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what happens to the brain during a "religious experience" and how are these experiences so common with drug use? | the study of the neural correlates of religious experience is called [neurotheology](_url_2_) and is not a well studied field. the truth is that we do not know what the cause of religious experience is. in the 1980's michael persinger developed what became popularly called the [god helmet](_url_1_) which used low intensity oscilating magnetic waves to stimulate parts of the temporal lobe which he thought were responsible (at least in part) for religious experience. persinger found that when stimulated with this helmet people tended to have 'spiritual' experiences and would sometimes report seeing entities or beings. his work with the god helmet has been highly criticized and has not been reproduced even though a number of groups tried. there have been a number of popular tv documentaries or segments dedicated to persigner's work, and if i remember correctly form one of them he was stimulating part of the temporal lobe which was opposite an area associated with self-awareness (i.e. the self-awareness area was on the left hemisphere and he was stimulating the same area on the right, or vice-versa). his theory was that as human beings developed self-awareness and conceptions of time they began to understand the finitude of life and of themselves which created a huge stress. in order to cope with the idea of death and a finite life we developed the conception of something infinite and unending which we have typically associated with god. i want to stress that persinger's ideas are not generally accepted by the mainstream and his god helmet experiments have not ben reproduced, but it is one theory about religious experience. as to why religious experiences are more common with psychedelics, unfortunately the scheduling of drugs such as psilocybin, lsd and dmt has seriously retarded research into their effects and mechanisms which was popular in psychology in the 1960's and earlier. [this](_url_0_) is a psychological study which looks at the religious aspects of a psilocybin 14 months after the experience. it finds that a majority of participants (who were religious and had not tried psychedelics previously) reported their experience as one of the five most important spiritual experiences in their life. so there is evidence that psychedelic drugs help foster spiritual experiences but the mechanism for them doing so it not known. | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3050654/?tool=pmcentrez",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_helmet",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotheology"
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from what did the facility to taste evolve from? | i'm assuming it's from the nerves allowing feeling, for two reasons: * the complex "feeling" quality of touch has many dimensions which are compatible, much like different tastes * there are chemicals which feel *and* taste cold (mint) or hot (peppers), only because of the receptors finding them (which would indicate they are linked). however, i doubt the second, because i would expect the two systems to diverge, so i would think it more likely that both systems are simply dependent on the same "feeling proteins" (which the receptors use). can someone answer how taste evolved? (i don't mean selection, but from what did it form) | i have to wonder if it's not so much that they differentiated from nerves, but rather that an existing chemoreceptor (perhaps for smell, since tastebuds originated in the oropharynx) differentiated, got innervated by what would be ix and x (because ix and x are responsible for the gag reflex), if they didn't exact at that point, and began detecting a noxious ingested chemical and that aided in the survival of the original tasting organism because by tasting that noxious chemical, it'd automatically trigger the gag reflex. it would then be logical to think that the receptors gradually shifted forward, as being able to taste it in your mouth is a lot more beneficial than tasting it in the oropharynx, because you can still voluntarily spit it out, rather than gagging it out. anyhow i couldn't find anything about what taste buds originated from, so that's just speculation. | 2 | []
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|
how does email work? | what happens when i send an email to [email protected]? what is the pathway from my terminal to the recipient's? how secure is it? how do i make it more secure? what are some ways that email communications are intercepted? could you stop someone from receiving their email? or alter it before they see the original? how much should i worry about the integrity of my email? i just realized that i have no idea how email works and i want to enlighten myself. thanks. edit update: great answers his thanks. up votes for everybody | 1) your mail client is configured to talk to an smtp server. let's say it's _url_7_ 2) you send an email to someone@_url_0_. 3) your computer opens a connection to _url_7_, sending the email. you can see *roughly* what it sends by viewing the source of an email in your inbox. it'll say to: yer_a_wizzard@your._url_2_ subject: blah blah blah (newline) (newline) message 4) _url_7_ will eventually look up the smtp server for _url_0_. it will then send almost exactly what you sent to that server. 5) eventually the message arrives at _url_0_, which confirms "someone@_url_0_" is an address handled by the server. it then sits, waiting to be retrieved by you. how secure is it? not very. check your mail and see how many "received:" headers you have. each one is an opportunity for your mail to be captured. you could theoretically bypass it looking up the recipient email server directly, connecting to it, and delivering your message. you do this by (from a command line) (mx stands for "mail exchange". it's smtp.) you'll get back something like ;; question section: ;_url_4_. in mx ;; answer section: _url_4_. 599 in mx 30 alt2._url_3_. _url_4_. 599 in mx 10 _url_3_. _url_4_. 599 in mx 20 _url_1_. _url_4_. 599 in mx 50 alt4._url_3_. _url_4_. 599 in mx 40 alt3._url_3_. each server has a priority attached (in this case, 10-50 but any positive number would work). it's your responsibility to connect to the lowest numbered one and try sending your message. in practice this does not work. most isps will prevent you from doing this because it makes spam trivially easy to send. by forcing you to connect to your isp's mail server, they can inject a bottleneck preventing you from spamming. that's most of your questions. let's go from here and see where it leads. technicalities follow *3 if you use gmail, open a message, click drop down menu, and choose "show original" *4 it adds received: lines. oldest at the bottom. each smtp server will add 1. (an smtp server could elect to not add one if it were trying to conceal it's presence.) | 11 | []
| []
| [
"anywhere.com",
"alt1.aspmx.l.google.com",
"domain.com",
"aspmx.l.google.com",
"google.com",
"alt2.aspmx.l.google.com",
"alt3.aspmx.l.google.com",
"smtp.comcast.net",
"alt4.aspmx.l.google.com",
"example.com",
"anywhere.com",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMAP",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_Office_Protocol",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretty_Good_Privacy",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-in-the-middle_attack",
"anywhere.com"
]
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|
question from an artist. will a scaled model (1/20 scale) "hang" the same as its full-scale sculpture if both the model and sculpture are made from identical solids with proportionally accurate dimensions? | i'm working on a sculpture, and its final dimensions will be 4h x 4w x 0.10d meters). the final piece will be hung from a ceiling, and an armature is being designed for that. the piece will hang at an angle, so the question of balance needs to be resolved at the model level. the first physical model i'm making is at 1/20 scale. the materials being used for the model are identical to what will be used in the full-sized sculpture (pine wood, stainless steel, etc). it's been a loooong time since science class, so i'm trying to imagine what differences might creep in as the model is translated into progressively larger scaled physical models, up until the full-size piece. since the final piece is so big (and expensive!) i'd like to avoid errors when scaling the piece up. my hunch is that as long as the same materials materials are used, the density should be nearly the same, and the models and full-sized pieces should hang / balance similarly enough to eliminate huge problems. is this hunch correct? are there any issues / errors you can imagine creeping into the large scale piece that i can be on the lookout for. for example, i have no idea how to account for friction between elements of the piece, which i imagine being different at different scales and weights. an option might be to model the piece in 3d with industrial software (i.e. solidworks) but i can't afford $3k for the software. edit: thanks to everyone for the confirmation and suggestions. it's great to have scientists involved in art! also, i should have mentioned the armature will attach to the back of the broad side. it will be hung from multiple points, parallel in relationship to the floor, but angled in relationship to the wall. | if an object is hanging, suspended from a single point, then it'll be at an angle such that its center of mass will be vertical with the point it's hanging from. one way to find the center of mass of some object is to hang it from several points, draw lines and see where they intersect. (assuming of course that the thing can swing freely) if you hang a square by its corner, it'll hang with the sides at 45 degrees from vertical. if you hang a 2x1 rectangle, it'll hang with a 26.6 degree angle (the longer side vs vertical), if it's a 100x1 rectangle it's 0.6 degrees, etc. if the proportions and materials are the same, the center of mass will end up in the same spot. so it should be the same. | 6 | []
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why are important constants in the world, such as the gravitational constant, seem so random? | hi guys. i kind of thought about this while i was doing a physics question. i'm not sure how relevant this is but it is very intriguing to me. i was thinking about why the gravitational constant seemed like such a random number. i understand that it was found thought experimental procedures, and i know its correct, but it does bother me how its such a weird number. in si units, 6.67408 × 10^-11. there are also a bunch of other various numbers that are very distinct and complex in our numbering system, such as avogadro's number which we have accepted. we have always used 10's numbering system because we had 10 fingers to count with, but what if there was another numbering system that aligned these properties into nice numbers? essentially i am thinking there might be a numbering system that could be the answer to universe's mysteries. is this possible? | the digits in *dimensionful* fundamental constants are absolutely arbitrary. they depend on our choice of units, which is arbitrary. in a particularly clever system of units i'm very fond of, g = 1. the only important constants are *dimensionless* constants. these are physical significance and it makes sense to wonder how they got their value. | 4 | []
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|
is there a possibility that the recent ligo finding will eventually be withdrawn, like the bicep2 debacle? | i was reading [laurence krauss' article](_url_0_) on ligo in which he says that the measurement involves "less than one ten-thousandth the size of a single proton". wow! isn't it possible that this will turn out to be a false positive? mightn't a meteorite slamming into the earth, for instance, create enough subatomic ripples to fool the instruments? even if that's a crazy idea, i'm just brainstorming the kinds of alternative explanations that might be out there. "the first principle is that you must not fool yourself ― and you are the easiest person to fool." ― richard feynman | the biggest difficulty in detecting gravitational waves is indeed the signal/noise ratio but the people running the experiment know this. they do all sorts of things to reduce the noise. they also have other instruments to figure out if there is anything else which might be giving a false positive. occasionally simulated data is injected into the output to test whether the experiment can retrieve it (nobody actually working on the experiment knows when data has been injected). the waveforms they found are very particular to a black hole-binary merger. from another source the signal would be much "dirtier" and this question would be harder, but for this particular detection the characteristics of the signal give added confidence to the detection. as with every measurement there is some uncertainty but the confidence level is very high. from the abstract of the [paper on the detection](_url_0_) false alarm rate estimated to be less than 1 event per 203 000 years, equivalent to a significance greater than 5.1σ if you look at the table [here](_url_1_) you can see what 5σ means edit: also note that the same signal was detected at two different locations within a time difference which would require any false positive from movement of the earth's surface to have a source almost exactly equidistant to the two detectors. | 17 | []
| [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/14/opinion/sunday/finding-beauty-in-the-darkness.html?_r=0"
]
| [
"http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1602/1602.03837.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation#Rules_for_normally_distributed_data"
]
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|
does salt really repels cockroaches? | as per this link: _url_0_ | the only work i can find on salt repelling cockroaches is very old, and works with dissolved salts. the rejection threshold for ordinary table salt (nacl) is relatively high, and at low concentrations, it is actually preferred to equally concentrated sucrose solution ([frings, 1946](_url_0_)). responses were highly variable between individuals. the salts ammonium chloride and ammonium nitrate repelled cockroaches when they were soaked into packing materials (frings, h. 1948. inorganic salts as repellents for package-penetrating insects. journal of economic entomology 41:413-416; sorry, i couldn't find a non-protected copy). i cannot find any work suggesting that dry table salt will repel cockroaches. the claims on that link seem exaggerated. | 3 | []
| [
"http://www.instructables.com/id/Easy-Rid-Anywhere-of-Cockroaches/"
]
| [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jez.1401020103/abstract"
]
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|
why does the fourth power show up in the stefan–boltzmann law? | the law states that black-body radiant emittance is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body's temperature; why is it the fourth power? usually you see equations with squares or cubes, and you can relate those powers to geometric ideas like intensity dropping as the inverse square because surface area grows as the square, or orbits sweeping equal area in equal time, or volumes of solids, but i don't have any intuition for what a a fourth power means. | planck's law states that the radiance of photons of frequency ν from a blackbody at temperature t is there are some constants hanging around, but i've left them out for sake of clarity. (equvialently, we can work with units in which c = h = k*_b_* = 1.) the total power emitted per unit area is then simply proportional to the integral of b(ν) from ν = 0 to ν = ∞, i.e., all possible frequencies. that is, we want to calculate if all you're after is how p depends on t, then that's something any first-year calculus should be able to do. simply make the substitution x = ν/t, so that p can be written note that the integral now has no parametric dependence on *t*. it's just a number. so we see that *p* is proportional to t^(4). --- if you're interested in how to calculate the value of the integral, write 1/(e^(x) - 1) as a geometric series (with common ratio e^(-x)), then integrate each term individually, terms that look like x^(3)e^(-nx). it's not that easy, but you do get a series whose terms scale like 1/n^(4), which is why the riemann-zeta function pops up in the definition of the stefan-boltzmann constant. | 11 | []
| []
| []
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|
what is the story behind the peppered moth study's? | i was in my intro bio class today and my prof started talking about the peppered moth study during the industrial revolution (coal in the atmosphere, changing colors of moths, etc etc) and i remember hearing some stuff about the study being made up, faked, etc. etc. i went online and found different opinions as to the validity of the study. i just wanted to know what the over all feeling about the study was in the scientific community, also to get as many viewpoints about it as possible. thanks for the help! | a man by the name of michael majerus conducted a study on these moths to try and prove this hypothesis. [you can read his procedure and findings here](_url_0_) although it is a pdf and it takes a really long time to load. he argued that the original hypothesis of selective predation based on whatever moth is easiest to find was correct. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.gen.cam.ac.uk/research/personal/majerus/SwedenPepperedmoth2007Ppt.pdf"
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|
why doesn't raoult's law depend on the chemical nature of solute? | according to raoult's law, dissolving a solute into a solvent decreases the saturation vapor pressure. being a colligative property, it doesn't matter what the chemical nature of the solute is, only how much there is. however we know that things like melting point and saturation vapor pressure (and by extension boiling point) depend on the strength of intermolecular forces. we say that a compound with stronger intermolecular forces has a lower saturation vapor pressure (i.e., is less volatile). **my question:** if the solute being added to the solution causes there to be stronger intermolecular interactions, wouldn't this cause a lowering in saturation vapor pressure? if so, then the claim that raoult's law doesn't depend on the chemical nature of the solute is untrue. can someone help me untangle this? --- **tldr: if saturation vapor pressure is defined by strength of intermolecular forces, why does dissolving a solute into a solvent lower saturation vapor pressure regardless of its chemical properties when we know for a fact that different solutes have different strengths of intermolecular forces with the solvent?** | raoult's law is an approximation assuming an ideal solution and a non-volatile solute. this holds for very dilute systems. the lowering of the vapour pressure of the solvent due to the presence of a solute can be visualised [here](_url_0_). at the liquid surface, there are less solvent molecules available to be ejected into the gas phase and so, without invoking intermolecular forces at all, this would lead us to observe a lower gas phase pressure. more thoroughly, the liquid-vapour equilibrium is shifted towards liquid because the rate of gas molecules condensing is larger. once the rate of condensation lowers enough to equal the rate of evaporation, equilibrium is once again reached. however, the gas phase now has a lower concentration/ pressure compared to that above the pure solvent. deviations in raoult's law can be used to infer the strength of intermolecular forces between solute and solvent. a real life lower vapour pressure than that predicted by rauolt's law would imply stronger intermolecular forces between the solute and solvent. so in this regard, your thinking is perfectly correct. edit: spelling | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://images.tutorvista.com/cms/images/38/raoults-law-for-pure-solvent.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raoult's_law#Real_solutions"
