call myself a scientist? | i think i may have some people disagree with me, but i would say "do it as a career". if your day job is doing science, then you're a scientist. i like to write stories. i even have bits & pieces of a novel on my hard drive, but i don't consider myself an author. it's just for fun, it's not my profession. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there such a thing "oversleeping?" is there really a perfect number for hour-to-sleep? | what's the science behind statements like "too much sleep is bad for you?" is there really such a thing as "oversleeping" also, there seems to be a lot of studies suggesting that there is a perfect number of hours to sleep (usually suggesting its somewhere between 6 and 9). what's the deal with that, and why do people think that such a number even exists? there seems to be a lot of pseudoscience around sleep, so i'm hoping the experts here can clear things up :) | i am not an expert but i have a family friend who is. i have tried to find the research papers that he has described to me, but failed, so you should believe any responses that have research papers to back them up instead of mine. according to this sleep researcher, you cannot sleep too much unless you are clinically depressed. sleep studies found that people who were forced to stay in their bed for up to 13 hours a night with the lights off and no distractions would sleep several extra hours, then eventually sleep around 8 and 1/2 hours and be happier, healthier people. they have validated this study a number of times and found that people cannot sleep too much and they are simply catching up from lost sleep (again, unless they are clinically depressed). sleep studies have consistently found that people sleep on average around 8 and 1/4 to 8 and 1/2 hours a night when they made up for any sleep deprivation. they also found that when people weren't allowed to sleep this much, their abilities in mental activities or activities involving reactions got worse for every night that they lost sleep (i believe that as little as 1/2 hour of sleep can make a statistically significant difference). the only problem with this research might be a selection bias in the people who are willing to participate in sleep research and sleep in a research lab. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/59/2/131"
] | [
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"the world's combined computing power -- every supercomputer, every personal desktop, every laptop, every cpu anywhere -- could not crack aes for many trillions of years." --redditor qdp119 is this true? | i had this sent to me as a reply to a remark i made about the effectiveness of cryptography. is what this guy says true? | we can encrypt things pretty easily to a degree that, if the entire universe was made into a giant super computer it (probably) wouldn't be able to crack the encryption if left running for as long as the universe has existed. i say probably because it's just an odds thing. when brute-force cracking the computer just tries every possible combination. it might by fluke get the answer in the first hour, but it's so unlikely that it's not worth considering as possible. it's more than possible we'll discover new math or new hardware designs that will improve the efficiently of this process greatly though. currently, brute-force cracking well encoded things is virtually impossible. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the difference in skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle contraction, and do the sliding filament theory apply to all? | the basic contractile elements for all three muscle types are very similar. you have actin filaments that interact with myosin ii in a manner that causes contraction over entire cells due to the contraction of individual actin-myosin subunits. the arrangement of these subunits is what differentiates smooth muscle from striated muscle (cardiac & skeletal). in striated muscle, the actin-myosin subunit is how it is [pictured](_url_0_) in a lot of textbooks. these subunits involve z-disks which have actin filaments coming out from them in parallel lines, with myosin in between. these subunits are repeated throughout the entire cell. the difference between skeletal and cardiac muscle cells is how individual cells in each group can affect their neighbors. in skeletal muscle, most cells stretch the entire length of the macroscopic muscle organ, and are individually activated by nervous impulse. in cardiac muscle, cells are separated by intercalated disks, which have many gap junctions, allowing the action potential from a nervous impulse to be transmitted from one muscle cell to the next. this allows coordinated muscle contraction. smooth muscle is quite different in that it doesn't have the same pattern as striated muscle. the actin-myosin subunit is differently shaped, and the interaction between actin and myosin is differently regulated. in striated muscle troponin and associated protein expose the actin binding sites for myosin to bind, but in smooth muscle, you have calmodulin-based kinase that activates or deactivates the actin-myosin binding. also, as seen [here](_url_1_) the actin-myosin subunits are not parallel, and cause smooth muscle to contract in unique ways necessary for its function, for example, vasodilation. smooth muscle also has gap junction connections to neighboring muscles cells, allowing coordinated/rhythmic contraction, such as in the muscle surrounding the gut. it also should be noted that cardiac muscle and smooth muscle are exclusively involuntary. only skeletal muscle is voluntary. | 2 | [] | [] | [
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|
