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two physics questions | i don’t know if i am remembering these correctly, but maybe folks can correct or explain these things to me. in junior high, i remember a science teacher explaining to us that the moon is perpetually falling toward the earth, but by the time it reaches the spot where the earth was, the earth has moved to a new spot. is this correct or am i misremembering (intentional use of the roger clemensism)? if it is correct can someone explain this concept? secondly, in high school physics, one of the questions on the final was regarding a train rolling down the tracks and part of the train travelling in the opposite direction of the train (i recall this had something to do with the wheels). again i don’t know if i am misremembering or if this is in fact the case. thanks in advance for any help or insight for this functional physics illiterate. | imagine throwing a ball. you throw it and it travels forward and then lands on the ground. but now imagine you're throwing it so far that the ground *curves away* a little bit from the curvature of the earth. so it can travel just a little bit further. you keep throwing it harder and harder until for every meter it "falls" down, the earth has curved away 1 meter. now the ball is in orbit. this is the "newton's cannon" argument. you can play with it here: _url_0_ all orbits, including the moon's follow from this kind of object. it's not so much that the "earth" moved, as the moon is going so fast *tangentially* to the earth that it can't fall "down" directly. i have no idea what your second question is about, it doesn't ring any bells to me. the closest i can think of is that if you have a wheel rolling with out slipping, the instantaneous velocity of any point on the wheel ranges from 0 to twice the linear speed of the wheel. | 7 | [] | [] | [
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2 physics questions | 1) why is the speed of light what it is? 2) today i was reading some random physics text (i'm a vet student, so i only have a really basic understanding of particle physics), and it said certain bosons (gauge bosons, i think) were the mediators of the fundamental forces at work in the universe, (weak nuclear, strong nuclear, etc...). this question is kind of odd, but how does a particle "carry" a force like that anyway? | these are like two most often asked questions in this subreddit: _url_7_ _url_0_ _url_5_ _url_1_ _url_3_ and _url_8_ _url_6_ _url_4_ _url_2_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/fjwkh/why_exactly_can_nothing_go_faster_than_the_speed/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/j4t0f/for_lack_of_a_better_way_to_put_it_what_sets_the/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/pjhj5/what_exactly_does_it_mean_for_a_particle_to/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/gv6ob/what_would_be_different_if_the_speed_of_light/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mdk9m/how_do_force_carrier_particles_work/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/10d51n/light_speed/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/gznrr/can_someone_explain_how_virtual_particles_carry/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/16dlhh/whats_so_special_about_the_speed_of_light/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1943vf/how_can_a_particle_such_as_a_graviton_be/"
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qantum physics seems contradictory to wave functions in the photo electric effect, why? | so the question is, if photons actually exists in a form of a wave function, why cant they combine or positively interfere as to give rise to one larger energy state? in the photo electric effect which we know is because of quantum physics, we could bombard a photo electric cell with intense lasers of a wavelength where the photons dont combine into an energy state with which it could knock an electron free, shouldnt this happen if photons actually existed in some form we would mathematically call a wave function. or am i just too ignorant of what is actually going on here? some answers would be very welcome. | there is quite a bit going on this question, but let me try and jump at the key point. a key insight into the quantum nature of light is that the electromagnetic field can only give and take energy to matter in individual packets. these packets are the photons. as a result, when you illuminate a piece of metal with a weak beam, then you will not kick off any electrons if the energy of the photons are smaller than the workfunction of the metal. however, you are right that if you kick up the intensity of the laser, this situation can change. for large intensities you can start to get two-[photon processes](_url_0_). now two photons can be absorbed at the same time, allowing them to kick off a process that each of them individually is not energetic enough to do. so let's say you have a photon beam with an energy of 1.5ev and you have a piece of metal with a workfunction of 2ev. at low intensities, nothing exciting will happen, the photons will hit the metal, but they won't have enough energy to kick off any electrons. however, as you crank up the intensity, now the photons can work together, delivering 3ev at a time. that is now enough to be absorbed the metal and to kick off photoelectrons. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-photon_absorption"
