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how do catamaran foils work so the boat floats above the water? | hi there. career aviator here. i feel like i have a fairly decent grasp of the basic lift physics behind traditional aerofoils (such as in rotary-wing flight, props, fixed-wing flying, etc). but i just saw [this video](_url_0_) of a catamaran hovering above the water and can't figure it out. is it, the mechanism of flight the rudder-like bladelets under the catamaran? if so, isn't the lift vector perpendicular relative to the angle of attack? then why is the boat lifting up and not being stretched apart? i'm sure i have it all wrong...scientists of reddit, help me understand! | the foils are upside down t shaped. there is a horizontal piece under the water which acts like a plane wing. here's a pic of the underside of the one that capsized. _url_1_ you might also notice the sail is rigid, like a plane wing, and not cloth. the fastest foiling cat is _url_0_. they want to do the pacific transit with her, but they keep waiting for good weather / their boat is structually too weak. interesting side fact: sailing vessels hold the circumnavigation record (around the equator), even outperforming diesel (with fuel stops) and nuclear. apparently we can't build a mechanical drive that doesn't break when abused in this manner. | 9 | []
| [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y6dnOlE9sjk"
]
| [
"http://hydroptere.com/",
"http://imgur.com/5hgp5Hb",
"http://skyski.com/store/Grant_Flyin_High_small.jpg",
"http://www.mastercraft.com/teamtalk/attachment.php?attachmentid=11073&stc=1&d=1150869541"
]
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what is instantaneous periodicity? | there of course is an average "velocity" which is simply displacement upon time. or there is an instantaneous velocity, or v = dx/dt. however, i have never understood what instantaneous frequency is? for example, if frequency is expressed as a function, then it gives me the frequency at a point of time. i am not sure what it means. for a given data signal, what is the frequency at a point in time? doesn't frequency require a notion of periodicity? how do we define a period (or wavelength, or any other wave property) at a point in time? i apologize in advance if this question is ridiculous or i have gotten things way too wrong. | frequency is change in phase over change in time (with a factor of 2π): mean(f) = (1/2π) δϕ/δt instantaneous frequency is just the infinitesimal limit of this (the same as with average velocity vs instantaneous velocity): f = (1/2π) dϕ/dt you can try this with shm: x = cos(ωt), where ωt = ϕ. you get f = ω/2π, which is the standard result. | 14 | []
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|
what's the maxwell-cattaneo equation and who is cattaneo? | i encountered this in my job. all i can find are advanced papers on assuming you already know what it is. i presume it's a modification to the maxwell's equations but i can't find who/which cattaneo it was. | what do you work on exactly? because googling the name gives me a bunch of stuff on relativistic heat conduction. [which looks something like this.](_url_0_) it's easy enough to explain why some may prefer a model like that over the traditional model of heat conduction. basically the traditional heat equation propagates information through all space instantaneously, which is something that should be forbidden by relativity so clearly isn't perfect physically, even if it is a pretty good model. one proposed way to fix that is to modify the equation so it is hyperbolic, a noteable benefit of hyperbolic equations is that they do have a finite information propagation speed, think: wave equation, maxwell's equations (which are a symmetric hyperbolic system). the derivation uses minkowski space, which was discovered when studying maxwell's equations and is really what imposes the finite propagation speed, to derive the relativistic heat conduction equations. i'm guessing this is how maxwell got his name attached to them, but i'm not sure (again we may just be talking about different things). as for cattaneo, he's a 20th century italian mathematician, but i can't really find anything else on him. | 7 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_heat_conduction#Hyperbolic_model"
]
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|
in an system with multiple pressure relief valves, would all of the valves trigger at once when the pressure becomes too great? | i have put together a crude image here: _url_0_ in this instance, there are three tanks, each connected to the other two in a triangular formation. there are pipes connecting the tanks at different heights, and a hose connected to pump air into the system at one of two locations. the pressure relief valves are in the center of each tank. (i'm sure that this layout is far from ideal but i'm thinking through a potential puzzle for a game and realized i didn't know how this whole thing would work) if i were to fill the system from hose 1, my instinct is that the pressure valve on tank 2 would be the only one to let air out when the pressure built up too much since it was closest to where the air is being pumped in. but considering pressure is equal in the entire system i was wondering if that was incorrect. either way, if i were to fill from hose 2 would the result be the same? or due to the shape of the system would things trigger at a different time? thanks! | yes and no. in theory, they should each open at the same time. in reality that probably isn’t going to be the case. quality assurance issues in the manufacturing of the relief valves would be my first concern, that they would open at slightly different pressures. you could test a sample of valves and chose three that open at nearly the same pressure to help eliminate that. fluid dynamics will play a small part as well if the size of the pipes/hoses connecting your array are small enough in diameter to cause friction loss and bottleneck. if the filling pressure/volume is greater than what is equalized by the array connections you won’t have identical pressures between the three vessels. this can be mitigated by either slow filling or stepped filling and allowing adequate time to equalize the storage array. | 8 | []
| [
"https://imgur.com/ccwBsK8"
]
| []
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|
why does paneer not melt? | i was cooking some food today and i've always wondered, why doesn't paneer melt? every other cheese i can think of gets more liquidy/greasy at high temperature. paneer gets softer but retains its original shape even when boiled or fried. | it is a hot acid cheese where the milk is heated and acidified for curding. cheeses like mozzarella are kept below 110f to separate casein and whey. whey needs higher temps to colagulate so this style is mostly casein. when made around 200f like the one you are asking about the whey is incorporated into the cheese. the whey protein in the structure prevents melting to occur. | 7 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.thekitchn.com/cheese-on-melting-the-cheesemo-88264"
]
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|
can a hall effect detector detect currents in nerves accurately or at all? | i doubt a hall sensor of any macroscopic scale would produce a sufficient current, considering the absolutely minuscule magnetic fields generated by nerve currents. according to wikipedia, the largest magnetic fields produced by living creatures are between 10^−9 t and 10^−6 t (excluding creatures like the electric eel i imagine). hall effect sensors typically have minimum magnetic field limits of around 10^-4 t. there is, however, a sensor known as a squid (superconducting quantum interference device) which uses quantized electrical current through a nano-path in a superconductor to measure magnetic fields on the order of 10^-18 t (albeit with days of measurement, practically it can achieve orders of magnitude lower) a rather new medical technology known as [magnetoencephalography](_url_0_) uses a net of squids to measure currents within the brain. so, yes, there are sensors which are plenty accurate to detect currents through nerves. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetoencephalography"
]
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|
|
i have heard that fluids can be modeled using the equations of general relativity. is this true, and if so can someone explain a little about how/why this is the case. | a gr researcher friend of mine recently gave a talk related this. he was strangely surprised to find that the navier-stokes equations (those that govern non-relativistic fluids) and the einstein field equations (gr) have a lot in common, to the point that the turbulence that arises in fluids / fluid equations can explain some things that were unexplained in gr. my simple suggestion for this phenomena is that the einstein field equations conserve momentum and energy/mass, which are precisely the foundations for the equations of fluid mechanics. gr uses a "stress-energy tensor" which is a rather complex expression for how stresses and their changes in some field are related to its energy field. this seems to me to be very analogous to the [cauchy stress tensor](_url_0_) that takes one from the very general expression of the cauchy equation to the navier-stokes equations. gr takes a lot of other non-newtonian things into account that ns does not, but it seems to me that with some reduction of gr to newtonian mechanics and a particular stress tensor, you'd recover something very similar to navier-stokes from the einstein field equations. caveat: i know next to nothing about gr, but i do work with the navier-stokes equations daily, so anyone with gr knowledge please do clarify. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_stress_tensor"
]
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|
|
what's an example of energy not suitable for work in a closed system? | i used to found entropy one of the most hard concepts to understand while going through collegue. even though i understand the concept now, am having trouble visualizing the idea of "energy not suitable for work". the thermodinamic meaning of entropy brings this concept of "energy not suitable for work", and if energy cannot be created or destroyed, isnt energy always suitable for work?. in other words, energy can be transformed to any state (thermal energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, etc). just to expand a little more on this: this uncertitude i have came from reading isaac asimov's "the last question". at the end the universe go to an state of maximun entropy where no energy can be used for work, but isnt this the same as saying that theres no energy left at all?, if theres always the same amount of energy in the universe, then we will never run out of it. | thermal energy is unsuitable, on its own, for work. you get get useful energy from a thermal gradient (i.e. the movement of heat from something hot to something cold), but you can't just lower the temperature of something and get work out of it. | 2 | []
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|
would it be possible to block a magnetic feild? | im trying to build something but i need to block some magnetic fields for it to work. is there any material that could do this? i have found _url_0_ , but i dont know if it is legitimate. (also sorry for the misspelling in the title) | to block a static magnetic field, you need a material whose magnetic field will essentially mimic the environment's, but in the opposite manner. this is far easier said than done, but i know one source. the concept is employed in the "zero gauss chamber" used to calibrate gaussmeters. check out [lakeshore cryogenics](_url_0_). their staff is pretty nice about answering questions. the website may also have a spec sheet that'll tell you what the zero gauss chamber is made of. the other way is to use a superconductor. these act to expel magnetic fields from their inside entirely, sort of like the way a perfect conductor acts in a static e field (but not quite the same, because of the lack of magnetic monopoles). the former recommendation is much better - superconductors need to be kept at low temperatures making this suggestion almost impossible to implement. edit: link syntax | 4 | []
| [
"mushield.com"
]
| [
"http://www.lakeshore.com"
]
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|
geologists/geoscientists: 5x to 12x more sub-surface water, than surface water? | i was watching a documentary on the earth, called inside planet earth, and in it, they mentioned that below the surface of the earth, like in the mantle, there was 5x to 12x more water than what is covering the surface of the earth. it stated that the water was pulled down under the crust in subduction zones, because ocean plates are heavier than continental plates, which seems plausible. it was also stated that if all this water was brought up to the surface, it would cover the planet 2mi above mt. everest. it even quipped about a biblical flood, although it was a joke. is this true? that is a lot of water, it seems unimaginable. | this is not a well established conclusion. in fact, the authors of [serpentine and the subduction zone water cycle](_url_2_) disagree. water plays an important role in [melting](_url_1_) and [mantle convection](_url_0_). (sorry if you can't access the full articles linked here) the total global amount of water in hydrous minerals in the earth's interior is not insignificant, but it is not well known either. it does not exist as liquid water, of course (as described well by ryrulian); it reacts with mantle minerals, principally olivine to form serpentine. that said, it is also not "destroyed", as these minerals will also dehydrate and a lot of water is therefore released during volcanism. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.physicstoday.org/resource/1/phtoad/v65/i3/p40_s1",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v421/n6925/full/nature01429.html",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X04002663"
]
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|
why doesn't blocking buffer block the specific sites as well? and why is hybridisation carried out at 4 degrees? | during immunoblotting e.g. westerns. | competition. biochemical binding is a dynamic equilibrium, not an event. take a mix of 10 proteins in your sample. add your blocking agent. your 10 sample proteins will randomly bind to the blocking agents, but these are not permanent events, they have a rate at which the binding will dissociate. that is, for every unit of time that passes, it becomes more likely that the two will dissociate. imagine flipping a coin once a second....it won't be long until it comes up heads. introduce your probe (antibody). it has a very high affinity for your target, but not a very high affinity for your non-targets. if it binds to a non-target, it has maybe less than that coinflip chance of dissociating, but not a whole lot. maybe more like "roll a 4 on a 6-sided die" chance. but if it binds to the target, it has a much, much lower (like lotto jackpot lower) chance of dissociating. i love analogies, so here's one for you: ted, fred, deb, and ed are all at a party looking for people to talk to. ted loves gardening. fred loves cars. deb loves sports, and ed loves cooking. enter the random crowd. these people like random stuff, but none of the 4 things i just listed. the foursome will wander around, randomly chatting with people about the weather and traffic and whatnot, but will lose interest and walk away once an opportunity presents itself. this will come out as a time constant...each of them will talk to a random person for a minute or two before wandering away. it will be randomized, but consistent in that it is always short. now the botany instructor from the local college comes wandering in. she talks to ed and they chitchat about the weather and they wander off when someone passes by. she talks to deb about the traffic getting there but loses interest when she starts going on and on about the basketball game. she then finds ted and ted mentions the trouble he's having with his spinach crop, and the instructor mentions she did her thesis on spinach crop yields, and it is on. the other 3 will continue bouncing around for the rest of the night, but ted is going to chat this lady up for a while. he may well wander off after a half hour or so, but during the time he is with her, he is not talking to the rest of the crowd. he is also much more likely to have a long conversation with her later in the evening as well....each time he talks to joe schmukatelli that lasts about a minute. but each time he talks to dr spinach, that conversation is going to last a while. this is dynamic equilibrium in a biochemical mix; things bounce around, but once you get a high enough affinity, things stick longer. not permanently, but longer. edit - oh, yeah...4 degrees. it's not always at 4 degrees. sometimes it's room temp, sometimes it's at 4 degrees, and sometimes it's at 37. it depends on your target and your antibody....you work out what temps work best. | 3 | []
| []
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|
what happened to my tangerine? | [picture](_url_0_) i left that bowl when i was away for a while, long enough that i'd probably toss them, but not long enough that i expected them to rot in any way. when i came back i found what's in the picture above. how can the mold attack just one tangerine, and cover it completely while leaving all the others in peace? | that tangerine was probably older and already tainted with mold when you bought them. all tangerines in your bag are not equal | 2 | []
| [
"http://i.imgur.com/14ugb.jpg"
]
| []
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|
why's it important for a person with cip (congenital insensitivity to pain) to keep themselves hydrated all the time? | [deleted] | congenital analgesia is characterized by a deleterious mutation in scn9a, which is the the blueprint for a specific sodium channel. this channel is expressed in neurons involved with nociception (pain) and olfaction (smell). if it is broken, these systems will fail. others, like light touch and proprioception, might work fine. your thirst mechanism relies in part from these pain neurons, no one likes a dry scratchy mouth. without it, severe dehydration can strike surprisingly quickly. many people rely on apps and daily alarms for this purpose. | 5 | []
| []
| []
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|