does the human genome contain a single program to construct hands and feet? | i assume that the genome contains some program (network of transcription factors etc.) to construct a right hand. is this program reused in a modified fashion to construct a left hand? if so, how is the mirror symmetry dealt with? finally, is the same program also used to construct the feet, or has the program been duplicated elsewhere in the genome for this purpose? | the short answer is basically yes, all four limbs have basically the same embryologic origin, but with different factors directing their differentiation. this site is a solid primer: _url_0_ sonic hedgehog and fibroblast growth factor are essential for proper signalling, with homeobox (hox) genes controlling proximal-distal (i.e. shoulder-hand) growth as well as coding for the difference between upper and lower limbs. (in fact, as far as hox goes, not only do we use the same program to make hands and feet, we use pretty much the same blueprints flies do.) anterior-posterior (i.e. thumb-pinky) asymmetry is controlled by the zone of polarizing activity, again via sonic hedgehog; both thumbs grow one way along the anterior-posterior axis, and pinkies grow on the other side. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://web.duke.edu/anatomy/embryology/limb/limb.html"
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[weekly discussion thread] scientists, do patents help or hurt scientific progress? | this is our seventh installation of the weekly discussion thread. today's topic is a suggestion by an as panelist. topic: do patents help or hurt scientific progress or does it just not matter? this is not about a specific field where we hear about patents often such as drug development but really about all fields. please follow our usual rules and guidelines and please be sure to avoid all politically motivated commenting. if you want to become a panelist: _url_1_ last weeks thread: _url_0_ | they can both help and hurt. it's about finding balance. too much patent protection makes it hard for someone to take existing tech and expanding it and modifying it, but no protection at all makes it less desirable to sink a lot of money into r & d. i generally side with the less protection side, as i've yet to see anyone in any industry who has said 'i'm not even going to try because someone will just steal it anyway." | 15 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/vdve5/weekly_discussion_thread_scientists_do_you_use/",
"http://redd.it/ulpkj"
] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambus#section_3"
] | [
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how does a "loop sensor" in a street work? | in particular, if my car was parked over one when powered down, and then it's turned on, would it sense me? or does it only detect "flux", meaning a -moving- vehicle passing over it? | the inductive loop is a big, low power electromagnet, with no core (or with an "air core" if you like). it operates as an inductor coil normally and an electrical signal with a certain carefully selected frequency is circulated through it. when a conductor is placed within the electromagnetic field of the loop the magnetic field properties change due to induced currents in the conductor. this changes the frequency response of the inductor, a signal that can be detected by the monitoring equipment. what matters is primarily the surface area of conductive material (metal) near the road surface. a huge lifted truck actually generates a weaker signal than a tiny low clearance sports car. some vehicles have a very small horizontal cross section near the ground (bicycles and motorcycles) so are not as easily detectable. also, it doesn't matter whether or not your car is running, if it contains a substantial amount of metal it will generally be detected. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is this claim by netflix that its streaming service is more energy efficient than breathing and reading true? | _url_0_ > in 2014, netflix infrastructure generated only 0.5g of co2e emissions for each hour of streaming. the average human breathing emits about 40g/hour, nearly 100x as much. sitting still while watching netflix probably saves more co2 than netflix burns. > the amount of carbon equivalent emitted in order to produce a single quarter-pound hamburger can power netflix infrastructure to enable viewing by 10 member families for an entire year! > a viewer who turned off their tv to read books would consume about 24 books a year in equivalent time, for a carbon footprint around 65kg co2e - over 200 times more than netflix streaming servers, while the 100w reading light they might we use would match the consumption of the tv they could have watched instead! does this claim by netflix check out or is netflix cherry-picking (i.e. isps with most-energy efficient servers/switches/routers, using the most efficient tvs and access points)? less so the 'reading' energy offset saved claim, because that is a little silly. | i love the netflix tech blog. they put out some really excellent information any serious systems/network architect can find valuable. [chaos monkey](_url_0_) being one good example. tearing apart the statement i am going to have to assume they included all the carbon releases necessary to raise the meat, process it, transport it to market, keep it cool, cook it, and serve it to you. on that basis, it seems mathematically plausible. assume 20 hours per family per month, 12 months per year, 10 familes total... 2400 hours of streaming per year, i think? they have the back-end to keep rate-optimized copies of each stream so they don't need to do transcoding on the fly, they just basically deliver chunks of data to you and let your computer render it. with the efficiency of web load-balancers these days, i think 2400 streaming hours equaling about 20kwh (the rough energy input of every stage of getting that delicious burger onto my plate) is, in my experience running data centers, generally believable. my inner beancounter wants to reverse-engineer their statement because it provides a couple interesting snippets of data, including how many hours per year per account they project for use, and probably hints at what kind of costs they have for their aws usage. tl;dr: there was probably useful information in their post, but i don't think it had anything to do with apples, oranges, or hamburgers. | 3 | [] | [