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i have an idea to visualize the 3d space | as we know humans sees in 2d, the 3d space is then calculated by the brain (1). the fact that we see in 2d allows us to have a really good impression of the 2d space but lacks a bit in it's 3d representation. during my phd i will have to analyze many 3d shapes, and classify them. i was thinking a way to deal with the 3rd dimension. humans can use echolocation to observe the 3d space (2). i don't know how to echolocate myself so i don't have a direct experience of this kind of "vision". however i can imagine that it will produce for example for the sight of a cube that we could see every face at the same times, the sound reflected by the back faces are reflected to the wall behind and travels back toward us. i don't know what is the precision of this "vision". however it's a matter of exercise. so could be improved if trained. **given this premise, could it be possible to simulate on a computer what sound will produce a 3d shape? and if yes, could it be possible to use the ears to see the 3dimensional shapes that i want to analyze?** for sake of an example one could make a program that displays all the spatial informations needed for the calcuation of a sound wave shattering a 3d shape, and then from this informations convert those numbers in sound waves and ear them with hearplugs. and after hearing the sound of different shapes and a long training one should be able to recognize the different shapes "heard", while doing this the subject aquires the consciousness of the 3d space... (1)[wiki](_url_0_) marr suggested that it is possible to investigate vision at any of these levels independently. marr described vision as proceeding from a two-dimensional visual array (on the retina) to a three-dimensional description of the world as output. his stages of vision include: (2)[wiki](_url_1_) | sounds like you're trying to make a hologram with sound waves rather than light. i found they're kinda a bitch to work with because the algorithms are slow as hell and you can't rotate parts or objects in your "image" independently without recalculating the whole harmonic transform. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perception",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_echolocation"
] | [] | [
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] |
why are three primary colors used, instead of two, four, or twenty? | what do we lose or gain in terms of ability to synthesize colors if we based a color system on fewer or more "primary" colors? bonus points for insight into how to select the "primaries". | primary colors are sets of colors that can be combined to make a useful range of colors. for human applications, three primary colors are usually used, since human color vision is trichromatic. for additive combination of colors, as in overlapping projected lights or in crt displays, the primary colors normally used are red, green, and blue. for subtractive combination of colors, as in mixing of pigments or dyes, such as in printing, the primaries normally used are cyan, magenta, and yellow,[1] though the set of red, yellow, blue is popular among artists.[2] see rgb color model, cmyk color model, and ryb color model for more on these popular sets of primary colors. source - [wikipedia](_url_0_) | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_color",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/lb4s9/why_are_three_primary_colors_used_instead_of_two/c2r8tw8"
] | [
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is there a homogeneous material whose surface is a conductor but otherwise it's an insulator? | like the inverse of magnet wire, and only composed of one "thing". | there is a class of materials, only recently studied, called topological insulators, where current can only pass around the edges but not through the center. physical realizations of these systems include two-dimensional electron gasses (2degs), which are generally a very thin layer of a semiconductor wedged between two insulators. these are being investigated as tools for quantum computing. i'm not aware of any 3d topological insulators, but i may be out of date. according to wikipedia, it has been observed in bismuth antimony. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if the bandwidth of a signal pulse depends on its duration, what happens if the pulse is stopped at a random time? how is causality not violated when it seems like the pulse bandwidth is only determined after-the-fact? | suppose we have a signal source - electric signal generator, laser, whatever - and we set it up so that the "off switch" is activated by a truly random process such as radioactive decay, meaning that each time we turn the source on it generates a pulse of a random length. as i understand it the bandwidth of the pulse depends on its duration as per the fourier transform, but in this case that duration is not determined until the pulse stops. how is causality not violated? what would be the outcome if we tried to measure the bandwidth of the pulse before it stopped? | well first of all the fourier transform isn't really a causal operation because it's defined for all time, from negative to positive infinity. if you define your signal to be causal and finite length, the time segment from t ° -infinity to t = 0 will be zero and as a result the fourier integral can be split into a segment for negative and positive time with the negative portion being valued zero. secondly the fourier transform cannot be measured because: a) it's continuous, and we can only "sample" the signal discretely and compute a discrete sequence from it b) it's infinite in frequency and c) we can only compute an approximation of the ft by looking at frames of a past sequence. the rate at which we sample the signal determines how much of the signal bandwidth we can measure and the resolution is determined by the size of the frames. for the example you give though we don't need to measure it, we can derive the ft analytically. i don't want to do the math right now but we could define that signal as a sum of delayed step functions where the delay amount is decided by a gaussian random process, which in my mind would probably result in a spectrum close to a pulse train (as the pwm is fundamentally periodic) with constant power, which at fast rates would look close to white noise. as for what happens when the signal becomes finite length, the result would be a signal modulated by a rectangle function in time (or convolution by a sinc in frequency) and if it's what i expect, it would look awfully close to white noise where the frequency of each impulse in frequency will be smeared by the sinc. longer rectangles correspond to a smaller center lobe, so as the size of the rectangle approaches infinity the spectrum of the original signal will approach the spectrum of the signal in infinite length. i can also tell you this is awfully similar to a system called a linear feedback shift register which will result in digital white noise. meaning the bandwidth is basically equal to half the pulse rate. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