what is the k/t boundary and what does it have to do with the k/t extinction? | the k/t boundary is a thin layer of rock and clay rich with traces of ash, iridium and other unusual components between the cretaceous rock below and tertiary rock above. it was laid down at the time of the k/t extinction and gives evidence of a global disaster which has been determined to most likely have been the chicxulub meteor impact in the yucatan, which has the right timeframe, would have produced the right deposits, and is large enough to have caused such a disaster. hold on a moment, i'll look for a good visual example of the boundary layer. **edit:** [here's one from national geographic with a pocketknife for scale.](_url_0_) | 14 | []
| []
| [
"http://newswatch.nationalgeographic.com/files/2010/03/K-T-photo1.jpg"
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|
|
apparently piranha can detect blood from 2 miles away, how? | what is the mechanism they use to do this? and would it not take a lot of time for the pheromones to reach them? | they can't. neither can sharks. they can, however, detect very low concentrations. the blood still has to diffuse through the water and physically reach them, though. it's not like someone cuts themselves and instantly a fish 2 miles away can smell it. that's not how it works. | 16 | []
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|
what are viscous losses in turbulent fluid flow? | i understand that energy in fluid flow is lost due to its viscosity and friction with other bodies, but what causes this at a more detailed level? | to try to add on to /u/lattice_bowel_mvmnts (best cfd name ever) answer... (i'm guessing the op regarding "viscous losses" in turbulent flow is actually asking about this turbulent viscosity.) to try and add on to this, turbulent viscosity -- [i.e. the boussinesq hypothesis](_url_0_) -- is really directly analogous to molecular viscosity, the regular fluid-friction idea. as lbm said, molecular viscosity at a particle level is just a diffusion of momentum. similarly turbulent viscosity is just a diffusion of momentum at a larger (eddy-size) scale, so it should come as no surprise that it results in the same functional form. just as molecular viscosity is a result of random motion of particles interacting, turbulence is often taken to be an isotropic random process, so the end result is losses of momentum to heat. at a small-scale level, it might be helpful to think of turbulent losses as being the result of elastic collisions. in inelastic collisions, like perfectly hard spheres bouncing off each other, momentum is conserved and the spheres go off on their own. with truly elastic collisions, some of this momentum is lost to heat energy. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.cfd-online.com/Wiki/Boussinesq_eddy_viscosity_assumption",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_demon"
]
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what does it mean when someone "predicted a particle"? | a lot of discussion about the higgs boson states that the particle had been predicted by higgs et al. i've seen that phrase used for a few other particles. it makes sense to me that someone predicted neptune, for instance, based on perturbations in uranus' orbit. but it was not confirmed until we actually saw it. but how could one predict the existence of a particle? we've seen it's effects, right? but from what i understand, we haven't actually seen the higgs boson, only the things it broke down into? so how is that direct evidence? what am i missing here? | another famous example of a particle being predicted before it was discovered was the [omega baryon](_url_0_). just by combining quarks in various ways, you can predict hadrons which might exist in nature. for example you could form the [baryon decuplet](_url_1_) by combining various quantum numbers in such a way that there are ten possible states (particles). if only nine of them have been observed, you can predict that the tenth one exists and look for it experimentally. this is different than the higgs boson, which is an elementary particle in the standard model, but it's an example of how a particle can be predicted before it's discovered. using this line of thinking, you can argue that no discovery in particle or nuclear physics is *ever* "direct". you product a particle, maybe it enters your detector, or maybe its decay products enter the detector. how does the detector register that there's a particle there? the primary radiation entering the detector produced some ionization/excitation in the detector material, which either directly produces an electrical signal, or does so indirectly by producing light, and using a photomuliplier, etc. in general there are multiple physical steps between the original particle being produced and something being registered in your data acquisition software. some particles simply decay too quickly to be "directly" measured. the higgs boson has a lifetime on the order of 10^(-22) seconds. there is no hope of "directly" detecting such a particle; you can *only* detect it through its decay products. that doesn't take anything away from the discovery. if you've seen its decay products and you can reconstruct the properties of the parent particle (the higgs in this case), it's possible to unambiguously show that the parent particle has been produced, even though you didn't "directly" detect it. | 19 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_baryon",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Baryon_decuplet.png/220px-Baryon_decuplet.png"
]
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is there any connection, mathematically or linguistically, between angular degrees and temperature degrees? | i'm not sure if there is a better subreddit to ask on, as this may or may not have a historical math explanation. | the word "degree" means one of various similar things, according to merriam-webster: * a step or stage in a process, course, or order of classification * relative intensity * a unit of measure for angles equal to an angle with its vertex at the center of a circle and its sides cutting off ¹/₃₆₀ of the circumference * one of the divisions or intervals marked on a scale of a measuring instrument the etymology of the word "degree" in both senses that you mention is the linguistic connection. the only mathematical connection is that both are necessarily represented by numbers, which really isn't much of a connection at all. | 12 | []
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whats the difference between a "skin cell gun" and culturing sheet of new skin for burn victims? | i just watched this video, i also saw it a few years ago and assumed it would be common place one day. well i forgot about it and now i'm very interested in why its not in every burn ward and how it works. _url_0_ i was wondering what the difference was between the sheets of skin we currently grow and the guns spray-on method. does the gun simply take what the sheets are made up of on a basic level and simply spray them into place, letting our body naturally grow the "sheet" more quickly? i love the idea of this gun, but i want to love the concept and was hoping for a more clear answer then the video provides. | a few quick points since i don't have much time: * culturing stem cells* (generally) begins the differentiation process. when you plate/seed cells on polystyrene or a softer substrate, they are experiencing a microenvironment that sends signals through mechanotransduction mechanisms that influence the phenotype of daughter cells. that is to say, *in vitro* work reduces the [potency](_url_2_) of stem cells - i.e. their ability to differentiate down all of the lineages required for healing. * your skin is a highly diverse tissue, full of capillaries, glands, and [many types of cells](_url_1_). we are not currently capable of reproducing the structural complexity of skin *in vitro*, but there are some avascular skin products (e.g. [apligraf](_url_0_)) that we can currently use. note that *in vitro* produced sheet products don't normally replace the skin, but instead promote a microenvironment that enables your own cells to heal - i.e. products like apligraf don't actually incorporate with your tissue and are removed after a period of time. there are some methods for allografting and autografting skin, but they are severely limited in terms of size - i.e. there is only so much skin that you can transplant from yourself or a cadaver donor. * why does the cell gun do differently? it delivers your own cells in a manner that maintains stem cell potency (see bullet 1) because no culture work is required that might influence differentiation. it is not as limited in terms of coverage area as other grafting techniques that take a sheet of cells, mesh them (poke holes into and stretch them), and try to distribute them over a reasonable area. i'm not sure that the exact mechanism of healing with these cells is known, but i would suspect that there are two modes of action: 1. integration (these are your own cells) and regeneration through differentiation of the stem cells into the appropriate skin/vascular lineages and 2. cytokine recruitment of the appropriate cell types from surrounding tissue. i should also note that there is no reason why these techniques (grafts/meshes of cell sheets and cell spraying) could not be used concurrently - there are people attempting that right now. the reason you don't see this in every burn ward at this point is because it has not received approval in all jurisdictions yet and is undergoing clinical trials. last i checked months ago, fda has not approved it yet, but it is approved in some european markets. it might be closer to approval now. edit: *some of these spraying techniques don't use stem cells, but my point remains: culturing cells influences their phenotype and their proliferative/regenerative ability regardless of potency. | 4 | []
| [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/Futurology/comments/3svpce/skin_cell_gun_sprays_persons_own_stem_cells_on/"
]
| [
"http://www.apligraf.com/patient/what_is_apligraf/what_is_apligraf.html",
"http://www.pennmedicine.org/health_info/body_guide/reftext/html/skin_sys_fin.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_potency"
]
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what does the mexican hat have to do with higgs field? | i've seen the mexican hat explaination for the higgs field but all the explanations never delve into what it represents. i think the vertical axis represents the potential of a particle? does the horizontal plane represent the wave function of a particle at a point? does the mexican hat explain how mass arises or is that something else? | warning: lots of background, but hopefully this will help some people explain what's going on! the higgs field is a *scalar field*, meaning it takes on a single value at each point in space and time. another example of a scalar field (not a fundamental one, of course) would be the temperature - to every point on the earth you can assign a single number for the temperature at that point, and you can think of a "temperature field" consisting of all those values all over the world. this might seem pretty abstract - a field is some sort of thing that's everywhere and everywhen, just taking on different values? - but the value of the field relates to more everyday, physical things like the field's energy. other kinds of fields can exist (in fact, the higgs is actually the only fundamental scalar we know of). for example, the electromagnetic field is a *vector field* - it takes on a *vector* value, meaning it has both a size and a direction, like an arrow (albeit an arrow pointing through both space and time). fields are the basis of all the forces and matter we know, but they're a bit abstract, since we certainly don't think of particles or forces as having much to do with fields. the connection is that, when a field has a bit more energy in one spot than in the places surrounding it, that localized bit of extra energy can move around and, as it turns out, behaves exactly like what we call particles. so particles arise as energetic excitations in a field. certain fields (like the electromagnetic field) can give rise to both particles (in this example, the photon, or light particles) *and* forces (the electromagnetic force). so those are some of the basics of quantum field theory and how these abstract "fields" relate to things we're more familiar with. qft is the basis of nearly all modern physics (except for gravity)! let's go back to our scalar field. how does it pick which value to take? the answer is a common one in physics: it wants to minimize its energy. its energy comes from a pair of also-common sources: kinetic energy and potential energy. the scalar field's kinetic energy relates to how much its value is changing, so that's easy to minimize: just don't have it move. the potential energy is what the mexican hat represents. the mexican hat potential shows, on the x-axis, the value of the scalar field; and on the y-axis, its potential energy when it has that value. it tells you that there are two special values of the field which have the lowest potential, so the field will want to go to those values. (in fact, if you start it with another value, it will change values as if it were a ball rolling along a hill which looks like the mexican hat potential - that's why graphing the potential like this is so useful!) this is a crucial part of how the higgs gives mass to other particles. the full explanation is pretty technical, so i'll try to give an executive summary that doesn't stray too far from the math. the higgs field couples to other fields, fields corresponding to the particles and forces we know of, so things like the electron field and the gluon field and so on. "coupling" here means that the value of the higgs field shows up in the equations that govern how those other fields evolve - the higgs plays a direct role in how these fields move (and vice versa). we'll take all these fields coupling to the higgs to be massless. but - here's the important part - the higgs couples to other fields in such a way that, when the higgs has non-zero but constant value, the piece it adds to other fields' equations looks *just* like a mass for those fields. so when the higgs takes a non-zero value, other fields become massive. at very high energies, the higgs field oscillates all over its potential, not caring much about its mexican-hatness, and its value averages out to zero. then it doesn't actually affect any others fields' evolution, and those fields are all massless. as the temperature of the universe goes down, though, the higgs sloshes around less and less, and settles into one of the two minima of the mexican hat potential. its value is *not* zero (which is the center of the hat). and so, as i explained in the last paragraph, the fields to which it couples "acquire" masses. the higgs value plays the role of the mass. | 11 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking#/media/File:Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking_(explanatory_diagram\\).png"
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do predators draft their prey in order to tire them out and make them easier to kill? | any instances would be interesting, although i was mainly thinking of big cats in africa (cheetahs chasing gazelles, etc). obviously they chase them before leaping for the kill, and some of this time might be in the slipstream of the prey, but do they chase for longer than necessary in order to exhaust their quarry before the final, deadly struggle. | this is actually something that humans do! it's called [persistence hunting](_url_0_). people are exceptionally great distance runners (arguably the best in the animal kingdom) because we can sweat away heat very easily, and because we can carry things (like water) to help us. the video is a really great explanation of this method of hunting. | 3 | []
| []
| [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=826HMLoiE_o"
]
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|
why won't my uncle's invention work? | so my uncle is of the "crazy inventor" type. he has proposed a "lift disk," a hypothetical propulsion method. here's how it works: the lift disk is a cylinder evacuated of air. a sliding interface allows the top surface to rotate independently of the sides, powered by a motor. due to bernoulli's principle, air pressure is reduced on the upper surface, creating a pressure imbalance that propels the device upward. to operate in space, you simply fill the disk with air, and the same principles would apply. i know this shouldn't work, but i just can't explain to him *why.* thanks. | bernoulli's principle applies to airplane wings because they are free to move w.r.t the pressure. in your uncle's case, the cylinder is attached to the top of the surface, and so all you have is an evacuated cylinder with a spinning top. it's like putting a magnet on the front of a trolley, and using it to attract your trolley. it's not a propulsion method - it's just troll physics. _url_0_ | 4 | []
| []
| [
"http://memepics.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/troll-physics-magnet-car.png"
]
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|
what does the lhc's security model look like? | what does the authentication/authorization process look like to spin up a run at lhc? who has the rights to authorize firing the accelerator, either managerially or technically? | similarly to any large, advanced laboratory, time on the lhc is in high demand and is strictly scheduled. experiments are proposed to the lhc experiments committee who then make recommendations to the cern research board for final approval. allotments are then put on a schedule like [this](_url_0_) (pdf warning). as you can see, there's a lot of downtime for testing, upgrades, maintenance, etc., and the science is done in between. the process of getting everything operational takes many days and many people, there's not really a single link in the chain where someone decides when to turn it on or off. | 3 | []
| []
| [
"https://beams.web.cern.ch/sites/beams.web.cern.ch/files/schedules/LHC_Schedule_2018.pdf"
]
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|
