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does a long-duration spaceflight significantly affect the biological clock? | i'm curious if it shifts a person's typical 24 earth hour sleep/wake cycle. do people become prone to longer periods awake/asleep? does it stay about the same? would a several year spaceflight increase or decrease an astronaut's "day". | being in space doesn't really make a difference. if you turn your lights off and go to sleep in time with a 24 hour schedule, you can keep a 24 hour schedule pretty easily. you can mess up your schedule in space or on earth too, people who are totally blind sometimes have issues maintaining a 24 hour schedule, some submarines deliberately keep a different schedule of watches, and if you avoid going outside and avoid letting light in, your schedule can slip. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do countries with higher taxes tend to have better quality of life? | [here](_url_0_) is a list of countries by gdp to government revenue ratio. these numbers show what the government actually gets, rather than what it's asking for. in other words, it doesn't take in to account tax evasion. i'd like to find out if indexes for development and quality of life and so on are correlated with higher taxes. it may be that countries with higher quality of life have more capable governments which are able to achieve higher gdp to government income ratio by being more effective at fighting tax evasion, despite asking for less in taxes than weaker governments. essentially i'd like to know the answer to "do higher taxes correlate with higher quality of life?", rather than "does higher government income as a percentage of gdp correlate with higher quality of life?". i'd look to do it by actually have the dataset myself, but if someone has already answered this question for me, i guess that will do. | why don't you simply plot tax revenue per gdp vs per-capita gdp and see how it looks? at a glance, it looks like there should be positive correlation. perhaps because if the per-capita gdp is small, then most of it goes towards basic necessities like food and there isn't much the government can tax. (?) | 4 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_tax_revenue_to_GDP_ratio"
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do mobile/cell phones really interfere with medical equipment? | i see the signs saying, "please turn off all mobile phones as they interfere with our medical equipment" in doctors surgeries, hospitals, radiology centres etc. but also often see people on their phones blatantly ignoring the request without anyone (doctors, nurses, reception staff) asking them to stop. this has me wondering if there really is any problem using mobile phones in medical settings? | in general - no. however the problem is that none of the equipment manufacturers are willing to guarantee that. for example - if equipment is installed incorrectly (such as missing a ground connection) there could be some interference. if you had the option between guaranteeing that it wouldn't cause a problem and simply saying "don't use a phone" .. which would you do? the big exception is eegs. they are ridiculously high impedance measurements and ridiculously low signals being measured .. and to make it worse the signal being measured has a very high bandwidth. in combination that makes them **extremely** susceptible to interference. when i last had an eeg, they had replaced all the light dimmers in the room to improve the measurement - they really are that susceptible. all equipment is designed to prevent any interference from causing mis-diagnosis or mis-measurements as much as possible ... but there is a very practical 'let's avoid it if possible' action at work too. there have been occasional 'close call' incidents which *may* have been caused by emi (eg: _url_0_ ) but it is difficult to tell for sure. in particular there was a 2007 study by the mayo clinic which attempted to replicate these kinds of incidents - but found nothing. however - all equipment in that case was installed correctly. the *real* question is what happens in a real clinical situation where things aren't always 100% correct ... with equipment that may not be correctly installed. you can argue that those situations are invalid because it isn't the cellphone's fault ... but this is all about increasing safety and operator errors are a fact of life... so we need to create environments where operator & installation errors are less likely to cause harm. but ... yeah ... mostly it is just being over cautious. mac | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/psn/printer.cfm?id=61"
] | [
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learning styles: fact or fiction? | distinct [learning styles](_url_0_) have always been presented as fact, "johnny is a visual learner," "susie is an auditory learner," "jack is a kinesthetic learner..." etc. but do these types specific learning modalities actually exist? is there evidence to support these unique learning styles (barring a learning disability that prevents a child from comprehending a certain modality)? | according to a review by the association for psychological science, there is currently no credible evidence to suggest that such learning styles exist. at the very least, there is certainly no evidence strong enough to justify implementing such programs in schools. [learning styles: concepts and evidence](_url_0_) particular type of evidence that we see as a minimum precondition for validating the use of a learning-style assessment in an instructional setting. as described earlier, we have been unable to find any evidence that clearly meets this standard. moreover, several studies that used the appropriate type of research design found results that contradict the most widely held version of the learning-styles hypothesis, namely, what we have referred to as the meshing hypothesis (constantinidou & baker, 2002; massa & mayer, 2006). the contrast between the enormous popularity of the learning-styles approach within education and the lack of credible evidence for its utility is, in our opinion, striking and disturbing. if classification of students’ learning styles has practical utility, it remains to be demonstrated. | 11 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_styles"
] | [
"http://www.sgs.utoronto.ca/Assets/SGS+Digital+Assets/current/ELWS/Pashler+et+al+article.pdf"
] | [
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my seven-year-old would like to know if gels have a "skin" (meniscus) like water does? | a meniscus is caused by the ratio of the strength of the cohesive forces of a fluids molecules to each other and the cohesive forces of the fluids molecules to the container wall. if a fluid has a higher cohesive force attracting it to a container wall than the intermolecular forces then the fluid will have a concave meniscus. if a fluid has a lower cohesive force attracting it to a container wall than the intermolecular forces then the fluid will have a convex meniscus. since gels behave is a solid-liquid hybrid way, the presence or absence of a meniscus would most likely depend on the physical properties of the gel. it really depends on weather the cohesive forces described above are enough to deform the gels structure. tl;dr: it depends on the gel. 'fluid' gels such as shower gel stand a much greater chance of presenting a meniscus than 'solid' gels like ballistics gel. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
could having people record their daily diets, in conjunction with occasional health records, help the study of the effects of different nutritional systems on health? | most definitely. the more data the better for scientific studies, but the problem with large amounts of data is keeping accuracy. with such a large amount of data it would be very hard to ensure the authenticity and accuracy of so many different subjects and results. this inaccuracy can be accounted for through error analysis but that will lessen the use of such large volumes of data when then same accuracy, and therefore answer, could then be achieved by a smaller, better-controlled study group. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
when you "get used to" a hot or cold temperature like in water, is that a mental or a physical thing? | it is a biological thing. the types of receptors that allow you to perceive such information as hot and cold (as well as pressure, etc.) are sensitive to changes in temperature (or pressure, etc.) rather than absolutes. edit: removed a reference to pain. pain is complicated. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do electric wires wear out? | i don't mean physically from bending, but over time, do wires (or other conductors) lose their ability to conduct electricity? ignoring things like corrosion and physical damage, would a wire conduct electricity exactly the same now as it would 50 years from now? | for a macroscale wire, yes; a reasonable amount of current won't detectably affect the wire's current-carrying ability (barring corrosion/oxidation, as you specify). however, in very narrow microfabricated wires, the momentum of moving charge carriers can push material around and ultimately produce an open circuit; this is known as [electromigration](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromigration"
] | [
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] |
does the ac frequency affect the molecular conductivity? | i recall reading somewhere that several molecular compounds have different conductivity depending on the frequency of the current; however, i cannot find this anywhere. does anyone know what is the name of the process when molecules change their conductance based on the frequency of the current? | there is quite alot to this question, i'll try and talk about a few different things. also i'm not sure if you are talking about aqueous solutions or solids. first lets understand why the conductance is frequency dependent. resistance is the opposition to current flow, such as in a dc circuit. in an ac circuit the current is not just flowing but also changing in magnitude and direction. the opposition to the change in current is known as reactance (often thought as the ac equlivant to resistance, althought a bit different), reactance arises because the current is constantly changing. when you increase the ac frequency you are making the current change more rapidly, as frequency goes up, inductive reactance also goes up but capacitive reactance goes down. as you can see these [two components](_url_0_) of reactance are not proportional to one another. therefore as a result the total reactance of a system will change with frequency. the ac conductivity depends on the reactance and resistance and therefore will change with frequency. a couple notable effects which alter the conductivity for ac at different frequencies include, and you may wish to look into these more the skin effect and debye–falkenhagen effect. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/acp204.gif"
] | [
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are thoughts physical objects? | i know it's a strange question, but i have a hard time thinking about it. how do we see and hear thoughts, are thoughts three-dimensional? thank you very much for the enlightening responses, they help tremendously. for anyone else interested, this might set you on the correct path- _url_0_ . if somebody has a more legitimate source, please post a link. i'm very skeptical of that website. | thoughts are webs of electricity traveling through different sections of your brain. most are reactionary responses to outside stimuli, and then chained together based on memories that surface during the process... i try not to think about it really; that our entire lives are just a chain of reactionary electric charges pulsing on a lump of meat... i'm sad now. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.edeycaldwell.com/thoughts-are-physical-things/"
] | [] | [
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when i think of flight (as in an airplane) my mind perceives it as the wing creating a low pressure system above the airplane which basically allows it to float up into that space. how wrong am i? | pretty much yeah the shape of the wing causes a low pressure system to form over the wing. this is what creates the lift that keeps the plane in the air. for science: _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lift_(force)#section_2"
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|
is a car exhaust system, without mufflers or resonators, considered to be open at one end or both? how would one go about finding the resonance nodes of a pipe with curves and bends? | the cylinders have a set of valves that connect them to the exhaust system and to the air intake. one set of valves or the other is always closed, so the top end of the exhaust system should be considered closed. pipes with curves and bends can be treated as a "straight" pipe, so long as their diameter is much smaller than the wavelength of the sound. if that's not true, the wave behavior becomes *incredibly* complicated and can only be solved with a computer simulation. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are 1.000...001 and 1.000...009 different numbers? | so i get that .999... and 1.000... are both equal to 1, but i got to thinking. would something like 1.00..001 and 1.00..009, even though the 1 and the 9 are both arbitrarily small, have any kind of appreciable differences? does it even make sense to put some kind of terminating value following infinitely many 0s? | no. the digit representation of a number is just a shorthand for a very particular kind of sum. for example, the digit representation 3.14159... is just a convenient way to write * 3 + 1\*10^(-1) + 4\*10^(-2) + 1\*10^(-3) + 5\*10^(-4) + 9\*10^(-5) + ... so the nth digit past zero of a number is the value in front of 10^(-n) in this sum. as n- also, this sum is why 0.9999....=1. the number 0.999... is the sum * 9\*10^(-1) + 9\*10^(-2) + 9\*10^(-3) + 9\*10^(-4) + ... from which we can pull out a 9/10 to get 1+10^(-1)+10^(-2)+10^(-3)+... which is a [geometric series](_url_0_) and equals 1/(1-10^(-1))=10/9. so the whole thing is (9/10)(10/9)=1. | 28 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_series"
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recently watched mermaids: a body found on the animal planet channel. my question, on an evolutionary level, how viable is the aquatic ape theory? | [for those curious](_url_0_) the 2 hour episode on this seemed a bit far-fetched, however the idea that certain apes may have possibly thrived in or near a beach to then later adapt to watery surroundings doesn't seem so crazy. any thoughts? | it doesn't seem *totally* crazy at first pass, no, but there's very little evidence in support of it, and a fair bit against it. i'm not personally qualified to talk in any detail about it, as i'm not really an anthropologist, but i'd recommend the following resources: _url_4_ (which is unfortunately paywalled, i think) _url_1_ (hawks, the author of this post, is a relatively well known anthropologist at the university of wisconsin; the main point is in the final paragraphs) and lastly _url_3_ is probably the best resource out there. the aquatic ape hypothesis is a curious one, because it does a pretty good job of looking like a legit scientific hypothesis. it's just that it was thoroughly rejected by the anthropological community some time ago. [elaine morgan](_url_2_ just can't seem to admit that she was wrong though, and the idea is attractive sounding enough to convince animal planet execs to sink years into producing documentaries that have very little to do with actual modern science, so [here we are](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=aquatic+ape&restrict_sr=on&sort=relevance",
"http://johnhawks.net/weblog/topics/pseudoscience/aquatic_ape_theory.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine_Morgan_(writer)",
"http://www.aquaticape.org/",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248497901469"
] | [
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how did we figure out that there is only about 30g francium on earth? how much has been obtained? | how sure are we that this is accurate? thanks, love this subreddit! | _url_0_ ----- so none has ever been obtained. very rarely in uranium minerals an atom of francium is suddenly created, lasts about 22min, and then decays. this is always happening so at any time (due to the amount of uranium on earth) there is some francium flashing into and out of existence. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.webelements.com/francium/"
] | [
