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reflex question | our biology teacher was telling us about the reflex arc (i am not sure about the name of this, because i translated it literally from my native language) in the nervous system, and i asked her a question that she couldn't answer, so i decided to come to reddit to seek my answers. :) so here's the question: **why don't people react reflexively to when the doctor (or nurse) is sticking a needle in our arm, because that feel is a sharp pain that should've caused a reflex action? so in general i was asking what is the difference between a lot of forms of pains and what pains cause us to react reflexively?** | you do react reflexively to a needle stick, but it occurs in the smooth muscle of the dermis. major reflex arcs (like the patellar reflex) are hard-wired to be much larger in scope. you wouldn't get very far in life if you flinched massively every time you got poked somewhere. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when it comes to the circulation of the kidneys: are peritubular capillaries and vasa recta the same thing? | i'm confused about the difference between the two. in my notes i only seem to use the term 'vasa recta' when it comes to juxtamedullary nephrons. | no, they are different things. the vasa recta are in the medulla and go straight down, turn, then straight up. the peritubular capillaries surround the proximal and distal tubuli in the cortex. both are branches of the efferent arterioles. there is also a marked difference in perfusion between the cortex and the medulla, which has further significance and relates to the difference in morphology between these two vessel types. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do certain food groups make us bloated and fart more, and where does that air come from into the sistem? | i had some goulash with beans for lunch, now i’m having some problems while on a date. | the air generally comes from 1) eating too fast and thus swallowing air, and 2) bacteria in your gut that help you digest food, but then expel gas as a by product. beans contain complex sugars that need bacteria to digest, but a lot of sugar=a lot of gas. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is a sample of peat collected and dated? | so i understand peat is an accumulation of partially decayed organic matter and that other time pollen lands on the peat bog, this peat layer sinks to the bottom and depending on how deep it is you can tell how long its been there. but i don't understand how a sample is collected and dated? is peat just dug up and divided into layers. i read something about carbon 14-dating but don't understand this so if the peat is dated by carbon dating then could you explain what it is. thanks | given that it's organic material, i'd imagine that carbon dating is involved. there may be more convenient method, but this is the most precise: it all relies on the fact that there is a small proportion of carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon, in the atmosphere. it is formed by the interaction of cosmic rays with atmospheric nitrogen-14, and it decays with a half-life of 5730 years (fairly short, as these things go) back into nitrogen. these two processes have balanced out, so the level of c-14 in the atmosphere is roughly constant (there are variations, but we've used alternate dating methods, such as tree growth rings, to record these variations and account for them when calculating dates). when plants take in carbon from the atmosphere, they don't distinguish c-14 from the stable isotope, c-12, so they acquire both at a proportion equal to the atmosphere. as soon as they die, they stop taking in additional carbon--and they're too low for cosmic rays to add any more--so the proportion of c-14 starts to drop. we can measure the current proportion of c-14 to c-12 and, knowing how c-14 decays, calculate the time that has passed since the death of the plant. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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big rip and dark energy | it is my understanding that dark energy causes space to expand. and that expansion is a set amount per cubic meter. this means that the expansion is exponential. the expansion per cubic meter doesn't change however. is this correct? if it is, how would a big rip occur? it seems even though the universe was expanding at a vast rate, gravitationally locked systems would not feel an increasing force. | the constant rate of exponential expansion of space would not give rise to a "big rip". a big rip would require an *increasing* rate of exponential expansion. if that were the case – for example if the "cosmological constant" were increasing with time – fewer and fewer galactic clusters would be gravitationally bound, then the outer edges of galaxies would begin to evaporate away into the void. (it's one of those slightly silly theories that's fun to extrapolate until the expansion is big enough to rip planets apart and then rip electrons off atoms, but has no justification behind it at all.) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain blindsight to me. | i was looking around on wikipedia when i came across an article on something called blindsight. from what i can tell, it allows blind people to navigate around an area but i'm still a little confused on how it works. can someone explain it to me? | the key to blindsight is that the people *aren't* actually blind by the traditional definition. the anatomy of the eye works just fine and continues to take in visual stimuli. the dysfunction in blindsight is that there is something wrong with the primary area of the brain that processes visual information. so that area of the brain tells them that they can't see. however, in blindsight some information actually gets through and is processed by the brain without the person knowing that they really saw it. so the person sees, they just don't know that they see. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nFJvXNGJsws"
] | [
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why do we start to feel sick (or even throw up) when we go beyond our limits while sporting? | i know so many people who had the feeling to throw up, after they were pushing their limits in a condition training (swimming, running) or power training, i have even experienced this myself sometimes. an example is someone trying to lift weights, but because they are putting so much force they start to throw up. im talking about both endurance and strength, and im very curious to why this happens. [deadlifting example] (_url_0_) thanks in advance! | blood flow is shunted away from the digestive system, in order to improve oxygen delivery to muscles. diminished blood flow to digestive organs means that digestive organs are unable to transfer nutrients from food to blood at the usual rate, which means that your body has more food than it is able to process. the way your body deals with this excess of food is through nausea/vomiting. (there are other possibilities for nausea during endurance exercise, including overhydration, but food/circulation mismatch is the most common one people run into.) | 31 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/zMTAxJfVkPc?t=47s"
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imagine 2 spheres weighing 1g each, 1cm in diameter, and placed 1m apart in space... | assuming no other outside forces, how much time would it take for gravitational force to cause them to eventually touch? i am sure there is probably very simple math for this. please help a dumb artist! i've posted this question several times and don't get any responses... | unfortunately the maths isn't very simple; you get a nonlinear second-order differential equation as follows: f = gmm/r(t)^2 f = 2ma = 2mr''(t) (the 2 comes in because the force is applied to each sphere, so the relative acceleration is doubled) - with the boundary conditions that r(0) = 1 and r''(0) = 0, and you want to solve r(t) = 0.01. this is solvable, and there are various approaches to doing so (wolfram alpha will do it, but not with boundary conditions), but it's not particularly friendly. i put together a [quick program](_url_0_) to do this naïvely numerically, and got a little over 3 million seconds, or about 35 days. this is subject to floating point errors etc, and i'd be interested in the result if someone solves this analytically (or with a better numerical algorithm), but it should be about right. (edit: typo--) | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://pastebin.com/D6aM8eVa",
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heat and light | i hope this makes sense, i'm finding it difficult to articulate my question. as i understand it, heat is infrared radiation. which is a form of light. if i look on a diagram of [the electromagnetic spectrum](_url_0_), i can see that visible light is at a higher energy than infrared. so far so good. but the part i'm not quite understanding fully is why something like a radiator doesn't shine as it heats up? it seems to me that if it can burn me, its putting out more energy than visible light, because i'm not being burned by visible light. i understand that i cant see the infrared, but i guess what i'm asking is why doesn't the wave length of the light coming off the radiator move into the visible spectrum as the surface heats up? | the energy you are referring to is per photon. however, the total energy delivered by radiation is not directly linked to the energy of the photons. a cup of tea will probably radiate more energy in the infrared than a dim led. but each of the photons emitted by the led will cary more energy than any of the infrared photons coming form the teacup. as a (bad analogy) think of peas shot at different speeds against a car. even if you shoot a few peas at supersonic speeds at the car, it will barely be affected (dents maybe). however, if you unload a truckful of peas against the car, it will be pushed away even if the peas are moving quite slowly. the total energy delivered is not directly linked to the energy each photon (or pea) carries. | 6 | [] | [
"http://lumenistics.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/electro-magnetic-spectrum.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-body_radiation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law"
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how did cassini go from outside of rings to inside without colliding with them? | ask far as i know, cassini has been orbiting with saturn in the center , then the rings and then cassini itself. how could it've gone from outside to being between rings and saturn with colliding with the icy rocks during that transition. | i think the source of your confusion is the statement that cassini is orbiting "inside saturn's rings". while in one way that is true, it is misleading: cassini is only spending a small part of each orbit inside the rings. [see this visualization of cassini's orbit](_url_0_). cassini is in an eliptical polar orbit, meaning its orbit is in a north-south direction and it is elongated, not circular. this means that two things can happen: * the rings orbit roughly around saturn's equator, so cassini's orbit is roughly perpendicular to them. cassini is only in the plane of the rings twice per orbit, and at one of those times it is very far away from the planet, well outside the outermost ring. * when the spacecraft is far away from saturn in its elongated orbit, it can use relatively little propellant to make large changes to its orbit. so to change from an orbit outside the rings (its original orbit) to one that brings it inside the rings, it waited until it was in the far-away part of its orbit, then fired its thrusters so that the next time it got close to saturn, it would be inside the innermost ring. let me know if that's not clear, it's not always straightforward to visualize orbits as 3-dimensional and non-circular, especially if you've never studied the topic! | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/resources/7580/"
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[spoilers for tonight's episode of hannibal]question about internal organs | pretty outlandish, but if the victim was awoken with a simple slap, it sounds like a vasovagal response to the sight of his own viscera. as a rule, though, the body will always lose blood faster than you can pump it back in (ask any anesthesiologist), and that's probably going to become a problem pretty fast depending on the organs that get removed. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are some of the applications of the gamma function? | from my understanding, the gamma function is an extension of the factorial function from the non-negative integers to basically everything else. every time i've come across the factorial function it's been used in arranging objects e.g. if you have 5 objects how many unique ways are there of arranging them (5!=120). the gamma function can tell you what 2.5! is but when would you have 2.5 objects? | it comes up in physics a lot. particularly the values for gamma(n+1/2) do, since they are related to the volume of higher dimensional circles and those can come up in statistical/classical mechanics relatively easily. the gamma function is a specific way to extend the factorial function to other values using integrals. you lose the interpretation of counting permutations in this process. the important thing about the factorial function that we want to take advantage of is the fact that (n+1)!=(n+1)\*n! and 0!=1. we want to find a function f(x) so that f(x+1)=(x+1)\*f(x), but where we can plug in values of x that aren't integers. if we define gamma(x) to be the integral of e^(-t)t^(x-1)dt for t=0 to infinity, then integration by parts shows that gamma(x+1)=xgamma(x) and that gamma(1)=1. so f(x)=gamma(x+1) is a function that extends the factorial. but, also, the gamma function is defined by an integral of known functions, so has nice properties. in particular, it is a "mellin transform" of the function e^(-x), and a mellin transform is a more general kind of fourier transform which pops up a lot and has lots of nice properties. this kind of thing pops up all over the place, and learning to work with the gamma function is a good way of getting comfortable working with functions defined as integrals. if you don't work with integral-defined functions, then you have a very small library to work with and you limit your potential. the gamma function is the first step to opening up to many more kinds of more general special functions. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_distribution"
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] |
what purpose can be predicted for the knowledge we gather from study of subatomic particles? | now, i value and (try to) understand science as much as possible. by no means do i wish to attempt to devalue any research science. however i was reading an article (link below to thread) that was posted today and i found myself wondering what the point of this research will be? i know too little about the lhc at cern to describe the research i am curious about in anyway more accurate than the post i refer to, so the link for it is here: _url_0_ the only thing i can imagine would be that once we move from research and discovery of these particles that the future use of such knowledge would be the manipulation, control and transmission of matter as energy. so, any quantum-physicists know where this is heading, or is it all just speculation for now? | not trying to be a troll, but i'd say it is speculation for now. much like how all those bright quantum physicists in the 1920's probably couldn't of told you about the iphone. not the best of analogies, clearly. and one can quickly start to do rough calculations about the amount of energy it would take to "make something" from a particle created by an 8 tev particle accelerator and how this puts everything in a range of impracticality that the pioneers of quantum physics weren't dealing with. that said, the point of discovery is understanding. applications come next. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/svege/new_particle_found_at_cern/"
] | [
"http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/46748654/ns/technology_and_science-science/t/first-neutrino-message-sent-through-ground/"
] | [