has this type of cellular automata been described before, and if so, where may i read about it? | if one was to build a cellular automata similar to conway's game of life, but included a rule that would cause a forking of the game into 2 separate states, the game would quickly devolve into a giant intractable mess. however, if after each game "step", you chose a single game state based upon some criteria, and deleted the rest, you would end up with a game that was much more manageable. interestingly enough, this would mean an observer seeing only a small section of the current game state while unaware of the rules, would perceive the behavior of certain cells as random although it would not actually be the case. the rules would be consistent and deterministic, but the local behavior would seem random. also, this means there is an action at a distance, because in reality, these "random" actions are being influenced by every cell in the game state. anyway, i'm not here to speculate, just to ask if this has been described before. a possible ruleset: 1. any live cell with fewer than two live neighbors dies. 2. any live cell with two or three live neighbors lives on to the next generation. 3. any live cell with more than three live neighbors dies. 4. any dead cell with exactly three live neighbors forks the game state into 2 game states, in one of which the cell becomes a live cell, and the other the cell remains dead. after the fork, the processing of the game state continues from that point in both states, recursively. 5. after computation of the entire step is complete, resulting in many game states, each is compressed with the gzip algorithm, and the state that has the largest compressed size (contains the most "information") is kept. 6. if two game states have the same compressed size, the game state that was calculated first is kept. i'm looking at writing it in perl or something, but it has been many years since i've produced any code, and i'd like to know if this has already been described somewhere before i invest the time writing it. | step 5 sounds like a very costly way of measuring the configurational entropy of the surface (the degree of "randomness"/amount of information) that is in the simulation. here's an example of an approach that is probably closer to your proposed set of rules: [pdf](_url_0_). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/kazakov/papers/aamas-paper.pdf"
] | [
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what is the simplest form of cellular specialization? what does it look like? | i'm curious about the beginnings of multicellular life; in particular what could cause two single-celled organisms of the same species to specialize in a mutually beneficial way when they're essentially clones? | so just to pull up some highlights: on the most primitive ends, you've got yeast which are normally single celled but which scientists selected to be multicelled, basically this was caused by a change in a gene that caused the cells to stick together more strongly after dividing. there was no specialization here, it's just that scientists selected the fastest-sinking yeast and ones that were in big clumps sunk faster. _url_3_ but if you are in a clump, it can be useful to specialize because it lets you operate more efficiently. for example, simple multicelled algae like [volvox](_url_2_) are often divided into two cell types, the somatic cells of the body, and reproductive cells. the body cells can photosynthesize and feed energy to the reproductive cells which can focus on reproduction. in terms of animals, your simplest animals are sponges and placozoans. [sponges](_url_0_) have a handful of cell types mostly divided into a) making up the structural part of the body b) directing water flow and c) gathering food from the water. [placozoans](_url_1_) are even simpler...tiny, three layered discs of cells that creep around on cilia and crawl over particles of food to digest them. they have even fewer cell types than sponges. but cell specialization gives them a top and bottom that are different, allowing them to more efficiently move around, and distinctions between digestive enzyme cells and flagellated movement cells let them both move over food and digest it. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/content/animals/animals/invertebrates/sponge.htm",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trichoplax",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvox",
"https://www.nature.com/articles/517531d"
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does intestine length vary between people of different nations? specifically, do people with japanese ancestory tend to have longer intestines than those with other ancestory? | i live in japan and i am constantly confronted and confounded by the strange beliefs many of my friends have about japanese people being different from the rest of humanity. recently, the topic about how foreigners digest and how japanese people digest came up and my friends said, "japanese people have longer instestines than everyone else in the world so they're better at digesting vegetables and fermented food" it is hard for me to believe that intestinal tracts are influenced in length by where someone lives, however i have no clue. does intestinal length vary by ethnicity or where your ancestors are from? is length something that is influenced by what you eat or is it a genetic disposition? thanks! | one can vary the length of a mouse's intestines [by changing the diet.](_url_0_) it would be expected that in a population that eats more carbohydrates that the intestinal length would be longer. interestingly, mice raised in a sterile environment tend to have larger, longer digestive systems than their non-aseptic counterparts. | 5 | [] | [] | [