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how much energy does it take to boot up an electronic device in comparison to the energy required to run it on stand by? | i have heard this from a few people, as a justification for leaving their pc running, that it would use up more energy if they shut it down and started it back up after lunch. so how do things work exactly concerning energy use of electronic devices during start up and stand by? thanks in advance for your answers! | it really depends on what type of components are in the computer and what sort of power state they are in during the break (eg. standby mode, or just running with a screen saver). but in general the components in computers don't work like that. they use relatively constant amounts of power. using a theoretical computer with a maximum power of 400w, would still idle at 150w for most of the time unless the processor is under a heavy workload or other power intensive tasks; this could include booting up the computer when things like spinning up a hard drive take much more energy than when they are already spinning. yet, the time required for booting is usually much shorter than a 30 minute lunch break. even then the difference isn't so much. leaving our theoretical 400w computer on at full power over lunch requires: 400w\*0.5hrs or 0.2kwh at the going rate of 0.29€ per kwh\*\* it's only 5.8 cents worth of power. when in reality it's probably less. \*\* this is in germany where power is stupid expensive | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what makes ciliac disease so hard to cure? | i happen to have it, though i have done little research into it. i ask this for three reasons: new daughter (biological), is this a genetic concern? (i was adopted, no genetic history) serving in the army, sometimes tough cookies, literally. will i become incapable of working at peak performance due to this? what other factors does this put me or my lineage at risk for? -thankful father and soldier. | first of all, thank you for your service. right now, celiac disease is much easier to "control" rather than to "cure." based on our current understanding of it, celiac is a t-cell driven epigenetic immune response to gluten products (specifically gliadin) that results in damage to the villi of the small bowel, the parts of the intestinal epithelium necessary for absorption. in other words, certain people have immune systems that are "primed" to respond inappropriately to an otherwise harmless antigen, similar to how some people have allergies to things that others don't. we do not know exactly how this disorder may be passed along, but there is evidence of an intrafamilial prevalence and a strong association with hla types hla-dq2 and dq8 (an odds ratio of almost 7). the good news is that most people with celiac should be able to control their flare ups by avoiding gluten. what triggers the reaction is that gluten contains a breakdown product called gliadin, which is deamidated after absorption and presented to helper t cells as a "foreign antigen," triggering the immune response that damages cells. if gluten is avoided, this should not occur. the hard part is that this is much easier said than done, as you are probably aware. for everyone else that may not realize it, many packaged foods contain gluten, making this an incredibly difficult diet to adhere to. i am sure that serving in the army, where you may not have as complete control of your diet during deployments, may complicate things further. as far as other complications, a well-documented association is a skin condition called dermatitis herpetiformis, which is a herpes-like skin rash that should resolve whenever gluten is cut from the diet. other complications are rare and often present very late in the disease, but there is a moderately increased risk of small bowel malignancy and t-cell lymphoma. these will normally be seen in someone who swears up and down that they are adherent to their gluten-free diet but still see worsening symptoms. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/celiac-disease/symptoms-causes/syc-20352220"
] | [
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] |
in feynman diagrams, why are positrons viewed as moving backwards through time? how is this a more useful model? | how is this possibly more useful than a positron moving forward in time? | i think you're viewing feynman diagram as a literal visual diagram of scattering which is not at all what they are. they are nothing but a cute short-hand to notate a specific mathematical expression. virtual particles aren't real things, they're book-keeping math, nothing else. and they are not a conceptual model, in the sense of "let's think of positrons as things moving backward in time", but rather a quantitative calculation model, in the sense of "this mathematical term needs to be integrated over this propagator, rather than that propagator when doing the full calculation". look for example at page 62 of this: _url_0_ where we see how each little cartoon diagram actually represent some big honking bit of math. at the end of the day, all feynman expansion is, is a way to calculate experimentally verifiable properties of interacting systems, under the approximations that interactions are weak. it's what is called a "perturbation" expansion, perturbation meaning "only slightly different from the non-interacting case". thus, the quality of the model is directly related to its accuracy of experimental prediction. and that accuracy is the most accurate of any theory ever developed by humankind. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic521209.files/QFT-Schwartz.pdf"
] | [
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] |
dear askscience! what are some scientific books you recommend for general reading? | a short history of nearly everything- bill bryson tells the story of the history of science and really influential scientists along the way. interesting stuff, but a little drawn out. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can we change our ways? for an example, could someone who's lazy become a super motivated person, or are we just genetically wired to be certain ways? | [removed] | we can change our actions, yes. whether or not we can change our inclination towards certain thoughts is less likely. for example, you can't prevent being a homosexual, but you can definitely refrain from homosexual acts. (a whole different topic is the damage to yourself vs damage to others these decisions cause). | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why don't nucleic acids precipitate during slating-out extrations? | \*salting-out i understand that the process precipitates proteins by interecting with their charges and making them "less soluble", but how is dna "protected" from this? | dna is soluble in a hydrophilic solvent because it interacts with the solvent molecules. it can be precipitated as well with salts after the addition of alcohol like ethanol or propanol. since ethanol has more affinity towards water molecules than dna/rna, it breaks the interaction of these two molecules and it itself associates with the water molecule resulting in the precipitation of dna/rna (it is equivalent to salting out). capacity to precipitate increases with the " c" no. of the alcohol i.e., methanol (ch3oh) < ethanol (ch3ch2oh) < propanol (ch3ch2ch2oh) . but evaporation decreases with c no. since ethanol can precipitate dna fairly and evaporates quickly (compared to propanol), it is preferred for this reason, but propanol requires smaller volumes than ethanol so is often used for convenience. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
question about being surrounded by a large mass? | hello, imagine the setup in [this](_url_0_) image. i wonder what would happen gravitationally if we placed a small spherical object (blue), inside a spherical but very massive object that is empty/hollow on the inside, with just a thin surface (gray). would there be movement between objects or would they stay in the same position? would the result change if the object on the inside was heavier? | this is [newton's shell theorem.](_url_0_) the gravitational force on the blue ball is zero everywhere inside the sphere. in other words, if we place the ball to one side, a stronger pull by less mass on one side is exactly countered by a weaker pull of more mass on the opposite side. we're assuming the grey shell is uniform in density. if there are imperfections, or other objects with mass floating about, we subtract the shell out and just calculate the gravitational force of the extraneous stuff. there is also a general relativistic extension of this theorem, called [birkhoff's theorem](_url_1_) which requires spherical symmetric solutions of the field equations to be asymptotically flat and static. | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/jmqUfCf.png"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_theorem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkhoff%27s_theorem_(relativity\\)"
] | [
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can l'hôpital's rule be applied again if lim x- > c f'(c)/g'(c) fits the original criteria? and what's the inuition behind the rule to begin with? | l'hôpital's rule, to the best of my knowledge states that, if lim x- > c (f(x),g(x)) is (0,0), (+inf, +inf), or (-inf,-inf), then lim x- > c f(c)/g(c) = lim x- > c f'(c)/g'(c) my question is: suppose lim x- > c (f'(x),g'(x)) = (0,0), (+inf,+inf), (-inf, -inf). can one "apply l'hôpital's rule" again ... i.e. is it the case that lim x- > c f(x)/g(x) = f''(x)/g''(x) i've heard contradictory answers in my calculus course and on wikipedia, so i figured i'd ask the experts. and whatever the answer ends up being, what's the intuition behind l'hôpital's rule? | yes you can apply the rule again! the rule only cares about whether or not the function fits the criteria, not where the function came from! and in your problem sets, you'll probably see limits that you can only solve by applying it twice. as for the intuition behind it? hmmmm.... basically, if you have an intermediate form, then you have to know which function (i.e., the numerator or the denominator) is growing faster. roughly speaking, if the numerator grows much faster, the limit should be infinity, if the denominator grows much faster, the limit should be 0, and if they grow at comparable rates the limit should be some finite number. the way to compare the rates of growth is by taking the derivative. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the discovery of gravity waves at bicep2 subsequently prove (or provides great evidence towards) the existence of gravitons? | provided the gravity waves are proven to be true through peer review, wouldn't wave-particle duality suggest that there must be a particle - specifically the graviton - to mediate it? if so, how does this assist in unifying general relativity and quantum mechanics? | should be noted that a [nobel prize was given out in 1993](_url_0_) for measurements that indirectly proved the existence of gravitational waves. the big discovery by bicep2 was hard evidence for the inflation epoch of the big bang. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1993/press.html"
] | [
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is there a actual psychological concept behind desperately wanting something you can't have? if so, what is it? | i'm sure we've all experienced this phenomenon. the desire for something, or someone, who is unattainable can sometimes be overwhelming and all-consuming. i was wondering if there's a scientific basis for this feeling. if so, what is it? how do you tell if one wants something just because it's out of reach? | i would consider this an issue of expectancy theory. the theory has three parts. effort-- performance-- value of outcomes (valence) let's say you want a promotion (high valence). under normal circumstances, high performers get promotions (high instrumentality), and people who work hard improve their performance (high expectancy). your situation seems to be a lack of instrumentality, and perhaps low expectancy as well. i say perhaps because if it is truly unattainable, then no matter what sort of things you do (i.e. your performance), the outcome cannot be obtained (low instrumentality). also, it would seem that high levels of effort might not even get you high performance (low expectancy), which would also affect your motivation. or, maybe i'm misreading your question, and you are asking what we call it when people want something more precisely because they can't have it. we must also then ask if they would want it if they could have it. there is some research in decision-making regarding how when we are choosing something among alternatives, we tend to look for negatives among options, whereas if we are given something to have, we tend to convince ourselves of the positives, since we're stuck with the outcome. it's an interesting question, but maybe i've answered your original one anyway already. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the new air purifier in china work? it’s apparently working incredibly well and is probably a bio-engineering marvel. | i don’t know if many people have seen it but china has recently installed a ‘air purifier’ of sorts, and it is apparently working incredibly well. i saw an article about under the news tab but askscience doesn’t allow crossposts :( | the base of the tower is constructed like a greenhouse, which traps heat and warms air. the warm air then flows up through a series of filters in the tower. this induces convection, which draws more cool air into the base, which is then heated. similar towers are used all over the world as cooling towers, where the heat is seen as an unwanted byproduct of power generation or industrial processes. these use convection to draw cool air into the base of the tower, heat is exchanged, and then warm air flows out the top. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooling_tower"
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a question about water droplets. | i recently saw [this video] (_url_0_). the last drop jumped higher than the max height of the drop preceding it. why did it do this? is this because it was so much smaller than the previous that the energy it got from reconstituting itself shot it that much higher, or did random movements in the water combine at just the right time to effect this? is it something else? or is there no way of telling? unfortunately, i'm going to bed right now so i won't be able to view or reply to anything, but i couldn't resist asking this question. i'll check back as soon as i can! | this may be helpful: _url_0_ (from discovery) this is also from op on the youtube video: "this is a great question. there is no a simple relation between droplet sizes that i know of because they depend sensitively on interactions with the surface ripples. however your observation about how the small droplets jump high is quite perceptive. the energy stored in surface tension depends on the curvature. the small droplets have both high curvature and low mass, which means they are able to jump proportionally much higher than big drops." | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=pbGz1njqhxU"
] | [
"http://dotsub.com/view/88e11b45-950a-4bae-8ed1-2debe2276294"
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how do scientists isolate chemicals like l-dopa? | i was thinking about scientists in post apocalyptic times (like i am legend) and was wondering about how they would have to come up with a lot of chemicals by scratch. and then i wondered - how the heck does one isolate chemicals? like if in a post apocalyptic era, how would a scientist help someone with parkinson's if he can't find the medicine? how do we find the chemicals in the first place? and how do we isolate atoms, like hydrogen? | many chemicals in our bodies were discovered by the simplest mechanism: grind an organ or tissue to a pulp, then use different solvents to extract fractions of their content. evaporate your extract and look for crystals, rinse, repeat. i see no reason why, with the appropriate procedure, you would not be able to extract l-dopa from a dog's brain. that is, if you had access to the right organic solvents and aqueous buffers, and even then don't expect to obtain huge amounts each time. if this was viable we wouldn't bother to make it in the lab. as for the last two questions, you basically ask to rebuild all chemistry from scratch. we did it once and we'll do it again if we need to, but don't expect your apocalypse joe to obtain more than a handful of high-purity chemicals to work with in his lifetime. isolating elements such as hydrogen is easy though, just apply current to water and capture the gases in the electrodes. one will be oxygen, and the other hydrogen. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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have significant parts of evolution ever been proven wrong or inaccurate? (more details inside) | hello reddit! i have some questions that i hope are interesting to you in the same way that they interest me. are there any valid studies which have demonstrated large flaws in the theory of evolution? if so, what are they and what flaws did they reveal? have these flaws been addressed, if they are actually flaws? in addition, i was wondering if there were any other theories that are scientifically (or at least partially) viableto explain the development of all species? if so, how accurate are they or why can they be disregarded? links to any studies or information about these questions are greatly appreciated! | well... sort of. the mechanisms of inheritance were not understood for a long time, and are not perfectly understood even now. this has led to substantial revisions of the theory of evolution, including the addition of genetics to evolutionary theory. the modern 'theory of evolution' sometimes called the "modern evolutionary synthesis", or sometimes, "neo-darwinian evolution" or the "neo-darwinian synthesis". in many ways, it resembles the theory of evolution first laid out by darwin, but there have been modifications to account for more recent information. depending on your perspective, you might say that the portions which have been changed are not 'significant', although i would say they are quite so. not even remotely, unless you consider somewhat modified versions of the modern evolutionary synthesis to be 'other theories'. there are several broadly similar ideas about certain details of how evolution works, but there is no scientific alternative to the overall theory of evolution. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the probable true extent of koko the gorilla's intelligence? (additional question for anyone fluent in asl) | i've heard a lot of controversy over whether koko is extraordinarily intelligent, or if the researchers are exaggerating. i've always thought that we don't really know enough to say one way or the other, but i recently saw [this](_url_0_) video, and that sure as hell looks like genuine intelligence, communication, and emotions to me. | intelligence and the ability to communicate are not really the same thing. if by intelligence you mean the ability to communicate higher order cognitive functions such as emotions, deception etc i think you're not going to find an answer. people associate intelligence with language, but who says they must both exist in tandem? we may not understand the bounds of intelligence. we see squid seeing with their tentacles with no eyes. the animal kingdom continually amazes us. depending on who you ask koko, kanzi, panbanisha, alex the african grey could all be considered "exceptions". just as extraordinary human individuals exist, extraordinary animals are likely to exist. my thoughts from my research are that apes, parrots and possibly other animals are more intelligent than we give them credit for. they have the ability to possess language it just is poorly understood by us. we place language in this tiny box reserved for humans because the components of religion etc have not came about in other animals. we have to question whether the language of other animals is as complex as ours. what if we do not understand it? if we start with the hypothesis that animals do not have language because of the particular results of it we're examining a hero story. we know the ending and we're just searching for facts to prove ourselves right. we've spent so long placing ourselves above animals due to our cultural biases that we lack the objective scientific approach to animal language studies. nonsense research like [project nim](_url_0_) plague the scientific field because it seems like the obvious answer. african grey's exhibit convergence evolutionary aspects of language and their environment is quite similar as our hominin ancestors. i believe there is something we are missing in our studies of animal language and intelligence. many studies of ape language focus on gestural communication as a precursor for language as their brocas areas activate when they communicate manually. (this is the area that activates when we speak.) there was some type of switch between using our bodies and relying more on vocalizations and calls. i have my own theories about how music was a precursor to language and there recently there have been some research done into this idea, so obviously i'm not alone in this idea. i would say though that most anthropologists feel one way, linguists another, psychologists another and it is really best to evaluate the facts yourself. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NdACUfI6nA0"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Nim#Project_Nim"
] | [
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does the movement of blood cells speed up with no gravity? | i was not sure how to phrase this but does the hart have to work less because there is nothing pulling the matter to our feet. how does this effect us | the flow of blood (or any fluid) through a cylindrical tube is governed by the hagen-poiseuille equation which states that flow is proportional to the pressure gradient across the tube and the fourth power of the radius of the tube, and inversely proportional to the length of the tube and the viscosity of the fluid. being in zero gravity will change the hydrostatic pressure in various arteries in relation to the heart. this should mean that more blood is pumped to your head and less to your feet, however your brain (as well as your heart and kidneys) autoregulate to maintain a constant blood flow across a wide range of supply pressures. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when static electricity flows through saltwater, does the speed vary with depth? | [deleted] | if salt water is a conductor, then there shouldn't be any electric fields inside the conductor and current should only flow on the surface. but i don't know how well this holds up since salt water isn't a perfect conductor. also, this is just semantics, but i think it is improper to talk about static electricity *flowing*, since its static by definition. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in a weightless environment, does capillary action happen indefinitely? | i've always understood that gravity is the restricting force for capillary action. if there's no opposing force, how does a liquid behave? | it is, if motion under capillary action is in an upward direction. when gravity is not an issue, a drop of water will still get sucked into a capillary tube but only until the entire volume of water has been pulled in, and the progress will stop once the last of the water gets pulled in. if the volume of water is practically limitless, capillary action will pull the water through until it reaches the other end of the tube, and then stop. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[math] how do i calculate the number of serial associations in a network of any given two discrete entities? | i'm trying to understand this math, this is not related to any academic study, just my own edification. i think i know how to calculate the discrete connections, but i'm just not positive. given a network of 5,000 entities, take any 1 given entity and determine the likelihood that it serially connected with any 1 other entity. assumption: each entity connects with 84 other entities. i might not be explaining myself well, math is not my strong suit, if a is part of a network, and he connects with b, and b with c, and c with d, then a serially connected with d (through b and c). if we take any two entities in a network of 5,000, what is the likelihood that they serially connected with each other through any number of intermediaries? isn't the total number of serial network connections 84! (factorial)? i'm just not sure what math is needed and how to solve it. | the discipline you want is called "graph theory", and specifically "random graph theory". unfortunately, although the general theory of graphs is quite elegant, obtaining concrete results about specific random graphs is often quite difficult due to technical messiness, and the specific parameter you're trying to fix (the eighty-four connections per node, which we call "degree") is somewhat harder to work with than others. that being said, the probability you're looking for should be very close to 1. in fact, since 84 i'm not quite sure what this part means, i'm afraid. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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putting a stone in an oven helps diffuse heat. the stone also acts as a thermal mass. how? would someone mind explaining the thermodynamics behind this? | ovens fluctuate typically in a 50 or hundred degree (fahrenheit) range around the temperature set on the thermostat. a baking stone which has been left in the oven while preheating can act to regulate the temperature and even out inconsistencies because of its mass and its specific heat capacity. specific heat capacity is a measure of how much energy is required to increase a set amount of a material by a certain number of degrees. usually this is measured in something like cal/g*k. ceramic or stone has a very high specific heat capacity because of the microscopic properties of stone. it's just not very conductive. it tends to stay the same temperature for a long time. so it can take a long time to preheat a baking stone, but it will stay hot for long after the oven is off. mass affects the stone's heat capacity by increasing the difficulty with which its temperature is raised. basically, no matter if the material is stone or copper, a larger amount will require more energy to raise the average temperature. it takes longer to boil a large kettle of water than a small saucepan, for example. combined, the relatively high mass and specific heat capacity of the stone acts to retain heat in the oven when the air temperature dips below desired values, and to absorb some of the excess heat from when the oven is running too hot. the stone makes your oven less bipolar basically. so if you're buying a baking stone, just remember to buy heavy and buy as big as your oven can handle, while leaving maybe an inch an a half on every side for proper air circulation. if you really feel like paying out, then you can get two of them, one for the top and one for the bottom of your oven. they'll act even better together and you can leave them in there always. [edited for correctness] | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does heat transfer at the quantum level work? | "temperature" is the macroscopic, effective description of a certain statistical energy distribution of random motion. on the atomic level, there are many objects that undergo random motion, so there can potentially be different temperatures to a material. for instance, take a solid-state quantum well laser. in a crystalline solid, the outer atomic valence states spread out into a band of states and the electrons can thermalize (spread out in energy space into a thermal distribution). in a 1d quantum well, these bands break into subbands. you can therefore have a lattice temperature (describing the vibrations of the atoms), and at the same time have different electron temperatures for each subband. in the quantum world, therefore, temperature is more a description of an energy distribution and less a description of how hard solid walls are whacking into each other. with this in mind, heat transfer can happen in many ways. the most basic way is for atoms that are vibrating to pass this vibration on through their electromagnetic bonds. in the quantum world, we represent a lattice vibration as a quantized pseduo-particle called a "phonon". heat transferred to, from, and through the atomic lattice is therefore described as an emission, absorption, and transmission of phonons. but heat can also be transferred through the electron population. if excited electrons move to another spatial location and then thermalize, you can say that the electrons have transferred heat. any population of indistinguishable quantum objects can have a thermal energy distribution and move around/propagate energy, thus constituting heat. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
travel between earth and sun-earth lagrange points 4 and 5: energy requirements? | from wikipedia: [earth trojan](_url_0_) > the orbits of any earth trojans could make them less energetically costly to reach than the moon, even though they will be hundreds of times more distant. can somebody confirm for me whether or not this line from wikipedia is correct? also, what would be the most energy-efficient way for a spacecraft to travel from earth to either of those two locations? if i remember correctly, there have been some spacecraft sent on heliocentric orbits, but i am not sure if any have gone specifically to sun-earth l4/l5. | i'll start with a small clarification, when planning space trajectories energy has little meaning. since there is nothing to push against, rockets must carry their own reaction mass onboard (in fact the definition of a rocket is an object that obtains thrust by expelling part of its own mass). so the mass is what we most care about. also because it is expensive to launch. (as an exception to the above, when reaching a target celestial body the hyperbolic excess speed is usually expressed squared and it's called "characteristic energy", i.e. the energy per unit of mass.) the propellant mass is related to the speed change (δv or delta-v) of each manoeuvre via the [tsiolkovsky equation](_url_0_). so we normally reason in terms of δv when planning trajectories. now the actual answer: intuitively what wikipedia says sounds correct, you need a δv of almost escape speed to reach the moon, then another δv to land smoothly. travelling to l4 or l5 would require not much more δv than escape speed from earth, so it may be less, though the travel time may be longer. but let me try some math to confirm. let's start assuming a launcher has already put your spacecraft and all the fuel you'll need in low earth orbit (leo) in a typical orbit at 400 km. from here you'll do the rest on your own. you're moving around the earth at 7.67 km/s. to achieve a lunar [transfer ellipse](_url_1_) you'll need 10.8 km/s, so your δv will be 3.1 km/s. once you reach the moon, its gravity will speed you up as you approach the surface and you'll hit it at 2.4 km/s (the moon's escape speed) unless you apply an equal and opposite δv to slow down to a smooth landing. this makes a total δv of 5.5 km/s to reach the moon's surface. if instead, you achieve a little bit faster than escape speed, you'll leave earth's sphere of gravitational influence and still have some excess speed. this will put you in an orbit around the sun that differs slightly from earth's orbit. if you move faster than earth, you'll naturally raise to a higher orbit with a longer period, then you'll stay behind (i know, it's counterintuitive, but that's how orbits work). if you move slower than the opposite will happen: lower orbit, shorter period, move ahead. so in the end which lagrange point you want to reach depends on whether you escape in the leading or trailing direction, but you'll go to the opposite point. once you've phased enough you'll have to do another rocket burn to make your speed equal to that of earth's and stay on that point. so earth's escape speed is 11.2 km/s. just increase this to 11.25 km/s and you'll escape with an excess speed of 1 km/s. once you've phased enough you'll need another km/s to sync with earth, for a total δv of 4.6 km/s. yup, that's easier than reaching the moon's surface. and actually 1 km/s is a lot just for that, it would move you very far from earth's orbit (actually to the middle between earth's and mars' orbit). so you could do this (and it would be better to do it) with an even smaller δv. of course, a smaller δv means more time for phasing. you can reach the moon in a few days, but l4 or l5 would take months. i'm also not aware of any satellites in l4/l5. stereo-a and b have crossed those points but didn't slow down to stay there. | 3 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_trojan"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hohmann_transfer_orbit"
] | [
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] |
what makes the electron shells of the atoms between scandium and zinc seem to go haywire, while suddenly regaining a stable outer shell increase from gallium to krypton? why does this pattern repeat throughout the periods? | _url_0_ | this has to do with orbital theory. electrons are filling up d orbitals in that middle row, and electrons will always go to lowest energy configuration. sometimes it's more favorable to fill other orbitals first and other times it's not. | 312 | [] | [
"http://ptable.com/"
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does fatigue or hunger affect how we perceive other people's physical attributes? | for example if we're tired, do we find people more attractive? | i don't know about fatigue, but hungry men are more likely to find heavier women and larger breasts attractive. sources - [1](_url_1_), [2](_url_0_), [3](_url_2_) edit: fixed weird wording | 217 | [] | [] | [
"http://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/full/10.1027/1864-9335/a000210",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/wol1/doi/10.1348/000712605X80713/abstract",
"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0057623"
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is there an extension of the difference operation to more than two values? | the difference between, e.g., 3 and 5 is 2. is there a reasonable extension of this idea (that keeps some of the same properties) to more than two numbers? | we can find the "difference" of two or more groups of numbers, by plotting the groups of numbers using euclidean geometry and pythagoras' theorem to find the absolute distance between them. as for groups of numbers, say the difference between 4,7 and 10, there's no direct extension of the subtraction operation like there is for addition, because subtraction has the property of not being associative, that is 9 - (7-4) is different to (9-7) - 4 the way that addition does. one thing you can do is find the mean of the numbers and add up the difference between each number and the mean, and this will give you an idea of how spread out the numbers are, this is what statisticians do to describe groups of numbers | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how important to human psychological well being and neurological function is feeling in control? | i've been reading a number of papers and articles (this is over years, so i have none of these sources readily available, my apologies in advance). which reference a feeling of control/autonomy as being central to good mental health. that lacking feelings of control/autonomy is heavily correlated to mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, anorexia and is also correlated with low self-control/impulsivity, self-harm/mutilation, and low self-esteem. is this at all causative, or just pure pseudo-scientific correlation ignoring a million confounding factors? does experiencing situations/feelings of low or no control produce marked changes in neurological development or function? (i can haz fmri?) how about the opposite? | [learned helplessness](_url_1_) is an example of this, where animals are repeatedly subjected to inescapable trauma or adverse stimuli which they can't avoid. the wikipedia article discusses a 2-stage experiment involving two groups of dogs. in the first stage, both dogs are repeatedly subjected to painful electric shocks at random time intervals. the first group of dogs have access to a lever that will end the shocks if pushed. the second group of dogs was given a lever that did nothing when pressed, and the shocks would continue for some duration regardless of whatever the dogs in this group attempted to do to escape them. in the second stage of the experiment, the dogs where subjected to electrical shocks once again, but this time, both groups of dogs could escape the shocks by jumping over a shallow partition. in was found that dogs in the first group, that learned to stop the shocks with the lever, quickly and easily jumped over the partition. the second group of dogs, that had no power over the shocks in the first experiment, by and large just layed in the chamber and whimpered, making no attempt to jump over the partition and escape. this learned helplessness of the second group of dogs is very similar to the behavior of the clinically depressed, and it does have a striking neurological signature. i couldn't find fmri studies in humans, but i managed to dig up [this review](_url_0_) which looks at the neurobiological correlates of learned helplessness in hamsters exposed to repeated tailshocks. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028390811001043",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_helplessness"