]
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|
does double amputee oscar pistorius have an advantage? is there any evidence to support either side of this besides his race times? | he does have a slight advantage. unlike normal human calves, cheetah legs will not tighten up do to lactic acid, and will not tire at the end of the race. because of this, pistorius is noticeably faster than others in the last 100 of the race, where others may tighten up due to the amount of lactic acid in their legs. carbon fiber is also lighter and requires less energy to move them, allowing for faster turnover and/or smaller energy output(depending on the terminal velocity at which his thighs can move). the carbon fiber also has a higher energy return than normal calves, so there is less energy lost during the race. the legs do have disadvantages however, especially at the start, as the cheetah legs cannot contract as much as calves as the kinetic energy they can create depends on how much energy is being put into the system in the first place, whereas calves can almost immediately turn all of their potential energy into kinetic energy. this is why pistorius is usually behind at the start, and has significantly slower 100 and 200 times than his competitors. here are some excellent articles that go more in depth into the subject _url_0_ | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.sportsscientists.com/search/label/Oscar%20Pistorius"
]
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|
|
my friend said that he can open his car by pointing his car keys at his head. how legitimate could his claim be? | his car key has issues opening the car remotely from a certain distance, perhaps there's something wrong with it. what he says he does, however, is point his car keys at his head (not necessarily in the direction of the car) and the car will open. can this be backed up with science? or is he just full of bs? | he's using his skull as a directional antenna, focusing the radiosignals in one direction. imagine a garden hose set to spread, then you turn it into a thick beam. | 4 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_reflector"
]
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|
eletromagnets question, would making the coils closer togeather with thinner wire make the magnetic field stronger? | if the current flowing through the coil remains the same, then yes. the field inside the coil is proportional to the number of loops per unit length of the coil. if you increase this loop density, you increase the field strength. | 14 | []
| []
| []
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|
|
is it scientifically acceptable for a non-historical scientists to share their view of disputed historical accounts? | on multiple occasions, scientists like to point out a point in history as a blight on their field. in other occasions, some scientists will like to point at history and make claims that a certain field of science grew because of such and such cultural/social/etc aspect of civilization. i'm wondering because i'd like to separate actual science from the scientist/lecturer's opinions. | history isn't a science. the term "scientifically acceptable" doesn't really apply. *all* historical observations are opinions. all we can do in history, if we don't want opinions, is recount events as they happened as wholly and accurately as possible. any attempt at explaining *why* an event happened will be inherently a product of opinions. this isn't to say that some opinions are probably more right than others... it's only to say that history, as a field, isn't a scientific field. it's history. | 9 | []
| []
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|
what is the "no-effect" level for lead exposure in human beings? at what threshold does lead exposure begin to have demonstrable effect and begin lead poisoning? | i understand and have read a fair amount about lead-safe practices in construction and in drinking water, but the epa and most researchers seem to have a zero-tolerance approach to most heavy metal exposure. what is a realistic level of acceptable exposure in an industrial society? | google is great for this kind of question: _url_1_ _url_0_ "the centers for disease control (us) has set the standard elevated blood lead level for adults to be 10 µg/dl of the whole blood." that's a pretty small amount for a chemical that derives from an element that can be found in bulk (kg) amounts. many places around the world (including america..) have cities with exposure risk higher than this. edit: also to note: "no safe threshold for lead exposure has been discovered—that is, there is no known sufficiently small amount of lead that will not cause harm to the body." | 4 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoning",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead#Biochemistry_of_poisoning"
]
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|
what exactly is a dirak field? | i'm not a theoretical physicist, so if possible, keep it a little dumbed down. | there are a number of different types of fields, corresponding to particles with different spins. the relevant property is how the field transforms under rotations and boosts (a boost is when you look at a system from the perspective of a moving observer), but let's focus on rotations. the simplest type of field is a scalar field. it doesn't change at all under rotations, except that the values are at new coordinates. if a scalar field has value 2 at the point (1, 0, 0), and you rotate your coordinates by 90 degrees about the z-axis, it will now have the value 2 at the point (0, 1, 0). the coordinate changes, but not the value. this corresponds to a spin-0 particle. a vector field is somewhat more complicated, but still mostly intuitive. at each point in space, a vector field actually has several values, which combine to give it both a magnitude and direction. if a vector field has a value of (2, 0, 0) at the point (1, 0, 0), and you rotate your coordinates by 90 degrees about the z axis, not only do the coordinates change, but also the direction your vector is pointing. now the vector has a value of (0, 2, 0) at the point (0, 1, 0), instead of (2, 0, 0). this corresponds to a spin-1 particle. a dirac spinor field is still defined by how it transforms under boosts and rotations, but now it's more complicated, in part because a dirac field picks up a minus sign when you rotate a full 360 degrees, rather than returning to its original value. it's still a vector in the mathematical sense, in that it can be added or multiplied by a scalar value, but it doesn't have any meaningful concept of direction. probably the simplest way to think about it without getting into the particulars of the mathematics, is that its a collection of four fields which transform into each other when you rotate your coordinates (similar to how the vector field is a collection of three fields which transform into each other, but more complicated). in general, integer spin particles correspond to nicely intuitive transformations under rotation, while half-integer spin particles involve spinors in some way. | 7 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_field"
]
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can anyone explain to me what is alephnull? | i see vsauce vid about "how to count past infinity" but, i still don't understand about what is alephnull, what is aleph number. | i'm going to extend the answer from functor7. as he said previously, in set theory, we define the natural numbers in a rather new way. we define 0 to be the empty set {}. and we define the successor of a number n to be the union of n and {n}. so, the successor of 0 would the union of the empty set with set that contains the empty set, that is, the union of 0 and {0}, which is clearly {0}. * so 1 = {0}. * 2 = {0. 1} * 3 = {0, 1, 2}, and so on... do note that these numbers (0, 1, 2...) are actually sets. it is fairly innocent to desire a set which contains all the numbers described previously. and we actually have an axiom for this, called the axiom of infinity. it states: there exists a set containing 0 and containing the successor of each of its elements. we will call this set ω. so, in our intuitive notion, ω is the set of all natural numbers, or at least what we interpret as natural numbers in set theory. we can maybe desire now to create the successor of ω. what exactly would this set be? imagine all natural numbers, now imagine at the very end of it i put a new number, called {ω}. now, all the natural numbers with this new element is the successor of ω, called ω + 1. we actually can keep creating them. they are infinite and the first few would be: 1, 2, 3, 4 .... ω, ω + 1, ω + 2, ω + 3, ... , 2ω, 2ω + 1, 2ω + 2, ..., 3ω, ..., 4ω, ... ω², ..., ω² + ω, ... and so on... it turns out that the ordinal numbers can also be created by taking equivalence class of the set (actually a class) of all sets with a well-order, and the equivalence of order isomorphism, but this is a little bit more complicated. now, all ordinal numbers are different, but many of them have the same cardinality. two sets a and b have the same cardinality if there is a bijective function from a to b. that is, if we can match each element of a with an unique element of b, and each element of b with an unique element of a. we can show that ω and ω + 1, have the same cardinality. remember that ω + 1 = ω u {ω}. also remember that ω = {0, 1, 2, ...}. we can take the function f, such that f(0) = {w}, f(1) = 0, f(2) = 1, f(3) = 2, and so on. we can show that every element of ω is related to exactly one element of ω + 1, and that every element of ω + 1 is related to an element of ω. so therefore, they have the same cardinality. we want to categorize all possible cardinals and we are going to use the ordinal numbers to do that. say that a < b if and only if a is contained in b. it follows that 0 < 1 < 2 < 3... we will create the set of cardinals, let us call it c, the following way: * 0 is in c. * an ordinal x is in c if it satisfies the following: for every a in c, if a < x, and the cardinality of a is **not** the same as the cardinality of x, then x is in c. so we start: 1.0 is in c, by definition. 2. is 1 in c? well, 0 is in c and 1 has a bigger cardinality than 0, so yeah.. 3. is 2 in c? well, 2 have bigger cardinalities than both 0 and 1. so yeah.. 4. the same repeats for every finite natural number. 5. is ω in c? well, ω is the first ordinal with infinite cardinality, so it has to be. 6. is ω + 1 in c? this time it isnt. ω is in c, ω < ω + 1, and both ω and ω + 1 have the same cardinality. so, it does not satisfy the previous. therefore ω + 1 is not in c. and so on. we also give new names to these numbers: now ω is aleph-0. the following number in c is aleph-1, and so on. and these are the cardinal numbers. imagine taking all the ordinal numbers are removing the ones which have repeated cardinal in it. the elements of c are known as aleph-numbers. these are the formal definitions (one of the many) of cardinal numbers. if you want, you can just interpret them as being all the different kinds of infinity, aleph-0 being simply the smallest infinity there is, that one of the natural numbers. reference: naive set theory, paul r. halmos edit: here are some nice visualization of ordinal numbers: [first one](_url_1_), [second one](_url_0_) | 8 | []
| []
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can you build muscle mass on your face with the right exercises just like you could with your biceps and thighs etc.? | yes, absolutely. however, the chances of you actually causing a visible change are pretty small. one of the few exceptions to this are dedicated boxers/fighters. mike tyson, for example, use to chew entire packs of gum at once to strengthen his jaw muscles, and if you look at pictures of him at his prime compared to now, you'll see that he has much more pronounced masseters (if you clench your jaw and feel your face around where your molars are, you can feel that muscle kind of ball up). however, most muscles in your face have a much smaller cross-sectional area than the masseter. most muscles in your face are very thin. for example, you have your buccinator muscles that are your cheek muscles. most face muscles are similarly thin, so even when you work them out, a large relative change in csa is actually a very small absolute change. that is, i can increase the csa of my buccinator 30%, and it might have gotten a millimeter thicker (just pulling numbers out of my ass here, but you get the idea). so yes, you can make them bigger, but since they're such small muscles anyway, you will barely perceivable increases in size. | 7 | []
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|
|
ergs, quicksand and sand ships | basically i'm curious whether or not something like [this](_url_4_) is plausible. given that dry quicksand is a [possible form *nature link](_url_3_) of the stuff, could an erg have large fields of quicksand? could this be analogous to a maelstrom? could a ship function 'as expected' if it were travelling through wet quicksand? would dry sand suffice? how would its movement compare to that of a ship in water? my initial thought is that if possible it would be much slower. would the sand ships from ray bradbury's martian chronicles fare better in this scenario, or is sailing a dune sea more the stuff of fantasy? some examples of sand apparently behaving like water: [ball into sand youtube](_url_0_) [falling sand youtube](_url_2_) [jaeger group granular materials](_url_1_) | dry quicksand is only possible if it's fluidised - i.e. you need a throughflow of air to increase the pore pressure enough that the grains can flow past each other. that's not a naturally occurring situation in a desert. the bigger problem for your ship scenario is that because you're fluidising the grains, basically the whole thing just gets density sorted when its disturbed. it's worth pointing out that as well as density sorting, granular fluids also size and shape sort. there's something called the brazil nut effect, where large objects migrate to the surface as the smaller particles fall through the bottom. we don't know what the transition conditions are that control whether a large dense object will sink or rise though, so it's difficult to say which would dominate in this case. | 4 | []
| [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IsptPKzA3zQ&feature=player_embedded",
"http://jfi.uchicago.edu/~jaeger/group/granular.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vD4PbSbxA3w&feature=player_embedded",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v432/n7018/full/432689a.html",
"http://fc01.deviantart.net/fs28/i/2008/172/e/5/Sailing_The_Desert_by_Gate_To_Nowhere.jpg"
]
| []
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|
questions about fmri, brain scans, and solving problems | i've dug around a bit, but don't feel like i've found the answers for what i'm looking for. consider a very complex problem, that requires a lot of variables to be manipulated in memory: - an architect coming up with the initial design for a building (client's wishes, building requirements, structural stresses, materials, e lectrical, water, foundation... ) - a sculptor contemplating a large block of marble and how they can carve a work from it - a jeweler looking at a rough gem, considering how to cut it all these types of problems are traditional "sit and stare at the wall" problems - where we juggle everything in our brains until a solution (hopefully) just pops into life. how much of the brain is active when deeply enmeshed in the problem? i'm assuming the areas involved depend on the type of problem? is there a noticeable change in the brain activity when the solution is reached? this is tangentially related to the idea that the brain is an excellent pattern-matching machine, which i would think suggests there are actually organic structures related to taking noise and trying to find signal... | the basic answer is a lot of the brain is active, some of it having to do with specific nature of the problem (e.g., visual areas if the problem requires a lot of visual imagination), and some not. the basic type of problem-solving that i think you're getting at ("where we juggle everything in our brains until a solution (hopefully) just pops into life.") is called *insight problem-solving*. i'm pretty sure that mark jung-beeman at northwestern has done some fmri studies on this, so you might go look at his papers, see if he's done a ted talk, etc. | 3 | []
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|
is it possible to "cast" rock or stone? | does there exist equipment that would allow you to melt various types of stone, and then pour it into moulds or as a large sheet, to give "new" stone? how controllable would the cooling be? could you create "fake" granite or basalt? | technically glass is a cast stone. generally the temperatures and process control levels necessary for most useful igneous or metamorphic rock types (the ones formed by melting or heat +pressure) at surface level pressures are cost prohibitive, so a lot of the artificial stone used for countertops and such is an aggregate created by suspending crushed stone in a binding agent of some sort. otherwise they're common enough people just go quarry them. there are companies growing gemstones such as diamonds because it's high value at small scale despite the difficulty. sedimentary rocks aren't really a product of heat, so you can't make them by melting stuff. | 8 | []
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|
is brainwave science real? using binaural beats for meditation/lucid dreaming? or is this just a placebo with a sales tag? | brainwaves are real. however, they are not some magical state altering broadcast of our brain. they are the collection of all neuron activity, as recorded from your scalp through eeg. needless to say, the information you get is very limited. using binaural beats for "syncing" brain waves to some frequency to empower you with some hoohah or help you in some way or another is total pseudoscience. here's a link to a good, short, informative read on the subject: [binaural beats](_url_0_) | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://skeptoid.com/episodes/4147",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwave_entrainment"
]
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|
|
why do bad neighborhoods exist? why can't all neighborhoods be good neighborhoods? | people with the means to leave a bad neighborhood, typically do. this begins a downward spiral of reduced property values and auto segregation. while not always related to race, white flight is a good example: _url_0_ blockbusting was also prevalent in the 60s through 80s | 13 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_flight"
]
| [