"http://techblog.netflix.com/2015/05/netflix-streaming-more-energy-efficient.html"
] | [
"http://techblog.netflix.com/2012/07/chaos-monkey-released-into-wild.html"
] | [
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why are those caterpillars crossing the road with remarkable order ? (picture inside). | picture : _url_0_ i spotted those guys today on my way to lunch. there was maybe 20 or 30 caterpillars walking in the same direction. they formed those chains and followed each others. there was some construction work approximately 100 meters in the opposite direction. maybe they were fleeing ? but why would they form a line ? | might not be the exact same species, but look up the pine processionary caterpillar ([wikipedia](_url_0_),[another site](_url_1_)) which is named for this exact "procession" behavior. so basically they're a bunch of probably-siblings that live together normally, and they may leave their silk-nests to find new food-sources or sites to pupate. their conga-line is a way to avoid getting separated while traveling. | 10 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/o1PIXZl"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine_Processionary",
"http://web.cortland.edu/fitzgerald/pineprocessionary.html"
] | [
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] |
why are dopants limited to 3. and 5. period? | when doping semiconductors of the 4. period i have only heard of using 3. and 5. period elements as dopands, why are there no 2. or 6. period elements used? | some can be used, but rarely are because they don't provide the desirable energy levels. remember, a semiconductor has a small band gap of allowed energy levels between the valence band and the conduction band. doping the semiconductor with various species changes the fermi level in that region by changing the allowed energy levels. by doping some regions as n-type and some as p-type (which are physically adjacent) we create an energy "hill" that the charge carriers can't easily get over, but the height of which can be modulated electrically. with the species that are typically used, such as b and p and as, the fermi levels created are pretty close to the valence and conduction bands, so the natural si bandgap of 1.12ev is reduced slightly but not too much. we still leave an energy "hill" of about 0.7ev. we can use [other species](_url_0_), but they mostly create fermi levels that are closer to the middle of the bandgap. this reduces the barrier level we are left with, and maximizes the recombination/regeneration sites as well. the result is that we still have a built-in energy hill, but it is too easy for carriers to get over. we've created a "leaky" junction. some species also have some other undesirable effects in si, such as high diffusivity. cu and au are famous for this. it's hard to make a good junction when the dopants won't stay put. also, some dopants create multiple allowed energy levels. and some dopants don't fit well into a si lattice and cause dislocations or other defects. some dopants are a pain in the butt to implant due to their physical characteristics at room temperature. even so, there are some uses for such dopants. for example, au is sometimes used in very high frequency transistors. since the barrier is lower, the space charge region is smaller and the minority lifetime is smaller. so even though they will tend to leak a bit, their transfer characteristics can be rapidly modulated. (most fabs won't allow au in their tools, however. just a little au contamination ruins most integrated circuits.) edit1: added link to ionization energy chart edit2: added comments about dislocations, implants, au contamination | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.globalsino.com/micro/1/1micro9927.html"
] | [
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what determines the frequency that mobile charges are absorbed at in a crystal? | i think it has to do with the mobility. for example, if i have a photoexcited carrier in a semiconductor and excited with the appropriate frequency (microwave to far infrared i think) what determines which frequency it absorbs at? is it only the effective mass? | i'm a little bit confused on your question: you're wondering what would happen if you bump a charge carrier, let's say an electron, with a bit of energy (from a photon in particular), how often/easily/quickly would it be absorbed by the crystal lattice? i think effective mass would be important, and i'm a bit rusty on my solid-state/semiconductors (been a few years since my semi class) but a few other things would come in to play i imagine. for instance, at different temperatures the fermi-dirac distribution would have different smearing, which means that there would be more or less occupied low energy states for an excited electron to fall in to. but it seems like the best way to characterize absorption given things like doping, temperature and other variables would be through mobility, which is typically temperature dependent anyway. there are a lot of things that factor into mobility, more than just effective mass: [here](_url_0_) are a few. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_mobility#Relation_between_scattering_and_mobility"
] | [