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what is the etymology of the names of the nucleobases? | i want to know how scientists came up with words like adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, or uracil. also, if you know: where did the names of the twenty amino acids come from? i at least want to know if there is a general theme or way of going about naming these things. ie, chemical groups, latin, greek... pure fancy? i'm sure there's a method and i want to know what it is. thanks ever so! | the names will have a variety of etymologies, but their suffixes are from their chemical classification as pyridines or pyrimidines. adenine: “aden”, a greek root, from the word for the pancreatic gland. it was so named because the first isolated sample of adenine by albrecht kossel was from the pancreas. cytosine : “cyto”, greek root, meaning “cell”. again, where kossel isolated the sample from, because it was hydrolysed from the thymus cells of a calf. guanine: my personal favourite, named by julius unger who extracted and isolated it from sea bird excreta, which is known as guano. thymine: as above with cytosine, was named as such by kossel because it was extracted from the thymus gland. uracil: i’m not sure on this one, but would think it comes from uric acid? | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do you measure the effects of microgravity on bone mass density in space? (specifically on the iss) | this question got raised in another thread and there wasn't a great answer just speculation. is this even something you can measure in space? how do you compensate for variable body mass? | _url_0_ this paper gives a pretty detailed description of how they took their measurements. it looks like a combination of computer analysis of x-rays/ct scans and dissection/staining of the bone (mouse bones in this case). obviously you wouldn't use the latter on live astronauts, but you could theoretically do the x-rays and computer analysis in space so long as you could get the requisite equipment up there. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3630201/"
] | [
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medicine has given distinct names to every nerve, muscle, tendon, ligament, artery, and vein in the human body (as well as areas of the brain, etc). has the same been done for, say, chickens? goldfish? | i'm sure veterinarians know many of the names for muscles, ligaments, etc, for dogs, cats, and other common pets and farm animals. but do all of a chicken's muscles have names? how about a goldfish? hamsters? how about animals that are not common pets or farm animals? does every tendon in a walrus have a name? | actually all the muscles, ligaments etc of mammals are labelled the same as humans. and most of the muscles, ligaments etc in fish are similar, however, there are certain muscles i.e. jaw muscles or fin muscles that have a similar function but are labelled differently. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if one's optic nerve were severed, but the occipital lobe wasn't damaged, what function would neuroplasticity give this useless heap of tissue? | i was wondering what happens here with blind people. i hear their other senses are heightened and some can even echo-locate. is this a result of neuro-plasticity? | first, its important to mention that there are other destinations for visual information in the brain, not just the occipital lobe. i'll trace out the pathway below, hopefully making it easier to understand. when light enters the eye, it is transduced by the rods and cones in the outer layer of the neural retina, and the resulting information travels through the deeper layers, ending up in the retinal ganglion cells. the central processes of the retinal ganglion cells (which are bipolar; the peripheral process is very short and synapses in the retina) group together to form the optic nerve, or cranial nerve ii. when cnii reaches the optic chiasm, the information from the nasal retinal fields crosses over to the other side, while the information from the temporal visual fields remains ipsilateral. at this point, the bundle of axons traveling from the chiasm to the brain is actually called the optic tract, not the optic nerve. so, here's where your question comes in. from the optic tract, visual information goes to one of four destinations: 1. the lateral geniculate nucleus (from which point it continues on to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe) 2. the pretectal nuclei (which control a few optic reflexes, such as the pupillary light reflex) 3. the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, which helps control circadian rhythms 4. the superior colliculi of the tectum, which control the tectospinal pathway, responsible for innervation of certain neck muscles and turning your head towards external stimuli. it's also important to mention that, as far as current research has shown, neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain is limited to the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles and the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus, neither of which are involved in the visual pathways. so. all this being said if one were to sever the optic nerve, theoretically, all four destinations of visual information would be deprived of input. if, however, only one optic nerve were severed and the other remained intact, one would still have full sight in the unaffected side (the lesion being distal to the optic chiasm). if both optic nerves were severed, then all visual input would be cut off and the individual would indeed be blind. as far as neuroplasticity goes, since there is no evidence of neurogenesis in or around the optic nerves, theoretically, once that nerve is severed, one would be totally blind forever. you mentioned heightened senses and echo-location, some of which can be attributed to a very interesting phenomenon called "blindsight". edit: also, neuroplasticity has more to do with damage to cortical areas of the brain. when the input mechanism is undamaged, new pathways can sometimes be made to other cortical areas to pick up the slack, but in this particular case, the input mechanism is cut off, meaning that no cortical area can receive it. i am certainly not an expert in blindsight, however, as far as i understand, it is a rare phenomenon in which visual information from the lateral geniculate nucleus is cut off, resulting in blindness, but the other three destinations of the optic tract remain. this results in the ability to sense objects without actually perceiving them visually. if there are any experts in this phenomenon out there lurking, please feel free to school me on this. i am not worthy of your expertise. anyway, [here](_url_0_) is a really cool video of a patient experiencing blindsight, if you're interested. sorry for the long-winded answer, i hope it helps! | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4x0HXC59Huw"
] | [
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how could ancient civilizations develop a knowledge of the the effects that naturally occurring chemicals have on the human body in cases that don't seem conducive to trial and error? | i understand how ancient people could identify herbs that increase energy or dull pain because they have an immediately identifiable effect and are conducive to trial and error. however, there are many examples of uses that do not seem to be possible through trial and error. for instance, on ancient use of birth control: > one of the earliest documents explicitly referring to birth control methods is the kahun gynecological papyrus from about 1850 bce. it describes various contraceptive pessaries, including acacia gum, which recent research has confirmed to have spermatocidal qualities and is still used in contraceptive jellies. [wikipedia](_url_0_) is it possible that a knowledge of spermicidal properties could just develop from a trial and error approach when it is unlikely they even knew that semen contained microscopic sperm? aside from trial and error, are there any other conceivable scientific methods that ancient civilizations could have used to determine the effect of naturally occurring chemicals? | i suspect the herbalists and other pre-modern medical types did nothing but trial and error. also, there's some confirmation bias here. of all the things that worked, a lot more didn't, but they still used those too. i suspect there's some modern revisionism here. we don't hear about using things that hastened one's demise, caused other issues, or did nothing as much as we hear about things that might have worked. treatments with mercury are ancient and more or less killed and drove crazy a lot of people. aromatherapy is a good example. its all fairly meanginless but what if i start sniffing eucalyptus oil and menthol in addition to all sorts of random plants that do nothing. i'm essentially using vicks vaporub at this point. a modern revisionist could say "ancients knew how to make vics" well, sure, but that's a little incorrent, isn't it? turns out the crazy shotgun approach is better than nothing. other sick people treated by this ancient aromatherapist got to eat rose pedals for cancer and died. they didn't fare so well and he didnt know why. these guys had no idea why **anything** worked, for the most part. if they saw results or suspected results they used it. pregnancy counts are a form of trial and error. i don't see why ancients wouldn't notice less babies. it just took longer to get results. | 6 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_control#History"
] | [] | [
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do humans who live on a high cellulose diet have a more functioning appendix? | as i understand it, the appendix is a vestige organ thought to have helped in digesting cellulose. if this organs purpose was to digest cellulose, would changing ones diet have any impact on this organ? or is the organ mostly useless regardless of diet? | well, in mammals that digest cellulose (other than ruminants which have foregut symbioses) the [caecum](_url_0_) really damn big, and it's in the caecum where cellulose will get digested. the appendix is a shriveled portion of an extended caecum. a high cellulose diet isn't going to make your appendix grow into a large extension of the caecum, which it would have to do, to be useful. and then you would have to get cellulytic bacteria to set-up shop there. basically, what i'm trying to say is that even when the appendix was an extension of the caecum, it didn't really 'function'. it would have housed cellulytic bacteria, which did everything. its size provide its function, it itself didn't do anything, ya dig? so eating a large cellulose diet isn't going to induce any changes like glands forming that produce cellulase, or something. and your appendix isn't going to grow into a large caecum. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caecum"
] | [
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would a 10,000 btu air conditioner require more/less/the same power as two 5,000 btu units? | north america most circuits are 15 amps / 120 vac. check the voltage and amperage of the unit you are purchasing. if it has a standard 110 volt a/c plug then it would likely work. rough estimate, a 10,000 btu air conditioner will use about 11 amps at 120 vac. as they have fairly high start currents and if you wiring is older, would suggest the air conditioner is the only device on that circuit. check with the sales people or local electricians is good idea. edit: 10,000 btu would use roughly twice the power as one 5,000 btu unit. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what determines it a food is good or not? | what makes something taste good? what changed if we started out not liking a food, but ended up liking it? | most of that is based on previous psychological experience, that is for personal tastes. when it comes to things that are (almost) universally "good" or "bad" to people, it largely has to do with how it interacts with different types of taste buds (sweet, sour, salty, etc.). then as we live our lives, psychological experiences become tied to these causing us to favor one thing or another. it's also possible that due to genetics you might have a propensity for a certain type of taste. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a phrase to describe the back-and-forth evolutionary process between organisms, e.g. predator and prey? | i'm thinking of things like the prey evolves a particular defense, the predator evolves a counter to that defense, and so on. i seem to remember this sort of thing from high school biology, or just reading about it. is there even a term of art for it? or is there a good phrase to describe the constant process each year of developing a new influenza vaccine to (artificially) account for the mutation/change/natural selection that was a result of the previous year? | [red queen's hypothesis](_url_0_), in reference to the quotation by the red queen: "it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place." | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Queen%27s_Hypothesis"
] | [
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my alarm clock's display wiggles if i chew something crunchy like ice. what gives? (also, try it for yourself). | if you have an old microwave, stove clock, or really anything with a 7 segment digital display, look at it while chewing ice, almonds, or otherwise causing your head to vibrate. your general vision is normal, but the numbers on the display wiggle very obviously. i have tested this with dozens of displays and people, all see the same wiggle but i've been unable to find what causes the effect and if it has a name. | our process of vision has an effect similar to the refresh rates on televisions, lcds, florescent lamps, and so on. if you could take high-speed photographs of these items, you could see they are not constantly on, but instead flicker very quickly. what you're seeing is a combination of the speed at which your brain is processing the image, combined with the refresh rate on the screen you're viewing. instead of the image being relatively static in your vision, the crunching process vibrates your head, and thus, your eyes. as your eyes move quickly, the rapid on/off effect of the displays is more noticeable. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do algae have vacuoles? | hello! a student asked me if algae have vacuoles. i've been researching the question but i have yet to find an answer. any ideas? thanks! | yes. all cells have vacuoles, but animal cells tend to have smaller, more numerous ones while plant cells have a large, central vacuole that's usually filled with water. "algae" is a blanket term for a large group of organisms. some are multicellular, some are single-celled, some are closely related to plants while others are protozoan in nature. as such, the exact nature of their vacuoles varies pretty widely, but they're always present in some form. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is it known for a fact that we are inside a galaxy ourselves and what evidence is there for this? | i know it may be a silly question, i'm trying to get my head around what we know for a fact and what we don't. | there is an awful lot of stars, gas clouds and dust around us. those we can clearly observe. we can also make out some of the density distribution of the stars, so we know quite well that all those stars are all grouped together in what we call a galaxy. what we don't know for certain is exactly how the galaxy looks, since we are inside it and parts of it are blocked from our view. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what animal (except for humans) have been proven to eradicate other species? | my guess would be beavers as their homes can alter a local ecosystems. | it's quite rare for humans to _observe_ a species wipe out another species, because that sort of thing only happens at rare intervals. consider species a which is capable of wiping out species b. before species a encounters b, nothing happens. when species a encounters b, it wipes it out. afterward, there is only a. over the (we'll say) several hundred-thousand year lifespans of species a and b, the extinction of b only takes a relative instant. so we are pretty unlikely to see it. basically, other animals don't wipe each other out because they _already_ wiped each other out, for the most part. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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origin of the universe question. | i remember watching the show curiosity with stephen hawking and he proposed that the non-!existence of god, in the traditional sense, could be proven. hesaid that before the big bang, time did not exist, so in turn there could be no "before-time" in which a deity could do anything. i'm having trouble wrapping my head around this concept. so, can someone help? i'm not trying to start an ideological argument, this just seemed to be the most appropriate sub-reddit. | this is more of a semantic argument than anything. hawking suggests that as time, itself, was created at the moment of the big bang, there was no existence before that point. i do not mean that there was no universe, but there was absolute nothingness. there was nothing. since there was no time before the big bang, there could be no god to initiate that big bang. people who use the oscillating theory as their cosmological model could argue that before this big bang, there were an infinite number of big bangs before that. again, this is a semantic argument that only works as you define words in a specific way. god could be defined as an entity that is outside our normal convention of time and, therefore, would not be affected by time or a lack of time before the big bang. a similar argument is used in philosophy to prove the existence of god. basically, god is defined as the greatest thing in the universe. since things can exist in your mind only (like a unicorn) or in both your mind and reality (like a table), one could argue that things that exist in both your mind and reality are inherently greater. since we defined god as the greatest thing in the universe, he must exist in both your mind and reality. the argument relies solely on the premise that god is defined as the greatest thing in the universe. if you define god as the greatest jelly donut in the universe, then you have proven that god exists and that he is a jelly filled pastry. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i had a 10 mile long wood 2x4, suspended in space, with no other forces acting on it, and i gave it a shove, to move it 1 meter in a very short time interval, would it take time for the opposite side to move as well? | my physics teacher said that it would be instantaneous, but that would mean the vibrations would be moving faster than the speed of light, which i think is impossible. i feel like the wood would have a compressed section of matter going through it very fast, but not instantaneously. i've read somewhere that through wood sound travels +4000 m/s. | you are correct. your shove would essentially propagate through the material at the speed of sound (in that material). this question often comes up in terms of a "perfectly rigid" object being suggested as a means of communication faster than light, the problem being nothing is perfectly rigid. here are some related posts that may provide you more information: _url_0_ | 154 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/sciencefaqs/comments/fj1qd/if_i_had_an_infinitely_stiff_rod_could_i_push_and/"