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how do eyeballs regulate temperature? | it was a really cold day, i thought maybe my eyes were cold, but i did not know. | like other parts of the body, the eye can regulate its temperature by increasing or reducing the blood flow to the choroid (layer of connective tissue behind the eye). your eye probably felt cold because it has a moist surface - evaporation of fluid off the surface of your eyeball would, much like sweating, reduce the temperature of the surrounding tissue, however since the eye does not have as well-developed thermoregulation as other parts of the body you would feel the effects more. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i've never liked math. i thought it was boring. now i see it's practical. how do i teach myself it? | _url_0_ algebra and calculus are good, it really depends on what you need it for or what you've realised it is practical for. any more info? | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.khanacademy.org/"
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|
how does hardy-weinberg equilibrium apply with population undergoing natural selection? | based on the five assumptions, it assumes that the population's allele frequency is stable. but with natural selection, the total allele frequency shouldn't be equal to 1. so if i'm given the initial equilibrium, how is it possible to predict the percentage changes after natural selection? | ... i lost 20 min of typing but here it is again. it doesn't predict changes! frequency is always 1! frequency is always one by definition. you are measuring the current population of alleles which will add up to 1. all of the people in your city right now is 100% of them. that will be true tomorrow as well no matter how many births or deaths happen tomorrow. the hardy weinberg equilibrium is not used to predict change, it's a null hypothesis that there is selective pressure. if there is no pressure, then the distribution of alleles should be random and will end up with p^2+2pq+q^2=1 if you want to know where that comes from, look at a pundit square. take 2 adults, pq and pq then see the 4 possible outcomes for their genes among the off spring. it comes pp, pq, pq, and qq. thus how many pp individuals occur is in the next generation, assuming no selection, will be the frequency of p squared. the number of pq will be the frequency of p multiplied by q and 2. the same can be done for qq individuals. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are we seeing more supermoons this decade (2011 - 2020) than in the last decade? | we aren't. the moon is reaching perigee every 4 weeks as it always has, and on average its perigee coincides with the full moon a few times a year (depending on how you define it). we're hearing about it more because the media has recently discovered that they can get people to click on their articles by hyping the supermoon, despite the fact that the difference in size is not noticeable. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is it possible for something to be so far away that it appears invisible? | i've been thinking about this for some time. imagine a star incredibly far away from us, emitting photos and all that jazz. is it possible for the angle required to shoot a particle or photon towards earth is so small that the probability it occurs is neglibile? if so, how far away would it have to be (assuming the star was the size of our sun)? | you could, but you'd have to be really far away. the sun produces, approximately, 1e45 (10^45 ) photons per second. they are emitted basically spherically symmetrically. so, assuming that the photons are on the surface of a sphere, we want to find the radius of a sphere such that the average photon density is less than the size of your eye. (i know this is rough, but it gives an estimate) we know the surface area of a sphere is equal to 4\*pi\*r^2 and we will let p be the number of photons per square meter. then we know that 4\*pi\*r^2 \*p = n, where n is the number of photons. i've estimated the eye to be about 1 square centimeter, or 0.0001 m. so, that is what we want p to be equal to. solving for r we get: r = sqrt(n/(4\*pi\*p)). plugging in everything we know, we get that r = 8.9e29 meters. a light year is about 9e15 meters, so that means that a star would have to be 1e14 light years away. to help you understand this number, the observable universe is only about 1e11 light years large, so a star would have to be a 1000 times further away from us than the size of the observable universe in order for you to not expect a photon from its beam to hit your eye. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
some questions about basic genetics and evolution... | * say i could see myself in a parallel universe where everything is exactly the same, except i had a different mother. is gene distribution entirely random from each parent? as a girl, would i inherit more genes from my mother? would the same traits i get from my father now still be the same if i had a different mother? sorry, i'm kind of confusing myself. what i'm trying to say is: if i had a different mother who was, say, more attractive than my mother, would i be the same person based on my father's traits, but more attractive? * alternatively, what if my mother's imaginary twin sister was my mother instead of my mother? since they share a lot of the same genes, would i be almost the same person as i am with my mother as my actual mother? would the differences be the same differences that my mother and my mother's imaginary identical twin have? i think both of those