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can someone please explain to me why the "drinking bird" science toy isn't used to produce free (not perpetual) energy? | in case you don't know what i'm talking about: _url_0_ seems to me having energy from thermal reaction as well as gravitational would be a better source than just sun or wind. all'd you have to do, is put a bigger "drinking bird" on the edge of a still water source (dam) and enclose it in glass. but the pool of water it pulls from is filled by water flowing outside the glass. the sun keeps the air inside hot, the water filtered from outside keeps it temperature cooler, furthering the displacement. then just transfer that mechanical energy into electricity. | [this video](_url_0_) explains the entire operation of the toy. the toy does not produce energy, it uses evaporative cooling to absorb energy from the environment and transform the liquid water it absorbs from the cup into water vapor. it's a cool (no pun intended) transformation of heat to kinetic energy, and i would suspect very inefficient. when there is no more water in the cup, the toy will stop moving. | 9 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o9v9Dn4ildo"
] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nyczz9NsFgs",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zCGTNArwJ0s"
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what is global dimming and how does it relate to global warming/climate change? | hey, i recently stumbled upon some information about global warming and found this summary and transcript of a programme about global dimming and how dust particles counteract global warming. [global dimming](_url_0_) why is no one talking about this and if dust particles and jet streams are counteracting the warming of the earth, can science tell us how to proceed? | aerosols have long been known to have an influence on the climate. depending on what they are and on where they are, they can either cool or warm the planet. see for example this plot of the amount of [radiative forcing](_url_0_) of a number of important factors. aerosols have a net cooling effect, which is mostly caused by their influence of cloud albedo and by direct shielding; for example, an unpredicted, strong increase of [sulphur dioxide emissions in china](_url_1_) is partly responsible for the stagnation in short-term annual warming. note however that the uncertainties in the aerosol forcings are quite large still, which reflects our lack of knowledge about some of the involved processes. your article suggests that the cooling effect of aerosols is on the stronger side of the assumed uncertainties, which would mean that the co2 sensitivity is actually stronger than we think it is (otherwise there wouldn't have been a net warming), which in turn means that global warming will be much stronger (due to the ongoing process of cleaning up our emissions) than predicted today. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/dimming_prog_summary.shtml"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Radiative-forcings.svg",
"http://www.salon.com/2011/07/05/us_sci_global_warming_pollution/"
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will the water cycle ever reach an equilibrium? | i've been thinking over this for a few days, and it seems to me that the cycle oscillates between water evaporating and raining. will this cycle ever dampen out to be some kind of equilibrium? sorry if this sounds like a dumb question. | not while the system continues to be driven by heat from the sun. if the sun suddenly stopped shining then i imagine the system would actually reach equilibrium rather quickly. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does this strange chemical reaction occur? | i recently put a us $1 coin in some phosphoric acid. after 2 days of soaking, the clear acid had turned to a sludgy black substance. when i put water in it, it instantly turned a blue/green color. can someone explain to me exactly what is happening here? thanks | modern us $1 coins are made primarily out of copper, but also contain zinc, manganese. older coins will also contain a layer of metal oxides on the surface. the acid would react with the metals to produce the corresponding phosphate salts. agitation will remove the the layer of oxides and the metal ions into the solvent, to yield a solution of mostly copper phasphate. these phosphates have low solubility in water, which is why they form the small particles that gives a 'sludgy' appearance to the suspension. my guess would be that the black substance is manganese phosphate, whereas the green-blue substance is mostly copper phosphate (and cu(ii) hydrated ions). dilution will also increase the amount of dissolved phosphates in the suspension, which will also contribute to the change you have witnessed. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
we've known about these "black, spidery" things on mars since 1998. is any current research being done to try and identify them? anybody here have an educated guess? | [here's an article from npr, i can't find any scientific articles on them at the moment](_url_1_) the two most common theories are co2 geysers and "sunbathing microbial life." it's amazing to me that there exists an unexplained martian phenomenon yet no one seems very excited about it. **edit** so i just realized that i found the damn article *on reddit*, as so often happens. there's a fairly lively conversation going on over in /r/science: [_url_0_](_url_0_) | no one is very excited about it because the common belief is that there is an almost zero chance these things are microbial in nature. sure, it's one of the proposed theories thrown out there, but that doesn't tell you anything about how likely it is actually considered. even if the geyser theory is refuted, that doesn't automatically move "microbial life" up as being probable. as far as i am aware, no one on the scientific team (of which there are many) coordinating the current mars expedition thinks it is likely mars has harbored life anytime in the past ~1.8 billion years, and likely as much as 3.5 billion years ago (if mars ever held life at all). the current site for the mars rover is an absolutely fantastic location for science. sure, they *could* have pinned everything (billions of dollars) on sending the rover to this one location, under the extremely unlikely chance these feature are microbial, but i think we can all agree that would not be an intelligent use of funds. in the current location (gale crater), there are a whole slew of very interesting features all located within a fairly small distance of one another. the potential to study through billions of years of geologic strata exists there. and we *know* there are promising signs of climate change within the features in the crater, so it is very likely we will be able to develop pretty good estimates for how the epochs on mars have developed over the billions of years (like just how wet/dry they were, or what chemical processes were dominate at the time). if there has ever been life on mars, it is *far* more likely to have developed during mars' wet periods than the current dry, high-radiation, cold, inhospitable period. for what it's worth, there are a *ton* of unexplained features on mars. heck, there are unexplained features here on earth. it may sound mysterious and promising when scientists come across something they can't explain, but it's not unusual at all. reading: _url_1_ _url_0_ (with additional links at the bottom of that page) | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/10yxos/strange_black_observed_on_mars_their_appearance/",
"http://www.npr.org/blogs/krulwich/2012/10/02/162147810/are-those-spidery-black-things-on-mars-dangerous-yup"
] | [
"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/timeline/prelaunch/landingsiteselection/aboutgalecrater/",
"http://www.astrobio.net/exclusive/2115/mars-time-for-a-new-chronology"
] | [
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why are you more likely to become hypothermic while taking aspirin? | aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (nsaids) inhibit prostaglandin synthesis, and prostaglandins are involved in the regulation of body temperature. this is explains why these drugs help reduce fevers. however, i am not aware of any literature supporting the hypothesis that this also contributes to hypothermia. animal studies in the '70s were inconclusive and there is little to no good data on nsaid's and hypothermia in humans. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how can we explain not selecting against traumatic insemination (bedbugs etc)? | wouldn't it be more advantageous for any species to have all individuals involved in reproduction be receptive to it? | no. it's in the female's best interest to carefully choose her mate and it's in the male's best interest to inseminate anyway. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's more important: hot water or soap? | i have a mug on my desk and, like millions of other workers, after i finish my hot beverage of choice i proceed to rinse out my mug thoroughly using the instant boiler to 'clean it'. once the mug starts to stain pretty bad i then take it home and wash it using hot (but not boiled) soapy water to clean the mug and get rid of the stains. my question is: what is actually better at removing germs and bacteria? boiled water (around 95oc) or hot water (60oc) with soap? to expand on that more, how important is hot water in the washing of our hands when soap is used as well? the hot water taps in the bathrooms in my work are either frigid cold or blisteringly hot, so i often need to use cold water and soap to wash my hands to prevent burns. but how well does this actually clean my hands? what is the science behind this? | it's been a while since i took chemistry, so hopefully someone else can chime in, but the reason we use soap is because of it's chemical properties. [here's](_url_1_) an article that gives an overview of the chemistry of soap. the short version is that soap is something called an emulsifier, that let's us dissolve things in water that otherwise don't mix in with water (think oil for example). so soap allows us to wash off bacteria (and other dirt) that otherwise would tend not to be effected by water. also the chemistry of soap means that it will help to break down the cell membrane of bacteria, which will further clean your hands. as far as hot water goes, heating up bacteria can kill them by destroying the proteins that are essential to life. it doesn't particularly matter if the water was previously boiled or not, what matters is the current temperature. [here's](_url_0_) a site that talks about using heat to destroy bacteria. so as far as washing your hands goes, soap is definitely the way to go. the water would have to be far too hot to be comfortable (or even safe) to do direct damage to the bacteria on your hands. plus any gunk on your hands would stay put, since it doesn't mix well with water in the absence of soap. [here's](_url_2_) a link to a scientific paper advocating that we stop recommending that people wash their hands with warm or hot water at all. [here's](_url_3_) a different paper talking about how important soap is when washing your hands. as far as your coffee mug goes, i think you might be ok either way. soap will certainly deal with bacteria, and will also get rid of stains and other dirt. on the other hand, 95^0 c water should kill most of the bacteria that can infect you. in either case, cleaning at a microbial level takes longer than you probably think (1-2 min). personally, i'd bring a bottle of dish soap to work, and wash the mug in the sink. of course, if you really want to sterilize your mug, what you need is some 70% (140 proof) alcohol. so just keep a bottle of moonshine in your desk and make sure to tell your boss it's for hygiene. i'm sure he'll understand. edit: fixed some typos and added a reference. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/water/drinking/boilwater/response_information_public_health_professional.htm",