] | [
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airfoils, lift, etc. did these concepts exist before the first heavier-than-air flight, or did they only appear some years afterward? | did scientists hypothesize/test lift prior to the first heavier-than-air-flight, and just thought it wouldn't be enough to counteract gravity? or did the concept not even exist until after the first flights? | prior to heavier than air flight, gliders were used by scientists to test their theories. george cayley (_url_0_) did a lot of work with gliders and developed efficient airfoils and many other principles (such as aerodynamic stability) were understood before the first powered flight. i'd argue that heavier than air flight was as much a systems engineering accomplishment as anything. you can make an extremely aerodynamic shape, but if its too heavy and you need more power than you can supply to keep it flying, then you fail at heavier than air flight. creating a lightweight, yet strong structure is just as important as the aerodynamics of a plane. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Cayley"
] | [
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can atomic radii be reduced by pressure? | if you take a block of metal and attempt to compress it, the centers of the atoms will be closer to each other than usual. what prompted you to ask this question? it's actually an interesting one for chemistry. if you respond with more details it might be possible to talk about more specific things. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are some "presentable" nuclear or quantum physics subjects? | hello, we have to present a topic to the class in my modern physics class. it should be about nuclear physics or quantum physics, yet i am unable to find something interesting that we didn't already learn. "you will be giving a 16 minute seminar, with a maximum of 2 minutes for additional questions, during class time in may- june. your presentation will be based on a topic from nuclear physics, or from medical physics, or from quantum physics and will be approved by your teacher beforehand." what are some interesting yet rather unknown topics that come to your mind? thanks. | [neutrinoless double beta decay](_url_0_) would be a fun topic to cover. you could bring up cp violation, matter/antimatter imbalance, etc. by way of context. and it remains an open question in nuclear and elementary particle theory. alternatively, if your instructor is a string theorist, it's good fun to work up a "string theory is not science, [not even wrong](_url_1_)" presentation and watch the fur fly. edit: missing word | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_beta_decay#Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay",
"http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/",
"http://journals.aps.org/pra/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevA.32.47",
"https://books.google.com.au/books?id=IoMuc8POgyEC&pg=PA764&lpg=PA764&dq=total+atomic+binding+energies+schwinger&source=bl&ots=QpLVgD7BzK&sig=E_TkKin-4ciA6FLNCTwEZWOaH18&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiRzJ_pwpbMAhVE2WMKHQ1jBkYQ6AEIIDAB#v=onepage&q=total%20atomic%20binding%20energies%20schwinger&f=false",
"https://www.physicsforums.com/insights/basics-positron-emission-tomography-pet/"
] | [
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what happens to the units of a number after taking the logarithm? | you shouldn't ever take the logarithm or any other^† mathematical function of a dimensionful quantity; it doesn't make any sense. the argument of the function should be divided by some constant with the same dimensionality. ^† you can multiply them and divide them., for the benefit of pedants. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://media.cheggcdn.com/media/027/027c1f2e-787f-4d40-a464-5195a33cc7c9/php5zk3IQ.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibel",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/1/8/0/18048a6583f58aa1a2705a2858443700.png"
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|
if i am in the center of the earth, which way am i being pulled? | if we approximate the earth as being perfectly spherically symmetric, then a point mass at its center will experience no net gravitational force. this is because there is an equal amount of mass in each direction. for a proof, you can see the [shell theorem](_url_0_) of course, you'd still feel a net gravitational pull from the sun, the moon, and other bodies, but those objects would accelerate you in the same way that they accelerate the earth, so you wouldn't be moved relative to the earth. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_theorem"
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|
are there just as many multiples of 'x' as there are 'xy'? | would it be true to say that there are just as many multiples of 'x' (e.g. 1) as there are xy (e.g. 100)? there would be an infinite amount of both, but there would always be 100 times as many multiples of 1. so does one have more multiples, or are they the same? | if you have a [bijection](_url_0_) that means that the two groups have the same "size" (kinda of the same numbers of elements). the same thing is true with naturals and integers numbers where the infinite if of the same "size". i don't know of any simpler way to explain it than with a bijection. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijection"
] | [
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there's a ton of stratos hype, but what are we really learning? | 1 of the most appealing technology that can come out of research of this kind is a new generation of high altitude emergency egress pressure suits. there is a family member of one of the columbia victims who is involved for this reason. if something goes wrong 20 miles up, knowing that we can have safe pressure suits to jump with is exceedingly important. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.redbullstratos.com/science/scientific-values/"
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|
in biology textbooks, it is often said that adenosine triphosphate (atp) 'transfers' or 'stores' energy - but the precise mechanism for this is usually passed over, as if it is some kind of magic. can anyone shed some light? | i do understand that atp hydrolysis is a highly exergonic reaction, but this fact by itself doesn't explain to me how the energy released in that reaction turns in to useful work for metabolism. and just as confusing to me - if not more so - is the means by which energy is 'stored' in adp phosphorylation. i do have a reasonably good maybe first year level of chemistry understanding (in general), so responses at that level would be handy. (but not too much jargon, my brain is a mincy stew atm) | here's [one example](_url_0_), a sodium/potassium pump. the key is that the third phosphate was put there in another reaction, leaving it in a somewhat precarious position, like it's spring loaded because of all the electrons in the phosphate groups. this makes it easy for the phosphate group to pop off through hydrolysis and in the presence of another molecule that makes this reaction favorable by geometrically fitting to the atp and then changing shape when the phosphate is transferred to itself. this mechanical deformation is the actual energy transfer. about 60% of the energy in the bond goes to heat, which is just a thermodynamic way of saying that the reaction also causes the involved molecules to jiggle violently as they react. | 31 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%2B/K%2B-ATPase#section_3",
"http://youtu.be/00jbG_cfGuQ?hd=1"
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could the substance known as "atomic trampoline" be used as a shield for space craft or even body armour? | i'm talking about the substance made of several different elements in this [gif](_url_0_) | if anything i would expect it would be even worse (i.e. more easily punctured) than normal metal now. the reason the ball rebounds so high is that the material is absorbing less of the energy from it. to make something bullet proof you want it to absorb and dissipate as much of the energy as possible. if more energy remains in the bullet it it is more likely to punch straight through. | 18 | [] | [
"https://i.imgur.com/KODCCeb.gifv"
] | [] | [
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what would it be like to blow-up a balloon and play with it on the moon? | could you inflate it with no air-pressure? what would juggling it be like? what would be the difference between using helium and regular air? | you could inflate the balloon but if you put a normal amount of air in it under normal pressure, say in the lunar module, and then take it outside, it would expand and pop because there is no air pressure outside of it any more. to have it look like a normal balloon in the vacuum, you would only put a tiny amount of air inside, so that under normal pressure it would be almost empty. then when you take it outside, it would expand and be the normal size and shape of a balloon (if you managed to have just the right amount of air in it). or of course you can also fill it in the vacuum too. in any case, it will contain less air inside than a balloon normally does. this also means that it will have a smaller mass. no atmosphere means that there is no buoyancy and thus the balloon will not float, regardless of what gas you use. it will simply fall down [at the same speed everything else falls down](_url_0_). difference between helium and air would just be that it would have a smaller mass with helium. this does not affect how fast it falls down. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5C5_dOEyAfk"
] | [
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] |
how do rubiks cube scramble generators create their scrambles (on the coding level)? | if you think about it there aren't many possible actions you can take with regard to manipulation, you can only rotate one of the six faces at a time. all compound actions can be broken down this way. a simple way to generate a valid jumbled cube would be to start with a solved cube and apply a series of random manipulations. this is extremely easy to implement at a coding level as it's just a bunch of swap operations on a simple data structure. the smarter way is to study the deep math behind what makes a given state a valid cube or not and generate based on that. the wiki page on [solving them](_url_0_) has quite a lot of additional information if you're interested in the current research. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal_solutions_for_Rubik's_Cube"
] | [
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|
what is the equivalent of one night of your car idling to mileage on the engine? | very weird question. if we assume that your average driving speed normally is around 50mp/h at 2500rpm. then 'one night' of 9 hours would result in 450 miles of extra mileages on the car. because idle speed is around 700 rpm the equivalent 'engine mileage' would be 126 miles. this has of course nothing to do with actual wear on your engine which is more depended on thermal load, mixture, lubrication etc. what did you want to know actually? | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
examining the internal hardware on google glass & how it works | i'm very interested in learning more about the internal components that make google glass work. i have found this conceptual explanation: _url_0_ and this great teardown, where you can get a closer look at things: _url_1_ i'm really interested in the projector, display, and prism system - what are those components? what material is the prism? and the principle of operation: does the projector hit the screen, and then that light is bounced into the prism? fascinating tech, and i haven't found much online that gets into the details explaining how the whole system works, and what these parts actually are. cheers | the projector is like a mini version of a [normal projector](_url_1_). the emitted light is focused into the optics which is just a piece of plastic (i'm assuming, i've never seen one in person) cut into a specific shape that will reflect the light into your eye using the same principles of a [slr camera](_url_0_). in this case, the prism is a little special in that it's not a perfect reflector so some light, from the other (real world) side, goes straight through the prism to your eye, so what you see is light from the projector focused onto your eye, after reflecting off the prism, combined with the natural light you would normally see. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.geek.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/glassfographic.jpg",
"http://www.catwig.com/google-glass-teardown/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera",
"http://tinyurl.com/l3bxvbr"
] | [
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] |
is the path from gene to expressed trait a "black box"? | in other words, is there a level of scientific uncertainty between the knowledge of a particular piece(s) of genetic code and the associated trait? or is the biology entirely known? i am sorry if the phrasing is unclear, i don't know all of the technical terms for these things. when i say "black box" i mean it in the same sense that the phrase is used to represent the workings of some neural networks: one can see the expressed behavior, and they can see the individual pieces, but we can't, or it's very difficult to, make sense of the greater emergent behavior between gene and expressed trait (or cs neuron and functioning neural network). while watching videos about specific traits linked to a particular gene, for example, the particular letter difference between "sun sneezers" and not, or the seven genetic pieces associated with people who are "attractive" to mosquitos, people seem to have a sort of "look at that magical thing happening" tone of voice. | our understanding of genetic code varies enormously from code to code, and understanding the genome is an area of active research. while we have mapped out the human genome, huge swathes of it have yet to be understood. our knowledge of non-coding dna has made huge leaps in the last decade or so. what we thought was junk code is actually critical machinery used to regulate many coding genes. we have also learned a great deal about coding dna. many genes are fully understood, and we know exactly how they are transformed from code into proteins, and what those proteins do. the emergent behavior of neural networks is understood very little. we still have only the most basic understanding of how the brain functions on the level of neurons, let alone how dna codes for its functions. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_folding",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-transcriptional_modification",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosomes",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiotropy",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistasis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_(biology\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(biology\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_structure",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_structure_prediction"