questions could be answered at once if gene distribution was just entirely random. * given the concept of a "first couple" (adam & eve) is probably not true, is any person still related to any other person on earth? if not, how many people is any given person related to on earth? * i read somewhere last year that the first humans evolved in norway rather than africa. some thousands of years later, humans evolved in africa and elsewhere. i would assume that the humans in africa were black and the humans in norway were white. how is it that creatures that are nearly identical to one another evolved in different places but in the same era? considering their different appearances, why aren't blacks and whites two different species? sorry if these questions are really stupid or whatever, i am completely ignorant to anything relative to genetics. *the last question is entirely based on guesses formed from an article i read a long time ago, and they're probably really bad guesses at that. i apologize if i'm really off base.* | your questions aren't stupid, but there are a lot of them! whether you would be 'the same person but more attractive' with a different mother depends on factors with the father, as well as the complexities of genetics. due to how gametes (sperm and ova (eggs)) are created, if the *same sperm* from your father fertilised your (new) mother, then yes, you would get the exact same genetic material from your father. if a different sperm was the cause of fertilisation, then no, you would get different genetics. on the mother's side it's even more complicated. a common misconception is that there is a gene for x, such as a gene for hair colour or a gene for eye colour or a gene for attractiveness. yes, there are genes that determine all these things, but eye colour for example is thought to be a factor of upwards of 5 different genes. the only *single* gene feature i know is the ability to roll your tongue. as such, your mother may be more attractive, but that doesn't mean you'll be. there would be genes that you inherit from your mother that will affect how attractive you are, most likely your breast size and so on, but these genes may interact in ways we do not yet understand or mutations may occur that mean you look very different from your mother. or, genes inherited from your father may be interacting with your mother's and giving different results (a good read would be on [dominance in genetics](_url_2_)). to put it simply, we really have no idea what will happen if you magically swapped mothers; too many factors come into it, and it's not as simple as having an 'attractiveness gene.' to touch briefly on the 'being the same person' idea, if you mean in terms of personality, i'd say who you are is a combination of nature and nurture – part of who you are will be defined by your genetics, but a lot of it will be how you are brought up, what experiences you have, and so on. moving on, evolution and speciation suggests that all life on earth has a common ancestor. this means that not only are all humans related, but all animals are related! (and plants, and bacteria, and fungi, and so on.) this can be visually represented in a [phylogenetic tree](_url_3_) – where each line branches is a common ancestor for every species from then on. the closer species are at the end, the more related they are. speciation (the process of a new species being created) happens veeeeeeery slowly over thousands of years. to simplify it, mutations occur in a population of a species, and very slowly they become so different from the original species (assuming they are isolated from the original species (so they can't share alleles (variants of a gene))) that they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring. at this point, a new species has been created. (don't worry about the specifications such as allele sharing, just that isolation can lead to a new species being formed.) technically this means that once, there **was** a "first couple"! although it's not quite that simple in reality, as the changes are so slow and gradual that there almost wouldn't be a defining point between chimpanzees (believed to be our closest ancestors) and humans. finally, i think i may have to come back to alleles. alleles are variations of a gene. going back to my example of tongue rolling, this would only have two alleles: whether you can or you can't. as such, to (vastly) simplify, there could be a skin colour gene with three alleles; white, black and yellow (what most people consider asians). the reason these different colours are prevalent in different parts of the world is due to [natural selection](_url_1_). i fear this is getting very long, so i shall simplify and keep it brief. individuals with desirable traits (alleles) for their environment will be more likely to survive and pass on these traits than those individuals with undesirable traits. simplifying again, there is a lot of sun exposure in africa, so it is very easy for people with white skin to get (skin) cancer and then die (not passing on the white-skin alleles). black skin is due to a larger presence of a pigment which helps prevent skin cancer, so the individuals not getting skin cancer and therefore dying (those with black skin) **do** survive and pass on black skin to their children. eventually, according to natural selection, the entire population will be black skinned. the reason for white skin in europe is that there is far *less* sun exposure, so an individual may not get enough vitamin d as the pigment which stops them getting skin cancer also blocks vitamin d production. this deficiency can lead to problems such as [rickets](_url_0_), which would *not* help that individual survive, and as such over a very long period of time all black-skinned individuals will die off and be outdone by individuals with the allele for white skin. hopefully this has been helpful and not too long! :s and yeah, it's amazing what you can learn with (high school :p) science :) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickets",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant_gene",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree"