"http://chemistry.about.com/od/cleanerchemistry/a/how-soap-cleans.htm",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijcs.12012/abstract",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3037063/"
] | [
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is there a scientific explanation for a beer gut? are they even real, or the result of being inactive? | beer contains a high amount of calories. that is really why beer became popular. back in the old days it was a good way to store cereal and grain crops to keep them from spoiling while maintaining the nutritional value. many of the variations in styles of beers can be attributed to what grew well in particular areas. given the amount of calories per serving and knowing how much some people drink it adds up quick. consider that a regular beer on average has about 150 calories... if you kill a six pack you just consumed almost half of your daily caloric intake. if you do that on a regular basis and are not an active person (burning more calories than you take in) it will get stored. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3175488.stm",
"http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/v57/n10/full/1601678a.html"
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|
why was aristotle wrong? | he argued that objects fall to the ground in proportion to their weight. is the force of gravity not dependent on the mass between 2 objects? wouldn't two objects of varying mass accelerate at different speeds on a micro scale? is gravity (in this case) just negligible because of the mass difference between 2 rocks and our planet? should we redo galileo's experiment now that we have more accurate testing technology? | force = mass x acceleration acceleration = force / mass since, as you alluded to, the force of gravity on an object depends on it's mass, as the mass scales up, so does the force (in a linear relationship). this means that for objects held at the same height, they will accelerate towards the earth's center of mass at the same speed. galileo's experiments *have* been redone, many times, including on the moon (where the atmosphere is not an issue). a feather falls at the same "speed" as a lead ball. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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up to what richter value is linear elasticity still applicable to soil? | depending on the size of wave that passes through the earth/soil, you can model the soil's behaviour as linear elastic (at least, that's a decent assumption to make). does anyone know up to what point this doesn't hold anymore? so when does plasticity become a part of it? thank you for any answers! i'm interested in knowing the behaviour of soil under earthquake excitation. | please see [this](_url_0_) paper and the references inside. figure 5 shows data of plasticity index vs threshold shear strain where nonlinear effects become imporant. figure 3 gives you an illustration of the separate regions. | 23 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/wcee/article/10_vol3_1199.pdf"
] | [
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] |
is the pumping action of the heart necessary for the proper function of the circulatory system? | let's say you have a mechanical heart that does not replicate the pulsing action of the heart. would this be detrimential to the working of the circulatory system? or how would it affect the body if at all? | something like the mechanical heart that you mentioned already exists, it's called a 'continuous flow device' that creates a steady flow of blood which does not affect the proper function of the body. [here's a news article](_url_0_) about it. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2096314/Meet-HEARTLESS-man-able-live-heartbeat-PULSE.html",
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2096314/Meet-HEARTLESS-man-able-live-heartbeat-PULSE.html",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricular_assist_device"
] | [
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] |
i've heard that it takes as much energy to get water from 0°c to 100°c as it does to change that water into vapour. | true or false? | false at atmospheric pressure, heating water from 0 to 100 takes about 420 j/g turning that water into steam takes 2250 j/g, more than 5 times as much. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencegeek.net/Chemistry/chempdfs/PhaseDiagramOrganizer.pdf",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/irjl9/ive_heard_that_it_takes_as_much_energy_to_get/c262hbn",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_transition"
] | [
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in the movie the abyss ed harris' character dives to impossible depths using a liquid breathing apparatus. can this ever becomes reality. | i had an interesting discussion about this two months ago in [this askscience question](_url_0_). have a read of the top comment tree there. tl;dr: in a way, yes, but in another, more accurate way, no. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/p0byi/would_it_be_possible_to_survive_an_otherwise/"
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|
what percentage of human zygotes abort spontaneously before birth? | that is, what percentage of zygotes terminate naturally at any point between conception and birth? i've read that this statistic is extremely high—[more than two thirds](_url_0_), in fact. but i'm not sure if this is accurate, because the statistics seem to vary quite a bit. i've also read that because of how difficult it is to monitor the very early stages of development, it's tough to arrive at a definite figure. so, what's the most accurate figure based on our current knowledge, and what's the best source (preferably accessible online) to cite on the matter? | _url_0_ "it is estimated that up to **half of all fertilized eggs die and are lost (aborted) spontaneously**, usually before the woman knows she is pregnant. among those women who know they are pregnant, the miscarriage rate is about 15-20%." | 5 | [] | [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=tBQgMTqIseQC&pg=PA124&dq=%22a+third+of+all+conceptions%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=5gAiT6zYD8qhiALT1YzcBw&ved=0CGMQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=%22a%20third%20of%20all%20conceptions%22&f=false"