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|
|
if you know you have contracted a cold and it's still in its incubation incubation period, what proven steps can you take to lessen its severity? | i found this with a bit of googling _url_0_ so i guess one thing someone can do is to stay warm. it gives some sort of boost to the body's mechanism for destroying infected cells. i don't know how much of an effect this'll have though. i think the largest factor is always gonna be the antibody production, etc.. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/11/111101130200.htm"
]
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|
|
why is this electrical fuse designed like this? | [this is the fuse in question](_url_0_) i was browsing an auto parts store and came across this fuse. most fuses i've encountered look like [this](_url_1_), a sliver of metal with a fairly constant cross-section. i assume the typical fuse is designed with physical properties (length, cross sectional area, metal alloy etc) so that the resistance across the terminals causes it to heat up and melt at a set current level. if this is true, whats the point of the strange design in this fuse? why three 'bottle-necks' sandwiched between thick sections of metal? does it have something to do with heat-dispersion? several different amperage fuses were designed like this ( i think 30a and 40a) while others (20a, 50a, 60a) were similar to the one in my second picture. whats with this design? | im going out on a limb here, the fuse needs to be a certain length x and those bottlenecks are the correct cross sectional area in order to melt to avoid more than the rated current correct? however if that cross sectional area was the same across the whole body (long thin metal from terminal to terminal) this would perhaps create too much resistance. my guess is to make those 3 bottlenecks and alternating thick slabs to decrease the voltage drop across the terminals. | 2 | []
| [
"http://imgur.com/dEiyn",
"http://imgur.com/NEvNT"
]
| []
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|
why is the universe often depicted in the "saddle" shape? | i understand it has to do with what has been mapped so far. why this orientation still? are these areas that have been mapped higher density or easier to see? an example: _url_0_ | the black parts are in the direction of the plane of the milky way, which we can't easily see past because of all the stars and dust. the bright parts are looking "above" and "below" the galactic plane. | 7 | []
| [
"http://i.stack.imgur.com/TEQFs.jpg"
]
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Survey",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redshift_survey",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedmann_equations#Density_parameter",
"http://vo.iucaa.ernet.in/2df/Pics/apm_colour.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_of_the_universe"
]
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|
could someone explain what does it mean, that hungarians appears next to french on these genetic plots? what's on the x,y axes? | there is this [blogpost](_url_1_) which says: yesterday i re-ran plink with a narrower european-biased data set, and generated some mds plots. i only had a few asian and african populations, mostly so that i could replicate the standard dimensions 1 and 2, producing the classic “v-shape” which you’ve seen before. but what’s more interesting are lower coordinates. they may not capture as much of the variation in the distance matrix, but illustrate important dynamics. and there comes some mds plots. e.g. _url_0_ if someone understands what's going on on these plots, please explain. | this is an analysis of snps of people of various european ethnicity. snps are single nucleotide polymorphisms: specific positions on the genome where a single letter is mutated, and usually has no genetic effect. these are useful for genealogy, because these will be passed to future generations but won't be selected for or against by natural selection. so if a certain snp occurred in, say, a common ancestor of all people on the british isles, then that could be used to identify your heritage, and also to identify that people of irish and english descent are more closely related than, say, people of english and russian descent. the graphs you see are, i believe, from a principle component analysis of hundreds or thousands of different snps. it's not important exactly how a principle component analysis works (if you're good with linear algebra, i can try to explain it to you), but basically what it does is find ways to combine the data of various snps in a way to get a single number (the principle component) which itself is meaningless, but by comparing this number in one person to the number in others, is a great measure for how similar or different they are, in terms of their snps. you can also get the 2nd principle component, 3rd principle component, etc. the graph is plotting 2 of these components. **tl;dr: so what it's basically showing is that the closer two ethnic groups are on this plot, the closer in history they share a common ethnicity.** | 5 | []
| [
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/files/2013/02/bigcorbw.png",
"http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2013/02/visualizing-european-genetic-variation-looking-at-dimension-which-arent-so-boring/#.URz0jH2sS14"
]
| []
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would it be possible to add cellulase to human gut flora? | would transfecting organisms that live in the human gut with cellulase produce colonies that are able to break down cellulose? if so, would this then work in vivo? why not? is this simply not possible due to other factors altogether? | transforming organisms to do this is actually a pretty active field of research. theoretically this could work, ignoring minor technical hurdles (finding a suitable microbe, culturing and transforming said gut microbe, etc.). ruminants (and now [pandas](_url_0_)) contain symbiotic gut bacteria already capable of digesting cellulose (the main component of their bamboo diet). the rub is that these bacteria have evolved into these niches, whereas you would be trying to artificially open this niche for another microbe. cellulose metabolism is generally carried out by supramolecular complexes and not a single enzyme ([ref](_url_2_)). these multi-protein structures carry out numerous enzymatic reactions in order to metabolize cellulose. this is actually true for many complex metabolic reactions in cells, especially those that occur in a step-wise fashion. this means that you would need to have numerous proteins stably expressed and assembled in a foreign cell (e.g. different temperature, nutrient status, ph, and chaperon proteins). on top of this, the cell would need to either 1) import the cellulose for intra-cellular metabolism, or 2) export these proteins to function extra-cellularly. these processes are not trivial to introduce *de novo*. there is active research accomplishing some of these things in bio-reactors but not in the human body ([ref](_url_1_), the abstract gives an overview of their work with several fungi and bacteria). here, the goal is to engineer a bacteria or fungus (trichoderma reesei is a big one) to make these cellulases and export them at high levels so that we can use them to digest biomass in a test tube (rather than our bodies). | 4 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/10/11/1017956108",
"http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/48426.pdf",
"http://jb.asm.org/content/179/9/2810.abstract?ijkey=be91009b778fee323bb08b0f1cb0ad2beb9e5a73&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/037811199390750W",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867412001043",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11033-010-0025-2?LI=true",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8649.1999.tb00858.x/abstract",
"http://www.nature.com/nri/journal/v9/n5/abs/nri2515.html",
"http://cmbi.bjmu.edu.cn/news2/report/2010/pdf/gut_24.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006291X10006789",
"http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/Molbio/MolStudents/spring2010/Pearson/endoglucanase.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulase#Mechanism_of_cellulolysis",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2012/11/07/1211002109.abstract"
]
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how does a portugese man-of-war inflate its air bladder? | hello! we briefly discussed these creatures in my college intro biology class, i think it's all super cool :) we learned in class that they have ain air bladder/sail, filled with gas that keeps them floating at the surface. i tried doing some basic further research, and supposedly they 1) contain a decent amount of carbon monoxide?? and 2) have the ability to deflate and submerge if they're being attacked by birds so... how do they put gas back in after deflating? where does the carbon monoxide come from? i've tried to find an explanation elsewhere but i guess my search skills aren't strong enough. thank you so much! | the portuguese man o war (*physalia physalis*) is a species of siphonophore, a group of colonial marine invertebrates where each colony is made of small, specialised animals that carry out different functions. this allows the man o war to function like a single organism, when in fact every part of its "body" is actually made up of these specialised individuals (called zooids), including the gas bladder (which is called a pneumatophore). the pneumatophore is filled with gas by special secretory tissue, as described in prof kotpal's *modern textbook of zoology*: in 1970, dr george v pickwell published a whole paper on "the physiology of carbon monoxide production by deep-sea coelenterates: causes and consequences". the introduction of this paper goes into a bit more detail on how the gas is produced: the essence is that the portuguese man o war and its relatives have evolved a very impressive system of combined physiology and anatomy to produce co^2, capture it in a bladder, and use it to regulate their position in the water column. we might think of them as simple, mindless, and boring, but cnidarians such as the siphonophora and its relatives the jellyfish actually have many amazing adaptations like this. another cool example is their stinging cells, called [cnidocytes](_url_0_). when a jellyfish stings you, it's actually firing tiny harpoons out of its cnidocytes into your skin. one single cell is able to sense your skin, trigger the attack and launch the harpoon. this is incredibly fast, taking as little as 700 nanoseconds. they really are amazing animals! | 2 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidocyte"
]
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|
what is the distinction between "particles spontaneously pick their state when observed" and "we don't know what state a particle is in until we observe it?" | why do we say that particles "pick their state?" how do we know they weren't like that before we looked? | well what you're describing falls under something called "hidden variable theory" but let's talk about some general things first. 1) you only know what happens *at* observations. anything between observations is pretty much outside the realm of science to answer. but we can have some pretty informed *guesses* as to what happens. so let's suppose we have a particle pass through a single slit. the slit is vertically oriented, therefore it measures the particle's position along the *horizontal* axis. any particle passing through the slit has been "observed" to be at some position, x with some error dx (the width of the slit, eg). now we don't know what happens to it, but then it strikes a back wall, leaving some impact (perhaps making the wall glow there, or the particle is itself light, or electronic detection or something). what you'll find is that the particle impacts *spread out* along that horizontal axis. there was some uncertainty in their *horizontal momentum* at the first measurement when you asked "where they were." and that uncertainty in momentum means they spread out on the back wall. so from that first slit, we realize we can't tell directly what momentum the particle has until we see it impact the far wall, and then can measure the momentum. so then the question is... does that particle have that momentum when it leaves the slit, or does it only "realize" one momentum state after it's hit the wall behind it? (or one of the many other quantum interpretations here) broadly we can divide these guesses as to what happens between observations into 2 camps (this need not be the only way to divide them, but it's the one most relevant to this question). one camp says *something, even if we can't measure it directly, encodes the particle's momentum and other quantum properties*. the other camp says *the particle doesn't truly have a specific momentum until it's measured that second time*. and then we come across bell's theorem. this theorem states that the first camp can be right, but if it is, then information about measurement setups must be able to travel faster than light somehow. or the second camp can be correct, that quantum properties are truly in superpositions until measurement, but information doesn't travel faster than light. but you can't have both hidden variables (the first camp) and the speed-of-light limitation on information. and here is where it's up to you to decide which you prefer. a lot of scientists will keep the locality (that information is speed-of-light limited) because ftl information *can* be information going backwards in time in a different reference frame. and others will discard locality and keep hidden variables. there's no way, scientifically, to distinguish which one is correct yet. | 2 | []
| []
| []
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|
biologists of reddit: can you kill a frog or a toad by holding him upside down? | in my youth, i was constantly running up and down my street turning over rocks and looking for all types of creepies and crawlies. i found a lot of toads doing this. i was told, however, not to hold a toad upside down, else it would die. i've always thought that to be a fact, and have never had reason to question it. i shared this 'fact' with a friend though, and he'd never heard of such a thing. i'd like to finally know the truth. | i've never heard of that. you can pretty easily kill or injure amphibians through handling them though. small frogs and salamanders can be overheated by contact with your skin this increases the amount of o2 they need, decreases the amount they can absorb, and moves their bodies out of their preferred, usually cool, temp range. you can also easily damage the protective mucous layer on their skin and you can dry them out. finally, their skin is permeable so any chemicals (like deet) you have on your hands can be absorbed. this is less of a problem for toads than other amphibians because of their dry, thicker skin. if i handle small amphibians for measuring or identification i wet my hands first and minimize the duration and surface area of contact. | 7 | []
| []
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|
is proper time different in different reference frames? | hey all i'm trying to understand time dilation and i am a bit confused about the concept of proper time. so far i've understood that it's the time that a clock measures in it's rest frame. let me try with an example: i'm a stationary observer in earth and i'm watching a spaceship travel between 2 planets. on earth's reference frame, is the proper time the time i measure, or the time the spaciship measures? if the proper time is the one i measure with a clock on earth in my specific frame, then what about the spaceship's frame? isn't the clock inside the ship measuring another proper time, in it's own reference frame? i know that proper time is supposed to be invariant, so these two times must be the same? i'm just confused because i keep thinking about 2 reference frames, the earth's and the spaceship's, but i'm not sure if that is right. | proper time is an invariant. the proper time interval between two events is the same for all observers. mathematically, it’s equal to the time that passes in the frame of an observer whose worldline passes through the two events. | 6 | []
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|
can hydrofluric acid be used to quicken lens grinding? | i will say no for two reasons. first, if referring to eyeglass lenses, i don't think glass is used anymore, or perhaps very rarely. second, if glass, the precision milling needed could not be easily controlled (if at all) chemically. also, the quantity of material to be removed would probably make the usage of a chemical totally impracticable. the mass production of lenses has been extremely automated and is very exact. there really wouldn't be any point in attempting to handle such a hazardous material. | 11 | []
| []
| []
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|
|
(calculus) why is the lagrange multiplier significant (for what reason did lagrange invent it?) | i'm not looking as much for how the multiplier functions, i'm looking for specifics as why it is a powerful tool in calculus and why lagrange invented it in the first place. | because it takes optimization (setting the derivative to zero) one step further by also taking constraints on your solutions into account. it seems like magic and too trivial to work, but it's quite powerful. | 8 | []
| []
| []
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|
random question, how come a flaming arrow doesn't go out? | like when it is fired? after seeing matches go out with the slightest breeze, how does an arrow launched at a considerable velocity stay lit? | any fire needs three components to burn: 1) oxygen – in this case air. 2) fuel 3) heat – enough to keep the fuel above its ignition temperature. removal of any of these three will cause a fire to go out. when you blow out a match (to use your example) you can succesfully extinguish the fire because you reduce the heat level below the originial ignition temperature. but a match uses the wood as a fuel...a flaming arrow (i assume) will use some sort of liquid petroleum/kerosene which will burn at a higher temperature. the wind resistance from flying through the air is not enough to cool the flame of the arrow below its original ignition point due to the fuel its burning and will therefore stay ignited. | 5 | []
| []
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|
would an arrow work in vaccum? | would it fly normally? or it would wobble and miss the target? | arrows in flight in atmosphere are stabilized in two ways. 1. the drag of the fletchings (the feathers at the back). basically, if the arrow ends up at an angle to its path of flight, the wind will push the back of the arrow, which has more drag than the front of the arrow, back in line with the path of flight. 2. typically, but not always, the fletchings are angled, which causes the arrow to spin about its axis, which imparts gyroscopic stability. in a vacuum, neither of these things will happen. when you fire an arrow, the arrow itself wobbles (it flexes back and forth). this will still damp out due to internal friction. however, the arrow will most likely have some angular momentum after being fired, and without atmospheric effects, this angular momentum won't be damped out, so the arrow may rotate about an arbitrary axis (i.e., it may rotate end-over-end and spin around in flight). | 10 | []