] | [
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a glass exploded in my hand today, and i was wondering if any of you knew why. | i was unloading the dishwasher and i was at the glasses. we have duralex tempered glass glasses, so when they're dropped they're not supposed to break, and they're also stackable. i picked up a glass at random, and it popped or exploded in my hand, making a popping sound and sending hundreds of tiny shards of glass everywhere. i saved the largest pieces, but even these were only maybe an inch to two inches (2.5-5 cm to non americans) in diameter, and they were fractured and easily broken by hand. what happened? nobady at my house can figure out what it was. thanks! edit: i have no idea what discipline this would be in. sorry for the lack of tag. | yeah, tempered glass has a tendency to do that - spontaneously shatter for no apparent reason. the reason it happens is the same reason it's tough; it's made in such a way (usually through uneven cooling) that there are big internal stresses in the material (because when it cools unevenly, some parts contract faster than others, leaving stress). these internal stresses make the glass tougher, as it takes more force to push the already-strained glass around. but at the same time, if there's some damage (e.g. scratches) or some such, those stresses can be released in one big catastrophic failure. i.e. the glass shatters. (but on the upside, it also tends to break into small, less-dangerous pieces, not big shards like untempered glass) to make an analogy, a rope that's been pulled tight can't be pushed around as easily as a loose one, but it's also at bigger risk of snapping if it gets damaged. [prince rupert's drops](_url_0_) make for a really neat demonstration of the phenomenon. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pdy2_vi0FfM"
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why did water space out so evenly? | pictures can be seen here: _url_0_ my mom was washing this pan and when she set it out to dry, she noticed the water accumulated in droplets evenly spaced in a grid. the pan is made of some kind of brushed metal. does anyone know why the water formed this pattern? edit: forgot to say, i don't frequent /r/askscience so sorry if i did anything wrong! | i'm guessing it's a non-stick pan, or at least one with some sort of water-repellant coating. that coating is probably burned off at those spots or just missing due to the manufacturing method, causing the water to bead up in those spots but run off in other places. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/drgCt"
] | [] | [
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water have higher heat capacity than air, but also conduct heat better, so my question is which one is a better insulator, and what's the different between heat capacity and conductivity? | [deleted] | air, or to be more general, the substance with the lower thermal conductivity would be the better insulator. capacity is the amount of energy needed to increase the heat of a substance by a set amount. conductivity is the rate at which that energy is transferred. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it true that expansion prevents huamans from ever going past the local group? | i saw a video by youtuber kurzgesagt that said that beyond the local group (milky way and andromeda, i think?) there expansion outweighs gravity to the extent that humans can never travel beyond it, other galaxies will always expand away faster than we can travel, is this true? | so, the answer is relatively complicated. i think you understand that if the expansion of the universe is sufficiently fast, far away galaxies will vanish behind an event horizon and can then not be visited anymore by any means. however, the time dependence of the expansion of the universe is poorly understood. some believe that a big rip will happen where an exponential increase in the expansion rate rips apart galaxies, solar system and ultimately planets and atoms. if the expansion rate remains more or less constant, it will take hundreds of billions of years before only our galaxy is left. let's say we have really advanced but somewhat plausible tech and want to reach a specific galaxy at the other end of the virgo supercluster with known physics. it has a diameter of about 10^8 lightyears. with 0.1 c that would take a billion years, during which you would have to keep some sort of machinery alive that could rebuild civilization from scratch. let's say you need 1000 w continuously for this, which allows kind of comfortable living conditions for a single immortal person. when the energy is supplied with fissible plutonium and uranium at 33% conversion efficiency, you need about 1000 tons for the continuous supply. for the acceleration i will assume someone pushed you, like breakthrough starshot style for example. deceleration is then an issue but by my estimates, if you shoot out the fissibles with an ion engine, you achieve a similar order of magnitude in energy as for the continuous supply. i'm also too lazy to work it out in more detail. so let's say 2000 tons of plutonium, 100 tons of spaceship, one billion years. that is less than 10% of the age of the universe. during that time, the galaxies will also approximately by 10% further apart, which does not change the calculation by much. so i would say you could plausibly reach galaxies within 10^8 or perhaps even 10^9 light years, but beyond it is probably impossible. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/7pyyq3/if_a_ship_could_travel_at_999_of_c_how_longfar/dslvtme/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/4msj5s/do_we_suspect_there_are_galaxies_were_already/d3yxrw5/"
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what accounts for the difference in average human height between countries? i.e. denmark, male avg = 6'0", france = 5'9" | i imagine there are many different factors; perhaps available nutrition, sunlight (do people, like plants, grow taller in an effort to get more sun?), culture, medicine, media influence, etc. maybe elevation? | the two tallest groups are nordic and one of the tribes in africa, i forgot which one. i think the nordic is related to historical diet, while the african is related to heat dissipation and some other benefits. an example of the role of nutrition is japan, where over the past 100 or so years they have been growing by around 1" per generation. youngest are almost outgrowing some of their buildings. if you go to europe, you will be struck by how short in stature they were 500 years ago when many of the castles were built. it is pretty neat. europeans underwent the same changes as japan back then, as protein became a larger portion of their diet and general nutrition was increased. another example are the incas in the mountains of south america, after being isolated for thousands of years, they have become more squat and stout in stature, and the iron content of their blood is something like 10% more than average, all which helps a more efficient of transfer of oxygen in blood, a valuable trait when the air is so much thinner due to the high altitudes. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what gets split with a signal splitter? | i have an attic installed antenna. i took a basic ee course back in college, but the details for antennas have been lost to the cobwebs of my mind. as the radio-frequency wave impacts the metal of an antenna, the electrons move in concert with the wave. that movement is sent transferred to a coaxial cable to a junction box, where i split it to the tvs i desire to decode the signal. i have a 1-3 splitter that is labeled -3.5db, -7db, and -7db. my question is: what exactly is taking a 3.5 or 7db loss? the induced current (i could see that based on kirchoff's current laws)? the signal to noise ratio? the induced voltage traveling down the wire? all of the above and more? something else? i'm very curious what property is actually taking a loss. i remember hearing at one point there was no point in amplifying after a split, because you can't drag more signal up out of the noise, is that true? thanks! | when you're talking about rf, what you are mostly interested in is power. all the cables and interconnects have to have matching impedance of typically 50 ohm, but for television it is usually 75 ohm. what your splitter does is take the input signal, the power of which is determined by your antenna gain, distance from the transmitter, atmospheric conditions etc, and splits it into 3 different parts. because there is no amplifier in your splitter, the sum of the total power coming out of the splitter can only be less or equal to the power coming into the splitter, but because there is some loss associated with the passive circuits that are in your splitter (remember everything has to be impedance matched, so the input connection must be balanced against three output connections, so some circuit needs to do that), you get slightly less power out, then you put in. to be precise, a total of 0.73 db less. ideally you'd have -3 db, which is half the power and two times -6 db which is 1/4 of the power. in reality you get 45% and two times 20 %. but to answer all of your questions, things that are taking a 3.5 or 7 db loss are: * power of your signal * voltage of your signal * current of your signal (these two have a different definition of db) * signal to noise ratio, because noise is mostly determined by your amplifiers regarding amplifying after a split, you're right it makes no sense, because it's best to amplify stronger signals due to the signal-to-noise ratio. i mean, you could do it, but why? you'd need three amplifiers and you'd get a worse result, when you could just as easily switch positions and get better results with just one amplifier. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the male angler fish famously attach itself to its female, fuse with its body and shares its circulatory system. how do they manage this without triggering an immune rejection like for a transplant ? | i just want to give your question an answer since you aren't getting one. the answer is nobody knows. angler fish are deep sea fish so even seeing them is rare, studying their antibodies in action would be near impossible. i will say this, however. many organisms have developed mechanisms to deter rejections from a host body. most parasitic species have to do this. i imagine the male angler does something similar, but i'm just speculating. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if gravitons really exist, then at what speed do they move? | would it be c or what? in my mind it doesn't makes sense that gravity is not instantaneous, but since c is the speed cap of the universe, that's what i'd say it were the speed of gravitons. | as others have said, it's c. an important point to bear in mind is that gravitons are quantised gravitational *waves*; not everything in gravity has to do with gravitons. gravitational waves come from massive things moving, and from the universe having to "update" the curvature of spacetime. but if you consider, say, a universe which contains only a negligible-mass "test particle" in orbit around a spherically symmetric object, then the spacetime geometry is just going to be the schwarzschild geometry, and since it's unchanging there'll be no gravitational waves, and at the quantum level, no gravitons, but this is still a system in which gravitation is obviously playing a major role. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would happen if i were suspended in a large, unbreakable vat (like a drum or possibly a huge rubber ball) filled completely with water that was dropped from, say 5000 feet? | let's say that the radius of this container is something like ten feet and i am in the center(this radius is just a random number i came up with. it could be anything.) would the water around me absorb the impact? would i just be tossed around in the water? there are a lot of variables that could be different like the size and shape of the container, the material it is made of, and the height from which it is dropped, but one thing remains constant; it cannot break. im just curious if i could survive. | you would most certainly perish. survival would be out of the question. in a nutshell, water is an incompressible fluid, which means that any force acted upon it in a closed system will immediately propagate through the entire fluid with little loss of energy. that's bad. instead you want a substance that will break your fall, over time, as gradually as possible. your body can withstand a certain number of g's, but not too much. get over 20 g's or so and your having a very bad day. a drop from 5000 ft in a rubber ball filled with water will easily exceed that. but. if you were in the center of a huge ball of foam rubber, there is a remote chance you could make it alive. having said that do not attempt this. instead, try it on an egg. go to a fabric store, buy a bunch of foam rubber, wrap it around an egg a couple of times, tight, until it's at least a ball a foot in diameter, and tie it secure with twine or a very long rubber band. drop it off a two story building with the coast clear. it should survive. have fun. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much "energy" will it take to keep me alive? | i want to know how much energy it will take to keep me alive, but not merely speaking of food; i want to know how much of the total energy produced by the sun and hitting earth i personally will require. just as an example, in addition to the food i need to eat, and the air i need to breath, it would be somewhat of a problem for my body to keep that nice 98.6 degrees i've gotten used to if my environment were not somewhere in the habitable zone. so reddit, how much energy would it take to provide everything i need to survive? if it helps, i am in my late 20's, male, no history of heart disease, nonsmoker, etc (generally healthy), living in north america. p.s. now i have this urge to re-read asimov's "the last question". | not sure how to approach this question...it is too vague, and there really isn't a way to answer it without being speculative. my first thought was to say that, assuming that your base metabolic rate was x per hour, to keep you alive for a year you could just multiply this number by the correct conversion factor to get y. then you could say something like, to get y calories from food, you need to grow z, which would require an area of a, and w watts of sunlight must shine on that area to keep everything growing. you could chain together a whole bunch of things and get a final answer that would be strongly dependent on what assumptions are made. so the way the question is phrased, it is not really simple to give a meaningful answer. it is effectively asking for an equation analogous to the [drake equation](_url_0_) but specific to you! that, i am not sure how to do. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drake_equation"
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] |