] | [
"http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001488.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=3393170",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=12620443",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=11023804"
] | [
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] |
6 yr old ask "how did the environment start?" | my 6 yr old son asked "how did the environment start". on further answering and questioning he asked "were did the whole sea come from to create life?" i don't beleive in blowing off children's questions and am not sure how the whole sea came into being and how our complex ecosystems actually formed. so, how?..... | it's quite an interesting question where the water on earth comes from. the early earth was so hot that any water it had at that time would have boiled away; that means some mechanism must have delivered water to the earth after the earth had cooled down. the general thinking is either from comets or from meteorites called carbonaceous chondrites. we can determine something about where these comets or meteorites have to have come from by looking at the deuterium/hydrogen ratio in water on earth and comparing that to the ratio in the water found on comets and meteorites. a study indicating that comets from deep space have what it takes to be responsible is summarized [here](_url_0_), while one giving evidence in favor of carbonaceous chondrites from around the asteroid belt is summarized [here](_url_1_). this research is very much ongoing; the latter article was published just a week ago, and the other study is from less than a year ago. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.esa.int/esaMI/Herschel/SEMER89U7TG_0.html",
"http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/07/13/3544615.htm"
] | [
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what is the search strategy of the mold in this gif "searching for" food? | the gif: [_url_0_](_url_1_) i found it quite peculiar that the mold ended up skipping its direct neighbour and went for the third blop. can someone explain the search strategy/heuristics/mechanics involved in that? | fungi located nutrients through a process called *chemotaxis*, which essentially involves tracking concentration gradients, looking for a local maximum in concentration of a particular nutrient. as you can see in the video, growth is first random and mostly uniform, until one tendril (known as a hypha) detects an increasing gradient of concentration. while i don't know the mechanism behind the sensing and signaling, the basic principal is that the fungus redirects growth to the hyphae that are tracking the concentration gradient, in an iterative process. this activity is important for plant growth, because while plants cannot perform chemotaxis to locate nutrients (or at least not very well), symbiotic fungi (mycorrhizae) can access these difficult-to-obtain nutrients (particularly phosphorus) and share them with the plant. bacteria with flagella use a similar method of chemotaxis. they propel themselves in a straight line with their flagellum for a certain amount of time, then stop and "tumble", reorienting themselves in a random direction before proceeding in a straight line again. the amount of time the spend traveling straight ahead is related to the detected concentration of nutrients, thus this mostly-random motion eventually leads them to the local concentration maximum. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/gifs/comments/a1geie/slime\\_mold\\_searching\\_for\\_food/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/gifs/comments/a1geie/slime_mold_searching_for_food/"
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does the pressure around a solid have an effet on its vibrations ? | for example, if i were to hit a drum on earth and in space, would there be any difference in the vibrations of the drum ? of course the sound wouldn't be heard in space because of the vacuum-like environment, but would the object still vibrate in the same way (frequency, amplitude, etc) ? | the sound you hear is a part of the energy liberated by those vibrations. so in vacuum, that energy would have to go somewhere else, meaning it will certainly change a bit the way the object vibrates and how the vibrations fade. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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negative voltages intuitive explanation please! | my understanding of voltages was that it was electrical potential energy, and just like gravitational potential energy it is only defined relatively. but why are there things like power supplies with a -15 voltage rail and why do op amps need a negative and positive voltage. is there something fundamentally different from having -5v and 5v vs. 0v and 10v? if there isn't, then why is this convention used for certain things in electronics? and if there is, then please explain because i am very confused, the only remote explanation i could think of is holes in semiconductors but i don't see how that really effects things outside of pn junctions and such. edit: thanks for all of the help! | this is really a question about the "ground" concept, if not actual grounding. one supply terminal is labeled "zero volts" if it gets connected to the metal case, or if it's connected to the earth, or even if it's just used as a common connection throughout a larger device. why is this convention used in electronics? because it simplifies the shielding, supply connections, and noise control. but also because it simplifies