what is a lagrangian? what is the action? why does the principle of least (stationary) action work? | i've gone through the procedure in class. i've gone through it again watching leonard susskind's online lectures. newton's equations pop out... or whatever correct equations we're looking for ... and i have no idea why. why should this procedure work? please help me- i feel like i'm a wizard invoking spellcraft. | the concept of a lagrangian and action is a fundamental concept in the theory of partial differential equations. (the general concept goes well beyond the realm of physics.) suppose we want to solve the problem: a differentiable curve can be described parametrically as x = x(t) and y = y(t), where *x* and *y* are some functions of time. the length from a to b is then some integral in terms of *x* and *y*. where the limits of integration can be taken to be the fixed values t = 0 and t = 1. (reparametrizing the curve does not change its length.) this is sort of like a calculus i problem now. in calculus i, you are given some function y = f(x), and you want to find the value of *x* that, say, gives the minimum value of f(x). our problem is not quite the same. the number *s* depends on some unknown *functions* *x* and *y*, and we want to find the pair of functions that gives the minimum value of *s*. in calculus i, you would start by taking the derivative of f(x), setting it equal to 0, and solving an equation. what do you do here? that's where calculus of variations comes in. this is a branch of mathematics that deals precisely with solving problems like this. the number *s* is called a *functional*, and we want to find its minimum value, if it exists. in our case, and in many cases, we are also interested in the functions which actually achieve that minimum value. in general, we may not be finding a minimum length, but maybe a minimum surface area, or maybe a maximum volume, or something else. in general, our number *s* will look like the function *l* that is being integrated is called the *lagrangian* associated to *s*. in many applications, especially in physics, *s* is called the action associated to *l*. at this point you can look in any standard text to see what happens next. the gold standard in calculus of variations is the text by gelfand & fomin (i strongly recommend this text, and it's also very cheap). the punchline here is twofold. 1. the minimum value of *s* is guaranteed to exist under certain conditions on *l*. (most of the standard theorems require some sort of convexity condition on *l*.) 2. under the same conditions, the minimum value of *s* (and which functions achieve that minimum) can be found by solving the associated *euler-lagrange equations*, which is a set of coupled, non-linear partial differential equations. (the el-equations are found by using *l*.) why is this useful? for one, the *variational principle* itself is usually more fundamental. that is, a descriptive statement like "the solution minimizes the length between these two fixed points" is more fundamental than "the solution satisfies this differential equation". in physics, the variational principle can be something like "light rays minimize total travel time" or "the equilibrium configuration minimizes total energy" or something similar. these are much more general principles that can be used to find the solution rather than having to come up with the differential equations directly. second, the variational principle may be used directly to find the solution numerically. integrals generally behave much more nicely than differential equations when doing numerics. it may also be the case that the el-equations do not allow one to calculate the minimum value of *s*. (remember that *s* and *l* must satisfy some conditions for us to say that the el-equations and the variational principle are essentially equivalent.) third, calculating the lagrangian for physical systems of interest turns out to be a lot easier than calculating the proper form of various forces. in classical mechanics, for instance, it's a lot easier to simply set up some coordinate system, write down the kinetic energy and potential energy, and then write down l = t - u... rather than trying to figure out the proper form of the forces in your coordinate system. the nice thing about lagrangians in classical mechanics is that you can really choose whatever coordinates you want, calculate l, and then just out pops the el-equations. you're not limited to, say, cartesian coordinates, which, while easier for finding forces directly, may not actually be a very useful coordinate system for your problem. fourth, noether's theorem is a very important theorem in mathematics that describes how certain invariances (or symmetries) of the lagrangian lead to the existence of conserved quantities, and vice versa. mathematically, this is really, really good because it means we can exploit the conservation law to make solving the el-equations much easier, for instance, by reducing the order of the equations or eliminating one of the independent variables. physically, this is also really, really good because we can easily derive conservation laws that may not have been apparent, and we also have a more fundamental reason for such conservation laws in the first place. finally, although i haven't talked about this, the lagrangian method is well-suited for incorporating constraints into your problem (e.g., a particle is constrained to some smooth surface). --- okay, so how does this fit into classical mechanics? newton's laws came first, which is a system of second-order differential equations. it's important to understand that ***not every differential equation or system of differential equations*** are the euler-lagrange equations associated to some lagrangian *l* and action *s*. so there's no reason *a priori* to believe that newton's laws are the el-equations of some lagrangian, which, under suitable conditions, would mean newton's laws are derivable from a fundamental variational principle. well, it just so happens that newton's laws *are* ultimately derivable from a lagrangian (again under suitable conditions). one instance in which newton's laws are equivalent to the el-equations of some lagrangian is the case in which all forces can be derived from a potential. it just takes some trial and error then to find *what* lagrangian is actually appropriate. it turns out that if we let then we can derive newton's laws from the principle that the action *s* associated to *l* should be a minimum value. (in reality, *s* need only have a stationary value.) what does *s* represent physically? nothing really too meaningful. if we knew **x**(t) (from t = 0 to t = 1), the true path of the particle, then *s* would be the integral of t - u along the path of the particle from t = 0 to t = 1. the point here is that the action *s* in general problems need not have any useful meaning. it's just the integral of some lagrangian *l* which leads to some set of equations, the solution to which is the desired minimizing function or path. (of course, in the very first example i wrote above, *s* was arc length, and so, in that case, *s* *did* have a meaningful interpretation. but in classical mechanics, *s* doesn't really *mean* anything physical.) (although the action *s* may not generally have a meaningful interpretation, there is an alternative formulation of the el-equations which gives an equation that gives the value of *s* directly but not the function that achieves the minimum value of *s*. this equation is called the *hamilton-jacobi equation*, and is also a very widely studied equation, particularly in the context of conservation laws and symplectic geometry. the standard method of solving the hj-equation is by the method of characteristics. the characteristic equations are precisely the *hamiltonian equations* also learned in a typical mechanics course.) again, there didn't *have* to be a lagrangian associated to newton's laws. indeed, in many systems, there actually *is* no lagrangian. (these systems necessarily have dissipative forces. but not all such systems cannot be derived from a lagrangian. a harmonic oscillator with a damping force proportional to *v* actually *is* derivable from a lagrangian.) when you move on to more advanced physics, like classical electromagnetism or special relativity, it's immediately unclear whether the relevant equations of motion can be derived from a lagrangian. for instance, in classical electromagnetism, the lorentz force law is not derivable from a potential. so there's some reason to suspect whether you can even come up with a lagrangian that works. (spoiler alert: there *is* a lagrangian that works, which means the associated el-equations are just newton's second law with the lorentz force law. maxwell's equations are taken as supplementary.) the same thing happens in special relativity. newton's second law is no longer of the same form, so why should there be a lagrangian? well, there *is*. however, neither the lagrangian in classical electrogmagnetism nor the lagrangian in special relativity is equal to t - u, as it is in classical mechanics. (it takes some initial trial and error to determine what the proper lagrangians are.) | 65 | []
| []
| []
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|
the 3 body problem | why is it so hard? what have physicists uncovered? has it been solved? | it's kind of similar to saying mathematicians haven't "solved" the value of pi. they have formulas which can be used to calculate the value of pi, but no one can give you an exact value or closed form solution which is the exact value pi. we instead use numerical methods to get arbitrarily close, and that works out just fine for all our needs. in the same sense, physicists can determine how a system of any number of bodies will evolve over time (more or less). the problem is the "solutions" come out being nasty integrals and values which don't have closed form solutions. that means the only way we can solve these problems is by using numerical approximation techniques. just like with pi, we can get arbitrarily close to the real value, but never *exactly* there. the complication arises when scientists model the evolution of a system with time. here, small errors build up because the solutions are not exact. so even though in one calculation we can get arbitrarily close, you have to build these calculations off of each other again and again, making your small errors escalate into large errors which require enormous amounts of computation to keep small. | 7 | []
| []
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|
why does the three-body problem unsolvable? | is it mathmatically proven that it cannot be solved? or we just havn't found a good way to apporach the problem? | it actually *can* be solved (for nonzero net angular momentum, at least), in the sense that we have an analytic expression for the solution in the form of a power-series. unfortunately, the power-series converges so slowly (meaning that you need a ridiculously large number of terms to get a remotely accurate approximation) that it's largely useless from a practical perspective. | 5 | []
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|
why is mitochondria only passed down through the mother? | there are aliens living inside of you. scientists believe that a bacteria got inside the cell body of the ancestor to all eukaryotic life forms, and continued to live in harmony with that cell. they would live together, divide together, and the bacteria would pay rent in the form of atp that it would give to the cell. millions of years down the road, that eukaryotic cell became a multicellular organism and requires sex to reproduce. so let's consider what happens during conception. the sperm contributes its dna, and the egg contributes: its dna, all of the proteins necessary for cell maintenance and division, and also the first mitochondria. the egg is really the first cell in what will eventually become the new organism, and since the female donates that cell, it is the female whose mitochondria are passed down to the next generation. | 18 | []
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|
what are the top 5 smartest animals [excluding humans] | i'm not sure if you trust the discovery channel or not but here, i saw this a while ago. _url_0_ 1. chimpanzee 2. dolphin 3. orangutan 4. elephant 5. crow edit: for some reason it reversed the order of my numbers... | 4 | []
| []
| [
"http://animal.discovery.com/tv/a-list/creature-countdowns/smartest/smartest.html"
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do we calculate time or measure it? | do watches actually measure time or does it calculate it by counting it, because i've been thinking and until now i haven't found a scalar physical quantity that can be measured by itself, we usually calculate it from a vector physical quantity, like how we usually calculate mass from weight, but we can't measure mass by itself. | a couple of points. neither weight nor mass is a vector quantity so i think there's some confusion there. however, i think there's a bit of a semantic argument here (a reasonable one), so let me try to be precise with my terminology. the question really boils down to what are the truly measurable quantities. in any experiment i can measure some observable. so for example, if i wanted to know the mass of a binary star system, i would measure light (my observable) from both stars and then use that to calculate the masses. but then do i actually measure light or do i calculate it? if photons are hitting my camera, i'm really measuring voltages and calculating the amount of light hitting it. so you can see how this process can quickly lead down a rabbit hole. another example of a scalar quantity that is arguably measured is temperature. however, you could say that we measure the length of some amount of mercury in a thermometer and then use that to calculate the temperature. again, this leads down a messy chain of reasoning. however, you might reason that this process does end. in the weight/mass example, i would argue we measure weight (a scalar quantity) but then you could argue that we measure some length change in a spring and use that to calculate the weight. same thing for the temperature example. length is pretty fundamental (also scalar) and i think most would agree that you can easily measure it by taking a ruler and performing the measurement (which is separate from any calculations). so then when you get to time measured by a watch, i think the same thing as the weights example. we have some device that in some sense converts time "measurements" into length/angle measurements. i tried to think of other examples but i think it boils down to the same thing as above if you really start peeling away at the steps of scientific reasoning. edit: see note below on the correction: weight is a vector quantity but i believe the rest of my arguments still hold. | 8 | []
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|
can a polygraph distinguish between lies and normal nerves? | first off, i apologize if this is the wrong flair, not really sure what filter it should be asked in. but i always thought if i was accused of murder and was asked to do a polygraph, just being accused and asked if i murdered someone would cause my pulse and nerves to go crazy. can a person reading a polygraph test tell the difference between a lie and nervousness due to the pressure of the situation? | possibly. have a quick skim of the wikipedia article on [lie detection](_url_0_). it'll be an important frame for this discussion because a big issue with all lie detection methods, polygraph and otherwise, is that they are not reliable. they will fail. sometimes when someone is telling the truth (and the poly says they're lying), and other times when they're lying (and the poly says they're telling the truth). the [polygraph](_url_1_) is an old, and relatively cheap system. it measures a number of peripheral physiological markers, usually pulse, blood pressure, respiration and skin conductance. these measures are used because they are not fully under direct cognitive control (though you can do things to alter these, for example holding your breath will change skin conductance). can someone use these measures to tell if you're telling a lie versus if you're just nervous? they can, if they are able to reliable determine if you are lying. the difference between lying and being nervous is that being nervous is a state. it will be reflected in the peripheral indices throughout the testing session. the way that a poly is typically done is to ask a series of simple questions. what happens to the peripheral markers in *response* to these questions (event-related responses) is what the examiner will be evaluating. if you are nervous, this will be visible prior to the question being asked, but whether or not you're telling the truth/lying should still be visible in those peripheral markers above and beyond your baseline state. that is, if the test is doing it's job. at the end of the day, the poly is not a great tool. it's prone to failure, it requires the person to be compliant, and it can be fooled, and quite easily. also, galvanic skin response (measured via skin conductance), one of the canonical measures, can be completely absent in some people. | 4 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_detection",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraph"
]
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|
what would a cross section of a gust of wind look like? | does the gust stretch from ground to sky? | **tl;dr: wind gusts are usually very shallow, only within a kilometer (0.6 miles) or so of the ground ([simulation video](_url_0_)), and are due to turbulence.** sudden wind gusts are caused by a few different phenomenon, but the most common is just plain old turbulence. through most of the depth of the atmosphere, wind speeds are relatively constant over short periods of time. wind speed and direction above the ground changes all the time, but over the course of hours, unlike the "gusts" we experience which only last a few seconds. friction in the [planetary boundary layer](_url_2_) (the layer of air closest to the ground) means that the wind above earth's surface is almost always going to be stronger than the wind near the surface, where people spend the majority of their time. this means that there is a region of high wind speed flowing over a region of relatively low wind speed near the ground. the boundary between these two regions is inherently unstable, which results in turbulence. this turbulence has the consequence of sending some areas of high-velocity wind down towards the ground [here is a simulation that probably gives the best visualization of this phenomenon](_url_0_). in that video, high winds are marked in red, and calm winds in green. you can see that as time goes on, areas of high winds are brought down to the surface due to the turbulent motions of the boundary layer, causing what we know as a "gust" of wind. so to answer your initial question, a cross-section of a gust would look like one of those green areas in the video; it does not extend throughout the atmosphere. the depth of the boundary layer is usually [around 1 km (0.6 mi or 3300 feet)](_url_1_), so this is about how "tall" a gust would be. | 14 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G7aOwKigyTk",
"http://www.met.rdg.ac.uk/~swrhgnrj/teaching/MT36E/MT36E_BL_lecture_notes.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_boundary_layer"
]
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|