| []
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|
evolution question too long for a title. | migration costs birds so much in terms of energy and physical risk. why haven't migratory birds just adapted to live in the tropics year round? | alice boyle and courtney conway (at u arizona and usgs fish & wildlife unit in az) have done quite a bit of research [[1]](_url_2_) [[2]](_url_0_) [[3]](_url_1_) on this. the big finding is that birds primarily migrate because of food scarcity and specialization. if all of the migratory birds stayed in the tropics year round, then there wouldn't be enough food year round to support them all. in order for the migratory birds to get some share of the resources while they're there, they've specialized on food types that occur throughout their migratory range (e.g. berries), and are really good competitors for that type. but this specialization means they need to have a wider range to get enough food -- this creates a reinforcing migration/specialization feedback cycle. this is a common pattern, but of course a single story never fits everything in ecology. for example, some populations of canadian geese have stopped migrating. there are several reasons, including a lack of predators around during breeding (so no need to breed elsewhere), more abundant food (so no need to search for it), and also interbreeding with domestic geese. | 9 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.cals.arizona.edu/research/azfwru/cjc/conwaylab/Alice_%20Boyle/Boyle-2006-Dissertation.pdf",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10682-010-9403-4",
"http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.1086/511335?uid=3739912&uid=2&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=21102558613487"
]
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|
computers that can physically change themselves -- am i right in assuming this is a huge deal if it can work? | [this article](_url_0_) is about research into materials that would be able to change their electrical properties to make new circuits -- it sounds like this means that (for instance) my desktop would be able to dynamically adjust how much of its resources are spread between cpu/ram/graphics processing. it seems like this is a pretty huge deal if it can be made to work -- but the article doesn't really have any indication of time-to-market. it sounds like they've basically solved the problem of "how could we make that" and are now moving on to "how can we make this cheaper", but the article is pretty short and the [research paper itself](_url_1_) is behind a paywall. dae know more about this? am i right that this would be a huge deal, or is it less impressive than i think? | from the article they state this material is *four times larger* than the current best process node (assuming they mean 22 nanometers). that puts them in the ~90nm range, essentially the size of microprocessors in 2002. rewriting itself aside, that's a major step backwards in being able to build faster anything. this isn't going to take over computing because the real problem with making computers better isn't versatility, it's fabricating smaller and smaller transistors without leakage or thermal issues. that way we can pack in more transistors while keeping temperatures low and performance high. but we're approaching several hard physical limits of shrinking cmos integrated circuits. literally the gates of a transistor are already a couple dozen *atoms* in thickness. also: this quote makes no sense. we can (and do) integrate cpus, gpus, memory controllers, etc. onto the same package. being able to do this "on the fly" doesn't add anything meaningful to performance. the reason we don't put your geforce 590 on your core i7 is neither could operate at a reasonable temperature. | 6 | []
| [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-15351071",
"http://www.nature.com/nnano/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nnano.2011.165.html"
]
| []
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can we train every single muscle in our body? | i mean, we often go to the gym to make our body look stronger and better by training your "main" muscles, but the thing is, since our whole body is covered my muscle, can we train every single one of those muscles? | it's worth clarifying here, that there are 3 types of muscle within the human body, *skeletal*, *smooth* and *cardiac*. smooth muscle is entirely autonomous and is found around blood vessels, your gut, your airways etc. cardiac muscle is what the contractile parts of your heart is composed of. i'm going to assume here that you're talking about skeletal muscle (ie, the parts you can control voluntarily, and which you use to move your limbs/body around). skeletal muscle has 3 main sub types (there are more though): type i (slow), type iia (intermediate) and type iix (fast). fast muscle is the strongest, contracts the fastest, but has a lot less "endurance". slow type on the other hand is less powerful, slower, but much harder to fatigue. intermediate is, unsurprisingly, inbetween. your main muscle groups are usually composed of a mixture of the 3, with the exact proportions tending to vary from person to person. this is important, as it is possible to make a loose distinction of the gross muscle groups between *postural* and *phasic* muscles. phasic muscles are often larger and more powerful, and tend to be the ones targeted in a lot of gym routines (eg, your biceps, pecs). they're also more likely to be type ii. your postural muscles however are required to hold you up when you're standing, or keep your back straight when sitting; they are constantly working (and hence have a higher proportion of type i). having said that, all skeletal muscle will undergo a very similar pattern of damage-repair-growth if it is exercised. when you "train" a muscle, the force on the contractile proteins within each muscle fibre is transferred to the nucleus through *mechanotransduction*, and there is an upregulation of proteins associated with muscle growth. *eccentric* contractions, where the muscle lengthens whilst exerting force (more powerful / more likely to cause injury), also tend to result in muscle damage. the corresponding chemical releases, in conjunction with hormones such as insulin-like growth factor and other steroids, also serve to upregulate protein production. these processes are largely the same in both postural and phasic muscle, however the location and nature of phasic muscle makes it much harder to target exclusively in exercise. for example, the soleus muscle, vital for keeping you standing (and largely type i), is acting on the same tendons as the gastrocnemius (which you are more likely to engage during calf exercises) ([image](_url_0_)). quickly, cardiac muscle will also undergo hypertrophy (growth) if it is working harder. this isn't necessarily a good thing though, and can cause serious health issues. i've not come across any linkage between smooth muscle usage and hypertrophy, but there may be one. certainly, the smooth muscle in bronchi (airways) of people with asthma is significantly larger than in non-asthmatics, which is a major contributor to the pathology. | 23 | []
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light in a box | there's no such thing as a perfect mirror, so the light would eventually (and fairly quickly) attenuate to nothingness. if you want to construct a completely non-physical theoretical scenario, then sure, light would "bounce around indefinitely", but as that point that's pretty tautologous. | 2 | []
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|
in the star fox universe, pilots amputate their legs and replace them with cybernetics so that the blood doesn't rush out of their head when pulling intense g forces. would this actually make that big of a difference? | my dad was an air force pilot and i do recall him showing my a g-suit that had inflatable bladders near the thighs that would squeeze the legs to keep blood from collecting down in the lower extremities during g-manuevers so i guess this is somewhat grounded in logic. but would amputating the leg completely make any bigger of a difference? | douglas bader was a pilot in wwii, and suffered an accident before the war that resulted in both his legs being amputated. there is anecdotal evidence that he could pull more g's in combat because the blood had nowhere to go. i await confirmation of this from an expert. | 44 | []
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will a person who starves to death always appear emaciated? | what i mean is, we have often seen horrid photos of people in war torn and resource poor areas starved to death. they are often not much more than a skeleton with skin. is this how a person who starves will always appear, or is it because they starved gradually, eating, just not enough to survive. would a larger person burn all their fat and muscle before death or die of malnutrition first? | starvation can be a tricky concept. you can starve to death by eating little or no food (marasmus) or by entering a starvation state due to the lack of a particular nutrient in your diet, usually protein (kwashiorkor). in marasmus, the body will deplete fats and proteins from body stores to produce glucose and ketone bodies in the liver. the brain requires those for energy, and will forsake other processes to get them. on the other hand, with kwashiorkor, the people are often eating enough for their energy expenditure, but aren't getting protein in their diets. meats are more expensive and more difficult to steal, meaning this is often what you see in developing countries. the muscles and fat won't be torn down to make glucose, since that is already being provided by the food. the protein levels in the blood will be lower, however. the blood on the venous side of capillary beds relies on oncotic pressure to pull blood in from the tissues around it. basically, the protein content in the blood needs to be maintained at a higher level than the tissues in order for fluid to move out of the tissues. in protein deficiencies, these levels drop, leading to edema. the swollen bellies associated with starvation are a result of this process. | 3 | []
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|
how do musician's brains keep track of the passing of time with such a high degree of accuracy, when in other situations our perception of time is very loose and fluid? | as a drummer, i have been curious how i and other musicians are able to keep track of an extremely steady pulse and rhythm while playing, yet in other situations we perceive time as passing in greatly varying speeds, i.e very quickly when doing something enjoyable. is there a structure in the brain that functions as a sort of internal metronome? | rhythm is a different perception than time. with rhythm you are playing in certain discrete time intervals (beats) and adjusting them to the music. for example, it's pretty easy to know when one second has passed ( like saying one- one-thousand ) but it's hard to know when an hour has passed. that's because there are tons of those discrete time intervals in a single hour. but, if you counted out the hour in second intervals you'd have a way better idea. | 5 | []
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|
can a pulsar stop spinning completely? if it can stop spinning, is the remaining matter salvageable? (can we harvest a stopped pulsar assuming there is some force that can break the material apart?) | i was contemplating what might be the "toughest" or "hardest" material in the universe, and the center of a pulsar came to mind. black holes too, but i'm intrigued by pulsars specifically. so is it possible to harvest material from a high density pulsar that is somehow stopped? or will the pulsar just explode before it has a chance to stop? | there's no reason you can't have one not spinning, it just wouldn't be called a pulsar any more, but a regular old neutron star. if you scooped some material up off a neutron star it would explode in your face. it is being held in such a dense state because of the incredible gravity of the neutron star. if you remove that force, there will be nothing holding it together and it will explode. | 3 | []
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|
[embryology] - is the notochord derived from the endoderm or the mesoderm? i have 2 conflicting sources. | [here](_url_1_) is one source saying it comes from the endoderm. [here's](_url_0_) another saying it comes from the mesoderm. which is it? thank you. | from a few zoology courses last year, it's the mesoderm and influences folding of early embryo and secretion of sonic hedgehog (i remember this cause it's the coolest protein name ever). the secretion of sonic hedgehog regulates development of surrounding tissues which include the endoderm. tl;dr: mesoderm | 3 | []
| [
"https://i.imgur.com/MTsLngY.png",
"https://i.imgur.com/KZCvMF0.png"
]
| []
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|
so i saw video of a u2 spy plane flying on the skin of the atmosphere. what prevents a plane going that bit further? | here is the video _url_0_ so my question is : why can we get so close to space with a plane and not go that bit further. why do we need a huge space ship propelled on explosions to go into space. isn't this easier? | you get to a stage where the air becomes too thin leading to the wing stalling. also air breathing engines like those on the u2 need oxygen, as you increase in altitude this becomes increasingly rare, which is why vehicles that need to achieve orbit use rockets which carry their own oxidizer. | 5 | []
| [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1PmYItnlY5M&feature=youtu.be"
]
| []
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|
can anyone explain how this optical illusion works? | this has always intrigued me, but why do [illusions like this](_url_0_) work? | this is called the pinna illusion. i will just direct you to this link because any explanation i give will not be anywhere near complete. _url_0_ | 3 | []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Revolving_circles.svg"
]
| [
"http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Pinna_illusion"
]
| [
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|
does air have a measurable surface tension? | just curious if such a thing would be possible to measure or if it exists. | no. surface tension is unique to liquids. if you pour a liquid into a container, it will rise to some level, and form a surface between the liquid and vapor phase. this is one of the defining characteristics of a liquid. on the other hand if you put a gas into a container, it doesn't matter how much you put in, it will completely fill the container; no surface forms. this is one of the defining characteristics of a gas. | 7 | []
| []
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is fanning oneself an efficient way to cool off? | do you use more energy (and thus create more heat) executing the action of fanning than you do if you just sweat it off? | what you're doing when fanning yourself is making the air flow instead of stand still. this leads to what's called "forced convection," while the air standing still is in "free convection." forced convection is much better at transferring heat than free convection, usually by an order of magnitude or more. the sweat on your body is also more likely to evaporate, which will cool you even more. fanning yourself with just your hand might cause you to heat up your hand a little, but not by enough to take away the huge bonus you get from the forced convection. if you have a fan or other mechanical advantage, you use up less energy to get the same result, making it even more efficient. your hand/wrist (since it's usually the wrist that's doing the actual work) is actually one of the places it's easiest to release heat from in the body. (i don't remember if it's *the* easiest, but i know that it's definitely up there). it's probably possible to fan yourself in such a way that your body absorbs more heat than it releases (for example, fanning in the wrong direction), but if you're doing it at all properly it's a good way to cool yourself. | 8 | []
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what happens if you place a lot of pressure on sand? | i was trying to research this question the other day but could not find anything so i turned to reddit for help. i was wondering what would happen if you place a lot of pressure on sand? for example, you have a bunch of sand in a confined box and a piston is placing a bunch of pressure on it from the top, what would happen to the sand? | ooh! i had this covered in structural geology! my professor loved squashing quartzite which is essentially sand that is melted together. it's not really realistic to just apply a bunch of pressure to loose sand without fluid or heat having a significant effect so it's hard to really say what would happen. at low pressure and temperature the grains will undergo brittle fracturing which is similar to faulting and it causes breaks and splits in the grains themselves. if there is fluid present and you have the right pressure and high ph you can start to dissolve the silica from quartz (sio2) into solution which can be redeposited as the cement to form your classic sandstone. in the real world there is usually heat involved when pressure is applied due to these things happening (except for meteorite impacts forming stischovite which someone else mentioned) at the lowest temperatures found on earth where significant pressure occurs the primary deformation that occurs is via dissolution creep. this requires fluid though but lucky for us there is generally fluid in the earth's crust. so as pressure is applied from let's say above there will be dissolution of quartz and removal of material at the grains edges. this material will recrystallise in a place of low pressure, usually the other side of the grain or on the edges away from the direction the force is applied. this is what causes a lot of deformation in rocks at low temp high pressure the rest of this answer will just be for fun. if we apply heat and a lot of pressure we get way more interesting responses from quartz. this falls in the "plastic regime" on earth and isn't really going to happen with just a piston but its worth mentioning because its common on earth. the processes that dominate in the plastic regime; diffusion and crystal plasticity dislocation creep and twinning. dislocation creep is where the atoms that make up a grain migrate within the crystal matrix due to "dislocations" aka holes or errors. this can result in a sand grains edge bulging out to accommodate these errors and then looking oblong. this diffusion of holes can fuse grains together at their boundaries! the direction of movement of this is generally away and perpendicular from the direction the force is coming from so the grains end up appearing flattened and oblique. the best way of imagining this is to see cracks appear and then be "pushed" through a grains matrix till the edge. it's quite complicated :( crystal plasticity mushes grains together and firms twinning where grains fuse into the same orientation. all these processes will just mush sand grains together till you have a sandstone or quartzite. however they will be deformed due to this pressure we applied. ok ok i got carried away. here is sand stuff being pressed by a piston. anu rses - contractional sandbox experiment: _url_0_ edit; i should mention i made a mistake posting that video as it doesn't show any of the things i talked about but it sure does show a piston and sand stuff! | 23 | []