why so much confusion about the temporal fenestra in mammals (including humans)? | so, as a science enthusiast, i'm reading up (on wikipedia) on the evolution of mammals, about amniotes splitting into the sauropsid and synapsid groups, and about how "synapsids are distinguished by a single hole, known as the temporal fenestra, in the skull behind each eye". since mammals are synapsids, i was naturally curious about how the temporal fenestra manifests itself in modern mammals, and especially whether it's still present in some form in humans, something you'd expect to find discussed at length online. first, i discover wikipedia redirects "temporal fenestra" to their article on skulls, which states (in a large section without citations) that "mammals, which are synapsids, possess no fenestral openings in the skull, as the trait has been modified.") this seems a little strange since the wikipedia article on therapsida -- that direct ancestors of mammals -- says they had especially large temporal fenestra, but the article on mammals also mentions nothing about temporal fenestra at all with respect to modern mammals. outside wikipedia, there is surprisingly little about the evolution of the temporal fenestra in mammals. _url_2_ echoes wikipedia, saying it has been "drastically modified in mammals" and "is no longer a hole in the skull. but [there](_url_3_), [are](_url_0_), [several](_url_1_), [other](_url_5_), [sources](_url_4_ -- including some from higher-ed institutions -- that purport to show a "temporal fenestra" or "synapsid opening" in mammalian skulls, including human skulls. so what's the real deal here? and why would there be such confusion over what seems like a pretty significant piece of anatomy, one used as a significant marker for differentiating major groups of tetrapods? and if the temporal fenestra did vanish in all mammals, or just in primates, when does the fossil record show that happening and why did it do so? | what the wikipedia article is referring to is that the bones around the fenestra have grown into the opening and closed it, as per [this source](_url_0_). so technically it is no longer a "fenestra", but we can still see where the hole used to be and some sources may label that region as the temporal fenestra to show that it's a homologous trait with early synapsids and other amniotes. other sources that aren't so concerned with that particular bit of evidence might ignore it because it doesn't have much functional significance in modern mammals. | 9 | [] | [
"http://campus.murraystate.edu/academic/faculty/tderting/anatomyatlas/settle3.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hQqyxWGhHWo",
"tolweb.com",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oUtvpezozh8",
"https://www.memorangapp.com/flashcards/7866/Anatomy+-+Feral+Cat+Skull+(Digital+Image)",
"http://bio.sunyorange.edu/updated2/comparative_anatomy/anat_3/s_temporal.htm"
] | [
"http://tolweb.org/accessory/Temporal_Fenestration_of_Amniotes?acc_id=463"
] | [
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is it possible to stop a chain reaction of u235 by adding u238 back again? | someone wrote an email on a mailing list for japanese studies how he knows how to stop the chain reaction going on in fukushima. his idea was that uranium is usually not fissile with the naturally occuring ratio of isotopes. the reactor in fukushima used u235 for fission, so he thought that adding u238 again would stop the reaction. i guess this is not really possible, but why? would u238 still sustain a chain reaction because of the fast neutrons? | nuclear engineer here. 1, u235 absorbs neutrons of much lower energies than 238; the spectra are almost exclusive. that's why you need moderation (= slowing down the neutrons). fast neutrons 'ignore' u235, slow neutrons 'ignore' u238. 2, now how exactly would you 'add' u238 into enclosed, solid state ceramic fuel? 3, stoping the reaction is never a problem, and it wasn't in fukushima. it takes a couple of seconds to scram the raction in any case. another reason is the modeartion dependancy, lose the moderator and the reaction is done (that was the problem at chernobyl, their moderator was solid carbon that doesn't evaporate). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do humans have protists as symbiotes in our guts like we have bacteria? | if so, how did those relationships likely develop? if not, what are some reasons we made friends with bacteria but not protists? | yes, we do. "emerging evidence suggests that many common eukaryotic residents of the human gut are commensal or beneficial rather than parasitic, at least in some contexts." _url_0_ i can't speak much to how these developed, but i imagined somewhat similarly to how we evolved these relationships with bacteria. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1005039"
] | [
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if you knew all of the dimensions, distances lenses and settings etc, would it ever be feasible to refocus a blurred image? | say you knew exactly how far the camera was from the subject and background etc? | cameras record the intensity of incoming light. that's a scalar. you'd need to measure the direction or phase too. if you had phase/intensity (vector quantity) you could do what you want to do. read about this _url_0_ edit for clarity | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lytro",
"http://yuzhikov.com/articles/BlurredImagesRestoration1.htm"
] | [
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] |
is mdma really harmless? | i keep hearing that it is. then there's [this picture](_url_0_) from the lancet. at the same time i can recall reading that the rush of seratonin confuses and overloads the reuptak mechanism that usually deconstructs seratonin in the synapse before transporting the parts back into the cell, leading the reuptake enzymes to cut and bring back everything they see, including dopamin. dopamin which produces bleach when cut in this way, thus killing seratonin cells in bulk. not only that, but receptors can get overexcited and retreat into the cell, leaving you feeling dulled if only some do it while giving you a full blown chemical depression if many do, lasting for anything from years to forever. and apparently there's also other toxic byproducts that users claim to be able to thwart using 5-htp and inhibitors. how much truth in this? so which one is it, relatively safe (low risk of dangers mentioned above or dangers mentioned above are a fiction of my imagination) or not? | one of the problems you'll note when reviewing literature on mdma is the recent influx of research on mdma assisted psychotherapy. this research tends to be biased towards showing the safety of the substance, and it's making it harder and harder for unbiased research to make clear conclusions about mdma. it might be part of the reason why you're getting mixed messages. with that said, even within the unbiased scientific research, there isn't a clear understanding on what exactly the relationship is between mdma and permanent neuronal dysfunction. it is well accepted that high dose mdma use is associated with long-term dysfunction of serotonergic circuitry, and for a long time it was thought that the dysfunction was actually from neuronal death. however, more recently there have been studies that challenge this because with cns death you should see certain glial cell markers, and those markers aren't seen in high dose mdma associated serotonergic dysfunction. so with serotonin at least, we know that mdma disrupts normal functioning, but we don't know the exact mechanisms. similar findings of acute dysfunction with dopamine and norepineprhine have been reported, but it's generally felt that the monoamines are not disrupted as severely as serotonin or with as much concern for permanence. the last thing i'll mention is that most of this research is done on primates and occasionally rats, and less is known about the specifics in humans. with all of that said, i certainly wouldn't classify it as "safe" or "harmless" especially when used in high doses, but the exact mechanisms and potential for permanent neural dysfunction are not clear at this point. | 29 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/dbF30"
] | [
"www.erowid.org"
] | [
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] |
at what scale do textures disappear? | i'm wondering about our perception of texture. if we zoom in on something tiny like a cell or a protein, does it have textures? when does an object stop being shiny or coarse, and start being... well, a bunch of molecules i guess? | [cells do indeed](_url_0_) have a texture. their surface is made of a sea of lipid molecules and is riddled with proteins and sugars, like boats on a wavy ocean surface. as you continue to zoom in, enzymes and proteins have shapes, but it starts to get kind of fuzzy. i've always heard/read that atoms and molecules do have shapes, but are "smooth" in that the boundaries that denote the atoms of the molecule don't have sharp dips of peaks (this isn't to say that arrangements of atoms could form dips and peaks on a molecule). i'm not sure if the "smooth" atoms are correct, but cells most certainly have quite a textured surface. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://jcb.rupress.org/content/161/4/673/F1.large.jpg"
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how does conservation of absolute vorticity lead to western intensification of ocean currents? | i have been trying to put this together in my head for a while but just can't. i sort of understand how voracity needs to be conserved, but i'm not entirely sure why the result of this need for conservation is western boundary currents with high current shear and friction with the "western boundary" and eastern boundary currents with low current shear and low friction with their "eastern boundary". any help explaining this would be greatly appreciated. | this is easier to explain with equations, but i'll give it a shot with text. consider looking vertically down a parcel of ocean water from space. if it's stationary with respect to the earth, it will be rotating due to the planet's rotation. at the north pole, the view from overhead will show counter-clockwise rotation; at the south pole, clockwise, and at the equator, zero rotation *around a vertical axis*. the component of planetary rotation in the vertical direction ("planetary vorticity") varies smoothly from counterclockwise to zero to clockwise as we go from north to south. as a concrete example, consider the north atlantic subtropical gyre, between the equator and 45 degrees north. the wind blows from west to east in the northern part of the gyre, and from east to west in its southern part, so the wind creates a torque that tries to rotate the ocean in a clockwise sense, opposite to the direction of earth's rotation. so the wind makes the vorticity of this parcel less counterclockwise, more clockwise. the parcel can respond by either beginning to flow clockwise, which it does, or by *moving south to a region where the planetary vorticity is less counterclockwise*, which it also does. the planetary effect dominates. so in the interior of the ocean, away from coastlines, the water is driven south by the clockwise wind torque. this is called ["sverdrup flow"](_url_0_). to balance this out, there must be a process causing counter-clockwise torque, or else the ocean would gain clockwise vorticity forever. if we had a return current flowing northward along the western boundary, frictional drag would tug southward on its west side, creating a counter-clockwise torque -- that's just what we need. but if the return current were northward along the *eastern* boundary, frictional drag would create a *clockwise* torque -- that would add vorticity in the same direction as the wind, making a balance impossible. the same argument works in northern and southern hemisphere, and in gyres where the wind is adding clockwise or counterclockwise torque: you always end up with slow flow north or south in the interior of the ocean, balanced by a strong return current on the west side. the east side would always create a torque in the wrong direction, that would not compensate for the torque created by the wind. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sverdrup_balance"
] | [
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why do drug trials include placebos? | taking a placebo has some effect. it could be due to the power of positive thinking. it could just be people reporting things differently. it doesn't matter. the point is that if one group is given a drug and the other is not, people will say the drug helped even if it does absolutely nothing. if you want to make sure drugs actually help, comparing it to nothing will be problematic. so they compare it to a placebo. since nobody knows if they're getting a real drug, they don't have to worry about the placebo effect. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
you are sitting in a box with one hole. how big the hole should be so that you can breath normally? | you'd need to specify some more parameters. for instance, how large the box is, whether there's airflow, what altitude you're at... edit: and what degree of breathing do you actually want. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
some easy ways to stop spread of some diseases. | i am aware that there are some metals (silver and copper) which are deadly to bacteria, prevent the growth of fungi/mold, and are only mildly toxic... additionally, i am aware that some textures and surfaces do not support the growth of bacteria/algae/molds... why don't hospitals use these metals and textures on all the hard surfaces and things people touch to prevent the spread of some nasty bugs (mrsa for instance)? | most hospital surfaces are non-organic (polymer, ceramic etc) and i don't think bacteria do very well on these surfaces... many metals are toxic to bacteria, but many metals are toxic to humans for the same reasons. although the human body can tolerate far more volume and varieties of metal it is can still suffer from trace metals that are absorbed through the skin. some of the worst offenders are mercury, lead, and aluminum but even copper and zinc can be toxic in high doses. i'm not sure if silver poses any significant threat to the human body but probably not only because it's so rare. it would probably be more of a question of economics... | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do birds know when my tomatoes are ripening? | i had a bunch of green tomatoes not even close to ripe on the plant for over a month. the first one started showing just a hint of red, and it was pecked the same day. also, the peck was directly over the red spot. none of the green was harmed. how did the birds know that it was beginning to ripen? can they distinguish a green tomato from a red one? | yes, birds can see when fruit is ripe. mast birds have 4 types of cone cell, as opposed to our three. one of these is sensitive to uv light. ripe fruit will fluoresce under uv light, so the good fruit will literally glow in the birds vision. they also have much greater ability to distinguish color than we do, so they'll be able to see the fruit ripening before we will, and will even be able to tell how nutritious one fruit will be compared to he one next to it. (source- the folloing two articles.) _url_1_ _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/6152638/Bananas-turn-bright-blue-under-ultra-violet-light-helping-animals-pick-ripe-ones.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_vision#Light_perception"
] | [
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i'm not really sure how to ask this question -- essentially, why can't we detect motion that is below a certain threshold? | say you are watching the sun set. you never actually see the sun move, but you are aware that over a period of minutes, it has gotten lower. i know that we have short and long term memory. is there an even shorter-term memory that we access to directly detect movement (ie, if something hasn't move a certain amount during the lifespan of this even shorter term memory, than we cannot detect it has moved)? | there's something in sensation called the absolute threshold and the difference threshold. if a sound is extremely quiet, so quiet that you can't hear it, it's below your absolute threshold. if you're already listening to significantly loud music and someone raises the volume a tiny amount, so little that you don't notice, the change is below your difference threshold. the motion of the sun is below human's difference threshold, for the most part. in the last few moments of a sunset you have the stationary horizon to compare it to, so you can actually see it in this case. but when the sun (or moon, or whatever) is high in the sky and any relatively stationary object is in your peripherals, it becomes impossible to use the stationary object as a metric. hope that helps! | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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out of all the money in the world, how much of it is a digital number on a computer system? | it's unlikely that a government is going to have trillions of dollars in a physical form, right? | iirc physical currency accounts for about 2-10% of all money in the us and this pattern is seen across the world. i think the current global estimate is that only 8% of money is available as physical currency. so somewhere upwards of 90% of the money in the world is digital _url_0_ | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_supply"