when lifting (bench press for example), does the placement of weights on the bar matter? | a while ago, i tried telling my friend that it doesn't matter what order you put the weights on the bar, as long as you put them in the same order on each side so that the torque produced on each side cancels out. we have yet to come to an agreement, and he is making me doubt my own reasoning. help! | you should be correct as long as the bar remains absolutely horizontal as you lift it. if it varies from horizontal, the side with the longer effective torque arm (the side with more weight towards the outside), will require more effort to correct, because it has a greater polar moment of inertia, as well as the longer torgue arm. this inertia is why tightrope walkers use a very long balance pole - the longer the pole, the greater its' inertia, and the better they can pit their own muscular force against the pole to steady themselves without the pole moving much. | 3 | []
| []
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|
explain glycogen depletion/genesis to me | hello scientists. i know a bit about physiology and biochemistry, but i need some clarification about glycogen. normally the body stores glycogen in the muscles and the liver. however i eat a high fat low carb diet, during the early stage of this diet the body rapidly burns through glycogen before entering ketosis. what i am not clear on is if the body attempts to replenish these stores by making glycogen from fat or protein (gluconeogensis), or is it gone until you reintroduce glucose in the diet? i do heavy weight lifting, about an hour 4 times a week. i understand that glycogen is the normal fuel for muscles during lifting. if my glycogen is depleted from carb restriction, what exactly are my muscles running on during the session? have i become ketone/fat adapted or does my body remake some glycogen each night that i use during the weightlifting? | to replenish glycogen stores you just need glucose. it makes no difference whether it's obtained in diet or via gluconeogenesis. clearly, the rate at which glycogen synthesis can occur in the absence of carb intake won't be super high. on the other hand, weight training doesn't consume huge amounts of glycogen in the same way that endurance training would. trying to lift in the depleted state will definitely affect performance, so you should notice if this happens. but you do know that tkd and [ckd](_url_0_) address this very issue, right? here's a semi-relevant paper: [gluconeogenesis and energy expenditure after a high-protein, carbohydrate-free diet](_url_1_) the subjects underwent glycogen-lowering exercise and then consumed either a low-carb or a balanced diet. endogenous glucose production in the low-carb group was 181 g/d, of which gluconeogenesis accounted for 171 g/d. the tiny difference between these figures is due to the fact that they were depleted. anyway, we don't know what the fate of that 171 grams is. the brain wants around 100 g, which leaves about 70 g for other purposes. this should give you an idea about the extent of gluconeogenesis, but it's not directly applicable to ketogenic dieting. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_ketogenic_diet",
"http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/90/3/519.full"
]
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|
which one is closer to the fossil records, the traditional view of evolution that it happened it gradual transitions, or the newer theory which is the punctuated equilibrium? | both are consistent with the fossil record. punctuated equilibrium is a form of gradualism. the punctuated equilibrium theory still allows for the incremental changes of gradualism during the "stasis" period of a species but states that genetic drift in large populations keeps the species relatively homogeneous. however, gould et al theorized that when a population is separated into two groups unable to interbreed they rapidly formed distinct species. both of these theories are in contrast to darwin's classical theory of phyletic evolution, which states that changes occur at a constant and steady rate, gradually accumulating until one species turns into another. | 3 | []
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|
|
can a cell's proteasomes be turned against the cell? | since a cell's proteasomes identify and destroy what proteins need to be destroyed, could this be hijacked somehow to destroy the cell from the inside? | maybe, but it may not be the best way to do it. a distinct feature of the proteasome is that it has high specificity, meaning that only proteins that are tagged with ubiquitin are recognized and degraded by the proteasome. this specificity requires atp. so, for destroying the cell, it may not be the most effective system. for large-scale destruction of cellular components, autophagy is a better way to go. it takes up bulk cytoplasmic components (including proteins) and degrades them in lysosomes. in addition, less specific proteases such as calpains might be more effective. this is akin to using nuclear weapons and cluster bombs (calpains/caspases) vs. laser-guided missiles (proteasomes). i'm 5 months late, but i think i can provide some guidance. | 3 | []
| []
| []
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|
is there a scale for rating how powerful of a diuretic a given substance is? | like the title says, is there any scale devised to measure the diuretic ability of a certain substance? i ask because i've noticed that after drinking equal volumes of coffee and beer i'll have to pee more often after drinking the coffee. also, what sort of chemicals are diuretics? is there a certain functionality a molecule must have to fit into this category? what is the most powerful diuretic known? | i can't specifically answer the question but can i offer - _url_1_, as an interesting adjunct on diuresis, in the interim. i think that the answer to "is there a diuretic scale" will be that there isn't one because of the varied methods and actions used in diuresis. wikipedia looks to be pretty good on [diuretics](_url_0_). | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diuretics",
"http://www.cvtoolbox.com/downloads/chf/Adjust_Diuretic_Dose.pdf"
]
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|
do sight-impairing scars and blood vessles in the cornea disapper again (naturally)? | excessive use of contact lenses can lead to scars and additional blood vessles in the cornea that damage eye-sight. can the human body heal those away, or will they stay forever once someone has them? | the cornea is able to heal slight damage without scarring. more serious injury results in scarring. in order to understand scarring, it is important to understand a protein called *collagen*. collagen is the primary protein that forms the connective tissue in your body, things like tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. when your body is forming and creating all those tissues, collagen fibers within a particular tissue all tend to be oriented in the same direction, which is partially what allows things like tendons and ligaments and cartilage to have elastic properties (it can stretch and return to it's normal shape without difficulty. there are other proteins which enhance this, such as *titin*, but that isn't important here). most tissue contains collagen, as collagen is what gives that tissue the ability to hold it's shape. when a tissue is damaged beyond the ability of the local cells to replicate and repair the damage, your body responds by filling in the gap with collagen. however, in contrast to when a tissue is forming during development, this repair collagen is *not* all oriented in one direction. instead, it's laid down in a mish mash of pretty much every direction. this results in a significant loss of elasticity, and the resulting tissue is called a *scar*. when the scar is created, the normal cells of the tissue are replaced with *fibroblasts*, cells that specialize in producing *collagen*. so, if you have a scar on your arm, the epithelial cells that are the progenitors of the cells which form skin (keratinized epithelial cells) are replaced with the fibroblasts. this means that that portion of your skin is no longer capable of producing keratinized epithelial cells, only more fibroblasts and thus more collagen. the same occurs in your eye. once the cells that create and maintain the cornea, the *corneal epithelium*, are damaged beyond repair and replaced with *fibroblasts*, and the fibroblasts will pretty much only make collagen. so can your body eventually replace the *fibroblasts* with new *corneal epithelial* cells? bottom line: no. your cells are essentially programmed to replicate at a rate only sufficient to replace cells as they die off naturally. when cells being to multiply at rates faster than what is necessary to replace dieing cells, you wind up with a *tumor*. so, the only way for the *corneal epithelial* cells to replace the *fibroblasts* in a scar is for the *corneal epithelial* cells to otherwise form a tumor. | 2 | []
| []
| []
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|
is it possible to run for an unlimited amount of time/distance and not build up lactic acid? (assuming you have an unlimited amount of energy) | hi there, i'm currently taking exercise science in high school and today my teacher and i got into an argument in which he stated that a trained athlete could run for an unlimited distance and not build up lactic acid if they were to run below their anaerobic threshold and have an unlimited energy supply. i argued that over time, everyone will hit their anaerobic threshold regardless of physical endurance due to general fatigue of the cardiovascular system. so i guess my question is exactly the title, assuming you had an unlimited source of glucose, could an athlete run forever at a slower pace and never reach their anaerobic threshold/produce lactic acid? and if so, is reaching your anaerobic threshold and producing lactic acid the same thing? or alternatively is it possible for a triathlete to run a triathlon at a level below their anaerobic threshold and never produce lactic acid? | for starters, let's assume a normal person were to start running. this person has a finite amount of available glucose. initially, the skeletal muscles of the body utilize phosphocreatine to anaerobically donate a phosphor group to an adp molecule, thus forming an atp molecule (the body's chemical energy transporter) and creatine. this phosphocreatine supply is however, limited, and is depleted quickly when the body engages in strenuous physical activity. in the absence of phosphocreatine, the skeletal muscles obtain their energy from the aerobic oxidation of glucose. this process produces up to 32 atp per molecule of glucose, but it is relatively slow and requires a constant oxygen supply (oxygen serving as the terminal electron acceptor during oxidative phosphorylation, which produces the bulk of the atp supply in the human body). in anaerobic conditions, or when the body has an insufficient supply of oxygen available, the body will resort to the anaerobic oxidation of pyrovate (a glucose-derived molecule) to form both atp and lactic acid. this fermentation process is inefficient in terms of net energy output and requires a far greater supply of glucose to produce the same amount of energy as the aerobic oxidation of a single glucose molecule, but it can occur far more rapidly than aerobic oxidation. however, note that the prerequisite for anaerobic oxidation is an insufficient supply of oxygen. both aerobic and anaerobic oxidation of glucose occurs simultaneously in the human body, the anaerobic component simply becoming more prevalent as oxygen levels start to fall below the body's requirements - and inversely becoming less prevalent as the oxygen supply increases. as a result, the body will always produce lactic acid during exercise, the only variable being the speed at which it builds up in concentration. another reason for this duality is because metabolic pathways can only handle a finite number of simultaneous reactions (in this case aerobic oxidation of glucose by means of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorilation) at a given point in time. even with an abundant supply of glucose (and oxygen to enable aerobic oxidation), the body can only break so much of it down aerobically per second to yield energy. so to conclude the first half of your question: no, your body will always produce lactic acid during exercise. now, regarding the running forever part of the question. if the athlete maintains a level of activity below his body's threshold to produce atp (which the athlete can improve with long term endurance-exercise routines) and if the body is supplied with sufficient oxygen, then the body will be able to maintain that level of activity for prolonged periods of time. however, when taking into consideration that the muscles themselves do become damaged (on a microscopic level) during exercise, and that the muscles rely on motor neurons to stimulate contraction (and that the acetylcholine receptors on these motor neurons become desensitized during prolonged periods of stimulation), the body does not have the means to run indefinitely. i hope this answers your questions. please message me if there is anything i didn't cover. **tl;dr: no, on both counts.** | 2 | []
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|
is there any evidence that matter is an interferance patteren? | i am making the assumption that for this to work the universe is a plane wave the same way sunlight that reaches the earth is considered a plane wave and e=mc^2 | i have a feeling you may have some misconceptions about many things, as you're tying in a number of scientific terms in haphazard manner. the meaning of your statement is not apparent to me. to answer your titular question, [yes, the existence of matter waves has been experimentally verified](_url_0_). | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter_wave#Experimental_confirmation"
]
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|
why is the shear strength of clay anisotropic? [cross-post from r/askreddit] | i've been spent hours searching for the answer, but maybe i'm searching wrong, or maybe it's not too easy to find, but i'm trying to find out why clays have anisotropic shear strength, so if you could either explain or provide a link to point me in the right direction, that would be great. | as you might have guessed, the anisotropy is a result of the structure of clay at a molecular level. clays show [two-dimensional order](_url_0_)--basically, they're made up of sheets of either sio_4 or alo_4. if you're exerting a force parallel to the plane between the sheets, it doesn't take very much energy (at a nanoscale) to make the sheets slide against once another. if you're trying to break individual sheets (by shearing perpendicular to them), that's much less energetically favorable. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_minerals#Structure"
]
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|
is the effectiveness of fast-mimicking diets (or intermittent water fasting) well established for the prevention of some chronic diseases? | and is there strong evidence to suggest the body selectively targets unfit cells for removal on these diets? a few papers i found: * [a periodic diet that mimics fasting promotes multi-system regeneration, enhanced cognitive performance, and healthspan](_url_1_) * [a diet mimicking fasting promotes regeneration and reduces autoimmunity and multiple sclerosis symptoms](_url_0_) * [autophagy and aging: the importance of maintaining "clean" cells](_url_3_) and some documentaries: * [catalyst: live long die young](_url_4_) * [eat, fast and live longer with michael mosley](_url_2_) | i don't know the specific answer to you question, but i suspect not. if you start looking at questions about diet you'll see many studies with different levels of evidence suggesting some effect. however, you just can't trust them because the body's response to diet is incredibly complex. the most famous example of this complexity is the caret trial. there was lots of epidemiologic studies (correlation between high dietary levels of beta carotene and low levels of cancer) and laboratory studies (feed some mice beta carotene compare to control mice and see reduced incidence of cancer). so, they set up a human randomized trial to determine the effects of beta carotene (and vitamin a) on humans. the findings were so statistically significant, they had to stop the trial early. but, they found that group eating beta carotene had more cancer than the control! see _url_0_ particularly figure 1. the conclusion is don't trust dietary studies that haven't been subjected to randomized trials. | 4 | []
| [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211124716305769",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1550413115002247",
"http://www.kpbs.org/news/2013/apr/02/eat-fast-and-live-longer-michael-mosley/",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.4161/auto.1.3.2017",
"http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/4485468.htm"
]
| [
"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199605023341802#t=article"
]
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|
i was advised to include some squats in every weightlifting workout because, as the largest muscle group, it will cause the most testosterone release and will help my increases elsewhere... is there anything scientific to this? | i've heard muscles release horomones when stressed, which is how the body knows to repair them... but i know the testicles are the only location to produce testosterone... but maybe the horomones released by the muscles causes increased testosterone production in the testes? i find this stuff fascinating and as an engineer never really got a chance to study it in depth. i would love more than a yes or no. | you have numerous errors in your assumptions and in the advice you've received. please [see this article](_url_1_) which is one of many on the area of muscle hypertrophy (growth and enlargement). 1. there is [little to no evidence](_url_0_) supporting an evidence-based mechanism for muscled hypertrophy and protein synthesis. " increases in muscle protein synthesis after exercise occur independently of the systemic milieu, for example, growth hormone/testosterone concentrations." 2. there is no evidence that testosterone has anything but a local effect after exercising large muscle masses. in other words, there is an insufficient concentration of testosterone in the blood to have any effect, if there were an effect. you're being fed a bunch of bull, and not the good bull. in other words, building muscle mass takes work. if you really are energetic, search "testosterone muscle hypertrophy" in _url_2_ you can then laugh at those individuals with no science or medical background who think they are giving you solid advice. they are giving you non-evidence backed nonsense. | 14 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22037010",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20959702",