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|
how are putative "mental modules" put forward by evolutionary psychologists specified at the neural or genetic level? | evolutionary psychologists tend to make the claim that the mind has many domain-specific "modules", each with substantial innate (genetic) specification and each tailored for a putative challenge of the "environment of evolutionary adaptatedness". i have a hard time believing this for a number of reasons. the first has to do with neural development in humans. the human brain, for the most part, and especially the neocortex, where many of these supposed modules would exist, develops in the fetus according to a fairly coarse mechanism of reaction-diffusion. this in contrast to the mosaic development of a nervous system like that of *c. elegans*, which is specified in neat detail by the organism's genome. so, already, there's a developmental issue with specifying modules: the mechanisms of human brain development are by and large too "fuzzy" for exquisite specification of cortical microcircuitry. the second has to do with the organization of the brain in the adult. if processing is neatly divided into discrete modules, why is there so much recurrence in the brain? why for example should v1 in the visual cortex *backproject* massively into the lgn? that kind of connectivity certainly is not suggestive of modularity and yet the adult brain is full of it. my third objection is not biological but computational. as a [plos biology article](_url_0_) points out: > a large part of ep's emphasis on massive modularity drew from artificial intelligence (ai) research. while the great lesson from ai research of the 1970s was that domain specificity was critical to intelligent behaviour, the lesson of the new millennium is that intelligent agents (such as driverless robotic cars) require integration and decision-making across domains, regularly utilize general-process tools such as bayesian analysis, stochastic modelling, and optimization, and are responsive to a variety of environmental cues [73]. however, while ai research has shifted away from an emphasis on domain specificity, some evolutionary psychologists continue to argue that selection would have favoured predominantly domain-specific mechanisms (e.g., [74]). in contrast, others have started to present the case for domain-general evolved psychological mechanisms (e.g., [75],[76]), and evidence from developmental psychology suggests that domain-general learning mechanisms frequently build on knowledge acquired through domain-specific perceptual processes and core cognition [44]. both domain-specific and domain-general mechanisms are compatible with evolutionary theory, and their relative importance in human information processing will only be revealed through careful experimentation, leading to a greater understanding of how the brain works [44]. when i see someone posit an innately-specified module for detecting dangerous animals like spiders or snakes (most spiders and snakes are harmless but i'll that slide for now), or a module that recognizes signs of high status, i immediately wonder, how is genetic encoding of such things computationally feasible? i am not aware of any artificial intelligence that could successfully recognize shapes (for example of spiders and snakes) under varying angles and lighting conditions in real time, much less something as nebulous as *social status*, that was all hard-coded. such a project would be nigh on impossible, as i'm sure all but dyed-in-the-wool logicists in ai would tell you. instead, all such successful projects have used machine *learning* algorithms with broadly domain-general mechanisms. and the data processed and acquired by these algorithms are massive. i would imagine that encoding even one innate mental module in the genome, even barring the biological constraints i just mentioned, would quickly leave little room to encode anything else, and evolutionary psychologists want us to believe there are hundreds if not thousands of these modules! so, all told, my question is, how does modularity work as described by ep under these formidable biological and computational challenges? | this is a fantastically interesting and important question for neuroscience, and something i'm very interested in. the argument really goes way beyond evolutionary psychology--much of traditional psychology is also infected with modulitis. i think this is at least partly because thinking about the brain in terms of modules is *easy*. there is pretty strong evidence for some modularity in the human brain, but i would agree that modularity as an organizing principle is pretty flawed. so i'm going to address your points here then add some of my own thoughts. (also i want to point out that, while it's interesting, i think that most evolutionary psychology is masturbation. it's almost entirely post hoc, and it's very hard to run experiments to confirm or disprove any ep theory.) **is the human brain too weakly genetically specified to have evolutionary modules?** this is a tough question to answer. sure, as you point out, the nematode neural circuit is completely genetically specified, while the human brain (with ~8 orders of magnitude more neurons) is not. but a lot of mammalian neural development seems to be driven by a combination of genetic factors and activity-dependent plasticity, where the genetic factors specify the rough layout of the circuit (as well as the exact mechanisms for neural plasticity), and then [activity-dependent plasticity](_url_0_) refines the circuit layout. there are many examples of this, such as the [development of retinotopically coherent projections from the lgn to v1](_url_2_). so i would argue that while human neural circuits are not precisely specified by our genes, they *are* rather precisely specified by a combination of our genes and environment. thus i don't agree with your assertion that cognitive modules can't be genetic. but that's not to say that every identified "module" has a genetic basis! **don't recurrent feedback circuits in the brain belie modularity?** yeah, pretty much. a fully connected graph has no modules. but the brain is certainly not fully connected. take your example of v1 and lgn. yes, they are strongly interconnected, so one would be hard pressed to argue that either one is a true module. but neither is strongly interconnected with, e.g. primary somatosensory cortex (i think.. the thalamus doesn't do that, does it?). thus the visual "stream" could be considered to be a module, perhaps, even though its individual elements are highly interconnected. **describing fear of spiders and snakes as an evolutionary brain module is retarded.** (i'm paraphrasing here). yes, i completely agree. i find it very unlikely that very specific functions like that would be specified by genes. and i completely agree with your machine learning argument. *but* i think that's where things can get interesting. would you be more willing to believe that there's an evolved mechanism that makes learning from fearful or dangerous situations much more robust? there's [plenty of evidence](_url_1_) that fear strengthens memories, and such a general system could certainly be responsible for specific systems like the one you brought up. i don't know much about the mechanisms underlying social structure (such as the *high status* module theory you bring up) so i can't really comment on that. ok anyway, those are some of my thoughts. and thanks again for asking this question, it's a great one! | 2 | []
| [
"http://http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001109"
]
| [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867405800303",
"http://discovermagazine.com/2003/mar/cover",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/281/5376/559.short"
]
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crosspost from /r/stopsmoking: can anyone explain the effect of smoking on telomere length & aging? | thought this as a topic might be interesting for people trying to stop smoking, but i'd struggle to articulate it correctly - also i'm not a scientist so anything i write about it could be very wrong! can someone give it a shot? _url_0_ | i recently was at a seminar on aging and the professor speaking stressed that we do not understand aging in a quantitative manner. the theory involving telomeres is that each time a cell divides the telomere (end of a chromosome)is shortened and that over time more important genes are lost from the ends and their loss contributes to aging. other studies argue that fresh cells with full length telomeres are constantly being generated from stematic tissues and that it is the buildup of senescent(living but non functioning) cells cause aging and their removal is healthy. smoking causes heavy oxidative stress on dna and the toxins in cigarettes damage dna and dna repair mechanisms are not perfect. accumulation of damage can lead to cancer. the increased damage requires effort from the body to produce new cells to replace the ones damaged by smoking. | 2 | []
| [
"http://redd.it/1bpjmp"
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|
what are the positive effects of the human touch on other humans? | i know there are studies that show affectionate touch is important for humans but what is the actual effect in our brain when we are touched by family, friends, lovers, etc.? is it just a release of serotonin? how about when we have illness or injury? | touch is very important for a variety of species, not just human. rats will develop tumors if they are left alone in cages without any interaction with other rats or human handling. in terms of the neurochemicals involved, [this study](_url_0_) shows that endogenous opioids are released following touch and social interaction - so is oxytocin and vasopressin. [this study](_url_2_) on humans showed some similar things: results: salivary oxytocin was enhanced both early and late in the intervention group and alpha amylase was reduced at post treatment in intervention group husbands and wives relative to controls. husbands in the intervention group had significantly lower post treatment 24-hour systolic blood pressure than the control group. conclusion: increasing warm touch among couples has a beneficial influence on multiple stress-sensitive systems. [this study](_url_1_) looked at certain brain pathways that are activated following pleasant touch. i haven't really seen anything involving serotonin yet, but you can do some more in depth google scholaring if you're interested. | 8 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763497000523",
"http://journals.lww.com/neuroreport/Abstract/1999/02250/The_representation_of_pleasant_touch_in_the_brain.3.aspx",
"http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/content/70/9/976.short"
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|
question about the color of light. | i often hear white light is the sum of the entire visible spectrum. is this true? if so, what spectrum does transparent light consist of? | first of all, light doesn't have a color. "color" is what we, as humans, use to describe the qualia of observing various wavelengths of light. our eyes contain three different types of cone cells, each of which responds to a different frequency range of light. stimulating different types of cone cells to different degrees causes us to "see" different colors. however, we can end up seeing colors that don't actually correspond to a single wavelength of light. so, for example, there's no such thing as a photon of white light. instead, we perceive "white" when the three types of cones are stimulated to roughly the same degree, which only happens when there are multiple wavelengths of light combined. incidentally, there's also no such thing as a photon of purple light. "purple" is what we perceive when our retinas are stimulated with red and blue light simultaneously. secondly, there's no such thing as "transparent" light. are you perhaps referring to wavelengths that we can't see? | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum"
]
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|
why does the application of ice packs help you quickly recover from almost fainting? | i had to have blood work done at my annual physical last week and, being the lame-o that i am, i almost passed out. my vision was getting fuzzy, i was seeing black spots, was extremely lightheaded and sweating. the nurses quickly applied a wet paper towel to my forehead and a big ice pack to my chest and i felt better almost instantly. what's going on in the body that is corrected so quickly by strategically placed ice packs? thanks for any insight you might have! edit: thank you for your responses, very informative! | that type of syncope is termed vasovagal syncope, where you have a discharge of vagal tone, decreasing your heart rate and blood pressure. a response to hypothermia, or the application of cold packs, is increased sympathetic tone and inhibition of parasympathetic response. this would increase your heart rate and blood pressure. | 6 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasovagal_response#Cause"
]
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|
why did rmbk reactor had graphite-tipped control rods? | as you might expect, i started watching the chernobyl series, and got enough explanation as why the disaster happened. but i can't find any information why the control rods in the reactor had graphite tips? | from the wikipedia page on [rbmk reactor design](_url_3_): so it appears that the graphite tips were used to allow for a wider range of neutron flux control. because the graphite absorbed less neutrons than the water that they displaced. so pulling the rods up such that the graphite section of the control rods was in-between the fuel rods would allow a greater neutron flux than if the control rods were pulled all the way out and water was allowed to flow inbetween the rods. this was done presumably to allow for more energy generation as it lets you get the fuel rods hotter by having the graphite essentially speed up the reaction. the problem (and one of the flaws that inevitably led to the chernobyl explosion) was that during a [scram](_url_0_), when the control rods were moved all the way down, the graphite tips would be displacing water near the bottom of the reactor which meant that the bottom of the reactor actually *increased* it's energy output during the emergency shutdown process. this would increase until the graphite moved totally passed the bottom region causing the bottom of the reactor core to get extremely hot. | 20 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scram",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignalina_Nuclear_Power_Plant",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron_carbide",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/RBMK#Reactor_vessel,_moderator_and_shielding"
]
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how can sprouts be nutritious if their only source is water? | they sell online “seeds sprouters” where you have to fill water for some days and then you can eat the sprouts. sprouts are normally a high nutrient food, with a lot of vitamins and minerals. my question is: how can a sprout can have a high nutritious value if their only source of “food” is water and sun (and not soil)? | the seeds are a store of nutrients. the logical next question would be "why don't we just eat the seeds?" we often do just eat seeds, but as a sprout grows, it converts some of the seed's nutrients into new things you wouldn't get by just eating the seed. | 32 | []
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what is the most likely scientific explanation for the recent strange sounds in kiev? | sounds: _url_0_ discussion on r/video: _url_1_ i realise that it is difficult to come up with a conclusion by just listening, but what do you think is the most likely explanation of the sounds? some say it could be a subway construction, but as far as i know there is no subway lines being constructed in that part of the city. however, if the sound did originate underground, would it be possible for the concrete buildings to act like a kind of speakers? i have also heard that there is a thermal power station nearby, and that they can sometimes produce sounds like that. | i'm not sure what is causing the sound, but it sounds to me like you are hearing different frequencies at different times. each time i hear the sound, it sounds like the high frequencies are first, then lower frequencies. this is probably due to dispersion (frequency dependent velocity) or frequency dependent attenuation. however, you don't get dispersion for sound traveling through a gas, only when sound travels through liquids or solids. thus, my guess is that this sounds originates underground as a loud bang. when traveling through the ground, the higher frequencies in the bang travel quicker giving rise to the strange sound you hear some distance away. i'm not sure how the sound is being transferred from solid ground to air, but it could be through a variety of resonant structures in the buildings. | 4 | []
| [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vcUDYBIrWio",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/videos/comments/jhqyy/strange_sound_in_kiev_again_aug1111/"
]
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|
is there a minimum energy required to convey information over a fixed distance? | is there a minimum energy required to convey information over a fixed distance? the amount of time taken may be relevant. i figure if you used planck values you could calculate this value for a specific type of measurement, e.g. the change in charge of a tiny amount of metal. whether we could reliably measure the change doesn't concern me. this question is entirely for the sake of curiosity. bonus: approximately how much energy does it take to send 1 bit of information 100km across a fiber optic cable? is there a name for the "energy per bit per distance" of a communication medium? | kinda, for wireless you can combine the [shannon-hartley theorem](_url_3_) and [frii's transmission equation](_url_1_) to work it out for a given noise floor. when not in free space, you have to know the power attenuation of the medium, these are usually classified by the material. the shannon hartley theorem gives b log(1+snr) to be the maximum amount of bits/sec that can be passed through an additive white gaussian noise channel (which most point to point communications are). from the snr you can determine the maximum [energy per bit](_url_0_) needed. frii's can then be used to determine the degradation of the signal strength as a function of distance, and thus determines the snr when given the noise floor as well. of course all of this goes out the window when you write something like because the shannon-hartley theorem is based on the assumption that the error rate of the message must go to zero, in turn requiring reliability. these rates do not change if we let the error rate remain fixed, which is referred to as the [strong converse](_url_2_) of the shannon-hartley theorem. but if you allow error rates to approach one fast enough, then the capacity is infinite and there is no minimum energy. even a broken clock is right twice a day. | 6 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eb/N0",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friis_transmission_equation",