] | [
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cleaning with baking soda & vinegar - am i missing something, or does this really make no sense? | i use baking soda and vinegar as cleaning supplies pretty frequently - vinegar helps to remove soap scum from my shower, while baking soda works magic on removing smells from plastic containers that i accidentally leave leftovers in for months to grow moldy. but i keep seeing tips to *combine* them, especially for unclogging drains. here's an example: ["drano is really toxic stuff, and you don’t have to take our word for it—just read the warning labels on the back of the bottle. the next time you have a clogged drain... pour a cup of baking soda, followed by a cup of white vinegar down your drain. then plug the drain with the stopper or a rag and let it work for at least 15 minutes."](_url_0_) i know the reaction for vinegar and baking soda is dramatic, but the end products are water (which goes down the drain all the time anyway), carbon dioxide (which would promptly leave the drain), and sodium acetate. does sodium acetate really do anything? if so, why not just pour table salt down my drain when it's clogged? does the bubbling do anything? it seems like it would just fizz on the surface of the clog, and you'd need a lot more than a cup of each before the fizzing would last long enough to matter. maybe the pressure from the gas, if the sink is firmly stoppered, would have an effect, but it seems like a plunger would do the trick better in that case. or is this, as i suspect, a flashy-looking but ultimately ineffective method of unclogging drains? | it's the physical action of the reaction that helps with the extraction. (sorry, had to put it that way....) it's the bubbles, like you mentioned. they would physically help break up the clog. it's really the same thing drano does, just less dramatically. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.treehugger.com/cleaning-organizing/13-baking-soda-uses-to-clean-almost-everything.html"
] | [] | [
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would it ever be financially viable for a firm to employ physical labour to produce energy? | such as a man running in a hamster wheel which turns a turbine etc., although it would probably be more sophisticated and on a much larger scale. | not if you account for the cost of food. the commodity price of rice works out to 50 cents for 2000 calories or about 22c/kwh, approximately double the cost of electricity in the us. this is as cheap as food gets. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a cme disrupt electricity? | so i just saw a video by a youtube channel called reallifelore talking about coronal mass ejections. and i got curious. he talks about the possible damage and that electricity may be shut down by such an event for years. why is it lasting such a long time? wouldn't it only be during the time the ejection actually hits us? | even though the electromagnetic disruption from a cme is temporary, if it is powerful enough to fry every transformer, computer chip, and electrical switching station in the country, they would all need to be physically replaced, and that would take a much longer time. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why didn't rosetta intercept 67p closer to earth? | i watched [this video](_url_0_) after seeing [this askscience post](_url_1_) and i was wondering why they didn't just intercept 67p when it was closer to earth? it seems like it took a lot of time/gravity assists to have it intercept the comet so far from earth when its path will bring it much closer soon. thanks. | in space we normally don't care about distance (unless, of course, it's large enough that you can't get there in a reasonable time, but this was not the case). what actually matters is how much fuel you need to get there. and orbital dynamics work in such a way that reaching a high speed or a big distance is the same - if you go faster your orbit becomes elliptic with a higher perihelion. so it would have been the same. the comes goes faster when close to earth and you have to match its speed to reach it. in this case it was preferable to take advantage of gravity assists to save fuel. the other reason is scientific, it's nice to reach the comet before its tail develops and follow it as it gets closer to the sun to measure how much it changes. a few days before rendez-vous the announced they had measured it loses 2 glasses of water per minute, and they had measured a temperature that they were not expecting. the development of the comet's tail would have interfered with this as it blocks (at least part of) the sunlight reaching the comet's nucleus. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ktrtvCvZb28",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2mb9cf/is_there_a_limit_to_how_many_times_you_can/"
] | [] | [
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is there a rule of thumb relating the ld50 and ld95 of various substances? | for example, is the ld95 usually twice the ld50, or usually 10x the ld50? more narrowly, is there such a relationship when comparing substances that share the same/similar mechanisms of toxicity? | ph.d. student (cancer research) here. first, a quick definition for anyone unfamiliar with the term ld##: ld50 is the dose of a given drug that is lethal (ld=lethal dose) for 50% of the test population (usually cells) after a specific time interval. the answer to your broader question is "sometimes". it depends on how the drug works. in some cases, it is that simple. in others, increasing the amount of the drug can make it work more or less efficiently. important factors include the target of the drug, how the drug works, and how the various members of the population respond to the drug. the specifics pile up from here :) for your narrower question, there aren't any hard and fast rules to predict the ld50 of one drug based on the ld50 of another drug with a similar mechanism. that might provide a guideline for initial testing, but you cannot assume that the doses will be exactly the same or even close. one drug might bind to the target more strongly than the other, so it will be more potent. one might be better at entering the cell than the other. one might be less likely to be filtered out by the kidneys or gobbled up by macrophages. some drugs depend on the liver to be activated first, and this could also be more or less efficient. lastly, the ld50 may refer not to the drug's intended purpose and mechanism but instead to its off-target effects. that is another reason two similar drugs cannot be compared directly to determine safe dosages. they might have side effects that differ in severity or type. this is especially important when the population isn't cells in a dish but is a whole organism like a human or felix the cat. if the drug targets cancer cells, the dose has to be high enough to kill them but not so high that its side effects destroy healthy organs. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does a hexbug nano move forward? isn't it a brownian ratchet? | for context here is a video with the best explanation of how they move that i could find: _url_0_ so basically my question is how do they move? you turn it on and it starts vibrating and goes in one direction. they make a claim that the shape of the legs is responsible, but that seems inconsistent to me. the legs feel like springs to me and the frictional force for moving forward or backward feels the same (if anything the friction is less for moving backwards). my best guess is that the motor compresses the legs in the forward direction and the motor is able to accelerate the body upwards faster than the legs are able to restore the bug to neutral. this solution, however, seems impossible because you should have a quarter stroke of the motor adding to the restoring force (backwards) and holding the body down as well. so if the motor is powerful enough to compress the bug (forward and down) in a half stroke, the potential energy plus quarter stroke should be plenty to restore the bug to neutral. | you see how the legs are bent? the spring force to drive the toy forward is greater than to drive it backwards as a result. the orientation of the motor's rotation might help by having the mass move forward to back and compressing the legs on each stroke. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhRoqUkhbdU"
] | [
"http://www.evilmadscientist.com/2007/bristlebot-a-tiny-directional-vibrobot/"
] | [
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anyone remember the term used to refer to the kind of immunity that our microbiome provides for us? | specifically the one that prevents the colonization of pathogens because of the presence of other bacteria in our guts. i can't seem to remember the term and it is frustrating me | i believe the principle you're talking about is "competitive exclusion." it works similarly with other communities and microbiomes: when a plant is infected by certain kinds of endophytic fungi, it provides a strong defense against infection by some pathogenic fungi. any time an organism colonizes a place and keeps others out, we can call that competitive exclusion, but there are often different mechanisms at work. for example, infection by one (non-harmful) microbe can *induce* resistance to pathogens, and this is called "induced resistance," which is pretty straightforward in terms of biological nomenclature. in other cases, we aren't really sure what mechanisms are responsible. i believe the "protection" against *clostridium spp.* often credited to a healthy gut microbiome is generally attributed to competitive exclusion (i.e., the 'good' microbes are using all the resources, so the 'bad' microbes have nothing to eat and nowhere to live). bear in mind many bacteria and most fungi are *really* good at producing chemicals which discourage or outright kill colonizing competitors. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do humans seek revenge? | concerning the recent colorado incident, i've been reading a lot of posts about how the guy should be beaten and tortured. while a part of me feels the same, i am wondering why people seek revenge with no personal benefit. how did this come about from an evolutionary standpoint? | if a potential wrongdoer knows that he will be targeted by those seeking revenge, he is less likely to commit the act in the first place. thus, revenge serves as a deterrent. here is a quote from a scientific american article entitled "[does revenge serve an evolutionary purpose?](_url_0_)": this provides a straightforward explanation for why we want revenge against those who want to harm us or our close relatives. now, why we want revenge against those who harm *non-relatives* boils down to the question of why we are altruistic toward non-kin strangers at all, even though their death presumably does not affect our genes' chances for survival. i'm sure someone else can provide citations for this. | 136 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=revenge-evolution"
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what is the difference between precision and a accuracy in scientific context? | i know one has something to do with the device you're measuring with and the other is how its measure or something. can someone explain please? | accuracy is how close you were in relation to a predefined measurement. an example is if you're bowling and trying to shoot a 100, getting a 100 would be accurate. precision is getting multiple measurements of the same or nearly same number. in bowling if you were shooting for a 100, and you got three scores, 70, 71, and 69, these would be precise but not accurate. pm me for more info if needed hope this helps! | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any good websites to learn biology from? | not necessarily to learn directly from, but i'd like to use a website as a companion to my ap book and learning. does anyone know any? | for biomedical engineering with a heavy base of anatomy and physiology, there is an entire [yale course](_url_0_) filmed and put on youtube for viewing. [this](_url_1_) is a course on evolution, which i think is important to understand if you want to truly understand biology. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/user/YaleCourses#p/c/27E877E8206F196B",
"http://www.youtube.com/user/YaleCourses#p/c/6299F3195349CCDA",
"khanacademy.org"
] | [
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] |
what's the most efficient method for dividing a bunch of different (independently indivisible) values into even groups? | there may be some proper terminology for this, but my searches weren't helpful. i'd like to learn how, given a group of varying numbers that cannot be individually divided, a person could group them into the most efficient separate sets possible. for example, let's hypothetically say we have a farmer with 15 different fields of different sizes and only a certain amount of water. if he knows how much water each field needs (let's say anywhere between 150-500 gallons per minute) and he knows his pump's output (750 gpm) can we use a formula or program of some sort to order these into the most efficient set groups? here's a [rough visualization](_url_0_) to show what i mean i understand that we could tally and exchange individually, but that's fairly inefficient and not in the spirit of mathematics. can anyone recommend an area of study for this type of thing? thanks for your help | the field of study you are looking for is [optimization](_url_2_). this in itself is a *huge* field - even some of the more practical subfields, such as [linear optimization](_url_0_) is pretty big, with some interesting mathematics. the optimization problems that it sounds like you are interested in are **combinatorial optimization** problems such as the [knapsack problem](_url_1_), [bin-packing](_url_3_), etc. unfortunately (or fortunately, depending on your perspective) these are notoriously "difficult" problems in that no known efficient algorithm exists (for a strict definition of "efficient"). the silver lining is that because they are algorithmically difficult to solve in general, a lot of effort has been put in to finding special cases where they can be solved efficiently. | 6 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/LxjtlPh.png"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knapsack_problem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_optimization",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bin_packing_problem"
] | [