"pubmed.gov"
]
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|
is it possible to send energy created by a generator through electromegnetic waves? | i suppose the question extends to, "does all energy created by a generator need to be transferred through wires?" isn't there a wireless method like we can do for wi-fi? | if you mean a standard alternator-based generator, then no, because generators operate in what is known as the quasi-static regime of electromagnetism. this means that the magnet in the generator is rotating rapidly enough to induce a local electric field, but not fast enough to radiate electromagnetic waves to distant points. this is generally a good thing, since the energy can be confined and directed without spreading out and weakening. this by the way is why wireless energy transfer does not exist on the large scale even though wireless *information* transfer is commonplace. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectenna",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave#Heating_and_power_application",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_power"
]
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|
why do surface of objects repel each other? is it because of electric force pushing repelling each other or 'pauli-exclusion principle' at play? | i have been getting two very different answer from various well known scientists of why two objects can't go through each other even though everything is mostly empty space. for the longest time, i've been told it's because of electric force where electrons push to repel other surface. however, now i am reading it's because of pauli-exclusion principle where no two of the same particle can occupy the same space at the same time, therefore, objects don't go through each other as to not violate this quantum mechanics law. so which one is the right answer? | _both_ actually. for real matter you can't separate the two things, as the fact that electrons obey the pauli principle affects how they act and where they are, which in turn affects how much they repel each other through the electrical coulomb force. most of the actual repulsion here is entirely electrostatic. but what trickyben2 is referring to, is the fact that the pauli principle forces electrons to occupy higher orbitals (basically, spread out more), which in turn gives repulsion at greater distances than you would have otherwise (and is also necessary for the formation of chemical bonds etc). if you were to ignore that though, and assume that electrons for some reason would be occupying the same states as they would without the pauli principle, then they'd still repel in largely the same way. but if you ignored the coulomb potential, then you wouldn't have atoms in the first place, much less repulsion between them. (oh, and atoms are not 'mostly empty space'. the electrons are spread out) | 5 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarfs",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_matter"
]
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|
alternates to xenon for electric propulsion? | hello, i have been researching some stuff on electric propulsion. i understand why xenon is the most preferred choice. but technically any element/chemical could be used instead, am i right? do we have systems that run on other propellents? other than the noble gases. (any compounds?) any help is much appreciated. thank you. ps: i did not really find anything with google. | you are right that we could use a lot of different elements. and people have been trying with most of the reasonable (and sometime less reasonable) one. [here is a cool image of a hall thruster](_url_3_) firing with xenon (top left), bismuth (top right), magnesium (bottom left) and zinc (top right). but to understand why you would want to change i think it's good to summarize what advantages and issues xenon has. on the plus side, xenon is **heavy**. this may seem a bit counter-intuitive to people who are used to more classical propulsion systems but in electric/plasma propulsion we usually want to limit the isp and raise the thrust. a heavy ion with a low charge to mass ratio is ejected slower but give you more thrust for your input energy. the second thing is that xenon is a noble gas, that means you do **not have to worry about chemical reactions**, material compatibility, metal or ceramics oxydation. the only thing you can do to it is remove some electrons. that simplifies the modeling and makes sure that the energy spend is either ionizing the gas or accelerating it. you don't wast it breaking molecules. on the disadvantage side xenon is expensive. several thousands of dollars a kg. it also doesn't store as nicely as other stuff. for example at reasonable temperature you need to get it to about 100 bars to liquefy it. this means heavy and expensive tanks. lastly, while it is **easier to ionize than the other noble gas**, it is not as easy as some of the metals or the heavier elements. so if you take your periodic table one of the more natural idea is to switch to next heavy noble gas, radon. it's heavier and easier to ionize. however, slight problem, it is very radioactive and its most stable isotope has a half life of 3 days. so it's a nightmare to use and impossible to store. too bad, that would have a made a very high performance thruster. next you can look at some of the heavy metal. a fairly obvious one is mercury, it's liquide at ambiant pressure and temperature (easy to store), cheap, abundant and easy to ionize. under vacuum it vaporizes quite easily. in fact some of the earlier thrusters were mercury fed (see the [sert-1 mission](_url_0_)). the issue of mercury is that it [amalgames with aluminium and other metals and turn them to paste](_url_1_). that's not good with satellites usually made out of a lot of aluminium. it is also slightly toxic to humans which complicates the testing on the ground. similarly cesium has been used on early thrusters. being an alkali metal it has a very low ionization energy. you need to keep it hot to get it to vaporize but it's not too bad. however like mercury is attacks other metals and is toxic. it is also very dangerous as it can violently react if it comes in contact with moisture. in the same veine bismuth has been tried to but the high vaporization temperature makes it less than practical. metals also always have the risk of re-depositing on the spacecraft and coating the solar panels or optical instruments. since heavy metals are not that practical we can also look at lighter stuff. sure it doesn't help the thrust but it might be an acceptable trade off. the next lighter noble gas is krypton. it's about 3x less expensive than xenon iirc and it makes a nice deep purple/blue plume. however it is harder to ionize and not easier to store so people usually feel like the performance hit is not worth the cost saving on the propellant. it is also harder to pump during ground testing so you need to have top of the line test chambers to use it. one use that have been proposed is to test some of the bigger thrusters like the [x3 hall thruster](_url_2_) and save a bit of money when you are not doing performance measurements. one of the more serious contender is actually iodine. it nearly has the same molar mass and ionization energy as xenon so the thrusters are already pretty much optimized for it. it is relatively inexpensive and more importantly you can store it as a solid around 1 bar. it also sublimates really easily under vacuum with only the help of a tiny bit of heat. this means that you could store it in much lighter tanks and have them be pretty much any shape you want. it doesn't have that much of a risk of coating the spacecraft since it sublimates very easily. however people are a bit reticent because it can be slightly reactive with some metals and is a bit toxic. that means that if you want to try it you have to dedicate a test chamber to it. it also poses some still unclear issues on the cathode side of the thruster. but imho this is the strongest alternative right now. busek is suppose to test an iodine fed thruster in space soon and a lot of new space startup are betting on iodine. **tl;dr**: heavier elements are not practical to work with and/or are toxic to humans and the spacecraft. lighter elements have pretty bad performances. the only serious alternative is iodine. | 10 | []
| []
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"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SERT-1",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7Ilxsu-JlY",
"https://c-6rtwjumjzx7877x24nrlx2euzwhmx2ehtr.g00.space.com/g00/3_c-6bbb.x78ufhj.htr_/c-6RTWJUMJZX77x24myyux78x3ax2fx2fnrl.uzwhm.htrx2fmx2f6955x2ffMW5hItaQ8i8id0ehLKoEX0og75afB6mE7AeQ7paRIFbQeF8RH38TYFag8OuE7qzDBbaW6OIQYNbRYhyVd5bSYl6Rn0vhLhx3dx3fn65h.rfwpx3dnrflj_$/$/$/$",
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what is the fastest way to rehydrate without an iv? | direct answer to your question: the next most easily accessible membrane in your body that is best at absorbing water is your large intestine. tldr: enema. | 2 | []
| []
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why does cardiac muscle contraction take more time than striated muscle contraction? | is it because t-tubule in cardiac muscle doesn't as well developed as the tubule in striated muscle? thanks in advance. | i'm not 100% sure if i am answering the right question. this could be one of two things--if you are asking about why skeletal muscles can contract right away and cardiac muscles can't, it has to do with tetany. if you can contract without any wait time, then you can keep contracting so quickly that the muscle never has time to relax. in skeletal muscle this can be ok if you want to sustain a contraction. on the other hand, in cardiac muscle this would be deadly because the heart needs to relax in oder to fill with blood (diastole). in order to achieve this, the refractory period (how long it takes before the ion pumps can repolarize the membrane) of cardiac muscle is longer. skeletal and cardiac muscles have different ion pumps which explains the difference in how specific ions behave in the contraction cycle. this means that there is more time before the cardiac muscle can contract compared to a striated muscle contraction. if on the other hand you are talking about the actual speed of contraction (one cycle) of cardiac versus skeletal muscle the answer gets a bit more complicated. the speed of contraction itself is called twitch, and even among skeletal muscle you have variance (anywhere from 10-100 ms). cardiac muscle is around 300 ms, meaning the actual muscle contraction takes 300ms (vs 100ms at most for skeletal muscle). to understand twitch more, you can take a look at fast and slow twitch muscles. type i slow twitch skeletal muscles are usually bright red, filled with myoglobin, have tons of mitochondria, and work by utilizing o2 to aerobically make energy (atp) for contraction. these fibers make and split atp at a slow rate. they take longer to contract and generate less force, but can contract for sustained periods of time. an example is muscle for posture--back muscles. type ii fast twitch skeletal muscle fibers tend to look pale and have much less myoglobin (less o2) and fewer mitochondria. on the other hand they have lots of glycogen--they get the energy they need to contract by anaerobic means, which takes significantly less time than aerobic metabolism. these fibers make and split atp at a fast rate. these muscle contract more quickly and with more force, but the contraction cannot be sustained (remember anaerobic=less energy overall than aerobic per cycle). an example is muscles that move your eyes. many muscle are a mix of fast and slow twitch fibers. heart muscle fibers contract even more slowly than type ii slow twitch skeletal muscles. they are completely dependent on o2 as an energy source, and have even more mitochondria than a skeletal slow twitch muscle. at the same time cardiac muscle contraction requires a lot of atp. although i can't seem to find a direct source saying so, i would assume that this means that even though cardiac muscle can make atp at a faster rate, there is an increased demand, and the atp may even be split at a slower rate. since atp splitting/use is directly proportional to contraction rate, this should be why cardiac muscle contracts slower than skeletal muscle. *edit--also, to make things even more complicated, heart rate/and cardiac contraction time is modulated by hormones, calcium levels, etc. | 4 | []
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duchenne's muscular dystrophy | i can't answer all of your questions, but for replacing endogenous proteins, delivery is the main obstacle. proteins are large and polar, so they are basically made to be excluded by the cell membrane. muscular dystrophy is a thorny problem for biology for several reasons. the main one is that there simply exists no technology for editing/replacing genes in the number of cells you'd need to fix to make an impact. that's not to say it might not one day be developed, but it doesn't exist right now. it's one of those problems, like cancer, that's a lot easier to fix in an early embryo or single cell stage than it is a fully formed person. there are some promising stem cell therapies that might be capable of fixing it one day, but they are very early in their testing phase. the dystrophin protein is particularly problematic in nearly every aspect, as it's friggin huge, the largest gene found in nature. it's too large to package the gene in a retro/lentivirus for delivery. it's probably too large to make reliably at scale in tissue culture cells (not that it would do you much good, as proteins are too hard to deliver). you aren't interested in organic chemistry. what you want is medicinal chemistry. even then, though, it's more concerned with the chemistry (how to make a molecule and it's properties) than it is on the actual disease. med chem can give you basic principles for how drugs work, but most of those mechanisms (kinase inhibitors, gpcr inhbitors, hiv protease inhibitors, etc.) aren't remotely relevant to dmd. dmd is a problem that isn't really amenable to small molecule medchem approaches. there isn't really a way to drug something that just isn't there anymore with a small molecule. | 3 | []
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for humans, when do we first understand our own personal mortality? | not sure what brought this thought about. it's a sure thing that we are instinctually afraid of death. however, when (ish), or at what developmental stage, do we first intellectually grasp our own assured personal death? example, there were several close deaths when i was very young. i hazily remember grasping the concept of death as the end of life, that is a "bad thing" that can happen. i do not recall a time though when i learned that it's a "bad thing" that is going to happen to everyone, nor the time when i learned that it's going to happen to me. nor do i remember any time freaking out about grasping my own mortality. so now i'm curious. what age (about) and what else is going on developmentally at that time? | this is going to be subjective. it is the same concept as realizing that death exists at all. some children will experience the death of a pet and immediately ask "is that going to happen to me?" thoughts like this only need the realization that the event exists and then a trigger to make them consider the event under certain circumstances, this one being that the even happens to them. it is usually circumstantial. | 2 | []
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|
psychologists of reddit: is the development of conspiracy theories a learned behavior or is there some innate reasoning why humans more readily associate events with some greater order of magnitude? | question sparked by an experience i had this morning which my mind immediately came up with some conspiracy type explanation. basically people love conspiracy theories to varying degrees. is there an explanation for this and is it explained by environmental factors or is there something innate within our psychology that could contribute? | i'm not a psychologist and i hope a psychologist responds to this post, as i have always found your question interesting, but one theory is that conspiracy thinking arises from innate traits humans possess because of the survival advantages they are associated with. these traits are sometimes called [patternicity](_url_1_) (seeing patterns in random things) and [agenticity](_url_0_) (attributing causes to some intelligent agent). both are written about well by michael shermer, an experimental psychologist and science historian. for conspiracy theorists, these innate systems may be in overdrive leading to [hyperactive agent detection](_url_2_). in other words, evolutionary speaking, it pays to be paranoid because you may survive more often if you perceive a threat even if there isn't one. and from there its a short ways to overdoing it in the modern world. [also brian dunning has an interesting article on the topic](_url_3_). | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.michaelshermer.com/2009/06/agenticity/",
"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=patternicity-finding-meaningful-patterns",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_detection",
"http://skeptoid.com/episodes/4264"
]
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|
is there an evolutionary or functional reason why the mitral valve has only two cusps as opposed to three like the other heart valves? | there are many theories on this. first, we need to distinguish the atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and mitral) from the semilunar valves (aortic and pulmonic). the semilunar valves don't have "cusps" per se, but leaflets. the leaflets form a cup shape facing outward and away from the heart to prevent backflow. these valves usually have three leaflets, though a good portion of the population has a bicuspid aortic valve, and this predisposes them to calcifications and eventually aortic stenosis. based on that, we sometimes make the mistaken assumption than a valve having two parts is weaker than a valve having three parts. the difference is that in the atrioventricular valves, backflow is prevented by papillary muscles in the ventricles that attach to the cusps via strong fibers called chordae tendinae. they have high tensile strength and so the valves are stopped from receding back into the atria by those strings. the seemingly obvious reason is convenience. for each valve, there is an equivalent papillary muscle (they aren't really one-to-one, as the chordae overlap, but for our purposes it will suffice). each cusp has a named papillary muscle: in the right ventricle you have anterior, posterior, and septal papillary muscles. the right ventricle has thinner walls and more general room for all of this; after all, it is only pumping blood over to the lungs, while the left ventricle has to get blood to every inch of the body. the left ventricle has two papillary muscles (anterior and posterior), both of which are considerably larger than those in the right ventricle. the pressures on the left heart and much higher than on the right, so the strength required to prevent backflow is accordingly increased. the left ventricle would have to give up even more space to allow a third cusp with a corresponding third papillary muscle (and if you've ever looked inside a heart, you'll know this is space it can't afford to give up). all that said, it isn't necessarily the only theory, though it does prevail. embryologically, there is also a leftward shift of the endocardial cushions that absorb what would have been a third cusp. that is just how it happens though, not necessarily why. just as we start with two superior vena cavae (the left becomes the oblique vein of marshall), the unnecessary or self-defeating parts recede to make way for a more efficient machine. | 3 | []