"https://www.projecteuclid.org/euclid.ijm/1255455455",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem"
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|
why is it that sometimes you get a shot in your upper right arm and other times in your lower left arm? | so recently i received a tetanus booster and i got it in my upper right arm as with any vaccine. but i also had my blood drawn to test my vitamin d levels and they stuck the needle in my lower left arm. why is it that with different scenarios that the location of the needle changes? | intramuscular vs intravenous needles. blood draws are done from a vein, and the easiest one to hit on most people is the crook of the elbow. assuming your right handed, they'll draw from the left because some people experience discomfort and can have a hard time using the arm for a while after the draw. the vaccine is intramuscular so they won't put it straight into the vein like a blood draw but into your shoulder where it's meaty. i'm not sure why they choose left vs right, but probably for the same reason, to not cause discomfort to your dominant arm while you're moving about your day. | 8 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.immunize.org/catg.d/p3085.pdf"
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|
how do m51a and m51b interact and why did it take radio astronomy to discover this? | this idea shows up (unreferenced) in wikipedia, and has thus been copied all over the web. i'm not sure, though, if it's able to be backed up - i've tried to trace it, but with no luck so far. when m51 and its companion were first observed through large telescopes (starting with lord rosse), it was suspected that the two were associated somehow, but it was at first hard to prove this. but later observations in the visual wavelengths made it clear that the main spiral galaxy is distorted towards the companion. there even appears to be a "bridge" of one of the spiral arms to it, although is actually is an overlay illusion. there have been a lot of disagreements over the years about the spatial relationship between the two galaxies (see these for examples: _url_5_ and _url_1_), but i think that it was widely believed that the two were gravitationally interacting. the early radio images of the two would also not have been at a high enough resolution to determine what was going on between the two (_url_0_). later radio observations (starting here: _url_2_) have revealed a lot about the system (see robert gendler's summary here: _url_4_), and these may be the source of the wikipedia statement. a lot of neutral hydrogen was detected that seems to have been dispersed by the interaction between the two. but by that point, i don't think that anyone really thought that the two weren't an interacting pair - the disagreement was about the relationship between them and whether the "arm" connection was real or not. here's a look at the system in a variety of wavelengths: _url_3_ | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://library.nrao.edu/public/pubs/PubsNRAO/pubsNRAO1129154.pdf",
"https://archive.org/stream/arxiv-0712.0703/0712.0703_djvu.txt",
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1970A%26A.....6..165R",
"http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/multiwavelength_astronomy/multiwavelength_museum/m51.html",
"www.robgendlerastropics.com/M51text.html",
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1976SvA....19..299V"
]
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|
|
really important to my mother: question about how fast a cat decomposes | i know a bit about forensic entomology, so i'll give it a go. if you could answer a couple questions, i can give you an idea of when this cat may have died. * by "many bugs" do you mean maggots? * did you see many beetles or wasps? * does it look like the body may have been moved? | 8 | []
| []
| []
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|
|
what's the reasoning for pemdas? | is it just an agreed-upon order of operations or is there a "mathematical reason" for why math must be done in that order? in any case, why is pemdas the order? | turns out that polynomials are best thought of as sums of terms with powers of the variable with their coefficients. that is, oftentimes, representing a polynomial like x^(2)+3x+2 is much better than (x+1)(x+2). the easiest way to do this is with pemdas. | 18 | []
| []
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|
drug testing question: creatinine clearance. | does ingesting creatine (the weight lifting supplement) increase your creatinine clearance? i've seen multiple posts where people tell others to take creatine while drinking a butt load of water before a drug test, but i'm not at all convinced that this will make your creatinine clearance appear normal. (mostly because they don't seem to understand that creatine and creatinine are two completely different substances) can anyone speak to this? | nephrologist (kidney doctor) here. you're right that a lot of the confusion here stems from not recognizing that creatine is different from creatinine. urine drug tests use urinary creatinine to test for over-dilution. humans produce around 15-20 mg/kg creatinine a day, which is entirely excreted in the urine. for a 75kg man, this is roughly 1500mg of creatinine. therefore, if you produce 2l of urine a day, one would except a concentration of 750mg/l (or 75mg/dl as it is usually reported). you can imagine that this concentration would change dramatically based on how dilute or concentrated your urine is (since no matter what, the total excretion must be 1500mg). creatinine comes from the non-enzymatic hydrolosis of creatine (yup, the same stuff they sell at gnc), which is produced primarily in the liver, but stored in muscle cells. so it is not crazy to think that by ingesting a lot of creatine, you could "generate" more creatinine to be excreted. but this is unlikely to be successful. first of all, creatine is rapidly absorbed by muscle and then slowly leeched out, so a big bolus of creatine is likely to get stored in muscle rather than excreted. a telling double-blinded study looked at this issue directly. here's the pubmed link: _url_0_. basically, the study administered 20 grams of creatine per day for 5 days and measured all sorts of parameters. for our purposes, the important finding was no "increase" in measured creatinine clerance - in other words, no "extra" creatinine showing up in the urine. | 7 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10694109"
]
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|
how does the vortex bladeless use wind energy to make electrical energy? | more specifically, what kind of oscillation or movement patterns occur at the base of the large cone? | based on their website? pretty much magic. they make no real attempt from what i've just read to explain the physics of this. based on a news article or two i've just read through on the subject, they say that the object is designed to oscillate, and they're using that oscillation to perform work in their generator at the base of the object. the physics of the oscillations is due to [vortex shedding](_url_0_). their claim that these are quiet is likely to be false due to [aeolian sound](_url_1_) which is generated by the exact mechanism they are using to draw energy from the air. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortex_shedding",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolian_sound"
]
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|
how does hebbian learning theory relate to other models of learning, such as classical, operant and observational learning, and what are the implications for therapies which rely on these forms of learning, like cbt? | hebbian learning is a theory that operates on a different scale than models of conditioning like you mentioned. hebbian theory attempts to explain the mechanism for a basic unit of learning, and that is crudely summed up by "fire together, wire together." to the extent that it influences the idea of the other theories, the connection is pretty much just "repeating things tends to form memories," and classical vs operant vs whatever are just different ways of repeating whatever experience until the pathways firing patterns have been ingrained, and "learning" has happened. edit: a typo. | 3 | []
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|
can anyone explain what is exactly incorrect or correct about this? (carbon dating) | sorry if this is not the place to be asking this... i am 12 so please try to keep answers semi simple? just tell me if this is the wrong place. i am very confused right now, i am homeschooled and not very well versed in biology and have been taught the creationist account for life but i am starting to have doubts. however, when hearing my doubts my father has directed me to this website: _url_0_ it seems to make sense to my understanding but i can guess it is probably biased. can anyone just give me a rough summary of the scientific consistencies or inconsistencies (or whatever it would be called) it may have? again sorry if this is not the right place just tell me. | the major point they make about carbon dating is that they claim scientists always assume the ratio of the radioactive carbon (14c) is constant to the stable carbon (12c). this is not a correct statement and we have very good calibration curves made by comparing carbon dating to other methods notably counting tree rings. here is an example curve: _url_0_ now the heart of their argument is that they date coal deposits and show that since the accelerator mass spectrometer records counts the deposit must have 14c in it and thus cannot be as old as people have claimed. however, the mistake they make is that they do not correct for the background of the accelerator. all mass spectrometers have a background signal that shows up that must be subtracted out. this is because previously measured samples contaminate the machine a little bit. the background is usually measured by running samples that contain no 14c and there will always be 14c that shows up in the detector. they do not correct for this background in their data and thus their analysis is incorrect. also i want to say that carbon dating is not used to determine the age of earth so attacking carbon dating does not make their case. i hope that answers your question if you have more please feel free to ask. | 12 | []
| [
"http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/nab/does-c14-disprove-the-bible/"
]
| [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Radiocarbon_Date_Calibration_Curve.svg"
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|
what makes mig/tig weld fumes so dangerous? | weld fumes are really dangerous, causing bronchitis or lung cancer over a long period of time if inhaled, but what i don't understand is how steel and argon can have a reaction that creates something so toxic when both aren't used up in a reaction and both aren't toxic to begin with. what's in weld fumes that make them so toxic and how does it get there? | when you say "steel and argon aren't toxic", you are mistaken. toxicity depends on not just what you get into your body, but on how you get it in, and how much you get. an excellent example of this is mercury. you can swallow small to moderate quantities of liquid mercury with no harm. but even a small amount of inhaled mercury vapors is neurotoxic. so, returning to your question: sure, steel is not harmful when swallowed, but pretty much all metals and alloys are toxic when they are inhaled as vapors or fine dust. in short, this is because they damage cells in your lungs, which then leads to a variety of problems, including lung inflammation, asthma, and lung cancer. | 2 | []
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|
what causes the liquid-like patterns in the rocks on the tops of these mountains? | [three photos here](_url_0_) these mountains look as if their tops have been dipped in red liquid, and the liquid is oozing down the sides of the mountains. as seen in the photos, what looks like liquid from a distance is actually streams of loose reddish brown rocks. the mountains are near the intersection of nevada highway 140 and leonard creek rd. someone on r/geology suggested that this is at the south end of the bilk creek mountains. | can't say with much certainty, but it looks like the patterns seen at the tops of those mountains are driven by water flow (and thus precipitation) | 3 | []
| [
"http://imgur.com/gallery/kygXF"
]
| []
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|
why is there still such a high prevalence of cystic fibrosis (about 1:25 are carriers) when its a life limiting condition and a high percentage of patients are infertile? | this question has been fairly well studied, though it's always difficult to pin down the *why* in genetics with much confidence. you can't experimentally test a "why". cystic fibrosis is caused by homozygosity for mutations in the cftr gene (two out of two mutant). heterozygosity (one "normal" allele, on mutant allele) leads to a carrier state where the individual does not have cystic fibrosis, but is able to pass it on to their offspring - as carriers, or resulting in cf if their partner also passes along a mutant cftr to the child. there is evidence that certain cystic-fibrosis-causing cftr mutant haplotypes (longer blocks of dna which include the cftr gene) are at (1) higher frequency than expected, and (2) have reduced variability in the immediate flanking regions (suggesting a recent mutation, all descended from a common ancestor using a statistic called extended haplotype homozygosity) within certain european populations [[pompei et al., 2006. european journal of human genetics](_url_1_)]. this is strongly suggestive of positive selection, but from a genetics perspective, can mean several things (non-exclusively). 1. genetic drift independent of a specific genetic selection for that locus: founder effects, bottlenecks where survivors were lucky rather than genetically resistant, isolated populations chosen randomly with high inbreeding, etc 2. expressing the trait (cystic fibrosis) can be advantageous under certain selective pressures* 3. carrying the allele can be advantageous under certain selective pressures* (heterozygous advantage) 4. the disease causing allele for cystic fibrosis occurred positionally close (linkage disequilibrium) to a region under positive selective pressure and the positive effect of the second region is strong enough to offset the negative effects of cystic fibrosis (hitchhiking) *note: those selective pressures must actually be experienced by that population so, with all that set up, the most evidence that people have been able to find points towards option #3 - being a cftr mutant carrier seems to be driving positive selection of cftr mutants with cystic fibrosis disease in homozygotes having nothing to do with it. specifically, while patients with cystic fibrosis disease have pathologically thickened mucous which interferes with lung function, makes it more difficult for them to clear chronic infections that colonize the mucous, and forms blockages leading to inflammation in various other target tissues and reduced contractility - carriers *also* exhibit some phenotypes at the level of basic biology when compared to non cftr mutant individuals, just not with the same severity. **so... to (over) simplify and make a long story short:** heterozygosity for mutant cftr appears to offer increased resistance to cholera or other cl^- secreting diarrheal diseases. [[romeo et al., 1989, human genetics](_url_2_)]. the rise of the cftr^mutant alleles coincides with pastoralism (cattle farming) [[alfonso-sánchez ma et al., 2012, med hypoth](_url_0_)] which is known to have been associated with increased human population density, increased exposure to domesticated animals, and higher likelihood of water contamination. | 25 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20110149",
"http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v14/n1/full/5201498a.html",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2691388"
]
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|
|
what is ground, and why do electrons like to move to it? | ground is literally the potential (or voltage) of the ground. so it's a convenient reference point (0v = ground), and it's also a good safety feature. things are "grounded" so that, if some wire or component breaks and connects to ground then it blows a fuse or circuit breaker. without a ground the piece of equipment would just be at whatever voltage the wire is at, waiting for you to come over and touch it. also electrons go towards ground from a negative voltage, and come from the ground to a positive voltage. basically ground is a (practically) infinite source or drain of electrons, set at 0v. | 4 | []
| []
| []
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|
|
this way of surviving a heart attack was posted on facebook but i'm skeptical, and this isn't the kind of thing people should be misinformed about. would this actually work? | since many people are alone when they suffer a heart attack, without help,the person whose heart is beating improperly and who begins to feel faint, has only about 10 seconds left before losing consciousness. however,these victims can help themselves by coughing repeatedly and very vigorously. a deep breath should be taken before each cough, and the cough must be deep and prolonged, as when producing sputum from deep inside the chest. a breath and a cough must be repeated about every two seconds without let-up until help arrives, or until the heart is felt to be beating normally again. deep breaths get oxygen into the lungs and coughing movements squeeze the heart and keep the blood circulating. the squeezing pressure on the heart also helps it regain normal rhythm. in this way, heart attack victims can get to a hospital. tell as many other people as possible about this. it could save their lives!! a cardiologist says if everyone who sees this post shares it to 10 people, you can bet that we'll save at least one life.. rather than sharing jokes only please contribute by forwarding this info which can save a person's life. | it is possible but i am unconvinced. maybe they were referring to *cough cardiopulmonary resuscitation* ([letter in circulation, 2006](_url_0_)) which is the use of vigorous coughing to generate an arterial pulse and thus keep someone conscious when they would otherwise be unconscious and pulseless (eg. ventricular tachycardia or severe bradycardia). this presumable works by increasing and decreasing the pressure in the chest cavity and so pushing blood out of the chest into the arteries and then sucking blood into the chest from the veins to keep the blood going round and round the body. or they may be more specifically referring to "*valsalva termination of ventricular tachycardia*" but using a cough because it is kind of but not very similar to the [valsalva manoeuvre](_url_3_). a valsalva can be thought of in simple terms as trying to blow out forcefully and thus raising the pressure within the chest. there is an article in circulation from 1980 entitled valsalva-termination of ventricular tachycardia ([pdf here](_url_1_)). also in 1980 in the american journal of cardiology there was an article titled "cough-facilitated conversion of ventricular tachycardia", however i don't have a copy of this. the mechanism for cardioversion is thought to be the increased vagal outflow during the strain phase of the valsalva manoeuvre which slows transmission of cardiac conduction through the atrioventricular node. using the assumption that a firm cough is roughly equivalent to a valsalva (which is a stretch) then if someone was to have a out-of-hospital cardiac event, the most common being a ventricular tachycardia associated with ischaemic heart disease, then if they recognised this, lay flat, and coughed forcefully, then it is possible that the heart rhythm would revert to normal, thus saving them (temporarily). so you see that this idea has been around over 30 years and it has been observed many times, usually in people with a implanted pacemaker/defibrillators, or people on table in the cardiac catheter laboratory or electrophysiological studies lab. so there is no doubt that it is a real phenomenon. i'm not sure that it has been demonstrated to be effective in the out-of-hospital milieu, or in "normal" people (ie. not the pacemaker population). ***the american heart association does not endorse "cough cpr,*** and you can read a [brief statement about cough-cpr by the aha here](_url_2_). the meat of the matter is **tl,dr; the aha don't recommend "cough-cpr".** addit: i'm not a cardiologist. | 15 | []