] | [
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what is up with these creepy concentric circle storms over the dakotas right now? | [take a look](_url_0_) at first i thought, "oh, funny, it kind of looks like a face!" which was shortly followed by, "wait, how the heck does that even happen?" | the center of those circles are the locations of weather radars with limited ranges. if you overlayed a satellite view of the clouds at the same time you'd see those circles were just parts of a larger weather system, and were merely the parts that the ground based radar systems can *see*. | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/4Gxc8Ab"
] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/syoXvsR.png"
] | [
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how is ballistics gelatin an accurate representation of the human flesh? | i know that ballistics gel is the same density as human flesh is, therefore allowing a somewhat accurate representation. however, i also noticed that when using ballistics gel dummies/torsos, the gelatin is significantly thicker than human flesh would be. wouldn't the thickness, despite being the same density, affect the accuracy of the results? | before ballistics gel, pigs were used, as they were found to be similar density to human flesh, and are pretty much the same size and weight, for repeat testing. not completely sure, but i think ballistics gel is mixed to the same density as pig flesh still, but that's one of the main reasons to use ballistics gel, is that you can control the density. ballistics gel tests are already approximations, so the *accuracy* of what you are testing for is going to vary anyway, as it doesn't simulate skin, bone, clothing, etc. the main reason for using ballistics gel in the first place, is to see what the bullet is doing, and not so much the damage to the target; to see whether the bullet rolls, fragments, penetrates, or cause cavitation, etc. slight variations in density isn't going to change the bullet behavior much. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would jumping in this situation help? | let's say you're standing on a platform at the side of a tall building (like a window washer) and let's say you fall. before you reach the ground you kick off the platform that you're standing on going vertically will this reduce the impact upon hitting the ground. may be a stupid question but i'm curious. thanks in advance | yes and if you fall from washing first floor windows you'll have a great story to tell. higher...not so much. when you jump up from the platform the forces from your legs go in equal and opposite directions. so your jump speed is about 1.5ft/sec which will slow you down. even better the platform is likely to have a greater mass than yourself and thus more inertia. the force from your legs pushes the platform down so it goes faster just as you launch away from it. but slower than you because it is heavier, so you get most of the jumping force to move yourself upwards. sadly both you and the platform are falling at 32ft/sec (9.8m/sec) and accelerating. this is quite fast. it therefore follows that a last moment jump of 1.5ft/sec against the downward momentum will be only of interest to physicists in the crowd. brave try. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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organisms exhibiting body modification? | you may be familiar with lizards that can lose their tails, as a defense mechanism. self-amputation certainly would seem to count as body modification and the lizard gains a survival advantage by escaping a predator (which would then eat the tail). this is an example of a general phenomenon known as [autonomy]( _url_4_) in which animals practice self-amputation. another instance of this would be queen termites (the reproductive females) pull off their own wings once they have mated [(source)]( _url_1_). some birds will apply coloration to their feathers. it’s not permanent like a tattoo, but it's analogous. they generally do this to be more attractive to a mate. flamingos produce a dye from a gland under their tails that they apply to their feathers in order to appear more attractive to mates [(source)]( _url_2_). they use the dye more frequently during mating season. other birds will use items from the environment to color their feathers such as soil [(source)]( _url_3_). in a similar vein, some crabs will adorn their shells with various plan matter in order to enhance camouflage [(source)]( _url_0_) i’m not sure if these examples meet your definition of body modification. let me know. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19278336",
"http://www.npr.org/2011/05/06/136028437/a-termite-queen-and-her-ultimate-sacrifice",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/10/101025101634.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19426089?dopt=Abstract",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotomy"
] | [
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|
why does water tend to follow the path of a nearby object instead of going straight down? | for example, when pouring water from a mostly-full glass, it will cause the water to follow the side of the glass instead of fall perfectly down. also, a sink will do the same to your arm, or finger. | i believe you are referring to the force of *adhesion*, water has a tendency to adhede to other dissimilar surfaces. there is no one theory as to why adhesion takes place, but rather it is thought to occur by multiple mechanisms, including: chemical, mechanical, electrostatic, and dispersive forces. materials with high "surface energy" tend to have strong intermolecular forces, drawing water to the surface with such energy rather than the air, which has no surface energy for our intents and purposes. not sure if this explains the phenomena you're referring too, but it's what came to mind. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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people generally have the same joints in their bodies with size being the main difference between individuals. besides injury and medical conditions, what else causes people to have different gaits when they walk or run? | this is actually an extremely complicated question, and i can only weigh in on part of it, so hopefully someone else can make up the lag. 1) bone structure and points of connection. you differ not only in your individual makeup from others, but there are also racial and ethnic considerations as well. as an example, across ethnicity/race, there are broad differences in frequency of femur shapes. anterior curves are extremely uncommon in blacks and whites, and relatively common (although not the dominant shape) in native americans. external rotation of the femur at the hip ("turnout"), where the individual's preferred stable stance is with the toes pointed much more laterally, is at a much higher frequency in whites. as these both affect load-bearing and forward motion, they'll affect gait. slight differences in bone length between right and left side will also have a huge effect. 2) connective tissue length, elasticity, tensile strength, and resilience. there is a normal range of length of connective tissue, and because that affects flexion and extension of the joints, it will also naturally affect gait. ex: i'm "double jointed" (read: sloppy joints, longer connective tissue), and as a result, my knees bend slightly backwards in the standing position. when running, they'll go through a "snapping" motion backwards before i can push off again, and this will obviously change appearance of normal stride. additionally, people whose tissue is not very resilient and prone to tears will develop compensatory motion to avoid aggravating the tear, even before the tear is consciously realized by the individual. both examples are stride and stance-changers. 3) choice of footgear, especially in women. women who frequently or almost exclusively wear heeled shoes can develop bone spurs, bunions, and issues with their achilles tendon that leads to heel and ankle pain. again, once damage of any kind sets in, compensatory gait changes occur. also, for a while, distance runners were acclimatizing their feet to toe-shoes, which trained them to run on the ball of their foot. 4) people can develop idiopathic nerve damage (characteristic of diseases like diabetes, but it can also happen without apparent cause), and that changes load-bearing urges and normal stance. 5) muscle strength and strapping differs by sex, and you'll see sex differences in a lot of basic tasks, the most frequently cited is carrying a bulky object (men tend to carry in front, women tend to carry on the side while boosting on the illiac crest of the hip). although my example is upper body, the effects of this carry through all skeletal muscle. 6) brain and coordination. again, for the same reasons as above, there are natural ranges in how coordinated people are and the speed at which they can stably switch movements. these can lead to a person's natural gait to be more "wobbly" than another's. there's actually a lot more to this topic than what i've typed, so again, i hope someone else chimes in with a more nuanced background. great question! | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the scientific consensus on the best time to work out and exercise? | i think i stumbled upon a few research examples of this, but i was hoping someone who studies a related field would be able to offer broader knowledge. the majority of the time, people go to the gym and play sports at a convenient time that fits in their daily schedule. but if a person could choose any time of the day (ie. morning, afternoon or evening) and choose specific timings (e.g. after breakfast? before lunch? before dinner? etc.) what does the research say in terms of the best time to exercise? | research on "peak hours" has shown that we are too heterogeneous to give a definite answer to this question. some people are most energetic in the morning, and some later in the day. thus, the simple answer is "whenever you feel like it." now, in terms of efficiency, there has been a little evidence that exercise before breakfast may burn more energy.... but it's only been shown in a fairly weak study. i would maintain the answer that whenever you personally have the most energy is the best time, since that's when you'll work hardest. _url_0_ | 30 | [] | [] | [
"www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/behindtheheadlines/news/2012-10-30-exercise-before-breakfast-leads-to-extra-weight-loss/"
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] |
while walking through a pennsylvania forest, i saw a rock the size of a car. how long has it been sitting there, and where was it before that? | that's definitely not enough information to give anything close to a definitive answer, but we can speculate a bit. assuming you did not see said car-sized rock directly adjacent to elevated topography with exposures of similar bedrock (if you did, then it probably is sourced from said exposures and moved through some sort of mass movement), then a good guess would be that it is a [glacial erratic](_url_1_). the possibility of it being a glacial erratic would be bolstered if 1) the type of rock was significantly different than the local rocks and 2) you observed it in an area known to be previously covered by the [laurentide ice sheet](_url_0_). the northern portions of north america were covered by a large ice sheet several times during the peak of glacial periods over the last ~2 million years. the extents of these ice sheets varied, but portions of pennsylvania were covered by these ice sheets from time to time, e.g. [this paper](_url_3_) has maps of the extent of the ice sheet during the last glacial maximum (check out figure 2 on page 5). if it is fact a glacial erratic related to the laurentide ice sheet, then it probably last significantly moved during the [last glacial maximum](_url_2_), but again, without details, it's pretty hard to say too much more. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurentide_Ice_Sheet",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_erratic",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum",
"http://www.geology.wisc.edu/~davem/abstracts/03-25.pdf"
] | [
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] |
|
does windchill affect, say, the surface of a pond? | simply: if it's 36 degrees fahrenheit (2.2 celsius) and the wind is blowing 30 mph (48 kph), will a layer of ice form on the surface? | wind chill is a measure of perception "how cold does it feel" which is in turn calculated from how much heat a person *with a normal body* temperature will lose for a given air temperature, humidity, and wind speed. wind chill is expressed in term of what temperature would give the same heat loss in still air at some standard humidity. wind blowing across a surface of a pond may similarly enhance the heat loss from the pond. you can see this when cold winds blowing across the surface of the water produce "arctic sea smoke" on the water. that heat of evaporation does cool the water, but the cooler water sinks allowing warmer water to rise to the surface. when the water reaches the same temperature as the air, generally there isn't going to be much heat transfer between them any more. if the air is above freezing, the cooling created through evaporation isn't going to be sufficient to extract enough heat to freeze the water. tl;dr no | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is there any way to test products meant for humans that could potentially be harmful on non-living substances? | after reading [this study](_url_0_) about rats showing empathy i wondered what it meant for ethical testing. is there anyway to test products meant for humans on non living or "unconscious" organisms? | for studies that look at animal behavior, like the rat empathy study, there isn't really a good way to get around using live animals. but even still there are guiding principles that scientists follow (especially if they receive federal funding), and virtually every research institution has an animal care and use protocol committee that reviews animals research proposals and considers whether adequate steps were made to reduce animal suffering, with attention paid to the ["**three rs**"](_url_0_) of animal research: **r**eduction (using as few animals as possible to still get statistically significant results), **r**efinement, (minimizing pain or discomfort to animals) and **r**eplacement (using tissues or cell cultures, mathematical modeling, or less-sentient species like insects). | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/336819/title/He’s_no_rat%2C_he’s_my_brother"
] | [
"http://caat.jhsph.edu/publications/Articles/3r.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro",
"http://caat.jhsph.edu/publications/",
"http://altweb.jhsph.edu/bin/m/h/altex_2011_1_017_044_Vliet.pdf"
] | [
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artificial cells and the possibilities | have you seen the artificial dna-like coding molecule that can be translated to and from dna using novel synthesised polymerases? _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/336/6079/341.full?ijkey=iDKzI25Xl.iJg&keytype=ref&siteid=sci%2520"
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|