| []
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|
|
how do 17 year life cycle cicadas "keep track" of the year count to know when to emerge? | it actually has to do with the life cycle. it was believed that they were hibernating or asleep. recent studies have found that they are actually alive, tunneling underground as a flightless juvenile stage. they emerge as adults at the same time, presumably to breed and then their offspring will take 17 years to become adults, at which the whole cycle will start again. | 23 | []
| []
| [
"https://www.cicadamania.com/cicadas/look-listen-for-brood-x-stragglers/",
"https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2017/5/18/15657722/cicada-washington-maryland-baltimore-wake-up",
"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2000.00164.x"
]
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|
[earth sciences] what are the geological specifics on the formation of thor's well in oregon usa? | my searching of the internet and reddit hasn't satisfied my curiosity and was hoping you all could help. i would like to know about how thor's well was created. is this formation unique to this area and if so why? are there any other examples of formations like this around the world? tia! | it's tough to say the exact method of formation by looking at pictures on the internet. but here is one possible explanation. looking at a geologic map of this area of, one can see the area is dominated by volcanic rocks, in this case eocene basalts. this makes sense in the context of the pictures where we see black rocks with the water beautifully cascading down. basalt flows quite well (visualize the molten rivers of lava in a hawaiian volcano video; that is basalt). in any given unit there may be lava tubes and windows into these tubes where the roof may have collapsed into the river of molten rock below. many of these features are preserved when the basalt cools and hardens. there are places in oregon/washington where one can walk for hundreds of meters in vacant lava tubes. perhaps thor's well is a 'window' into a larger lava tube, which allows water to freely move in and out. it's the situation of this feature on what is now a marine terrace that allows for the unique phenomenon and interaction with incoming ocean swells. lava tubes can be found anywhere there is basalt that has flowed freely. | 3 | []
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|
geologists: how were these rocks formed at this angle, creating the illusion of the water not being level (ardèche, france)? | sorry for the poor phrasing, here are two pictures: _url_0_ | not a geologist, but as tectonic plates shift rocks will get pushed up forming entire mountains. the sedimentary lines of these mountains will be on an angle like that shown in your picture | 5 | []
| [
"http://imgur.com/a/g0gR9"
]
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|
why does type ii deionized water have less resistivity than type iii deionized water? | _url_0_ when ion concentrations for each type go i < ii < iii < iv, why is the trend for resistivity i > iii > ii > iv? | this is a good question. of course we would expect the resistivity to correlate to ionic concentration, so i was puzzled when you pointed out that it didn't. i found a pdf from labstrong which discusses the four types of distilled water, and it had this to say: "until recently, astm required type ii reagent grade water be produced only by distillation. as of the latest d1193 designation, astm currently allows other means of purification for type ii reagent grade water as long as all specifications are met (astm d1193-06, 2011) (figure 1). when selecting a technology other than distillation, one must take into account the potential impact of contaminants not removed from the purified water such as pyrogens and microorganisms. in addition, one must take into account the potential impact on water purity as consumables exhaust. for these reasons, laboratories typically prefer the original standard, reliable, and consistent production process of distillation to produce type ii reagent grade water." my only guess is that the "pyrogens and micro organisms" may be causing the greater resistivity in type ii? it may also be the type two has limits on resistivity and ionic concentration that don't match up to what the expected resistivity for a given concentration would yeild. | 3 | []
| [
"http://puretecwater.com/deionized-water/laboratory-water-quality-standards"
]
| []
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|
what's difference between nozzle and orifice? | for propulsion using compressed air or gas which one suits better? | not much difference from a purely physical perspective, but if we dig into the details, the difference is the practical purpose: a nozzle has a shape that can be designed to control the flow rate and speed of the exhaust, while an orifice is just a hole. for propulsion purposes a nozzle is definitely better since it can let you maximize the speed of the exhaust, increasing your propellant efficiency ([specific impulse](_url_0_)). this is especially true if you can achieve a supersonic exhaust: _url_1_ the main difference between a fully-fledged rocket engine and your nozzle would be that you'd have no combustion chamber since you're just willing to use compressed air, which by definition is [cold gas propulson](_url_2_). but it does work and you do get a supersonic exhaust if properly designed. typical n*_2_* cold thrusters achieve a specific impulse of 62s, so exhaust speed is close to mach 2. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_impulse",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_engine_nozzle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_gas_thruster"
]
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|
if you were in orbit around the earth, and had a whip long enough to reach the earth's surface, would it be physically possible to do so? | some work colleagues and i were talking about this, and there were just too many variables for us to wrap our feeble minds around. would it be possible to generate the amount of force necessary to get the 'whip' effect travel through the earths atmosphere and strike someone on the surface from orbit (given that whatever the whip was made of didn't completely get destroyed by the earth's atmosphere)? if so *how much* force would it take to actually take to get the whip back inside the orbital track? at what point would gravity start to take over (if ever)? | a quarter inch diameter rope long enough to go from geosynchonous orbit to sea level would weigh around 2,000,000 pounds. your whip would break. | 2 | []
| []
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|
does rain cause a cold front or is it the result of a cold front? | my understanding is that it is a symptom of a cold front meeting a warm front. if i had to classify it in a chicken or egg kind of way, i would say that the cold front comes first. _url_0_ _url_1_ | 4 | []
| []
| [
"http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter11/graphics/cf_xsect.jpg",
"http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/af/frnts/cfrnt/prcp.rxml"
]
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|
|
how much water is too much? | every hour, a healthy kidney at rest can excrete 800 to 1,000 milliliters, or 0.21 to 0.26 gallon, of water and therefore a person can drink water at a rate of 800 to 1,000 milliliters per hour without experiencing a net gain in water, verbalis explains. joseph verbalis, chairman of medicine at georgetown university medical center | 2 | []
| []
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|
measuring rainfall at home | is there any difference between using a commercially-produced rain gauge with graduated markings along the cylinder and using a flat-bottomed jar or other container to measure the rainfall? is there an advantage to a plastic gauge that tapers from top to bottom over a glass cylinder shape? if i wanted to make my own accurate rainfall gauge what would be the best way to do this? thanks. | no difference. take a bucket and go outside. measure the rainfall with a ruler. just make sure the bucket is straight up on the sides. don't want any angle to the walls. | 5 | []
| []
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|
this might sound like a silly question, but would is it possible to fly through a rainbow? | i've always wanted to get close to one, but they're so far away, mostly. i know it's just light reflecting off water, so would it disappear the closer we got to it or would there be a definitive edge to the rainbow itself? | no, a rainbow doesn't exist at a definite location like you are thinking. they are an optical phenomenon that always appear up at a specific angle (about 40 to 42 degrees) away from the line from the sun through your head. | 8 | []
| []
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"http://i.imgur.com/uJZfP.jpg"
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|
can someone explain the new prenatal dna tests to me? | i've heard of current chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis but don't know what they are. there was controversy over how the new test could cause more abortion, but after digging around, i don't really understand how the new test is different. | chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis are procedures that involve directly testing the fetus's dna by extracting fluid/tissue from the extraembryonic membranes that surround the fetus. both tests are looking at different membranes. chorion is the former, amnion is the latter. now, these are invasive procedures that require you to stick a needle into the womb in order to extract the fluids to test them. sometimes, you can hit the developing fetus with the needle, and this can kill it. obviously, this is bad. the new procedure takes the risky needle poking out of the equation, and relies on the fact that there is some fetal blood circulating in the mother's circulatory system. so, they can isolate this dna by aligning it with both maternal and paternal dna samples, and thus can isolate the fetal dna. so, this makes the procedure very easy to do, and it has little risk, in case the baby is indeed healthy. however, this also makes it tempting to mistake simple variations with actual birth defects. so, one could in theory test for the baby being a ginger or not, and if it is a ginger, it could be elected to aborted. this is the obvious extreme example. a more practical example would be to select against babies with down syndrome, which is not life threatening, but is still considered very unfavorable to have in a child. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.americanpregnancy.org/prenataltesting/paternitytesting.html",
"http://blog.gosh.org/research/safer-new-prenatal-testing-could-avoid-the-risk-of-a-miscarriage/",
"http://www.prenatalgeneticscenter.com/"
]
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if you throw something in the air, will it come back down in the same amount of time as it did from when you threw it to when it reaches its *peak*? | without air resistance, the time to go from the starting height to the top will equal to the time it takes to go from the top back to the the same height the object started at. but air resistance changes that. with air resistance, the time going up will actually be less than the time going down. here's one way to think about it. thanks to air resistance, as the object travels, it will be losing energy. that means that the speed of the object when it returns to its starting height will be less than the speed at which it was launched. indeed, at any given height, its speed on the upward path will be greater than its speed on the downward path. consequently, the average speed going up is greater than the average speed going up, and so the time to reach the peak is less than the time to get back down from the peak. edit: extra word deleted. | 6 | []
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what is the potential of "break-down" software (apologize for not knowing the technical term)? | let's say we have created a program that makes all the permutations of a set of numbers. we could easily generate all these permutations, and then make a "break-down" software. that is to say, a software that would break down the permutations to odd numbers. and we could further narrow this down with other limitations. my question is this: if we were to keep advancing our processing power to massive heights, and smarten up the "break-down", could we make art and writing from a similar process? for example, let's say we want to make a children's book. could we generate all possible combinations of letters and symbols for 100 spaces, and then break that down into legibility and grammar. then break it down further, into having distinct characters and plot (of course, we can't do this now but in the future we will have the computer intelligence). would we eventually break it down into a children's book? would our computers not necessarily need to be creatively intelligent, but simply good critics? | so you're asking about starting with the set of all possible images/sequences of characters/etc, and then having a set of programs that applies increasngly complex and restrictive criteria to eliminate bad ones until you're left with a set of good children's books or paintings or whatever? one problem with this is simply the size of that original set. for example, let's take your example of generating all possible combinations of letters and symbols for 100 spaces. let's say we only consider the 26 letters of the english alphabet, periods, commas, and spaces, and ignore capitalization. that gives us 29 possibly characters per slot, so there are 29^100 = over 10^146 possible sequences. now, we need to eliminate all the sequences that do not consist of english words (let's not even worry about grammar). there are approximately 10^80 atoms in the observable universe. if every single atom in the known universe were a computer that could check 100 million 100-character sequences to determine if they consisted of actual english words or not every second, it would take over 10^50 years (that's about 10^40 times the age of the universe) to reduce the list down to only sequences containing english words. by this time, depending on whether or not protons decay, [either black holes will be the only celestial objects left in the universe, or all matter in the observable universe will be converting to liquid due to quantum tunneling](_url_0_). and remember, this is just to reduce that list down to sequences of english words if you're using every atom in the universe as a computer. this doesn't mean the basic idea of taking a large set of possible solutions to a problem is not a reasonable solution to ai problems. but starting at the level you're talking about - all sequences of characters of a certain length, or all possible images of a certain size, or whatever - is completely unfeasible for many problems. you need to be smarter about which ones you bother checking initially, because some search spaces are so large that even the simplest possible checks simply can't be done over the entire space. | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_far_future"
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|
what is the brain relying on when we are able to count seconds accurately? | a computer relies on a clock with a certain frequency to tell time/count. what allows a human to count up/down in seconds reasonably accurately? | functional imaging indicates that both the cerebellum and the basal ganglia play a role in time perception -- brief summary of once such study [here](_url_0_) -- but afaik how they do this is not understood in any detail. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/slms/slms-news/neuroscience/11031001"
]
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|
how is it possible for people to regulate their temperature if the air temperature goes above 98 degrees? | i understand that people will sweat to cool down, regardless of how hot the air is around them. how does this work if the temperature around them goes above their body temperature? | because evaporation is an endothermic process, meaning it draws heat from its surroundings. therefore as long as evaporation can occur and you have enough water to produce enough sweat the human body can keep its core temperature well below the air temperature. this also explains why humid days feel hotter even if the temperature is the same: the rate of evaporation [depends on the so-called "vapor pressure deficit"](_url_0_), which is a different way of measuring humidity. higher humidity means less sweat can evaporate, and so your body is less able to cool itself. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penman_equation"
]
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|
side affects of aspirin therapy | i recently saw this [poll online regarding aspirin therapy](_url_0_), and i am looking for clarification on a few points. the questions are: * how does aspirin cause stomach upset? * what are the dangers associated with long term aspirin usage? * are there any alternatives? thanks! | aspirin is a cycloxegenase inhibitor, so it inhibits production of prostaglandins. prostaglandin e is important in the gastric mucosa which protects the stomach from it's acid. inhibition of the mucin production lets the acid produced by the stomach irritate it. | 3 | []
| [
"http://www.aspirinsafe.com/aspirin_poll"
]
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirin"
]