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did this in a lab and can't figure out why: why would you ever reflux without water flowing through it? [x-post /r/chemhelp] | crossposted here for greater visibility. i did this last week in a lab for the synthesis of piperine; specifically preparing the wittig reagent we used to join methyl 4-bromo-2-butenoate to piperonal. can't figure out why we didn't have to use water though? | it depends entirely on what solvent you're using - so that's the information you need to look at (and provide). solvents with a very high boiling point can be refluxed with nothing but air cooling your condenser. it could also be a matter of logistics - if you're doing a lab with many more reactions than there are taps, for example. you can often just cap the top of the condenser to prevent solvent losses as well. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain kinetic intelligence to me? how come some people can be gymnasts and others can't even do a cartwheel? | **background:** psychologists have debated for many decades about how to define, qualify, and quantify "intelligence." traditionally, intelligence has been defined as the set of personal characteristics that correlate with later academic success. these include things like spatial ability and vocabulary comprehension. many different theories of intelligence were proposed; google weschler or spearman for some examples. **howard gardner** decided that the idea of a unified intelligence did not fully capture the idea of intelligence. he argued that there are multiple intelligences, some of them correlating with academic potential and others not. his criteria for something to be considered "an intelligence" basically included things like it has to be a distinct category of functions and correspond to a certain brain region. "linguistic intelligence," for example, qualifies because it involves a distinct set of core operations (word definitions, syntax) and specific brain regions (say, wernicke's and broca's regions.) **kinesthetic intelligence** was one of his proposed intelligences for people who are dexterous or athletic. some people like gardner's theory. it says that a person can be intelligent if they are an athlete but do not have good grades. it has had some practical success in the classroom because it encourages teaching material in a variety of different ways. many of gardner's peers, however, criticized the approach for multiple reasons. * if "intelligence" used to be "things that predict future academic performance" but now isn't, then what is it? what do we gain with this new definition? he's not contributing much to theory, they argued. * gardner didn't create new tests for his intelligences, but rather relied upon the work of previous researchers' work on intelligence or personality. he's not contributing much to measuring intelligence. * many of gardner's intelligences overlap quite a bit; spatial intelligence and logical-mathematical intelligence, for example, tend to go together because people who can visualise things spatially also tend to be adept at mathematics. so if these are two separate intelligences, but they seem to predict the same behavior, why should we consider them separate intelligences? * some of these things, like naturalistic intelligence, may actually be a measurement of personality traits (how good we are at building fires improves with practice and how much we enjoy camping) rather than a component of intelligence. now, it's not that people who have, say, social intelligence aren't valuable to society, and can't have awesome jobs. (intelligence isn't necessarily predictive of financial success; iq and hard work are not the same thing). it's just that most psychologists prefer to constrain the definition of "intelligence" to mean things that correlate with problem solving and academics. so, the **tl;dr:** kinetic intelligence was howard gardner's idea that some people are athletic (or otherwise physically dexterous), and learn better by doing something with their bodies rather than reading. some people can't do cartwheels because they are simply uncoordinated. this can be due to any number of reasons that could be related to practice, nutrition, the environment, genetics, etc. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what alleged psychodellic property or ingredient of nutmeg makes people high? | myristicin, an anti-cholinergic. like other anti-cholinergic drugs it will cause dry eyes/mouth, confusion, headaches and nausea. in certain doses it can cause mild hallucinations. the effects vary widely from person to person and can last for 2-3 days. i've frequently heard a nutmeg high being described as like a bad flu. i've only known one person to do it twice. interestingly, myristicin doesn't fully explain nutmeg's effects according to some literature. elemicin, also in nutmeg, is potentially psychoactive as well. some of nutmeg's effects may come from how myristicin alters the metabolism of other compounds found in the nutmeg seed. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
where does electricity go when it's used? | more specifically, what happens to that energy and why can't it be reused?i mean energy and matter can't be destroyed, so where would the energy end up? | electrical energy usually ends up as waste heat, which is hard to transform back into more useful forms of energy because it contains so much disorder. the word "electricity" is vague and means "anything relating to electric charge". people usually use it in everyday usage to mean electric current in metal wires. in that case, energy is propagated by the oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are created and passed along by the electrons. in standard power lines (alternating current), the electrons don't actually go anywhere. they just slosh back and forth about one point. but this sloshing motion passes along electromagnetic waves that carry energy. the power company does not actually deliver electrons to you. it delivers oscillating electromagnetic waves (these are trapped waves that are coupled to the electrons, which are slightly different than electromagnetic waves traveling through free space, such as radio waves). when the waving electromagnetic fields pass through an appliance, their energy is usually converted to some other form of energy by a device specifically designed to do this: electrical energy becomes sound energy in a loudspeaker, it becomes light energy in a light bulb or computer display, it becomes kinetic energy in a rotating wheel or blade, etc. ultimately, though, these other forms of energy usually end up as heat. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there a 3d equivalent to the "four color theorem"? | i know the four color theorem states that 4 colors are enough to fill any planar map. is there a three-dimensional equivalent? intuitively, i think it should need 4^2 colors, but is there a proof? [four color theorem](_url_0_) | in 3d you can have situations requiring arbitrarily many colors. take a cylinder, cut it into n slices like a pizza for any number n, and then on the top of the cylinder attach n concentric rings. every ring touches every wedge and vice versa, so for each wedge pick one ring to fuse it with, and now you have n different 3d regions that all touch each other. you then need n colors to color them all differently. since n was arbitrary, we can make it as big as we like. | 49 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_color_theorem"
] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/7jufob/has_anyone_proved_how_many_colors_you_would_need/"
] | [
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] |
why is it that i get a small shock when a paper clip, or other similar metal object, touches my braces? | if i put a paper clip to my braces wire, then touch the braces with my toungue, it feels/tastes like a mild version of touching your toungue to two ends of a 9 volt battery. why is this? | the two dissimilar metals, combined with the various solutes in your saliva, generate a voltage. this is the same reason why chewing on aluminum foil is painful to people with fillings. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in this picture the heliosphere looks as if it is experiencing drag. what's actually happening? | _url_0_ does it look this way because of the way our solar system is moving in our galaxy? if voyager 1 or 2 went in the opposite direction would they be stuck in the tail of the heliosphere? | as drzowie said, yes. [here is a hubble image](_url_0_) of another star traveling through much denser gas, and you can see the bow shock. | 3 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/G2sv7"
] | [
"http://img1.jurko.net/wall/paper/2002-05-a-1280_wallpaper.jpg"
] | [
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which cleaning agents don't push directional selection? | i was doing a lab in ap biology and was wondering what chemicals can safely be used to disinfect or kill bacteria. i knows already that things like antibacterial soaps and hand sanitizers are pretty bad in promoting resistance to disinfecting methods. is bleach safe? how exactly does it work? if i haven't mentioned it yet, what way is the safest to clean things in both lab contexts and for things like regular hand washing and household cleaning? | [this source](_url_0_) discusses common disinfectants. alcohol kills bacteria by dissolving their cell membranes and disabling proteins that need to be dissolved in water to function properly. everything with a cell membrane is vulnerable to this, and even many viruses (consisting of proteins with no cell membrane) will be permanently disabled. the only thing it does not kill is bacterial spores; the spore wall acts like armor and keeps the alcohol away from the important bits of the bacteria. for a species that does not already form spores, evolving resistance is pretty much impossible. bleach (typically sodium hypochlorite) apparently has various modes of action, but one obvious one is that it is an oxidizing agent and will oxidize various organic compounds in the bacteria (almost literally "kill it with fire"- combustion is an oxidation reaction). evolving resistance to this is similarly difficult. non-alcohol hand sanitizers or antibacterial soaps containing compounds like [triclosan](_url_1_) are what people worry about in terms of promoting resistance (although those would presumably mostly promote resistance to triclosan). 70% ethyl alcohol and sodium hypochlorite bleach (commercial "household bleach", typically diluted to 1 part bleach/10 parts water) are both effective and have no serious concerns about promoting resistance. for regular hand washing, either alcohol-based hand sanitizer or ordinary, non-antibacterial soap work well. the soap works by physically removing the bacteria from your hands (the surfactant action of the soap allows them to be dissolved in water, and then scrubbing and rinsing washes them away). | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cdc.gov/hicpac/disinfection_sterilization/6_0disinfection.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triclosan"
] | [
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what is the longest an electrical outage can be without causing everything to turn off and need to start up again? | so just a few minutes ago there was a power outage, one that lasted a fraction of a second. it was a very small amount of time, yet all of the electronics in my house need to be reset. i'm sure there is some tolerance for near instantaneous electrical outages, ones so short that there is no noticeable effect to them, my question is in how large that tolerance is. could a computer stay on if power is lost for a hundredth of a second? a thousandth? what kind of factors go into the delay between power loss and power return for a common power outage? | so it depends on two things: the kind of current the device is using, and how the power supply is made. any device working on alternating current has a low tolerance for interruption, in the exception of heating coils. this is because an attribute of this kind of power is frequency, or voltage reversal over time. if the current isn't reversing direction 60 (or 50, in some countries) times a second, the device won't function. direct current devices, such as those with transformers or what's powered by batteries, can be a little more robust, depending on how their transformers are made. many times, the rectifier responsible for switching alternating current to single-polarity direct current has capacitors and other components involved in it to soak the 98 times a second that the input voltage is at 0. these capacitors may continue to feed current out of the transformer even if the input current is suddenly cut. depending on what it's powering, the device on the other side could suck all the power up and shut down, or a status light might stay on for a few seconds before finally fading dark. we see this a lot in amplifiers and sound processors, and many inexpensive computer speakers will do it. curiously, if you turn the speakers off, and the diode is still faintly glowing, and you then try to run sound through it, the sudden demand for work by the speaker's small amplifier will instantly deplete what is left in the capacitor and the light will go out immediately. you might even hear a small gasp of sound on its way out. edit: i forgot how sine waves work | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are some scientific breakthroughs from the last 5 years people might not know about? | i have a really smart friend who is working for the military right now on resonance and using it to power things wirelessly. he is prohibited from giving any kind real info, but we talk about it sometimes and it is really amazing what he's doing. he's gotten up to a 90%ish at over 10 yards energy transfer with materials he was able to buy at a local hardware store. this isn't a new concept, we have been able to get around 50% transfer over short distances for awhile, but he is taking it to a whole new level. it's not something you will see published anytime soon, but i really think it has incredible potential to change the world. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what do we know about invertebrate evolutionary transition from sea to land? | i know that vertebrate tetrapods underwent a sea-to-land transition over time, and i'm assuming that invertebrates underwent a similar transition. is there any interesting fossil evidence of this transition? when did it take place? how long did it take? i'm curious and google was a letdown. | like other aspects of paleontology, our record is heavily biased. the earliest terrestrial invertebrate animals were probably small worms that never left any fossilized traces. the earliest good evidence we have for terrestrial invertebrates are arthropod fossils, particularly the [myriapods](_url_3_), which appear to have colonized land by the late silurian at least. interestingly, these may have been beaten to land by the [chelicerates](_url_2_), mainly scorpions. based on trace fossils (i. e. tracks and burrows) appear to have been, at the very least, amphibious [as far back as the ordovician](_url_1_). their presence on land is confirmed by body fossils of silurian age as well. the earliest non-arthropods i can find are land-snails called neritacea, which appear to have [colonized terrestrial environments by the devonian](_url_0_). i'm afraid i'm not as good on the nuts and bolts of the evolution, but as far as i can tell, several groups evolved to colonize land more or less independently, and the adaptations for life above water are accordingly diverse. some of these, such as woodlice (which are terrestrial crustaceans that first appeared in the devonian) still breath with gills. hope that helps. feel free to hit me up if you want any more info. **tl:dr** - the oldest terrestrial invertebrate fossils are arthropods found in silurian rocks. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=PGA4AAAAIAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=Silurian+land+snail&ots=dsaITdSf4t&sig=tGdw160wjLVXEsjc_1bam-AE3_k#v=onepage&q=Silurian%20land%20snail&f=false",
"http://www.ephemeroptera-galactica.com/pubs/pub_s/pubshearw1990p1807.pdf",
"http://www.paulselden.net/uploads/7/5/3/2/7532217/palaeophysiologys.pdf",
"http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/309/1138/207.abstract",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiktaalik"
] | [
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how does the brain simulate complex situations and conversations? which part of the brain simulates life? | its really a broad question. every part of the brain simulates life. for conversation -tests have demonstrated increased neural activity in parts of the left hemisphere when subjects are using language. (pet scans--positron emission tomography, where patient injects mildly radioactive substance, which is absorbed more quickly by the more active areas of the brain). oral language is spoken first in the mind. this happens especially when you rehearse a speech, or think in words about something. if we are talking about what side of the brain controls speech thought formation, this is it. the left frontal lobe, the area above the left eyebrow is responsible for this internal speech. the acuity or responsiveness of this area of the brain determines if you will think of things to say quickly, or you will search for words. it will help you make deep conversations that are more intellectual than 'how is the weather?' this kind of higher order thinking will be easier for you, you are more apt to discuss the meaning of life and not just what color of tie you have on. so, what side of the brain controls speech meanings? it is basically the left side of the frontal lobe. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is this stuff stuck to my tree? | [as seen here.](_url_0_) is it a fungus, ~~tree sap~~ (i don't think it's that, since it's not sticky) or what? it's all over the branches of this pine tree in my yard. edited for more information. edit two: if someone has a better subreddit to ask this in, let me know. | that, sadly, is [wooly adelgid](_url_0_). it is a bug that kills evergreen trees. it is widespread invasive and causing vast tracts of forest to die 8( | 5 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/JEAZ8.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemlock_woolly_adelgid"
] | [