soil remineralization | what are the purported benefits of rock dust and how does rock dust make them happen? what is the science behind soil remineralization? thanks! | #**the general principle** plants and animals require varying amounts of nutrients for proper growth and development. typically, soils are formed by the breakdown of minerals in rocks by biological processes. soils become depleted in nutrients (minerals), commonly by the process of leaching. leaching occurs when soluble minerals within the soils are put into solution (as dissolved species or in colloidal form) by percolating precipitation. this means that the nutrients are made mobile and transported from the top layers to layers further away as well as deeper layers and are harder for organisms to take advantage of. over time, the nutrients within a soil are depleted by the leaching process as well as by consumption. in areas of extensive leaching, many plant nutrients are lost, leaving quartz and hydroxides of iron, manganese, and aluminum as the only mineral species. #**rock dust (rock flour)** rock flour is generated during the movement of glacial masses and flow, as well as freeze-thaw cycles. as a glacier moves down valley it plucks and grinds the bedrock on which it is moving on. this produces tell-tale signs (glacial striations) of its presence as well as producing fine silt to clay sized grains of rock which is termed rock flour (rock dust, glacial flour, etc.). #**remineralization** as noted previously soils will become leached with time. however, rock flour is fine enough that it can be transported by wind and deposited (loess). the transportation and deposition of rock flour may therefore remineralize the top layers of depleted soils. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
soil liquefaction: what's actually happening, and does capillarity play a role? | not really. liquefaction occurs when an earthquake shakes up loose, water-saturated sand or sand-rich soil. sand has some very [unusual properties.](_url_3_) that's the key here. to make a previously "solid" sediment into a more liquid one you need to add vibration. this is actually a good macro analogy for how you turn solids into liquids (at the molecular/atomic level) by adding heat. look at [this diagram of molecules in a solid vs a liquid](_url_0_) (ignore the one for gas). the molecules in a solid are like the grains of sand, pre-earthquake. once the quake happens and the sand starts to shake the grains spread out a little, the same way molecules do when heated (actually that's all heat is; an increase in the vibration of molecules/atoms). with the grains vibrating and with the water present the whole thing starts to behave like a liquid until the vibration ceases. liquefaction typically happens in a setting [such as this](_url_2_), where there is another layer of sediment above the one subject to liquefaction. this means that the water-saturated layer is confined and under some pressure. once the sediment is liquified it, along with the water, can blast up through the overlying sediments creating what looks like mini volcanoes of sand on the surface, provided the bed of sediment above it isn't too thick. of course, liquefaction doesn't happen every time there's an earthquake, it all depends on the relative intensity of the quake and typically only happens in serious quakes. bonus: gif of dry, but very fine, sand [behaving like a liquid (or fluid to be more precise)](_url_1_). edit: fixed a couple typos | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://myweb.cwpost.liu.edu/vdivener/notes/solid-liquid-gas.gif",
"http://i.imgur.com/CgVSUD7.gif",
"http://worldlywise.pbworks.com/f/liquefaction.png",
"http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~reu/99reu/final_reports/paper_knappman.pdf"
] | [
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|
what are the string-like structures on the iris? | _url_0_ seen here is an eye with a blue iris, but what are those string-like structures in the iris, that surround the pupil? | they are the parts (named below) within the iris dilator muscle which are what physically contract to change the size of the pupil. "the pupillary dilator consists of a spokelike arrangement of modified contractile cells called myoepithelial cells." from: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Human_Iris_JD052007.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilator_pupillae"
] | [
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] |
every day somebody posts a link about some advance in solar panel technology. why don't we see these results yet? | pretty much every single day in r/technology there is a front page link about scientists somewhere making super-triple-carbon-nano-mesh-tube-cells or something that quadruple the efficiency of solar cells. if there are so many advances, why don't we see more examples of it's use? | part of the problem is sensationalism from journalists who are interviewing scientists who by their nature think the problem they are working on is really cool. who would want to read an article about a possibly important piece of work on one of dozens of technologies a few of which might prove useful? so scientific journalism almost always exaggerates (and sometimes misunderstands) the significance of the discovery. furthermore, low cost solar cells are really challenging problems. it isn't reasonable to expect moore's law type improvements from them even if the media likes to make it seem that way. as a result of the nature of the issue, lots of scientists are attacking the problem in a lot of different ways. so you end up hearing about progress on all of them but the results aren't necessarily additive. and many of the most promising discoveries are on devices which show much potential but have remaining research challenges which prevent their implementation. finally, taking a device to market takes time. investors have to be convinced, products prototyped, and factories built. and even though solar has made big improvements, the technology need for massive displacement of conventional energy still isn't there -- even in the lab. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is a city considered an ecosystem? | i just thought of this after watching the final episode of planet earth ii | yes. just like humans are a part of nature and everything we do is "natural." we alter environments to create new ecosystems. these ecosystems will collapse once we fail to maintain them, but for now they are a heavy influence on all life which resides within them. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you use a volumetric pipette in space? | so we were doing a chemistry lab and the question comes up, how would astronauts pipette in space? is there like a zero-g micropipette or pasteur pipette? if not then how would you perform precise experiments in space? | i believe they use a [positive displacement pipette](_url_0_). each tip comes with a disposable plunger that makes direct contact with the fluid, this will prevent liquids from climbing up the tips and getting everywhere. i would imagine that 1-100ul traditional pipettes would work as well. the surface tension of fluids should keep anything from spilling out of those. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/labware/labware-products.html?TablePage=17190915"
] | [
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what is the problem with black holes eating information? | yesterday i watched an old talk by dr. leonard susskind on the black hole wars. i think it's gone over my head because everything he said either sounded obvious as heck or illogical. he explained information falling into a black hole as a hologram so that we can somehow decode everything in the black hole from the outside and the information would not be lost to us, just encrypted in some complex pattern. sounds fine, but i don't get why. so information can't be destroyed and i get why that's a problem. people can't go inside a black hole and send information out and i understand why. then something i don't understand and he didn't really explain about how it's a problem for people on the outside of a black hole to lose *access* to information. ??? conclude black hole holograms are a logical necessity. why can't we just say that information is not always observable from all frames of reference? | basically, there are three main principles that are true for our known low-energy physics: - the equivalence principle ("heart" of general relativity) - unitarity ("heart" of quantum mechanics) - locality and you would like to keep them as intact as possible in a theory of quantum gravity. however, it was found out it is impossible for all of them to be true at the same time in the quantum gravitational regime. in common language, this was described as the necessity to either modify quantum mechanics or general relativity so that they could be unified. unitarity implies conservation of information. if information is conserved, the laws of the universe are time-reversible and from perfect knowledge of a final state you can reconstruct the unique initial state. so non-unitarity also means that there is a preferred direction of flow of time. now, unitarity is not mandatory. back in the day when this incompatibility was recognized people (e.g. hawking) thought the solution could be to drop unitarity and keep the ep and locality. this requires a strong modification of qm but not really a big shift for general relativity and the standard model. nowadays, however, modifications of qm do not seem like a promising road. the vastly favoured path is that the ep and unitarity are true, in fact qm needs no modification, while locality must be dropped. this is supported by independent quantum gravity insights, and resonates with string theory, a non-local, but unitary theory. susskind belongs to this camp, so to speak; when he talks you have to remember he starts from the assumption that unitarity is true, and locality is false. you're not really describing non-unitarity but rather a scenario where information is conserved but is just hidden inside the black hole and not accessible. this actually cannot be, because black holes evaporate and become smaller than the required size to hold the information they would hypothetically contain in your scenario. the maximum amount of information that can be stored in a region is given by the bekenstein bound; then give to a black hole a large amount of info satisfying the bound, then wait for the black hole to evaporate so much that the bound goes below that amount of information, reaching a contradiction. thus, if unitarity, then the black hole needs to return the information out as it evaporates, which means the hawking radiation must carry it (eventually "completely" scrambled). but if so... then it couldn't have possibly have fallen in to begin with, or it wouldn't be able to get out. this key insight leads to the complementarity picture, which has a holographic quality, and is what he's talking about there. we discussed this better in [this thread](_url_0_) from yesterday. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/64m0sr/when_a_black_hole_evaporates_fully_what_does_an/"
] | [
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what is the future of guns? is the traditional bullet going to continue or are we going to see different forms of ammunition (ex. scifi weapons using plasma or such) | it depends what you mean by "traditional bullet". for hundreds of years all guns fired round projectiles propelled by black powder. in the last 150 years, we have started using shaped projectiles and moved on to more advanced propellants (smokeless powder, cordite). for the time being, most weapons will probably remain projectile weapons. the delivery systems are getting more advanced though. the navy is currently developing electro-magnetic railguns, doing away with combustible fuel altogether. the proposed [dread weapon system](_url_0_) is inertially powered. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-teEbB9vlEU",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railgun#Tests"
] | [
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|
why is iv tpa for stroke patients have to be administered (generally) in under 3 hours? why wouldn't it be as beneficial afterwards? | i've been trying to google the answer, but i just keep finding the guidelines, not an answer to why. i also see intra-arterial tpa has a general guideline up to 6 hours adding to my confusion. i know it increases the chance of hemorrhage, but does it somehow increase the likelihood even more after the 3 hour window? any and all info is appreciated. | the longer the tissue has been without blood flow, the lower the chance it will recover when flow is restored. longer time also decreases the amount of recovery that can happen. the time frame for tpa is a risk/benefit balance. the window closes when the chance of meaningful recovery drops below the chance of significant harm due to hemorrhage. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can you "stretch" a high frequency signal to a lower frequency so it's easier to sample? | can high frequency signals can be encoded at a lower frequency so it's easier to sample them? are there simple circuits for that? totally new to the signal analysis world, trying to see what i can do to sample phase shifts easier without a picosecond (or faster) sensor. | that is a non-linear transformation of the signal, and would be somewhat hard to actually achieve without using digital signal processing techniques. of course dsp requires the signal already be sampled thus making it useless to you. there are ways to sample an extremely high frequency signal without introducing such high sampling rate equipment. namely you can employ [under sampling](_url_0_). to understand how under sampling works you should first understand how sampling works. primarily given a signal with frequency domain representation *x(f)*, then the signal sampled at frequency *q* will have frequency domain representation *σ x(f-nq)* where *n* is the variable of summation and runs over all integers. you can see a [graphical representation here](_url_1_). now as an example consider *x(f)* to be some function which is *0* for |f| now lets consider an extremely high frequency signal, which will be like the previous example but instead of the signal being centered around *0* it is now centered around *r q* where *r* is a large positive integer and *q* is the sampling frequency. likewise we assume that *x(f) = 0* if *|f-rq| > c*. note the new frequency domain representation of the sampled signal is *σ x(f-nq) = σ x(f' -(n+r)q) = σ x(f' -nq)* where *f' = f + rq *. thus the under sampled signal has the same frequency domain representation as the signal as if it were centered at *0*. like the first example we can still recover the signal, but now we have a baseband version which has center frequency *0* instead of that large value. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undersampling",
"https://archive.cnx.org/resources/4ad93c735ee256d437807695de4f5651aace9ab9/hv18.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyquist%E2%80%93Shannon_sampling_theorem"
] | [
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is the global economy still in a recession? what does a knowledge-based and skill-based economy mean, and how is the related to the recession? how do organisations place themselves competitively in a recession, where knowledge and skills are at the forefront? | cross post from ask social science. thank you! | 1. can't answer that, sorry.(i don't know enough about it) 2. a knowledge and skill based economy, or as it is more accurately called a 'post-industrial' economy, is that produces knowledge as opposed to manufactured goods. post industrial economies are mostly composed of service sector jobs (broadly construed). these jobs can range from baristas and bartenders to ceo's and lawyers. this wide discrepancy in job types is what leads to great disparity in wages and compensation. while many post-industrial economies still produce things, these things tend be more complex (cars, planes, computers, software etc.) than industrial economies. 3. contrary to popular belief, i don't believe that the post-industrial economy is causally related to the recession. instead i subscribe more to david harvey's (marxist) theory about this economic crisis - which is that the crisis is an ongoing condition of the internal contradictions in capitalism. particularly i point my finger at the producers of ficticious capital vis-avis finance capital and those fucks. 4. organisations should be creative, proactive, and try and make the world a better place! be cutting edge, be innovative. (sorry for the non-answer, but its kinda a weird question, if knowledge and skills are at the forefront, the obvious answer is develop knowledge and skills, by your own admission) edit: i'm a masters of geography, don't have the flair yet sorry... | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can the standard model really do that? | in his ted talk about the lhc, brian cox said of the standard model, "this equation, though, allows you to calculate everything, other than gravity, that happens in the universe. so you want to know why the sky is blue, why atomic nuclei stick together...you should be able to calculate it from that equation." i'm wondering how this works. how, for instance, would an equation tell you why the sky is blue? something to do with giving a reading of the frequency of electromagnetic radiation that reaches our eyes? it also amazes me that this same equation can tell you why atomic nuclei stick together, or why dna has its specific shape. how would a single equation do all of this? | yes, basically. but calling it "a single equation" is a bit of a laugh. have you seen it? the su(3)×su(2)×u(1) langrangian takes up an entire page. there's really nothing amazing about it. all the *mundane* interactions we ever encounter are governed by one of three basic mechanisms: the strong interaction, the weak interaction and the electromagnetic interaction. the strong interaction is called, by way of a sort of maths nickname, su(3). the weak interaction is su(2), and electromagnetism u(1). put those together, and given enough time and persistence, you can compute the probability amplitudes for the outcome of any possible interaction. but in practice, no, of course not. are you going to sit down and try to figure out how two cricket balls bounce off each other by computing the scattering matrices for each individual electron pair? don't be silly. but you could. and the fact that you could is, i suppose, amusing on some level. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the standard model all there is? | what if the standard model is exactly right? what is predicted? | we already know of multiple phenomena in nature that the standard model doesn’t predict/include. for example, the sm makes no attempt to describe gravity, so that’s a gaping hole. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will humans ever be able to put a "large" object into a state of superposition? is it theoretically possible to do so? | if it is possible and the large object they put into a superposition was you. what would you experience? | "large" as in human? no. large as in macroscopic as opposed to just microscopic, yes. there are experiments in which large (bio)molecules show interference in analogues of the double-slit experiment. the [current record](_url_1_) is interference of "perfluoroalkyl-functionalized azobenzenes, the most extended polyatomic structures so far to show quantum interference ( other experiments aim to show quantum effects in micromechanical oscillators, such as tiny (but visible to the naked eye) mirrors, or cantilevers, or microspheres, see [this](_url_0_) or a recent overview. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://iopscience.iop.org/1367-2630/10/9/095001/",