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|
how is that such small changes in core temperature can be catastrophic to us? | how do such small changes in our core body temp. affect us so much? | the reason for that is that the metabolic processes that sustain our body (anabolic - the combining of molecules, and catabolic - the breaking down of them) highly depend on enzymes which are chemical catalysts. these chemical reactions have a temperature range at which they work best. too cold will slow them down (or stop) and too hot will make them (the catalysts) unstable and fall apart. hope that answered it. edit: grammar | 47 | []
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|
ancient methods of time keeping. | this is really a history question as much as a science one (history of science perhaps). how would an ancient society, egypt under ramses ii for instance, determine when "midnight" was? also how accurate would they be, and how accurate would they *believe* they were? | _url_0_ apparently they were used by temple priest to calculate the right hour during night to make an offering, and could be adjusted for seasonal variation in night length. amenhotep iii reigned about a century before ramses ii. | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock#Egypt"
]
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|
what are instantons? i know that they are not actually particles, but are they simply a mathematical tool or do they represent something more "physical"? | from my [own](_url_1_) [readings](_url_0_), it seems as if instantons are a way of sort-of "taking qft into classical mechanics and back again" in order to simplify calculations. am i in any way close in my understanding of what's happening here? | it might help to first think of [solitons](_url_2_), which are seen in classical and quantum physics. solitons are solutions to the equations of motion which are non-dissipative (they don't decay in amplitude) and localized. so a soliton solution to a non-linear wave equation has a wave packet about a certain region, and can interact with another soliton but emerge unscathed. consider how different this is from normal waves - when you throw a rock in a pond, the ripples are initially strong but get damped and disappear pretty quickly. solitons are usually due to either a non-linear system being exactly solvable, or due to some sort of topological conservation law (the former are often a special case of the latter). the latter kind, which are called [topological defects](_url_1_), are what are commonly seen in particle/condensed matter physics contexts. explaining topological defects is a little hard without pictures, so look at the [images on that wiki page](_url_0_). in this case, the field theory describes a system which would energetically like the field φ to either take the value +1 or -1. the lowest-energy solutions would obviously be either φ = +1 or φ = -1 through all of space (these have the same energy). however, it turns out that there are stable, finite energy configurations where the field is -1 far to the left, +1 far to the right, and but interpolated between the two in some region in between. the location where φ changes signs is the location of the soliton. the wiki also shows an "anti-soliton" (goes from +1 to -1) and how it can annihilate a soliton. ok, so now finally instantons. **instantons are most simply described as as solitons through time.** so look back at the image on wiki, and imagine that the axis is time instead of space. far in the past, the field φ is just sitting at -1, and then suddenly, at some point in time, it shifts to +1 (or vice-versa). a lot of the math is the same, but this disturbance only happens at a certain instance of time and then its over. since the minima φ = +/- 1 represent different vacua of the theory, these instantons are describing tunneling between different vacua. i'll add that since solitons and instantons exited configurations of fields which can be localized in space and carry things like momentum and charge, i would liberally call them "particles." | 11 | []
| [
"http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2013-09/1378176066.Ph.r.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instanton"
]
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_defect#Images",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_defect",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soliton"
]
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|
what are primordial b-modes in the cmb and what do they have to do with inflation and gravitational radiation? | i'm generally loathe to just post links, but there is a blog post that explains this whole situation excellently. _url_0_ have a read, and i'm happy to answer any further questions. | 6 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.preposterousuniverse.com/blog/2014/03/16/gravitational-waves-in-the-cosmic-microwave-background/"
]
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|
|
how do we know that the w+ boson cannot be its own antiparticle? | firstly, the w^+ and w^- are each other's antiparticles. the w^+ cannot be its own antiparticle because if it annihilates with itself and produces two photons, charge is not conserved. | 8 | []
| []
| []
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|
|
at what height above ground level above earth would a person have to be in order to be able to listen to the entirety of "free bird" before they hit the ground? | assume they start from a stationary (i.e. aircraft, balloon, platform) object, they play the 9:06 album version, and are in freefall until they hit the ground. (bonus points if you can factor in a parachute, though.) | according to [wikipedia](_url_0_), the terminal velocity of a huma body it 56 m/s. one would need to be in free fall from an altitude of **at least 30,576 meters, or about 19 miles** (assuming i did my math correctly), to be able to listen to the full 9 minutes and 6 seconds. factoring acceleration *to* terminal velocity, winds, angle of the body, and other factors, it could require more distance or need less. please correct me if i'm wrong, it's late and i already caught a few mistakes. | 6 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall#Examples"
]
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|
one of the most fundamental principles taught is that everything wants to be in the lowest energy state possible. why is this the case? | is there a subatomic explanation? or is this just the way it is for this dimension? | it's a result of the second law of thermodynamics (entropy increases). energy is conserved, so overall energy does not lower with time. however the distribution of energy depends on the number of available states with that energy distribution. if you are considering a single object with higher energy than its surroundings, then there will be more available states in which the energy has been spread out evenly over the whole system, so on average the energy will tend to get re-distributed until thermodynamic equilibrium is reached. | 17 | []
| []
| []
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|
is it possible to make gyms into big power plants, where the machines that people use to work out generate electricity rather than using it? | i know that some machines, like treadmills, definitely need electricity to work but for things like weight-lifting machines, ellipticals, or stationary bikes, can't they be set up so that when you pedal or lift, you are converting the mechanical energy into stored electricity? my only guess is that the energy spent lifting or running is minimal and wouldn't be worth storing. either that or so much energy is lost to heat that there wouldn't be much energy left to convert. but if that isn't the case, isn't it possible to at least power the machine you are using by utilizing it? for instance, if the elliptical that you are using has a tv, wouldn't you be able to power it by just using the machine? if this is a silly post, i apologize in advance. this is my first time posting on askscience so i hope it's appropriate for the community! | most elliptical machines and stationary bikes i've seen in gyms *are* powered by the person using them. that's why the display and electronics don't do anything until after you start using the machine. apparently some gyms, typically in academic settings, try to reclaim more energy than that and use it for lighting and such. but it's a pretty small amount of energy. according to [this paper](_url_0_) that i just got from a google search: "an elliptical machine in regular use at a gym using rerev technology will generate one kilowatt-hour of electricity every two days". and that's quoting promotional copy for a company selling the technology, so i would take that as an optimistic estimate. | 4 | []
| []
| [
"http://best.berkeley.edu/~aagogino/papers/ES2010-90195.pdf"
]
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10th grade chemistry teacher needs help, actually, questions. | i would like to offer my students an extra credit writing assignment that encourages them to look into peer-reviewed journals/papers on topics that might possibly interest them. the scope of the project is to encourage students to critically evaluate a scientific explanation or hypothesis using scientific evidence and methodology. i am going to offer them the freedom to chose their own topic, should they have a question they would like to explore. however, i need a list for the students that aren't gung-ho for science. as i build the list, i was thinking... * why is the big bang theory of the universe viewed as more plausible than the steady state theory? * is biodiesel a promising new energy source? questions like these.... so r/askscience....can you help me out and think of some questions students 15-16 years old might be excited to research? | 15-16 year old kids are very interested in science that is bordering science fiction, but still somewhat scientific. i know i was - i went into materials science because i thought nanotechnology = nanobots + molecular manufacturing. turns out it's not, but it's just as cool, you just need to know a little more math to appreciate it. some things that can be very interesting: - why was the 19xx nobel prize in phys/chem/med awarded? how did it transform its field? - what is an interesting technology that could happen in the next 10 years and what scientific/engineering developments are necessary to make it happen? (star wars holograms, space elevator, ai, anthropomorphic robots) then there are some interesting science 'paradoxes' you can try: - why does hot water freeze faster than warm water? - how come scientists do not know why ice is slippery? - what is the length of the american eastern coastline (infinite) - why are all rainbows double rainbows? etc. there are a lot of a questions that are very interesting and require a lot of understanding of very broad scientific topics to be able to appreciate, but i am biased with my choices. i would think about what you've heard that really excited you when you heard it, and devise questions around that to help students explore those topics. | 2 | []
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light grenades [hypothesis] | hi, i stumble upon this hypothetical problem. imagine you have a transparent sphere. the sphere is hollow and the inner side of the sphere is coated with material which works as a perfect one-way mirror. the mirror would be oriented inside the sphere, so no light woulde eventually leave the sphere, but the material wouldn't block an incoming light. what would happen if we expose this spere to direct light, either cold or warm light source? in the case with warm light i can imagine the spere melting or heating up at least. but what about the cold light? would it charge up or what? thanks for any ideas. ps: as cold light source i mean something like bioluminiscence or chemical light. | a perfect mirror isn't possible in practice, but we could work out what would happen with one in principle. a perfect *one-way* mirror isn't even possible in principle. the entire concept of a one-way mirror is that some light passes through and some doesn't, so that someone in a brightly lit room sees much more reflected light while someone in a darkly lit room sees much more transmitted light. | 6 | []
| []
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|
what is the heaviest thing i can ship in a small flat rate usps box? | a substance with a density 25.7 g/cm^(3) filling the box would get you to 70 pounds. osmium and iridium are the two densest elements, coming in at about 22.6 g/cm^(3). these would get you in excess of 61 pounds. | 2 | []
| []
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|
why do i always unintentionally check the clock every hour at a certain time? | i always end up checking the time every hour unintentionally at a specific time and i can't really think why. one week i'll check it at (so and so):20 and so on, and the next week it will be (so and so):11. why is that? does anyone else unintentionally do this? | it's most likely just a form bias -- you remember the times when you look at a clock that conform to a pattern and they stand out, and forget all of the times when you check the time and it's just a random time. | 2 | []
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|
does everyone have the same number of muscle cells? | currently in a human biology course, we learnt that past a certain point, myocytes can no longer divide and their number stays stable. my question is, assuming none of the muscle cells would die, would their number be the same for everybody? if not, is this difference linked with different body types (e.g. people who gain muscle mass more easily than others)? | not at all. muscle cells can under go hyperplasia (increased cell number) and dystrophy (ie. muscular dystrophy which can be caused by a loss of muscle cells. depending on the use and disuse of the muscle, either of these can occur. although, in terms of hyperplasia, muscles generally under go hypertrophy (increase in size) as hyperplasia is not easy, and near impossible for the most part. | 5 | []
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|
now that parts of the voynich manuscript has been decoded (presumably) is it just a matter of time before the whole manuscript is decoded? | you can read the original paper on the topic here: _url_0_ bax started by trying to decipher proper names of objects, like plants that could be identified. this deciphering of proper names helps to establish that the document is not a hoax– and will in turn generate interest from others who want to contribute. using this technique (and others), they may be able to translate the manuscript over time. there are other more technical concerns at play, but it does appear that pax's approach has yielded results, which if continued may, in a great deal of time, result in translation. | 63 | []
| []
| [
"http://stephenbax.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Voynich-a-provisional-partial-decoding-BAX.pdf"
]
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|
|
seeking the truth about cognition and the maximum amount of variables for processing information | i read an article a few years ago about a study that stated when the human mind analyzes a problem, regardless of the complexity, the human mind can mostly only keep four variables at a time when solving. there can be more than four variables total in a problem, of course, but the mind lumps them together in such a way that, ultimately, only four variables are processed at any time. is there any validity to this? i've been using this information as a baseline for certain things and would like to know if this is legitimate. | there is definitely a limited amount of working memory (also called "short term memory"). [this paper](_url_1_) looks at how the complexity of the information impacts how much you can store. the paper did two tests for each type of visual information: 1. they briefly showed a target object for the subject to find (e.g. a red square). then they showed a bunch objects of a similar category (different colored squares) and timed how long it took to tell if the target was present or absent in the set. they varied the number of objects in the set and measured the slope of time/objects in the set. 2. they briefly showed a bunch of objects of a similar category. then there was a pause. then they show the same set of objects again. half of the time, one of the objects changed. the subject had to state whether the a change occurred or not. they varied the number of objects and measured the accuracy. they found that the complexity of the visual feature determined how much you could hold in visual short term memory. you can hold 4 simple features like color or 2 complex features like 3d shape. a related phenomenon, [multiple object tracking](_url_0_), found that we can only track up to four or five moving objects at a time. | 3 | []
| []
| [
"http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/faculty/pylyshyn/DemoPage.html",
"http://visionlab.harvard.edu/Members/George/Publications_files/Alvarez-Cavanagh-2004-PsychSci.pdf"
]
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|
tim ferris just posted this method of draining one's sinuses - is there any biological basis for it? | from [tim's tweet](_url_0_): _url_1_ is there any biological basis for this? i'm normally a complete skeptic, but tim has prided himself on being a bit of a body hacker. | [this image](_url_0_) shows how a few of the sinuses drain. compression can help open the soft tissues that form the passageways. | 3 | []
| [
"http://twitter.com/#!/tferriss/status/96646226677739521",
"http://www.howtoclearablockednose.pen.io/"
]
| [
"http://i.imgur.com/eo8Hf.png"
]
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|
can the right hand rule in electromagnetism be reversed? | for example, if you had a current of positrons instead of electrons in a counterclockwise wound coil, would the direction of the magnetic force be pointing down instead of up? | yes. current is defined as the flow of positive charge, not the flow of electrons. so if you had positively charged particles flowing in the same direction as electrons, the direction of the current is opposite, and the magnetic field vectors change sign. furthermore, vector products (such as the magnetic field vector in your example) are what are called [pseudovectors](_url_0_), which is *kind of* like saying that the magnitude of the vector carries the important information, and the direction of the vector is decided upon as convention. taking magnetic fields as an example, we could just as well define the cross-product to follow a left-hand rule instead of a right-hand rule. this would flip the direction of our magnetic field vector. however, as long as we are consistent in using a left-hand rule everywhere, the physics would all remain the same (e.g., using a left hand rule in the cross-product of a lorentz force will produce a force in the same direction as the way we do things now). | 9 | []