| []
| [
"http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/114/15/e530.full",
"http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/62/4/843.full.pdf",
"http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/More/CardiacArrest/Cough-CPR_UCM_432380_Article.jsp",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valsalva_maneuver"
]
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|
does charpy impact strength dictate the feasibility of use in ballistic plate carriers? | i was researching possible alternatives to ar500 for use in plate carriers, mainly because ar500 is a bit heavier than i expected. i noticed that low alloy steel plates, such as ar500, have a charpy impact of 24 j, while nylon 12's impact strength is off the charts. i know that nylon isn't used to protect against bullets, since i haven't seen any purely nylon level iii ballistic plates, so this is more an inquiry on how one determines the feasibility of a material to replace ar500 in plate carriers. | i don't know much about ballistics, but i know a bit about fracture toughness from my engineering work and since no one has responded i'll give it a whirl. fracture toughness is a measure of how much energy a material at a specific temperature can absorb through deformation prior to fracturing. a strong-but-ductile material,say mild steel at an elevated temperature, can absorb crazy amounts of energy while a brittle material (say a very martensitic steel) can absorb very little energy even though it may be very strong. charpy impact testing is a standard way to measure fracture toughness. knowing very little about ballistics and armor, i would guess that you want kindof a midrange charpy value. from what i can guess, you want the plate to dissipate the energy through the whole plate, not just the locale of impact. a very ductile but not very strong material like a plastic would be prone to local deformation, especially when heated by a bullet and might push into the body and perhaps rupture. a very brittle material with low fracture toughness (like glass) will just shatter out of the bullet's way, leaving the familiar bullet holes in glass kind of look. in the middle, you get a material that is ductile enough to distribute the force through the plate, but then fractures. my guess is want to dissipate much of the energy in the fracturing process, since absorbing it in deformation requires a reaction force fro the body which will result in bruising or other injury. my guess is that this is why hard ceramics are common. they are pretty brittle, but very strong. so to sum up, i don't think charpy can be the only data you look at. you probably need a material with a high young's modulus (brittle) and a high yield and ultimate strength with little deformation between yield and ultimate. the result will be kind of a medium charpy value. the mild steel plate probably isn't ideal since it is fairly ductile; if a ductile material is thick enough, it can dissipate the impact as local deformation while the thickness supports that area. this is the idea behind heavy tank armor or the youtube videos of shooting at 1"+ steel plate. thick ductile armor can probably take more hits whereas thin hard ceramic armor is pretty disposable. again, i made all this up based on my knowledge of materials and some guesses at ballistics, so it could be all wrong. | 3 | []
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|
/r/askscience, i captured this image of the moon and surrounding space 5 hours ago and was hoping for a more informed opinion on what this blue object is. | forenote: there was quite a bit of dust and dirt on the lens as i haven't had the time to clean it out thoroughly recently, and this is what makes me question the authenticity of this. i saw the moon in clear skies tonight and decided to snap it before clouds turned up. i have since checked the lens and there is not a single blue mark on it. i took [this image](_url_2_) roughly 5 hours ago and i was just looking through it when [this blue object](_url_1_) caught my eye ([location on image](_url_0_)). i zoomed in and it is much larger, more defined and more elliptical than all the other dirt spots, as well as it being very bright blue. i'm asking if you could give some opinion and feedback on all the possibilities of what this could be, both space (a blue-shifted entity) and light pollution from the earth, etc. and finally, if it is something in space, is there a way to find out what it is, given an approximate global location + exact time? (first time posting here so i hope this is done correctly, if there is a more appropriate sub-reddit for these types of questions i'd be grateful if you could send me there for next time) | most likely, it's a "hot pixel" on the sensor. certain photosites on the sensor will have a greater amount of self-excitation from thermal noise. this shows up as bright spots in dark areas of pictures taken with a long exposure. it'll look a lot bigger than a single pixel in the jpg file because the image processing in the camera, and the jpg compression, will spread the error from the bad pixel over multiple pixels. if it's a hot pixel, then taking a very long exposure with the lens cap covered should show a spot in the same place. otherwise, it could be a reflection of the moon from somewhere inside the lens (a lens flare). | 2 | []
| [
"http://i.imgur.com/8ILr9.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/S6eEj.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/hWR7H.jpg"
]
| []
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|
different ldh enzymes in yaks? | my biochem professor said that yaks have two different types of ldh enzymes (a and b) why would they need two different enzymes to break down the same protein? i read some articles saying they have many ldh enzymes to combat hypoxia (oxygen deprivation in the tissue) | i think you have misunderstood something. the functional ldh enzyme is actually a tetramer (made up of 4 components). the 4 components are usually a mixture of individual proteins produced from two separate genes ldha and ldhb. different tissue types tend to have different ldh components coming together to form the functional enzyme (so you can have aaaa, aaab, etc.) this isn't unique to yaks, but i definitely don't know enough about yaks to say if there is anything weird going on with them. the paper you linked to in another comment is talking about different forms of the ldha or ldhb gene. these different forms are mutations (polymorphisms) that may have arisen in the yak population because of selective pressures in their environment; the polymorphisms may give them an extra advantage so they have become frequent in the population. but they are just slightly different forms of ldha and b, kind of like some people living in high altitudes have mutations in hemoglobin genes to help them carry oxygen better. it isn't the case that yaks have two ldh enzymes where other animals only have one. | 2 | []
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|
did not know gallium did this! but how strong is it? | so i came across this [video](_url_0_) from another thread on reddit. i was just curious as to how strong gallium was? for example in the video he makes a key, how durable would this key be for long term use? should someone be worried that it will break in the keyhole? this would be pretty cool for hobbyists (but then again not so much since it will probably melt on a hot summer day). | gallium is pretty soft. the only point of comparison i have is indium, which is not something that most people have handled. the next comparison i'd have for gallium is cold candle wax? frankly, if you wanted to do something like this there are much more easy to use materials to make molds from. | 9 | []
| [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&v=foQhHfsyPIc&NR=1"
]
| []
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]
|
is it possible to identify the food someone ate through their stool? | absolutely! in fact, that's a significant component of anthropology and paleontology. through examining coprolites (fossilized dung), scientists can obtain information about what the poop producer (human or animal) was eating, and build a better picture of their diet and the environment and society they lived in. the ways we can get info from fossil poop range from the simple (breaking the coprolites apart to look for undigested material, microfossils of parasites, and so on) to the very complex (extracting dna, using spectroscopic analysis to identify specific molecules associated with digestion of vegetable matter/cholesterol/etc). | 19 | []
| []
| []
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|
|
what equipment do we use to determine the mass of distant entities? | i read this post on r/science. _url_0_ the article mentions that corot-20b is 5 times more dense then jupiter, and i was just wondering how we are able to figure that out. | there are many ways. one way is to measure the brightness of a star. with this measurement, a spectrum, and some knowledge of stellar evolution, we can estimate its mass. another way is to observe two or more orbiting objects. the orbital rate and radius tells us the mass of the objects. yet another way is to measure the amount of brightness decline when a planet passes in front of a distant star. the brightness decline gives an estimate of the planet's radius and we can infer a mass from that. another clue is the degree to which a planet orbiting a distant star causes the star's position to change -- all orbiting bodies are actually orbiting around a common center of mass. for example, the sun-jupiter orbiting pair has a center of mass located at the surface of the sun. this means the sun orbits around a position at its surface in an 11-year cycle, and careful astronomers at some distant place could detect this with a spectrograph. a heavier planet than jupiter would cause the common mass center to be farther from the sun, and the sun's spectral line shifts would be correspondingly larger. | 3 | []
| [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/r8azy/scientists_now_have_evidence_that_jupiters_core/"
]
| []
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you are standing on a very accurate scale and you breathe out. does the scale go up or down? | i asked this question many months ago and got contradictory answers. it's not as simple as "you lose air so you're lighter" - you probably have to factor in buoyancy or differences in air pressure/temperature. does anyone have a definitive answer? | neither. to calculate the weigh of a body on earth, we have to consider two forces: gravitational force and the buoyant force. f_graity=m_body*g f_buoyant=m_fluid*g that means, the buoyant force is equal to the weigh of the displaced fluid. thus; the net force is proportional to the volume to mass ratio of a body. if you breath out, you emit mass, but your volume decreases. which means both forces decrease at the same rate. thus the weigh should not change. | 3 | []
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|
parabola or ellipse? | so i came across a slight inconsistency in my calc class the other day. we were talking about projectile motion and how the horizontal component can be modeled as a linear function of time and the vertical component can be modeled as a quadratic function of time, causing the projectile to fly along a parabola until it landed. i've knew about this property for a few years and it came as no surprise to me. but then i had an idea. everything i'm about to say is my own perception of physics and may not be true. when an object falls with some horizontal velocity, it is really trying to orbit the center of the earth, only the surface of the earth gets in the way. if we took away the earth and just let the object orbit the earth's center of mass, it would orbit in an ellipse, wouldn't it? that is how two bodies orbit each other, right? **i know that on such small scales compared to the size of the earth, the object's motion can be sufficiently described by a parabola, but shouldn't it technically be an ellipse?** just curious. sorry for the wall of text. | you are correct. note that in your analysis of projectile motion, you assumed that the gravity is constant and acts purely and only in the *-y* direction. for most cannonballs and baseballs, this is sufficient. the result is mathematically a parabola. but that assumption is, of course, an oversimplification. gravity does not point in the same downwards direction for the entire flight of the cannonball. it points towards the center of the earth.^* it is also slightly weaker at the apex of the journey than at the bottoms. if you were to factor this in, and calculate gravity as *g=gm/r^2* instead of *g=* constant, then you would get an elliptical orbit. the ellipse, however, for most cannonballs, will have an eccentricity approaching 1. the limit of the apex of an ellipse with eccentricity approaching 1 is a parabola. ^* this is also, of course, an oversimplification. physics is the art of oversimplification. | 9 | []
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|
physiology/biology - how does refractoriness of ion channels affect response? | in my physiology lecture today we were discussing refractoriness of sodium ion channels in axons. a student asked how refractory affects the bodies response, since it limits (or even halts) action potential. the professor answered by saying that her question was "like seeking god in a physics lab" and that we should not reason a mechanical response. as i understand it, refractory occurs because the channel is limited to how fast it can return to its initial state, and sometimes currents move faster than the channel can open and close. how does that affect response? i'm guessing it slows it down. is this seen in a "fight or flight" situation; the faster currents moving through the axon sounds like a stress response. | the (absolute) refractory period is only about a millisecond or so. true, thats bigger than "none" but there's lots of other processes in the brain (synaptic delays, propagation delays) that slow things down more than any putative delay caused by the arp. and consider, if there was no refractory period an action potential would just propagate back up the axon once it got to the terminal, and then back down again. forever. the rp prevents this. probably a useful thing. | 4 | []
| []
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|
ofdm and qam - to what are the subcarriers being compared? | when learning about [psk](_url_4_) and [qam](_url_3_), i was taught that the phase of the signal is compared to the last sample of the signal. (e.g. if you use a door for bpsk (open and shut; delta position = 1 and no delta = 0) and you sample the door position every second, if the door is closed at t=0 and closed at t=1, the encoded bit is 0) when learning about [ofdm](_url_1_) all i hear about is the subcarriers are mapped to the qam constellation and then ifft-ed to a complex wave (sum of sinusoids) then it is fft-ed at the receiver and the frequency spectrum is decoded. **how?** i cannot connect the need to sample the subcarrier relative to something. in my head, [the symbol time of 802.11a ofdm is 3.2us](_url_0_). assuming [channel 36 is 5.180 ghz](_url_2_), that means a cycle of the center frequency takes 0.0002us. that is 16,800 cycles per symbol! so, how is this sampled to know that it is out of phase? from what is the phase measured? is there some wave that is sent and not modulated to which the subcarriers are referenced? is the signal sent and then the phase is changed halfway through the symbol? is there something i am missing? | i am going to reference a theoretical orthogonal frequency division multiplexing system. there are two major ways of going about it, first you can leave one of the subcarriers on with a constant and use a [phase lock loop](_url_0_). or you can sync your packets using a [barker code](_url_3_) and then implement a [delay lock loop](_url_2_). the first option allows for continuous sync, but you loose a channel of information (which may or may not be a big deal), the second suffers more drift error, but for shorter packets that is generally ok. also, your analogies are kinda confusing. the door shut analogy actually has nothing to do with phase shift keying, and if you loose phase sync you could destroy your entire packet. for instance, imagine 0000000 being sent (which will happen at some point in a 1000 bit packet), if you loose track of where symbols start and end then you will end up loosing bits and destroying the information of the packet. the same thing happens with ofdm, the pll and dll are set just to keep track of where each symbol is. if you can keep track of where each symbol is, then you have no problems because the fft inverts the ifft that you applied originally. one final note, in practical systems you have to do another step where you account for the phase delays introduced by the channel, but this is a simple [training phase.](_url_1_) more specifically you send a known signal, and see what the phases are that result and adjust your signal accordingly. edit- retyped answer, now that i am not sitting in a walmart parking lot. | 2 | []
| [
"http://rfmw.em.keysight.com/wireless/helpfiles/89600b/webhelp/subsystems/wlan-ofdm/Content/ofdm_basicprinciplesoverview.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_WLAN_channels#5.C2.A0GHz_.28802.11a.2Fh.2Fj.2Fn.2Fac.29.5B17.5D",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrature_amplitude_modulation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-shift_keying"
]
| [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-locked_loop",
"http://dominantinc.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Rocky-training.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay-locked_loop",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barker_code"
]
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|
why do people seem to make mistakes more often when in front of people? | for example, it seems i only trip and fall off my longboard when people are around or watching. is this an actual thing, or am i imagining it? if it is a thing, what causes it? | if you're longboarding and showing people (or not, i guess), it's likely that you start (subconsciously or not) focusing on doing it "properly" by thinking through the steps you take one by one, instead of focusing on the whole--which would be the same reason most sports coaches become worse at their sport when they start teaching. that, or self-consciousness. | 4 | []