"http://www.quantum.at/research/molecule-interferometry-foundations/a-kapitza-dirac-talbot-lau-interferometer.html"
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what causes people to create and believe in truly outlandish conspiracy theories? | for example, i just read that obama and biden will resign on 6/21 because the earth's core has changed from nickel to plasma and we'll be crossing the galactic plane on that date. is there any explanation for creating or believing in these types of theories other than a mental illness? i'm not talking about more mainstream conspiracy theories that seem to be just denial, such as the 9/11 truther and the birther movements. | there tend to be several reasons people tend to believe in conspiracies. people are often initially drawn to these theories as a search for meaning. this can be readily seen in the aftermath of a tragedy like 9/11, when the enormity of the event lead some people to seek alternate explanations. once the idea has formed it tends to be reinforced by confirmation bias and attempts to avoid cognitive dissonance. there may also be social effects such as communal reinforcement and group polarization that reinforce the belief as well. besides these reinforcers, i know of no other means by which conspiracy theories are reinforced. also, i am not sure the example you provided qualifies as a conspiracy theory. from wikipedia: unless there was a coverup somewhere in this story, i don't believe it qualifies as a conspiracy theory. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is reactive power and how is it different from active power ? | they say that reactive power is power stored and released by capacitors and inductors so it kind of lost power condemned to cycle in the circuit with no actual use ..... i don't get it? | there are some mathematical definitions of ac power, active power and reactive power - but they mostly require knowledge of complex numbers which i won't go into (unless someone wants me to). **definition of power** let us start with the definition of power in a component: power = voltage * current a positive value of power means that the component draws power out of the circuit while a negative value means that the component adds energy to the circuit. in ac-circuits both voltage and current can be described by a [sine-wave](_url_2_) with some frequency, amplitude and phase. as the sine-wave varies over time the power in the circuit won't be constant. the power depends on the component. **power in a resistor:** in a resistor both voltage and current can be described by sine-waves with the same frequency and phase (but not necessarily the same amplitude). if we multiply these two sine-waves with eachother we get [another sine-wave](_url_0_). this sine-wave will be positive at all points - meaning that a resistor can only draw energy from the circuit and convert it to heat. **power in a capacitor:** in a capacitor the voltage and current can be described by two sine-waves with the same frequency and a phase offset of 90 degrees. if we multiply these sine-waves with eachother we get [another sine-wave](_url_1_). this sine-wave will oscillate between positive and negative energy - meaning that the capacitor alternate between drawing energy from the circuit and delivering it back. it will store the energy in the form of an *electric field*. **power in an inductor** the current and voltage in an inductor can be described very much like in the capacitor (the phase offset is in the other direction this time). this means that the inductor will also alternate between drawing energy and delivering it. in this case the energy will be stored in a *magnetic field*. **ac-power** in reality capacitors and inductors will not store 100% of their energy but will convert a small amount of energy to heat. they can therefore be modelled as being in series with a resistor. the power which is drawn out of the circuit is called the active power while the take-and-deliver-power is called the reactive power. i hope this shed some light on the subject. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sin%28x%29*sin%28x%29",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sin%28x%29*sin%28x-%28pi%2F2%29%29",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine#/media/File:Sine_one_period.svg"
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is there a limit to how strong a person can be? | if people keep running faster and breaking records, is there a point where a person cannot get any faster? or any stronger? | there are three major limits i can think of. one is that bones are only so strong. human muscles are actually stronger than bone, as sometimes demonstrated rather gruesomely in powerlifting. if the weights go up, the muscles can obviously lift the weights, then snap, there goes an arm. second is muscle itself. even if you had indestructible bones, muscles are physically limited in how mng force they can bear/exert before tearing, as well as being limited in how much energy is available for movement. last is heat, nothing is perfectly efficient. we all have experience getting pretty hot and sweaty after exerting a bit of energy. too much heat can negatively effect performance. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would a tip jar generate more money if it was opaque or translucent? | more generally, would a tip jar generate more money if the customer could see what the previous customers had tipped? or is there no connection? | _url_0_ this site says that seeing a jar with cash already in it will cause you to give more. because "we determine what is correct by finding out what other people think is correct." this makes me think that a clear jar would be useful if it has been pre loaded with notes, to make others think they should give more. this effect is called social proofing. _url_1_ layman answer, tried to do a bit of googling. | 28 | [] | [] | [
"http://psychologyforphotographers.com/tip-jars-copycatting",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_proof"
] | [
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how can you determine if a substance is a superfluid just by looking at equations/theory? | i'm having a hard time understanding how superfluidity can be predicted before it is experimentally observed. how can you look at a theoretical model, such as the bose-hubbard model, and figure out that there is a superfluid phase? | in condensed matter models (like bose-hubbard), you usually* characterize phases by broken symmetry: your model will have some exact symmetry which the ground state does not have. the canonical example is a ferromagnet, where the interactions (in an ising model for example) are rotationally invariant, but the ground state consists of all spins pointing in the same direction. mathematically, you look at broken symmetry by defining an "order parameter" which should be zero if the ground state is symmetric, but nonzero if it isn't. in the ferromagnet, this is just the net magnetization. in superfluids, your order parameter is inherently non-classical, a pair condensate of the form < c_i c_j *there are some interesting exceptions, such as topological phases. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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abnormally long arm hair, can anyone explain this? | hi everyone, ever since i was a kid i noticed this 1 hair on my arm that lacked pigment and seemed to grow without any limit and it grew relatively quickly. i used to pull it out, but as i got older i realized i needed to observe its true potential and see how long i could really grow it. i researched the world record for the longest arm hair which turned out to be about 5.3 inches. i set my goals on the world record and monitored the growth. over about the course of a year the arm hair grew to about 4 and 1/2 inches. a couple weeks later i realized it was gone and my dreams shattered. this is where it gets weird though, the arm hair never showed up again for over 1 and 1/2 years. i checked it everyday for those 1 and 1/2 years and all of a sudden it finally popped up again. over the past few months it has grown to almost 3 inches. all of this leaves me with questions. 1. why is only 1 of my arm hairs capable of growing like this? 2. why did it take so long for the arm hair to grow back? 3. why does this arm hair grow so quickly? 4. why does it lack pigment? 5. is there a way to increase its lifespan? edit: [here](_url_0_) is a picture of it in december 2009 | c'mon guys, the rules are right over there ---- personal anecdotes and layman answers are not acceptable posts. i don't want to have to downvote any more of you. | 33 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/08Tqn"
] | [] | [
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can i "integrate" special relativity (stepping between nearby irfs) to get gr? | i've always seen sr described in terms of inertial reference frames, not really "dealing with" acceleration. well, what if i compute forces on an object during some small time interval "taking sr into account," move the object into a new inertial reference frame based on those forces, and repeat? if i make the time intervals small enough the acceleration during any interval will be negligible. will i get gr predictions, or is something else missing? here's an explicit example: say i have a test particle in orbit around a star of mass m. a (naive, but easy to understand) way to predict its orbit numerically is to integrate "v_1 = v_0 + < vector towards the star > * g m / r^2 * dt." but in sr i see the test particle's clock running slow, so maybe the test particle experiences forces during my dt for only dt * sqrt(1 - v_0^2 / c^2). if i integrate "v_1 = v_0 + < vector towards star > * g m / r^2 * dt * sqrt(1 - v_0^2 / c^2)" will i get a path prediction consistent with gr? i actually tried an experiment with that model years ago and recall i was able to get precession of the perihelion of very fast/close elliptical orbits, but i never validated those orbits against a known-good gr simulation, and i simply don't trust myself with the gr math. | this is actually an exercise in goldstein's *classical mechanics*: i'm not sure there is an interesting answer as to why this isn't enough - the general theory of relativity just has more to it. i would, however, like to point out that precession of elliptical orbits is actually the normal state of affairs for other central force laws - force laws with stable, closed orbits (hooke's law and inverse-square, for example) are special. one way to see this is to consider a small perturbation from a circular orbit in an arbitrary central force. in general the period of radial oscillation will be different from the rotational period, leading to precession (or spirographs, depending how poorly the two match up). edit: the wikipedia page on [bertrand's theorem](_url_0_) goes into what i mentioned in more detail. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand's_theorem",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askphysics"
] | [
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why do so many animals have their reproductive parts and waste disposal parts close to each other or even partially shared? | what is the evolutionary advantage of this body design? is it just a matter of combining muscle function and conserving real estate? are there notable examples where these parts are very far apart and entirely separate? | it's handy. imagine you are a simple worm. you've got gonads. you can just have them in your "skin" and shed gametes directly in the water. but then these very important organs are easily damaged. so the another option is to keep them inside the body. you can shed directly into the digestive tract and expel from the body, keeping the organs safer. plus, as you note, you can get double use from a set of muscles and structures intended to expel items from the body. that saving in energy and nutrients could be quite important to fitness. edit: the old joke goes that the vertebrate reproductive system is like running the sewage line through the playground. but in some ways doing otherwise is like having an entirely separate road system just for the trash trucks. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are the reproductive systems of so many animals tied to their waste-disposal system? | is there an evolutionary advantage to this? wouldn't the increased risk of infection slowly migrate the reproductive organs elsewhere. is there some example of an animal that has evolved multi-personal copulation, but also has their reproductive organs as completely separate from their waste disposal? (ie; not sharing the same tubes). wouldn't placing it in a far more accessible place, such as the face or head (as comedic as that may seem) be a far more viable reproductive strategy? | i can speak to the development of vertebrate urogenital systems, and particularly that of humans. the urinary and genital systems are tied developmentally. they both develop largely from a specific part of the mesoderm (the middle layer of cells in an embryo). you can't decouple them to move the reproductive system elsewhere. here is a brief run-through to get you started: as an embryo develops, it elongates and folds from a hollow ball of cells to something more recognizable as an organism. this is called embryonic folding, and it creates what's called a [urogenital ridge](_url_2_) out of mesoderm. you have a urogenital ridge on the right and left sides of the embryo. the urogenital ridge is going to differentiate into different aspects of the urinary and genital systems. within the urogenital ridge you have a clump of cells called the [nephrogenic cord](_url_5_). it develops into different excretory organs during kidney development: the [pronephros, mesonephros, and metanephros](_url_6_). - in lampreys and hagfish the pronephros functions as the kidney. - in fish and amphibians the pronephros degenerates and the mesonephros serves as part of the definitive kidney (the final product, so to speak). - in [amniotes](_url_7_) the mesonephros largely degrades and contributes very little to the definitive kidney. the metanephros takes over. meanwhile, just below the nephrogenic cord on the urogenital ridge you have another clump of cells called the gonadal ridge. different hormonal cascades will cause these to develop into ovaries or testes. one structure that is incorporated into the genital system from the mesonephros is called the [mesonephric or wolffian duct](_url_4_). - in most male vertebrates the mesonephric duct transports sperm from the testes, although it can differentiate in different ways. it can transport urine in some vertebrates. in that case it will also transport sperm or a different structure will transport sperm. - in female amniotes the mesonephric duct degrades and a novel structure takes over (the paramesonephric or mullerian duct). in many vertebrates it forms an oviduct to transport eggs from the ovaries. in amniotes it develops into an oviduct where a hard shell is generated. in placental mammals it becomes the uterine tube, uterus, and upper portion of the vagina. the mesonephric and paramesonephric ducts open into a pouch at the very end of the hindgut called the [cloaca](_url_3_). the cloaca [partitions off](_url_0_) in placental mammals to form the rectum and urogenital sinus. the urogenital sinus further separates into the urethra and lower portion of the vagina in female placental mammals, and the prostate and part of the urethra in males. it forms much of the bladder in both sexes. so both systems are completely intertwined. this means you can't merely move the reproductive system regardless of whether there are options that seem "better". you'd have to completely re-evolve it from entirely different structures in a way that is heritable and still allows an organism to reproduce. the fact that this is so complicated is evidenced by the different types of reproductive systems we see across all vertebrates (external fertilization, internal fertilization, hard-shelled eggs, live birth, etc.) that all come from these same embryonic structures. they're not re-inventing the wheel, they're just tweaking what already existed. [here](_url_8_) is a brief source on the urogenital development of various vertebrates, while [here](_url_1_) is a source that is more in-depth and has better illustrations. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://web.uni-plovdiv.bg/stu1104541018/docs/res/skandalakis%27%20surgical%20anatomy%20-%202004/Chapter%2018_%20Large%20Intestine%20and%20Anorectum_fichiers/loadBinaryCA9E6INN.jpg",