| []
| [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudovector"
]
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|
what does a health risk increase by xx% mean? is it former percentage (=yy%) + xx% or yy% * xx%? | you didn’t give enough context to properly get into this, but a) in nonscientific press, it means nothing, because the author probably doesn’t understand how percentages work and b) in scientific press it means that, all other things being equal, for every one person who develops a disease in absence of the risk factor in question 1+xx% will develop it in presence of the risk factor. | 8 | []
| []
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|
|
why does the load resistance have to match the source resistance for maximum power transfer? | a question about the maximum power transfer theorem. i did the math on paper and it works but is there a theoretical explanation? | the math *is* the theoretical explanation. the intuitive explanation is that power dissipation is a (multiplicative) function of both current and voltage. if the load resistance is very small, the voltage drop across the load will be very small and it won't dissipate much power (with the limit being zero at zero load resistance). if the load resistance is very large, the current flow through the load will be very small and it won't dissipate much power (with the limit being zero at infinite load resistance). between the two extremes there must be an optimum point, and it turns out to occur when the load resistance equals the source resistance. does this help? | 6 | []
| []
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|
what is askscience's thoughts on lean finely textured beef? (aka pink slime) | the pink slime controversy has been all over the news lately, but i like to think it is fear-mongering. i work in the meat department of a grocery store, so i would like to be able to be as knowledgeable as i can about the subject. here is a [fact sheet from the south dakota department of agriculture](_url_0_) about lftb and its safety. a quick overview of the subject is that all the beef trimmings that contain high amounts of fat are put into a centrifuge and warmed gently (to 100*f). the result is that the fat is separated from the protein; the remaining protein is around 97% lean. then it is treated with ammonium hydroxide gas to raise the ph slightly and kill off dangerous bacteria. the lftb is mixed with regular ground beef, and can not be more than 15 of the final product. a researcher from iowa state university has found that there is roughly 5 times more collagen (and other insoluble proteins) in lftb than standard ground beef. | there is nothing unsafe about it, scientifically speaking. ammonia gas is used as a sanitizer to prevent the spread of bacteria on/in the product. ammonia, or more specifically the ammonium ion, isn't at all problematic in the product. most of it will evaporate off, and residuals will bake off or react during cooking. even if it makes it through to your digestive tract, our bodies are plenty capable of eliminating excess ammonia from our systems. i won't comment on the "yuck" factor, because it's all based on emotion, not fact. most, if not all parts of an animal are edible. some parts require processing to make them palatable. | 2 | []
| [
"http://sdda.sd.gov/LFTB%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf"
]
| []
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|
how much science is in morgan freeman's show "through the wormhole" vs pseudoscience, speculation, and untestable postulations. | i generally like to consider myself a skeptic, and a scientifically minded person. every time i watch this show, i feel that i am being fed a lot of unscientific information and unsubstantiated/untestable "what ifs". i don't want to single out any particular show within the series, but i was just curious if some people could shed some light on this matter, especially people who work in the fields being discussed. any criticism vs confirmation of claims on the show would be greatly appreciated. | people who work in the fields being discussed tend not to watch these shows :) so it would be helpful if you could mention some particular claims this show is making which you're curious about. but in general my impression is such shows do like to ground themselves more or less in what's being looked at by scientists - and one would hope these mostly things which are in theory testable - but do emphasize the wackiest, out there, most speculative notions rather than the things receiving the most attention among working theoretical physicists. | 7 | []
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|
compressing water/air | the liquid in a lighter is compressed gas. but what happens when you compress water, will it turn into ice? and when u compress air, will you get liquid air? | technically, yes, for both materials (assuming pure nitrogen, not air, though). physically, for nitrogen, at room temperature, you'd most likely get a supercritical fluid per: _url_0_ but you could certainly get liquid (and eventually solid) nitrogen, at room temperature, with enough pressure (about 10^6 to 10^8 pascals, or about 1000 atm). water is a more interested case, since, as has been mentioned in most any answer regarding water here, water becomes *less dense* when it freezes for "normal" ice. this property means that increasing pressure will actually *lower* the freezing point of water, meaning you physically *cannot* pressurize water to get ice. however, there are multiple crystal structures of ice that can form, beyond your everyday "less dense than liquid water" form (ice ih). at very high pressures, about 10 kbar (~10,000 atm or 10^9 pa), you can actually get solid water at room temperature (ice vi), because the crystal structure of ice that forms is *more dense* than liquid water. for reference, the pressure at the bottom of the mariana trench is about 10^8 pa, which is also the pressure water cutters operate at. some chemical reactors can operate at 10^9 pa, so this isn't a completely unobtainable pressure. _url_3_ (fairly) complete phase diagram for water here: _url_1_ we use the the clausius-clapeyron equation to actually find these lines on temperature-pressure charts, which relates a change in the slope on this chart (dp/dt) with a change in specific volume (or density) of the material. for most materials, a transition from liquid to solid (or gas to liquid) has a positive change in density (the solid is more dense than the liquid), so the slope on a phase diagram will also be positive. for these materials (most things), increasing pressure will then necessarily allow you to cross the line corresponding to a phase change. for water, the transition from liquid to ice ih is related by a *negative* change in density, thus the slope for the line for that transition will also be negative. therefore, you cannot cross it with increasing pressure - only when a positive slope, due to a positive change in density on the liquid-solid transition (to ice vi), can we turn water solid with increasing pressure. _url_2_ edit: a few links and some math, for those who are interested. | 4 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=nitrogen+phase+diagram",
"http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/phase.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clausius%E2%80%93Clapeyron_relation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(pressure)"
]
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|
historically, a common archetype is the 'weak and sickly child'. is there always a medical explanation for this or can one simply be 'weak and sickly'? | or diseases such as hemophilia or osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease). genetic diseases that back before current medical science could not be identified but would cause a child to be injured easily and be considered "sickly". asthma was probably another one | 3 | []
| []
| []
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|
|
in hplc systems coupled to electrochemical detectors, what is the guard cell actually doing? | also, we have a dual ecd cell system and only use the readout of the 2nd ec cell as our data. will changing the applied voltage at the first ec cell have any effect on the amount of detectable molecules that i am trying to read with the 2nd ec cell? likewise, will changing guard cell voltage affect my readouts? i am a neuroscientist measuring neurotransmitters (catecholamines) in mouse brain slices. i really just started getting into hlpc a few months ago and i think i have most of it down, but if you have any questions on the setup let me know. | via google books, i found [this text](_url_0_) with the following on page 11, which i think should help out with your conundrum. in short, it's eliminating the background contaminants to improve sensitivity, and if you play around with it, you will likely see changes in the results you obtain. | 5 | []
| []
| [
"https://books.google.com/books?id=TAdUUEDuG_0C"
]
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|
firefighter here: how much force is applied to the end of a 45mm hose filled with water flowing 200litres per minute at 700 kpa? | i’m working on a project and i need to find out the force in kilonewtons that is applied. thanks! | /u/rannasha and /u/m1el: i fear you both missed the critical part. how wide is the nozzle? dividing the flow rate by the area of a 45 mm diameter hose gives a speed of a mere 2 m/s. that can't be the exit velocity, that water wouldn't go anywhere but downwards. the force comes from the nozzle where the water transitions from the slow flow of 2 m/s to the unknown fast velocity: that is the reaction that causes a force in the opposite direction. | 18 | []
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|
water pressure question | hello, if you have a river with levee on both sides, there's obviously pressure on the levees. but i wonder if the flow speed of the river has any effect on the pressure on the levees. i kind of think that a faster river would put less pressure on the levee than a really slow river, but i don't know why. | i believe [bernoulli's principle](_url_0_) applies here. its consequences are just what you described, all other things being equal a faster flow will be associated with a lower pressure. edit: to give a more intuitive feel for why this is. let's assume you have a constant current (the rate of water flow across the cross-section of the river) at all point along a river, but suddenly the river becomes more narrow. this means that the forward velocity must be greater. taking into account the conservation of energy, a greater forward kinetic energy means less energy associated with lateral pressure, hence the effect. | 5 | []
| []
| [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle"
]
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|
can someone explain to me the term "hypothesis-driven research"? | i know what a hypothesis is and what its role is in research (i am talking life/medical science here). but the term hypothesis-driven research never really i never really caught.. sounds to me that one would focus extremely on its hypothesis, disregarding any other not directly related indications, data, whatsoever. give the fact that the term i only cam accross when people used it in a positive way, i really must miss out on something here. thanks in advance! | it is the difference between exploratory research - "we wish to perform these tests and see what we find (we think it will be interesting because ...)" and hypothesis driven research - "we think that we will find that x corresponds to y when we perform these tests. (this will strengthen the hypothesis that...)" it is the difference between not having any idea what is going on and looking to answer a specific question. *edit* theses - > these | 30 | []
| []
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|
at what point does the ability to reproduce with another species stop. | i apologize for the terribly worded title, i couldn't think of a decent short title. what im asking is...say a human has sex with a chimp. obviously they cant reproduce, but where does it fail? the sperm obviously dont know they are in a chimp, so they still move around looking for an egg. im assuming chimps have eggs. does the human sperm join with the egg, just nothing happens? forgive me if this is a silly question. | this is too ambiguous to answer really well, as it varies dramatically by what exactly is breeding. one one hand some plants can be perfectly viable with large and arbitrary numbers of chromosomes. others produce infertile (or at least mostly infertile) offpsring. a horse and a donkey can breed in a way, creating a mule. a tiger and a lion can create either a tigon or liger (depending on which is the mother and which ist he father). but some animals are far less flexible - ie a human and a chimp can't combine and make offspring. as for where the incompatibility happens, again it depends. if it's too mammals together, the sperm and egg may very possibly combine, but the result won't develop into anything. if we're crossing larger classes, the xx/ xy could even be reveresed. chicken girls are an xy type, and the male is xx. and then there are problems even within the same species to prevent mating. dogs, for example, vary dramatically in size depending on breed. some dogs, because of this size, literally can't have sex with certain others, so no offspring there either. | 5 | []
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|
what's the difference between the piezoelectric effect vs what we know about time crystals? | i just read this article about [yale university discovering a new time crystal](_url_0_) in a children's crystal growing kit. as described in the article, time crystals change their state when "exposed to an electromagnetic pulse". since minerals like quartz also change state when exposed to a electromagnetic pulse, how are they different? is it just the arrangement of the molecules in the crystal that are different? or is it purely the result of the state change that is different? does anyone know if the two are linked in some way(the piezo and time crystal effect)? | time crystals start to oscillate \(i.e. form the time crystal\) when they get a "kick" from the em pulse \- they are inherently non\-equilibrium structures. piezos \(all dielectrics, really\) don't really change state when exposed em field. they polarize to minimize the electric displacement field inside by reconfiguring their bound charge, which leads to changes in bond lengths, but this is a equilibrium configuration that vanishes once you get rid of the electric field. | 44 | []
| [
"https://news.yale.edu/2018/05/02/yale-physicists-find-signs-time-crystal"
]
| []
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|
is there any application of the intergral of displacement in regards to time, ie the meter-second? | velocity is the first derivative of displacement, acceleration the second, jerk the third and obviously these all have countless practical and theoretical applications, however what happens if you go the other way; integrate displacement to get a quantity that as far as i can see would be measured in ms. have been considering this for a couple of months now, looking on the internet i can't even find a name for this, let alone any research or potential applications. so i was wondering if anyone on reddit had any ideas or thoughts on the subject, thanks. | the integral of displacement with respect to time has got a name, called **absement** although it does have limited use in physics. it's mainly used for computing costs and such given rates dependent upon time and displacement. but, i can't do it justice in this comment so here's a much better website than my rambly explanation: _url_0_ | 7 | []
| []
| [
"http://wearcam.org/absement/examples.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PID_controller"
]
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|
are modern occurances of appendix ruptures more prevalent than in the past, and if so could it be an evolutionary mechanism to select out a vestigial organ? | regardless of the actual answer, i'm pretty sure it wouldn't be an evolutionary mechanism because most people reproduce regardless of whether their appendix ruptures or not so the genes that cause appendicitis would get passed to the next generation regardless. | 4 | []
| []
| []
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|
|
what is the difference between autotroph, phototroph, and chemolithotroph? | it seems like autotrophs and phototrophs are very similar, typically using light to produce energy. but co2 is not organic so can a chemolithotroph be an autotroph? it seems like the definitions overlap. | a lithotroph is something that isolates/makes its reducing agents from an inorganic source. you can compare that to an organotroph, which produces its reducing agents from organic sources. an autotroph is something that builds big macromolecules from tiny molecules; like all life, they later break down these macromolecules for energy. you should compare them to heterotrophs, which must catabolyze macromolecules produced by autotrophs. autotrophs can either be phototrophic (they use sunlight for energy to power anabolic reactions) or chemoautotrophs (which in this context basically means that they are lithotrophs, as described above, but are capable of fixing carbon). some chemotrophs are chemoheterotrophic, meaning that they cannot fix carbon, and must consume organic carbon to survive. sorry it's so jargonistic! | 9 | []
| []
| [
"http://classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/courses/bio225/chap05/Slide33.GIF"
]
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|
are african gray parrots known to have developed broca's areas? | they talk and they understand that they are using words to convey ideas and even ask questions. do they have a developed broca's area similarly to the way our species does to help them accomplish this or is it a completely different pathway, in which case, do we have a misunderstanding of the function of that brain region in humans to begin with? | they don't really have broca areas the way we do. their brains contain 'vocal nuclei.' these are fairly limited. however, vocal nuclei do make up part of what we identify as broca's area in humans. [neural systems for vocal learning in birds and humans: a synopsis] (_url_0_) | 2 | []
| []
| [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2726745/"
]
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|
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