| []
| []
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|
are chemical structure illustrations realistic or just ways of depicting hard-to-visualize ideas? | for example, if i could see a water molecule with my own two eyes, would it really look like a larger oxygen sphere connected to smaller hydrogen spheres? would the spheres be overlapping, barely touching, or hovering just nearby? are any types of bonds visible? and if we know, how do we know? | for the most part, any representation we make of a molecule is going to be an abstraction. this is because anything at that scale obeys completely different rules than the rules we experience day-to-day - quantum mechanics. now, you ask if dalton models are "realistic"? yes and no. the best i can do is show you the kind of data [i work with](_url_2_), which is generated from diffracting x-rays off molecules and reconstructing the spatial arrangement of electrons from that (the data doesn't show us anything about nuclei, unfortunately). [this](_url_3_) is a snapshot of a molecule i'm working on, we see the mesh that represents the density of electrons, while the sticks are the model of atoms that i've built into that density. every corner or end of a line represents the nucleus of an atom. my data is medium resolution, at higher resolution, atoms start to show much better electron density, looking much more like spheres. at this resolution, [waters just look like single balls](_url_0_), of the oxygen atom (drawn as a cross), because the single electrons of the hydrogen don't show up well compared to oxygen's electrons. you can google image search "[electron density](_url_1_)" for some other examples of what it can look like. so yes, models we have of atoms are all depictions of difficult ideas. but they're not useless. depending on what you need to do, the representation of an atom as a rigid sphere can be perfectly appropriate. this is what a scientific model is - a representation of an abstract concept as a tangible and more meaningful construction. you represent things in a way that helps you make predictions about how they behave. there's a lot of different ways we might represent an atom, and they are all useful in certain scenarios. but do any really get at a truly "realistic" view of an atom? probably not. | 9 | []
| []
| [
"http://imgur.com/MpiJxyE",
"https://www.google.ca/search?q=electron+density",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography",
"http://imgur.com/7XfctQk",
"http://www.extremetech.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/molecule-imaged-for-the-first-time-640x353.jpg",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pauli.html"
]
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|
if i conducted a michaelson-morley type experiment with sound, instead of light, and in front of a fan so as to create an "ether" wind, should i expect a beat frequency? | i can't for the life of me see how the frequency of the sound would change along the arm parallel to the wind, and i definitely don't see how it would change in the transverse direction. if i can expect one, why? in the physics book this problem is from, they give an expected beat frequency greater than zero. | it doesn't necessarily change the frequency, but the phase (time delay between the signals). the idea is that because of the moving medium (wind) the two signals take different amounts of time to arrive at the detector, even though the distance traveled is the same. it's this difference that causes measurable interference, not beat frequencies. what is seen at the detector is a wave of the same frequency, but with an amplitude that is more or less depending on whether the signals are phase aligned. if they are out of phase, the amplitude tells us how much, and therefore how much the medium was moving. | 2 | []
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|
how do i scientifically measure quality of life in a country or city? | you can't. quality is well, qualitative and not quantitative. you can make up any metric, based on things that are important to you, and rank things according, but its still just quantifying your preferences. you might be interested in the human development index, which ranks places according to a composite statistic of life expectancy, education and per capita income. _url_1_ social progress index uses 54 stats _url_0_ if you are already in a rich country, and trying to decide what cities are the best, a single person might care more about number of concerts or nightclubs while someone wanting to start a family cares about affordability and quality of childcare. | 13 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Progress_Index",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index"
]
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|
i saw stephen hawking's "does god exist" and i'm a bit stumped. | _url_0_ the part in question is at 36:25. this part concerns black holes as an example of how time didn't exist before the big bang. but the video doesn't explain why time stops. after a bit of google, i realized that from an observer's perspective it only looks like time stops because light doesn't escape from black holes so we can't see it enter. is there something i'm missing? how can time not exist in a black hole? | as i said in response to [this question about black holes](_url_0_), > [t]he statement that "time stops in a black hole" is a cute expression sometimes used by people who should know better when describing a somewhat subtle point about paths "crossing" the event horizon of a black hole. specifically, once inside, the direction you used to think of as roughly "into the future" has now become a direction in space, while the direction you used to think of as roughly "toward the center of the black hole" has now become a timelike direction. but your clock will still tick (though not for long, because in a very short while it will be destroyed by tidal forces). on the other hand, to a distant observer, your clock will appear to freeze as you approach the event horizon. the closer you get, the slower you appear to be passing time, eventually taking an infinite amount of time to reach the event horizon. | 6 | []
| [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P-jQUHUF1MU&list=FLr8jSDGDYjeuiuoKpiofJRA&index=1&feature=plpp_video"
]
| [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/wmt1h/black_hole_question_please_help/",
"http://www.thebigview.com/spacetime/spacetime.html"
]
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how exactly does exercise induced hypoglycaemia occur in type-1 diabetics? | there seem to be mixed opinions on this as well as conflicting information on how exercise induced hypoglycaemia is effected by different types of exercise (lower intensity such as jogging and high intensity such as sprinting). some of the papers i don’t have access to, either, which further complicates the topic and makes it difficult to get an overview. can anyone help out? many thanks! | excercise help mobilize glucose into muscle cells. rather than using insulin, when muscles are active they can bring in the available glucose for energy in the krebs cycle to produce energy, co2 and heat. when inactive, muscle cells require insulin. so its super important for type 1 diabetic to take into account physical activity in their insulin doses. type 1 diabetes means the body doesnt produce any insulin. type 2 the body produces insulin but either its not enough, the wrong molecular shape or the body is resistant to it. | 2 | []
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|
is it possible to cross breed a turtle and a tortoise? | is it genetically possible if done in-vitro, or is there an issue there? do the morphological differences create a physical barrier for cross breeding in nature? | in short, it's not possible because the evolutionary paths of tortoises/turtles/terrapins and too far apart. generally as a rule, only creatures of the same species can produce viable offspring. hybridisation is when different species are bred together, but the offspring is almost always sterile (unable to reproduce.) the best example is breeding a donkey and a horse to give a mule. sometimes different genera (one rank above species) can breed to create a sterile hyrbid, but it is very rare. the further back you go in classification, the less likely, or more difficult it will be for creatures to successfully breed. speaking generally, sea turtles, terrapins and tortoises are from different families and orders, which is too far apart to breed successfully. | 3 | []
| []
| []
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|
question about dating techniques | i saw the topic that they found stone-tipped spears predating human existence. how can they even say that? if they did some kind of dating on the stone how could they assume that the rock was created at the same time something picked it up and started using it in their spear design? for all they know that rock was sitting there for 500,000 years before someone picked it up, shaped it and attached it to a stick. when it comes to radio active decay, does it magically start over when you shape the object? | for the sake of reference [here's](_url_0_) the original article about these stone-tipped spears that you're asking about. to clarify, they're not talking about aliens using spears, they're talking about different species of *homo* (e.g., we're *homo sapiens*, they could be talking about *homo erectus*). these spear tips were dated from the substrate in which they were found, they weren't dating the specific material of the spear (which could be much older). there's lots of ways to date different materials and the choice depends on what you're trying to test. carbon-14 is used predominately for organic materials, the article in question used [argon-argon](_url_1_) dating that is good for dating metamorphic and igneous minerals. not when it comes to minerals. radioisotope dating methods for minerals can only give you an idea of how long its been since the last time they cooled below their closure temperature (the temperature at which its assumed that isotopes aren't flowing in and out). they tested the age of the substrate where the spear points were found because they wanted to know how long it had been since the points came to rest in that spot (and presumably when they were last used by their owner), not the age of the stones that were used to create the spear points. | 4 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0078092",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/40Ar/39Ar"
]
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|
what effects does the human body suffer after electricution? | it kinda depends on how much you get. small amounts can be relatively harmless besides maybe making you twitch and hurting. large amounts can burn you or shortwire organs in bad ways. | 2 | []
| []
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|
fc mediated phagocytosis and degranulation | does an antibody have to be bound to an antigen to stimulate fc mediated phagocytosis and/or degranulation? (i would assume so, because random degranulation especially would not have great consequences). if so, how is the binding of an antibody to an antigen detected? is there a conformational change in the fc region when an antigen is bound? are compliment proteins that bind both the antibody and antigen required? | if i'm not mistaken, there is a conformational change which occurs when the antigen binds to antibody. this would explain the differences in binding between bound and unbound ig | 2 | []
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|
in honour of good friday: what would actually happen to someone who was crucified? what would kill you first? how long would you live for? | the romans made it an art and people would generally last for a few days. in 73 bc, they crucified 6,000 men at one time due to the sparticus slave revolt. they were surprised that jesus died as fast as he did. and more than likely he was crucified completely naked as that was the standard way they did it. the guards would sometimes break the legs of the condemned to put them out of their misery. | 7 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion"
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|
|
i am teaching an engineering camp, need ideas! | the "simple calculations" part makes this tricky, but here are several vibration/resonance ideas: [coupled metronome synchronisation](_url_0_) [pendulum waves](_url_4_) - maybe simplify it to 4 or 5, and have them predict how long until they all line up again (least common multiple of each pendulum's period) [different version of chladni patterns](_url_1_) [mass spring resonance](_url_3_) - maybe use a mechanical oscillator you can adjust and have them calculate the resonance. if you really want to "stand out" go for a [ruben's tube](_url_2_) | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W1TMZASCR-I",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YedgubRZva8&feature=related",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HpovwbPGEoo",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_XTj_ePLvFI",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yVkdfJ9PkRQ",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YedgubRZva8"
]
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|
|
can i get some general engineering knowledge, please? | threads like these come up all the time (i think there were a few today) in /r/askengineers. stop by, check it out, see what people have to say. | 2 | []
| []
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how will overfishing effect very deep ecosystems? | some of the effects are direct. orange roughy and patagonian toothfish (chilean seabass), for instance, both reside several thousand feet down and are severely overharvested. adaptations that deep sea fish have made to cope with the unique challenges of their environment have rendered them less able to withstand fishing pressure. late sexual maturity and long lifespans typify many deep sea fishes. this is a response to the scarcity of food (limits growth rates) and long distances that must be travelled to find mates (long distances are better travelled by big fish). the toothfish reaches sexual maturity at around 8 years, and can live to 50 years. the orange roughy does not reach sexual maturity until 30, and has been documented as living as long as 149 years. bottom trawls for shrimp are perhaps the most destructive practice, as the literally scrape the surface off the ocean floor, destroying fragile habitats and causing huge bycatch. | 2 | []
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|
|
why are hypertrophied cardiomyocyte nuclei polyploid? | sup guys. i've been reading about hypertrophy in the muscle cells of the heart which occurs as a result of hypertension. the cells get larger and contain more contractile proteins, but also the actual nuclei are larger, and are polyploid (they have more dna than healthy cells do). i'm struggling to find a reason for this. do the cells fuse? do they replicate the dna sequences for contractile proteins to facilitate a greater rate of synthesis of these proteins? edit: apparently all cardiomyocytes are polyploid, but the degree of polyploidy is increased with hypertrophy in response to hypertension. | the way that a foremost heart pathologist described it to me is that you need more genetic data to encode for more proteins. as hypertrophied cardiomyocytes need more protein, they increase their genetics material in order to compensate. now, i do know that this is generally not the result of fusion or nuclear division. here's a quote from a [nature review article](_url_0_): > before addressing whether new cardiomyocytes are generated in the human heart after injury, it is instructive to review a few points about normal cardiac growth and adaptation to workloads (box 2). in brief, most human cardiomyocyte nuclei are polyploid by the onset of puberty24. in response to pathological workloads, such as hypertension, valvular disease and post-infarction overload, human cardiomyocytes commonly reinitiate dna synthesis without nuclear division24, 25. this increases cardiomyocyte nuclear ploidy further, reaching levels as high as 64n (in which n represents the haploid set). unlike rodent cardiomyocytes26, most human cardiomyocytes seem to remain mononucleated throughout life27. thus, dna synthesis is common in the adult human heart, but this cannot be equated to cardiomyocyte proliferation without accounting for the process of polyploidization. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v473/n7347/full/nature10147.html"
]
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|
terminology, or something else? | i've always wondered what are "humans". i often hear people say that we are about 70% water (h2o). but then i hear others say that we are carbon based oraganisms. base (imo) means the common foundation of something, but if that were the case, why doesn't carbon appear in water if it makes up more that 70% of our body? | these are two separate things. i'll target the second thing first, because it makes more sense that way. the four big classes of macromolecules that are present in the vast majority of living organisms found on earth are carbohydrates (sugars), lipids (fats), proteins, and nucleic acids (dna, rna, etc). these molecules all contain carbon. the valence structure of carbon is special in that it allows the formation of chemical bonds that are stable enough to exist more than transiently, while at the same time are reactive enough to allow for relatively easy remodeling. without this flexibility, basic metabolic life processes would either (a) be impossible, (b) progress very slowly, or (c) proceed too quickly to be controlled. that is what we mean by carbon-based life. however, these macromolecules don't just compose our bodies by themselves. instead, there are liquid solutions both inside and outside of our cells. these solutions facilitate diffusion and act as buffers for important reactions, etc. these solutions are mostly water by volume, so there's a lot of water. | 10 | []
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|
do gut flora affect your food cravings? in other words, do they modify your behavior for their benefit? | associated question: do our bodies crave nutrients that they need (ie. if i need vitamin d, do i crave foods that my body associates with vitamin d)? | 20 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.medpagetoday.com/MeetingCoverage/EASD/22352"
]
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|
|
how do macrophages fit through a capillary? | if a red blood cell is roughly 7 microns and yet must squeeze through a capillary, how does a macrophage, being roughly 20 microns, circulate? | circulating macrophages are called monocytes, and they are smaller (~10 microns). they will differentiate into a macrophage once they migrate in amoebic fashion through the junction of two capillary endothelial cells (a process known as extravasation), and enter the surrounding tissue itself. upon differentiation, the cell can change its shape as it begins to engulf--or, phagocytose--material in an area where there is inflammation. | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.gluegrant.org/flash/injury.swf"
]
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