"http://www.ucumberlands.edu/academics/biology/faculty/kuss/courses/Urogenital/ComparativeUGAnatomy.htm",
"http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/533/flashcards/492533/jpg/urogenital_ridge1343421583248.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Gray977.png",
"http://www.med.umich.edu/lrc/coursepages/m1/embryology/embryo/images/persisting_ducts.gif",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Location_of_the_intermediate_mesoderm_nephrogenic_cord..jpg",
"http://sonoworld.com/images/FetusItemImages/article-images/urinary_and_adrenal/prune_belly_syndromes_files/image78.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amniote",
"http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/342notes10.html"
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can an am signal be picked up randomly by everyday items? | a friend of mine is trying to figure out how one night he woke up to hear 1930s big band music in his bedroom. there were no radios on and he checked outside and heard nothing, the music was only coming from within his bedroom and nobody else was in the house. having the "ghosts are not real" debate and i could use some help. thanks. | is the house in the near-field of a powerful am transmitter? sometimes you can get a makeshift diode created by the contact of two dissimilar metals, or one metal with an oxide layer. that (or essentially anything that can produce a non-linear response) is all you need to create a 'detector' which shifts the am down into the audible frequency. all you need then is some metal structure that can both act as antenna and speaker, and you have everything you need for a completely passive am receiver. [this page](_url_0_) lists cases of people reporting hearing am radio being picked up by fences, flues, masts, even tooth filings. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://web.archive.org/web/20040819221844/http://www.newscientist.com/lastword/article.jsp?id=lw609"
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in terms of neural function, what is the difference between positive and negative erps? | i've heard it said that deactivations relative to the resting states are as important as activations in neuroscience. do the negative/positive erps in eeg studies correlate to activations/deactivations, or vice versa, in any straightforward way? | by "erp" i assume you mean (cortical) event related potentials, yes? i can't comment on any *behavioral* significance of erp components, but i know a bit about the cellular generators, at least those responsible for the major features of the erp studied in animal models. field potential recordings such as the erp are dominated by the fields generated as a result of synaptic activation of cortical pyramidal cells (this has been established by laminar recording and current source density analysis). whether you get a positive or a negative deflection in the erp depends on two things: 1) the location of the synaptic input relative to the soma and 2) whether said synaptic drive is excitatory or inhibitory. without getting into details like current sources and sinks and dipoles and whatnot, a positive (i.e., downward - yes the sign convention used by field potential wonks is backwards) peak indicates either somatic excitation or superficial (i.e. dendritic) inhibition. there's good anatomical evidence for the former: the thalamocortical volley first arrives in layer iv and terminates in excitatory synapses on the soma and proximal dendrites of the pyramidal cells there. there's a major positive peak in the erp that corresponds to this event. a negative (i.e. upward) peak generally indicates either superficial excitation or somatic inhibition. both of these effects are supported anatomically: the distal apical dendrites of infragranular pyramidal cells are the primary termination zone of (excitatory) projections from supragranular pyramidal cells, and soma are the favorite target of (inhibitory) gabaergic basket cells. that's the basic idea, but the interpretation of erp gets rather more complicated because you have overlapping pyramidal cell populations situated in different lamina which are sequentially and/or simultaneously active and there's thalamocortical inputs and cortico-cortical inputs and subcortical inputs and lions and tigers and bears. but that's the basic idea. so to answer your question, a positive (or negative) erp peak can reflect either excitation or inhibition, but sometimes you can figure out which if you know additional information (like the relevant anatomy). there's a decent explanation of eeg generators in kandel's monster neuroscience textbook which might be helpful. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is an approaching wall of water more powerful than the existing current generated by the same amount of water? | if i hock a loogie in the sink, and then turn on the water to wash it down, it may hang on persistently, despite the steady flow of water washing over it. however, if i turn the water off and on several times, one of those new blasts of water is much more likely to dislodge the mucus. is this just because of surface tension, or is there something else that causes that new blast to strike more forcefully? | i pretty sure it has everything to do with the change in direction of the flow of water. when you have the water on constantly the direction of flow is only is one direction and your loogie may bind to the sink well enough to stop it from dislodging. however if you oscillate the blasts, the water changes flow and force is applied both away from the drain and towards the drain. along with the mass of the loogie switching directions this will be enough to dislodge the loogie. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how likely is it that leonardo di vinci had an underdeveloped corpus callosum? | odds are nearly 0. _url_0_ ambidextrous people have larger ones. the halves of his brain probably weren't acting independently of each other - they were communicating better than most people's. cutting the corpus callosum destroys the bulk of the hemispheres' ability to communicate with each other. information known to one side is unavailable to the other. in some cases, the other half of the brain[ might even turn antagonistic](_url_1_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_callosum#Other_correlations",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien_hand"
] | [
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|
is the difference in air pressure around the world significant enough to make you throw a ball, for example, even a millimetre or so higher in low pressure areas compared to in areas that experience high pressure? | you might be interested in knowing that ballistic propagators (programs which determine where a projectile will fly on the earth) are really quite sensitive to temperature, and temperature is related to air pressure. for instance, on an average projectile which flies 5km, the difference between flying in 60 degree weather and 100 degree weather is about 75 meters (aka- flies 75 meters further in the hotter temperature). that is 1.5% of the total distance. the act of going up in altitude has even a greater affect on the total change. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
who would win a zipline race - a heavier or lighter person? | assuming both people have the same drag profile, who would get to the bottom first? | the heavier person would. if they have the same drag, it would affect the lighter person proportionally more than the heavier person. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the definition for the term/concept for "confounding variable" vary depending on its context? | i'm ask this because the teacher's assistant at my university is explaining the concept of confounding variable in such a way that i think isn't correct. here's the conversation: my question (required for an assignment): "wikipedia defines confounding variable as "in statistics, a confounding variable (also confounding factor, a confound, a lurking variable or a confounder) is an extraneous variable in a statistical model that correlates (directly or inversely) with both the dependent variable and the independent variable..." yet, every example given during the discussion gave examples that did not correlate with either the independent or dependent variables. are we using a different definition for confounding variable in this class?" her response: "justf0rsaving, its generally not a good idea to use wikipedia as your most dependable source since it is not considered to be an academic or scholarly space. it is however a good starting point if you need a general summary or an idea. we were not discussing a confounding variable in statistics...we were discussing confounding variables in an experiment which are any variable that affects the outcome variable, regardless of if they are correlated with either the iv or the dv." | it is, by definition, impossible for a variable to affect the outcome variable (aka the dependent variable) without being correlated with the dependent variable. (it should be noted that "correlation" here does not mean "linear correlation", but refers to the more general concept of having an association.) consequently, your ta's statement is confusing at best. i also suspect you are wrong in your assessment that the examples given did not involve a confounding variable that is associated with either iv or dv. but it's impossible to say without seeing an example of such examples. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/articles/srep06085"
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why have ecologists moved away from using optimal foraging theory to explain feeding behavior in animals? | i'm an undergrad and do research in an ecology lab on my university's campus. in my ecology courses, i learned about optimal foraging theory (oft) and even did some small experiments in those courses pertaining to oft. in my lab the other day, some of the professors were talking during our weekly lab meeting about behavior and one said that ecologists haven't used oft to explain behavior in decades, ehoch surprised me since most of my courses devote so much time on the topic. the professors in my lab are always busy and are out of the lab half the time, so i figured i'd ask other ecologically inclined people here! are there major flaws that make oft a bad explanation for behavior? | first, oft is still used (google scholar gives 15,000 papers published after 2010 with a search on oft). but it's used with more reservation than it once was. most research was done in the 70s and 80s and slowed down after the broader discussion in ecology about adaptationist story telling (see [gould 1979](_url_2_)). also, during this time, there was a big explosion of theoretical papers that refined and extended the theory -- we should expect a fall off of those as the theory matures. also, oft makes a large number of assumptions, and so it's unlikely all of them are true for a given system, so the generality of oft is questionable. see graham pike's review for a balanced discussion ([pike 1984](_url_0_)). and see this forum piece in oikos for a more amusing read ([pierce and ollason 1987](_url_1_)). i don't study behavior, so i'm not sure what (if anything) is in vogue. in the grad courses i've taken, we studied applications of game theory and optimal search theory to foraging behavior after reviewing oft. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.jstor.org/stable/2096959",
"http://www.jstor.org/stable/3565560",
"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/205/1161/581.short"
] | [
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why do humans care about each other, even when they have never met? | is there a scientific explanation for why we would bother to help someone across the world who we have never seen or spoken to? i know that i do care about them, but i'm struggling to figure out why i care about people thousands of miles away who will never affect my life. | i'm interpreting your question as a question of altruism. altruism is the concern for the welfare of others. it is a topic in social psychology, but can also be viewed non-scientifically through anthropology or philosophy. altruism has been difficult to explain because it stands in contrast to evolution. when a caveman would give a basket of berries to a sick caveman, the caveman *loses* a basket of nutrition, and it reduces his fitness. too many acts of altruism or acts of altruism of high magnitude (self-sacrifice) can indeed kill an organism. so, why are we altruistic? shouldn't all the altruists have died long ago? no. humans are social, and have lived in groups for a *long* time. that's why evolutionary theories of altruism involve groups: * kin selection: a person may give away a basket of berries *to people that share genes with him*. he may be reducing his fitness by losing the nutrition, but he is *investing* it in someone that *does* carry his genes, hence still being biologically successful albeit in proxy. * group selection: increasing the welfare of your extended tribe so that the entire tribe may continue to live. this assumes the combined *force* of a tribe will increase the entire tribes *fitness* and overall increase its reproductive success. * reciprocal altruism: being interested in the welfare of others in the hopes that they become interested/ are interested in your wellbeing as well. in the modern world, death isn't as often at stake. the positive feelings after doing something altruistic can be seen as evolved reinforcers for doing something pro-social, since the animals that behaved prosocially were more reproductively successful. altruism is frequently selfish. experiments have found: * person a: will give something and will see the person enjoy it * person b: will give something and not be able to see the person enjoy it/ the outcomes person b is less likely to give or gives less than person a. people are altruistic to feel good about themselves, and when you take away the part where they pat themselves on the back, it is less likely to happen. altruism has also been seen as a "**tension reduction**": a wealthy person in a developed country may donate to africa to mitigate the negative feelings brought up when their comparative disadvantage is seen. altruism has also been seen though a social learning lens where it is a *taught* behavior. a comprehensive review is available [here] (_url_0_) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/0471264385.wei0519/full"
] | [
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electromagnet in space: how do the force/attraction work over time? | this is based on a thought experiment proposed in a podcast: * a ridiculously powerful electromagnet is floating in space. * 1 light-hour away is a ferromagnetic piece of metal. * the magnet is turned on for one hour and then off again. what happens next? presumably the two will move towards each other at some point, the force shouldn't act before the information can arrive (i.e. 1 hour). how does it work? i understand this doesn't have to be huge or in space but it makes the concepts easier. | going by mazwell's equations, electromagnetic fields are disturbances in points in space that influences other nearby points which further influence other further points, and so on. the moment the electromagnet is turned on, the the disturbance is created near the face of the electromagnet, which creates a field that permeates through all of space at light speed. now this field doesn't diminish when you turn off the electormagnet, fields created at time t0 exists and travel as a "wave propagation" at light speed through space regardless of what happens at the source at time t so in the thought experiment, i'd believe that the ferromagnet would "feel" an electromagnetic force one hour later, with magnitude proportional to the strength of the source, and should accelerate for 10 hours unless it either collides with the electromagnet or the 10 hours pass and it ceases to accelerate and travel at constant speed. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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lysosomes - are they more specialized than what i am led to believe in basic physiology lectures? | hi! & #x200b; there have been several different times when i came up with a version of the same question: *how do lysosomes "know" what to digest?* example to illustrate what i mean: * in thyroid hormone production, thyroglobulin (tgb) is taken up by the follicular cell. the endosome, full of tgb, fuses with a lysosome, which digests the tgb to release free t3/t4. * how is it that the lysosome does not end up digesting the t3/t4 as well? do follicular cells express only certain kinds of enzymes that only break specific bonds within tgb and leave t3/t4 intact? & #x200b; basically - we're taught that lysosomes are these enzyme-filled bags that just digest anything they come across, but that seems very simplistic, and i am curious to know more about their heterogeneity! | lysosomes are indeed enzyme-filled, acid bags. the main enzymes they contain are hydrolases however, which will hydrolyze your typical macromolecular bonds like peptide bonds, sugar-phosphate bonds, or glycosidic bonds, thereby mainly digesting proteins, dna, and polysaccharides respectively. small molecules with few or no hyrolyzable bonds will remain pretty safe. so t3 and t4 can be recycled out of the lysosome and may or may not get digested elsewhere, while the functional molecules like proteins will be digested away. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would be the worst possible result of the national debt? | if the united states suddenly balanced its budget so there was no deficit but no surplus either and we refused to pay back our debt, what be the worst possible outcome? assume that the interest rates on the debt are factored into the balanced budget. | the phrase you're looking for is "repudiation of sovereign debt". i'm not aware of any entity as large as the us doing so, but it could happen. (debt repudiation by individual states occurred in the 19th c.) [rothbard actually suggests there wouldn't be too many serious repercussions](_url_0_), although i'd personally classify him as "nutty libertarian". | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard190.html"