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is this real? and is that justifiable compensation? | _url_0_ | _url_0_ _url_1_ 100k seemingly was the competitions prize money. while i understand that someone would think "that's not exactly much for what they say she has done there", i guess *compenstation* sounds a bit negative. where should what you'd consider justifiable come from? we don't know who owns her work, but it is likely the holder of her lab does. they could probably sell the technology for quite a lot, given it is actually much of a breakthrough. someone working in the field might give us closer insight on the significance of this development. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.geekosystem.com/17-yo-cancer-nanoparticle/"
] | [
"www.siemens-foundation.org/en/competition/2011_winners.htm",
"http://www.gwu.edu/explore/mediaroom/newsreleases/teensclaimtopprizesin2011siemenscompetitioninmathsciencetechnology",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/n5xv6/a_17_year_old_created_a_cancer_killing/"
] | [
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is the (co)sine wave the fundamental building block of signals? how can we prove this? | i couldn't find a better way to phrase this question so please allow me to explain. before i start, i just want to make clear then when i will be speaking of a 'sine' wave, i'm not just referring to a naked sine(wt) function (w = omega because i don't know how to math in reddit), but also a sine wave with a phase shift (sine, cosine and anything in between) or the complex harmonic function e\^(jwt). i don't know how to name these or how to formally refer to these functions more generally. so again, when i say 'sine' wave i mean the sine-function + any phase shift or a complex harmonic function if that is what you call them. it frustrates me when i'm typing this because i don't know how to call that 'shape' regardless of whether it is purely real or complex or regardless its phase. i don't want to be confusing. & #x200b; in fourier transforms we consider signals to be composites of an (in)finite number of sine functions. to me that seems to imply that the sin function is 'the' purest most naked periodic function. we say, all periodic functions is collection of sine functions. is it because sine functions are solutions to differential equations that it is 'the' purest periodic function or could there be another periodic function that could serve equally well in fourier transforms? on intuition i'd say no but i can't come up with a very strong mathematical argument to support this idea. maybe another slightly different shape that you could also use. or is the sine wave 'the' periodic function? i've thought about this question a lot but i've never been able to really comprehend how to think about it best. sorry for the lengthy question. now that i'm typing it out i really notice that as a non-native english speaker and engineer (and not mathematician) i don't know the right language to talk about this question. | this is not a unique choice. you can expand in any complete set of orthogonal functions. sinusoidal functions are just one possible choice that happens to be convenient. but that doesn’t mean that sine functions are “more pure” than any other choice. you could expand in polynomials if you wanted to. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelet",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral_transform"
] | [
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phospholipid bilayer interaction with external particles | this is a biology/chemistry sort of question. with what i know of cellular membranes, the phosopholipid layer is generally negatively charged and has interactions with proteins, of various types. are there any chemicals that will bind directly to the phospholipids, or will it only attract positively charged molecules? | [i don't know if you have see a picture like this before, but it could be helpful to your understanding of cell membranes.](_url_0_) there is a great diversity of proteins all with varying associations with the phospholipid bilayer. an important aspect of the membrane is its amphipathic nature. yes it is negatively charged *on its outside*, but inside the membrane it is uncharged or non-polar. the non-polar nature of the membrane allows specially adapted proteins to have hydrophobic domains which allow them to reside at least partly embedded in the membrane. other non-polar chemicals could also reside here, but this wouldn't really be consider binding. there possibly are chemicals that bind covalently to the phospholipids, but i don't know of them. on the other hand, there are lots of chemicals which can bind ionically to the phospholipids. one example that i know of off the top of my head is sodium dodecyl sulfate (sds). this is the main surfactant that is used in many soaps, and also in the laboratory. because of it's low critical micelle concentration it is useful for cell lysis. sds is able to bind ionically to the phospholipids and solubilize them, ripping the cell apart. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg"
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i'm blowing soap bubbles for my kid. if i blow slowly and gently i can create a giant bubble. if i blow fast, i get lots of tiny bubbles. why? | normally when atoms/molecules come together, they enter a more stable state and release energy as they can arrange efficiently. but at the surface, the atoms/molecules cannot arrange efficiently because of the change in medium between the material and whatever is around it. so bubbles, or pure surfaces are not very stable and require energy to create - in other words, bubbles are stored energy. (which is why they send material flying out when they "pop") you supply kinetic energy by blowing into the soap film, when you blow harder, more energy is put into the bubbles and more surface area will be created. lots of small spheres have more surface area than 1 big sphere, so when you blow harder, you create more surface and more bubbles. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is observation a skill or a talent? | is one's ability to notice things, or perhaps more to the point, the number of things a person can notice, significantly improvable with training? or is it largely set in stone, with a little room for improvement, after development finishes? i would assume most people want to attribute it to skill, as with most intellectual abilities people like to think that they achieved it through hard work, even though that may not be the case. and of course we also tend to (or want to) believe we can improve ourselves limitlessly. but is that really the case, or is this the kind of thing where people have different innate abilities which are more or less going to stay the same throughout life? --when i say 'notice things', i suppose i mean to be aware of something (an object, quality, relationship, or event) enough to draw upon that awareness when i form a thought or decision; eg, while driving there are thousands of visual and auditory stimuli, but only a few are consciously available to me, such as the positions of cars around me when i focus on them, or the license plate of the car in front of me. i have never come across any extensive information on the subject, so hopefully some more learned psychologists can educate me! | interesting question but i have a feeling that the correct answer will of course be both in some manner. there are some that don't practice it and are ace, while others are constantly trying to expand how much they can observe and comprehend at once and are able to process the same amount as the more 'talented' individual | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
are we staring into a celestial cemetery? | do we have a way of knowing if any of the stars we see are still burning? or are we staring into a celestial cemetery? | when you look up at the sky at night you see only nearby stars. the stars that are visible are between around 4 000 and 5 000 lightyears away. beyond that distance they become too faint to see. a good way at estimating the chance of the stars being dead is by comparing this distance to a star's lifetime, which is at least tens of millions of years and in most cases more like ten billion years. this gives us the boring answer; those stars are still burning. for a useful comparison to life on earth, if we take a rough average 1000 lightyear distance and 1 billion year lifespan then the light travel time is 1 millionth of their life expectancy. this means, if you chose randomly, a 1/1 000 000 chance of the star being dead. for a human who lives 80 years that same ratio is about 45 minutes. you are not likely to die in the next 45 minutes. in fact, since only about 5 000-10 000 stars are even visible then statistically it is unlikely that even 1 of them has died in the light travel time, let alone a significant number of them. lastly, stars do not die randomly. we have a very good idea about how stars evolve and when they will die. so, if we see a young star a few thousand or million light years away we know it is still there. betelgeuse is a very famous star (it is the red star at the top-left of orion if you know your constellations), some astronomers think betelgeuse is on it's way out, that it is reaching the end of it's life. truth be told, we can't predict exactly when it will die but it could be soon. unfortunately, by soon we mean the next few million years. (betelgeuse is 600 lightyears away). | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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which phyciatriac disorders can be identified via an eeg? | and another question, is there any of the above disorders resemble similarity in eeg reading to adhd? | eeg (electroencephalogram) records electrical field on the scalp, using electrodes carefully placed and located on it. its advantage is that is gives a good measure of the timing of activation, by capturing this electric field and comparing electrodes. however, it is not accurate when it comes to structure and localization, because of the poor discrimination between electrodes. psychiatric disorders are constellations of symptoms, and diagnoses are hard to make because it is not like someone has a "brain signature of depression". so eeg is not a diagnosis tool, even if you can find patterns related to disorders, it's not a causality. we all have very very specific eeg signature, even if we forget it from time to time when doing research. so, you can search any psychiatric disorder and find correlations with activities in eeg, but it's certainly not sufficient to identify it, partly due to the poor discriminatory capacity of the eeg, and partly because of the complexity in defining these disorder. however, it is possible to use eeg in differential diagnosis for [depression](_url_0_), or [schizophrenia](_url_1_). keep in mind that in these studies, they take at least 2 groups: a control, and a diagnosed one, and they verify if their eeg signature differs. so it's more of "he's already diagnosed, let's see if there's something on eeg", than "let's see if we can blindly diagnose people based on eeg signatures". | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/abs/10.1176/ajp.135.1.69",
"http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=492222",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event-related_potential"
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what do we know about the cause of homochirality on earth? | naturally occurring amino acids typically exist in the l configuration while natural sugars are d. how do we explain the over abundance of each? are they related? | "there are a couple of reasons for biological homochirality. one, our galaxy has a chiral spin and a magnetic orientation, which causes cosmic dust particles to polarize starlight as circularly polarized in one direction only. this circularly polarized light degrades d enantiomers of amino acids more than l enantiomers, and this effect is clear when analyzing the amino acids found on comets and meteors. this explains why, at least in the milky way, l enantiomers are preferred. two, although gravity, electromagnetism, and the strong nuclear force are achiral, the weak nuclear force (radioactive decay) is chiral. during beta decay, the emitted electrons preferentially favor one kind of spin. that's right, the parity of the universe is not conserved in nuclear decay. these chiral electrons once again preferrentially degrade d amino acids vs. l amino acids. thus due to the chirality of sunlight and the chirality of nuclear radiation, l amino acids are the more stable enantiomers and therefore are favored for abiogenesis." - mt headed @ sdn. "in the [wikipedia] article "abiogenesis" look for section "models to explain homochirality". in the article "circular polarization" look for the section "starlight". in the article "parity (physics)" look for the section "parity violation". i also followed several footnotes to read the original journal articles." _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://forums.studentdoctor.net/showthread.php?t=854644"
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how do farmers use so much water? | after a dry season, we have about 15 kilograms of apples from our home apple trees. according to [this link](_url_0_) that would take about 12.000 liters of water. the tree has gotten far below that, by my estimation maybe 500 liters during growth season. how come a kg of apples uses up so much water commercially (822 liters)? | the two biggest things that come to mind are yield (how much trees vs how much kg of apple the trees produce), which as to be quite constant from one year to another (the trees in our home don't produce a lot of apple every year and it doesn't seem to be tightly linked to the dryness of the year), and the fact that the link probably accounts for water used in rinsing and processing the apples (otherwise that number for chocolate would be weird imo). | 2 | [] | [
"https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/jan/10/how-much-water-food-production-waste"
] | [] | [
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for you surgical redditors: aortic dissection vs "dissecting aortic aneurysm". | no you are not mistaken, and your definitions are correct. you can have an aortic dissection without an aneurysm, an aneurysm without dissection, or both together. the problems they cause are a bit different. the main worry with an aneurysm is that it can burst, causing rapid, massive blood loss. the only treatment is emergency surgery, which has a high mortality rate. aneurysms are usually monitored by regular scans until they get to a size when the risks of leaving it outweigh the risk of surgery; the cut off is around 5cm. with a dissection, the worry is that the split in the wall of the artery can obstruct blood flow to vital organs, causing heart attacks, strokes, or other major complications. historically, dissections were managed without surgery if the split was lower down in the aorta, by trying to control the patients blood pressure and so reduce the damage to the vessel wall. dissections starting closer to the heart were still taken to theatre though. in the last five to ten years the big change in the management of these conditions has been the development of stents, which can be placed into the artery, by a much less invasive surgical procedure. stents are being used for both aneurysms and dissections. interestingly, the long term outcome studies are just now being published and suggest that while stents are better in the short term ,they have a higher long term complication rate compared to the standard open surgical techniques. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why when i stare at the black in the middle of this brown palate colored .gif and the color scheme changes to b & w, can i see color? | i hope this is following the science guidelines, but if it isn't let me know and i'll take the post down. anyway, i'm thinking that it has to do with our brain retaining the information of the brown colored version and blending it with the b & w colored version _url_0_ | this is an example of a negative after image illusion. essentially the light receptors in your retina's cone cells are being over saturated with a single colour (or set of colour frequencies), those receptors then stop responding strongly to those colours but this manifests in your brain as a hyper-sensitivity to the opposite set of colours/light frequencies. when the illusion switches back to the black and white version you are "seeing" the opposite colours to the ones you just over saturated your visual field with. the illusion persists for a moment because it takes some time for the over saturated light receptors in your cone cells to be "recharged" and start responding normally. this is nicely explained in this wikipedia article _url_0_ | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/DnEPZAi.gif"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterimage"
] | [
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