the idea of "potential," and it makes particular wires seem to have absolute voltage. electric potential is relative, so circuit nodes never actually have a single voltage. but if we all pretend they do, voltage becomes easier to think about. in order to pretend, we have to choose one circuit node and declare it to be at zero volts. this is done because it locks in the value of voltage for all other nodes. analogy: with gravitational potential, your question would be about the choice of "sea level" as being zero altitude. (we could have declared the bottom of the marianas trench to be zero instead!) once the choice is made, then suddenly the mountain peaks all have fixed numeric values of altitude. yet from a physics perspective, position is relative, so mountain peaks don't actually "have altitude," don't have any single absolute height in meters. in the same way that we want mt. everest to have a particular known height, we want circuit nodes to have particular known voltages. what are negative voltages? they're like ocean depths: numbers going negative in relation to an arbitrary choice of zero. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_\\(electricity\\)"
] | [
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what's preventing phone manufacturers from making their phones bezel-less? | last year we saw a drastic decrease on the bezel size for most major manufacturers. why didn't this happen earlier? what prevented apple, for example, from making the iphone 7's bezels just as thin as the iphone x's? | for a start, you need a connector on the screen and some screens need lights at the edge so bezels hide things like that as well as holding the screen in place. so to remove bezels, entirely different screen designs needed to be developed that don't have a big connector sticking out, aren't stuck on circuit boards bigger than the screen, don't need lights at the sides and look nice at the edges and don't to be clipped in at the front. phone manufacturers have enough trouble cramming all the components in as it is so a device larger than the screen helps there too. as screens have got bigger, it's easier to fit all the other components behind them and worth the effort of reducing bezels to keep the overall size down. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why was the juday warp-field interferometer experiment not performed as soon as it was thought up? | devices like that, which could in principle detect warp fields, already exist. virtually any interferometer could do so, and michelson interferometers, in particular, would be pretty convenient (especially now that we know *c* is isotropic). the real problem is: what is the "device" you put near one leg to generate a warp field? nobody has any idea what sort of physical device might make a gravitational dipole field, since no gravitational dipoles nor gravitational negative monopoles have ever been seen anywhere ever, and there are good reasons to think they can't exist. a *lot* of physics, even newtonian stuff like the mechanics of baseballs, bullets, and bbs, would break in a big way if they did. and by "in a big way" i mean that classical mechanics would lose all predictive power essentially everywhere. since we actually can predict the trajectories of baseballs, bullets, and bbs pretty well, we can conclude that the weirder a-warp stuff doesn't exist, and surmise that it may be because there simply aren't any gravitational dipoles anywhere. | 20 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do professional skydivers experience bone loss or bone weakening? | i know that astronauts that spend time in space lose bone mass and their bones become more brittle. i'm not completely sure why but that it has something to do with the no gravity. i also know that they are actually in free fall over the earth and since professional skydiver (like the people that teach you and go with you the first time) spend a lot of time in free fall also experience this, or if because it isn't extended periods of time they aren't affected. i don't know what category this would fall under. sorry | when our astronauts go up to the space station, they generally stay there on something like a [6 month tour](_url_1_). they have a long time of constant free-fall. skydivers generally free-fall for [perhaps a minute](_url_0_) before they need to pull the parachute cord (falling from about 12,500 feet, just short of 4000 meters). the extended time in free-fall is what causes bone loss. skydivers don't spend nearly as much time in free-fall. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.fabulousrocketeers.com/Photo_See_Ya.htm",
"http://www.quora.com/What-period-of-time-on-average-do-the-astronauts-stay-aboard-the-ISS"
] | [
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] |
what exactly is the difference between linkage disequilibrium and linkage in genetics? | linkage generally refers to the physical state of being linked due to the chromosomal organization of the genome. linkage disequilibrium refers to the presence of a statistical association between allelic variants within a population due to the history of recombination, mutation, and selection in a genomic region. you can also get long-range linkage disequilibrium due to epistatic interactions between loci that aren't necessarily physically linked. think of it this way: in the absence of selection, recombination will break down the association between allelic variants at adjacent loci. the more tightly those loci are physically linked, the longer this process will take. thus, physically linked loci are more likely to show significant linkage disequilibrium, but there is no 1-to-1 correspondence, with ld ultimately depending the long-term processes of mutation, gene flow, selection, and recombination within the population. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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