] | [
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what would the u.s. national debt need exceed in order for a national(and therefore, international) crisis to occur. what would happen? | basically it is looked at as 'good debt' if a country is able to pay it off and not affect basic operations. japan's debt is significantly higher than the us as a function of gdp but since they are able to pay the debt and are not a default threat it is not seen as a problem. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
[request] i'm a student working with motivating children about science and mathematics, do you have any fascinating videos about science that i can show my students? hopefully a concept i can read myself up on and explain it in laymen terms. | i'd recommend periodic videos on youtube (chemistry) _url_1_ veritasium, also on youtube (general science/physics) _url_0_ vsause on youtube (science/philosophy/general coolness) _url_4_ smarter every day on youtube (general science and great for younger students) _url_2_ seeing as you recently did a project on gyroscopic motion, you should really check this video out. it's pretty awesome. _url_3_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/user/1veritasium/featured",
"https://www.youtube.com/user/periodicvideos/featured",
"https://www.youtube.com/user/destinws2",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GeyDf4ooPdo&list=UUHnyfMqiRRG1u-2MsSQLbXA",
"https://www.youtube.com/user/Vsauce"
] | [
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|
company brilliant light power (brlp) claims they can generate huge amounts of power from water; can someone who understands the science and physics of this explain why this is a steaming pile of nonsense? | i recently was sent this article regarding the brlp company and their claims to be able to generate enormous amounts of energy from water: _url_0_ this seems to be (at best) a lot of misguided optimism or (at worst) a blatant and malicious scam for its private investors. can someone who understands more about the physical laws and science behind this type of project help explain why this is utter nonsense (or possibly why this might be true). | i almost stopped here, like you can immediately spot fraud like this when they claim to have not only *new physics* that nobody else knows about, but have also figured out the engineering to make equipment with it and given it a sexy name. however against better judgement, i read further... good god. when the dark matter nut is cracked, that person or group will be world famous and immediately so, it will not be relegated to crackpot startup who can only get exposure on the fringe. anyway, yes, this stuff is absolute junk. eject from brain to preserve brain cells. | 11 | [] | [
"http://nextbigfuture.com/2016/07/super-controversial-brilliant-light.html"
] | [
"http://goodmath.scientopia.org/2011/12/29/hydrinos-impressive-free-energy-crackpottery/",
"Forbes.com",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0963-0252/16/1/S05/meta",
"scientopia.org",
"http://www.forbes.com/sites/michaellynch/2015/06/01/warning-signs-for-energy-technology-investors-3-yes-they-can-be-that-stupid",
"http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/jap/98/6/10.1063/1.2010616",
"http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/jap/98/6/10.1063/1.2010617",
"http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/jap/96/6/10.1063/1.1778212",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/127/pdf"
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would the brazil nut effect still hold for objects of the same size but with different masses? | when objects of different sizes are put into a closed container, and the container is then shaken, larger objects will go to the top (aka the brazil nut effect). my question is: if you do the same thing with objects that have the same size but different masses, what would happen? | the "brazil nut effect" isn't really a hard rule. it is possible for you to have very massive objects that are large (lead spheres), and low density objects (like tiny styrofoam balls), and they will do the opposite of what this law states. this is also a good example of what would happen if you had objects with different masses but the same size. as a mixed container of lead balls and styrofoam would have the more massive objects (the lead balls) at the bottom of the container. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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just had a contrast ct scan on my abdomen, how radioactive am i? | also, how long will it take for my body to either absorb or expel the radiation, and by what means will it dispel the radiation? | you aren't radioactive. in other imaging modalities like pet or spect, a radioactive tracer is injected into the body. in contrast-enhanced ct, an iodine solution (or something similar) is injected into your body. the iodine absorbs much more x-rays than tissue, so it highlights the regions of the body that the iodine travels. but the iodine itself is inert/non-radioactive. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiation"
] | [
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] |
what causes side aches? | when you're running and your side starts to hurt, what causes that? is it perhaps something to do with acidity and basicity? my chemisty teacher was telling us how athletes breathe quickly before they start whatever they do to build up basicity in their blood or some part of their body, i cannot for the life of me remember. but is it something to do with something in your body becoming acidic? | it is not "just muscles". it's called a [side stich, or exercise related transient abdominal pain \(etap\)](_url_0_) and we don't know exactly what causes it. there are numerous theories, but it's not simply muscles. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_stitch"
] | [
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] |
can explain the physics in this game? i might actually learn something about spaceships | [screenshot for reference](_url_1_) i'll try and keep this succinct and don't make fun of my ship. my first attempt at doing this was to watch the meters (up top in the screenshot). now i would try and keep the throttle low to avoid wasting fuel while climbing in meters, but this didn't work. second attempt i realized if i watched the meters and got to orbit (something like 100k meters?) the ship would continue without much fuel after a certain point. this worked and the meters did continue to climb high, but i fell back to earth shortly after. again i tried to conserve fuel during this. my third attempt i've given up on paying attention to the meters. what i look at now is where it says "surface 36.2m/s". this climbs when the throttle is almost at full blast. it wouldn't climb as quickly when i would play with the throttle to conserve fuel. but! the meters did continue to climb in my first and second attempts. now why does it work to just blast off and fly full throttle? in case you're interested [kerbal space program](_url_0_) | conserving fuel requires using as much thrust as possible in the beginning, when you are fighting gravity. if you think about it, the worst case scenario is sitting there with your thrust exactly matching gravity, burning a bunch of fuel and not getting anything out of it. | 6 | [] | [
"http://kerbalspaceprogram.com/",
"http://i.imgur.com/92tFy.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/KerbalSpaceProgram/"
] | [
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considering that the sand dunes in deserts move like water in slow-motion, would it be possible to calculate it's motion through navier-stokes equation? | granular flows are similar to fluid flow but cannot be modeled solely by the navier-stokes equation. specifically the viscosity term is different because for sand the inter-particle interactions are are governed by friction and collision. a pile of sand can have a stable configuration with a sloped surface (which a fluid cannot). if the slope is increased, a critical value is reached, friction is overcome and then there is sudden movement of sand down the slope. work is being done, however, to unite the fields: [unifying liquid and granular flow](_url_1_). also see [nasa: city-swallowing sand dunes](_url_0_) regarding saltation and jumping grains. | 33 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/06dec_dunes/",
"http://physics.aps.org/articles/v4/86"
] | [
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|
colon length among humans | when reading the [scientific american blog about food digestion and calories](_url_0_), i found out that russians' have an intestine which is about 5 feet longer than italians'. i did not realize the there could such dramatic differences between the internal organs between different groups people. are there any other such dramatic differences? | i found this fact about intestinal length surprising, so i looked into it. apparently there was a study done by w. gruber in the late 1800's who measured intestinal length. he found that russian's had longer intestines, like you said. i found some speculation that this was due to harsher conditions in russia at the time. here's a [modern study of the length of intestines](_url_0_). they looked at 200 people and found a rather large variation (in men, minimum was 550 cm; maximum was 1316 cm). my guess is that the study by gruber in the late 1800's was based on a small number of people and it wouldn't hold up across the russian population. | 2 | [] | [
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/2012/08/27/the-hidden-truths-about-calories/"
] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=12497219"
] | [
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ftl signalling with entangled photons - why doesn't it work? | hello wonderful people of askscience. i've been thinking through a notion for faster than light signalling. --------------------------------------------- it's based on a fairly simple demonstration. set up two polarizing filters, one rotated 90˚ relative to the other, and notice that light is not transmitted through them. [ generic light source ] --- > [ filter at 0˚ ] --- > gap --- > [ filter at 90˚ ] --- > [ no light transmitted ] now add a third polarizing filter between the first two, rotated 45˚ relative to both, and notice that light is transmitted through all three. [ generic light source ] --- > [ filter at 0˚ ] --- > [ filter at 45˚ ] --- > [ filter at 90˚ ] --- > [ 25% of light transmitted (according to the law of malus) ] see: _url_0_ --------------------------------------------- now, for the main event. replace the generic light source with a source of pairs of entangled photons. direct half of each pair left and half right. set up the same filters symmetrically on both sides. (for our purposes, the 90˚ filter on the left is just a distance marker, but bear with me.) [ filter at 90˚ ] < --- gap < --- [ filter at 0˚ ] < --- [ entangled photon source ] --- > [ filter at 0˚ ] --- > gap --- > [ filter at 90˚ ] --- > [ no light transmitted ] now, wave a filter rotated 45˚ relative to the others into the gap on the left. [ filter at 90˚ ] < --- [ filter at 45˚ ] < --- [ filter at 0˚ ] < --- [ entangled photon source ] --- > [ filter at 0˚ ] --- > gap --- > [ filter at 90˚ ] --- > [ 25% of light transmitted ] now, you can signal by waving the 45˚ filter in and out of the gap. when the filter is present on the left, light is transmitted on the right. the time between signal and transmission is the time taken by light to travel over the distance between the 45˚ and 90˚ filter on the left. this is shorter than the time taken by light to travel between the 45˚ filter on the left and the 90˚ filter on the right. --------------------------------------------- i'd like to know what's stopping this working. thanks for any insight you can share! | there are several errors here. first, in your initial set-up, only 1/8 of the light is transmitted; it gets cut in half when the natural light hits the 0^o polarizer as well as when it crosses the other two polarizers. second, in your second set-up, whether you wave the 45^o polarizer in or out on the left, there will be no photons emerging on the right. you will be sending a vertically polarized photon through a horizontal polarizer; nothing will emerge. finally, i think your fundamental misunderstanding is that entanglement is like a marker on the photons, so no matter what, these two photons will always do the same thing. that is not the case. entanglement means that you have a quantum state that cannot be viewed as the product of separate one-particle states. if i start with two photons in an entangled state, as soon as one of them encounters a linear polarizer, the state is no longer entangled, and subsequent measurements on each photon will not influence the state of the other photon. using the mathematics of bras and kets, this is easy to see. your initial state is (|00 > +|11 > )/2^(1/2), whereas after the first photon encounters the vertical polarizer, the state becomes |00 > or |11 > . | 8 | [] | [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/polcross.html"
] | [] | [
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why doesn't the pangolin run using all four of its limbs? | referring to this video: _url_0_ it seems the pangolin's claws would provide fine traction, and aren't too bothersome to run with. it would also, i assume, make it run faster, though i may just be mistaking. even if they just aren't that great for running, is there any advantage to being hunched over and keeping his arms off the ground like that? i mean, i feel like speed should be somewhat important for how vulnerable he seems. sorry if there's an easy answer, i googled around and did not find much. | howdy. in the video clip, there doesn't seem to be any shot of the pangolin actually running, just walking. there are many differences between walking and running, and from a human point of view the main difference is that running involves a short period of time when both the limbs are off the ground. so by that definition the pangolin isn't running, and i'd be surprised if they ever do. you're right that for many species speed is important in evading predators, but pangolins are covered in those keratinous scales (basically like fingernails), and when a predator gets close to them, they roll up into a little armored ball (like this: _url_0_). so moving fast isnt really a high priority for them. what is a high priority though are those massive claws that they use to dig up ants and termites. and in evolving those giant claws, they've really sacrificed the ability to use their hands and forelimbs for locomotion. the claws just really arent meant for bearing weight and walking and running. so instead, most of the time they walk around on two legs (bipedally) just like us. but if you watch the video closely, they will put their hands on the ground for short periods of time, presumably for balance. so really the way they walk is just kind of a byproduct of the fact that they have those massive shovels on either hand. also fun fact, pangolins are the only other mammals (i believe) that walk bipedally in the same way that humans do, by taking alternating steps (l,r,l etc). most other bipedal mammals hop. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gz4HXyxcess"
] | [
"http://www.earthrangers.com/wildwire/omg_animals/pangolin-armour/"
] | [
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stability of 2nd or 3rd generation matter? | under what conditions could charm/strange quarks and top/bottom quarks (and their particle cousins) exist as relatively stable matter? in other words, stability on the order of seconds, minutes, hours, days, etc. | individual quarks are really never stable. they are always found in some complex messy state of quarks, antiquarks, and gluons. in a proton, you have "valence" quarks of up, up, and down, but you also have a fluctuating sea of additional quark and antiquark pairs, and gluons. the strange quark actually makes a small but not insignificant contribution to this sea. in other words, one can sometimes find strange and anti-strange pairs in the proton. to a much smaller extent, charm and bottom quarks may also be present, along with their anti-quarks. any hadron that has a strange quark as a valence quark is unstable. for example, the lambda baryon has up, down, and strange, but will decay after a brief time into a proton or neutron and a pion. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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