] | [
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what's the link between brownian motion and sedimentation? | as i understand it, stuff in a suspension don't settle because brownian motion keeps it floating around instead of settling. what affects this? why does milk stay a suspension but muddy water separate out into dirt and water? i'm thinking it has something to do with density, mass, size or some combination of them but i'd like an authoritative answer. | brownian motion relates directly to the collision of particles in a fluid, and how any transported particle moves randomly within it. while that is certainly what controls the movement of a perfectly suspended particle in a static fluid, it has nothing to do with sedimentation (except that the random motion can act with or against settling if the settling rate for the particle is of the same order as the brownian motion). whether particles sediment or not can most easily be dealt with by talking about [stokes settling velocities](_url_0_). particle size, density and shape are all important, as are fluid viscosity, density and velocity. as far as your examples go, they are not actually different - given time milk will settle out as well. precisely how quickly the settling will take depends on all those things mentioned above. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment_transport#Settling_velocity",
"http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs10509-012-1151-1.pdf"
] | [
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] |
the ebola virus and other filoviruses have a filamentous structure. is this common among viruses, and is there anything known about what adaptive function (if any) this structure serves? | most viruses can structurally be classified as either [polyhedral or helical (filamentous)](_url_0_) (fyi - pdf link), and there are also more complex virus structures along with those that are lipid-enveloped. i don't know if anyone has tabulated the statistics for viruses based on structure/morphology (i can only recall that sort of work in relation to virus genomes), but perhaps another reply will help you out there. while i would always remind people to mind their spandrels, i did dig up this report from a study of influenza a virus where there [different morphologies](_url_1_) might be of importance, although the paper ends at that point in their work. i suppose any follow-up papers might prove to be more illuminating on that point, if any so far. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/education_discussion/educational_resources/viruses-shapes-sizes.pdf",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3838284/"
] | [
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|
free energy: nitinol heat machines invented in early 1970. what happened? | well, that's a typical example of how media hypes stuff. first: it's _not_ an energy source. the only person in that story saying that is the reporter. there's also an blatantly wrong statement there (3:10) that this was the 'first time heat had been converted directly into mechanical energy', which is absurdly wrong. steam engines had been around for several hundred years by then. heat engines aren't new. you can extract mechanical work out of anything that expands/contracts with temperature, which in fact _all_ things do. what was new here was just using a [shape-memory alloy](_url_0_). which itself wasn't a new thing at that time, even if this particular alloy was pretty new. it's not 'free energy'. it's a heat engine, and it obeys the same laws of thermodynamics as the rest of them. these dictate that heat engines are quite inefficient, in particular at low temperature differences. i just wrote a [long post](_url_1_) on the details of that. one obvious drawback of something like nitinol is that the hysteresis temperature width is around 20-60c, which is a small temperature difference. that puts its maximum (ideal carnot) efficiency at around 12%. this was most likely not unknown to the people researching it. the likely idea was that _if_ you could make these engines cheaply enough and reliable enough, _perhaps_ it could be made economically viable for extracting energy from waste heat and such. or perhaps they were hoping to find some niche application where it was suitable. just because it was getting funding, doesn't mean that it was ever more than a long-shot (not least in the wake of the 70's energy crisis). obviously it didn't pan out. simply put: to extract mechanical energy and electricity from a small temperature difference, requires big engines, and a lot of engines, because they're inefficient and because the amount of energy per volume of whatever-the-medium-is is small. this has made it economically infeasible to extract energy from temperature differences smaller than hundreds of degrees c, much less at the temperatures nitinol works best at. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape-memory_alloy",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1aoa4f/how_feasible_is_it_to_capturescavenge_heat_from/c8zbjw4",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling_engine",
"http://jmmedical.com/images/uploads/pages/File/TMW%20Article09-03-Shape-memory-alloys.pdf"
] | [
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] |
|
why can't google calculate 9^324, but can calculate 9^323? | the same is happening with my phone's calculator. | it's because of the available precision from standard [floating point numbers](_url_0_). a standard 64-bit floating point number can typically only hold values between approximately +/-10^-308 and +/-10^308, and 9^324 is just above that. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point#Range_of_floating-point_numbers",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=9%5E324",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=log+9%5E324++%2F+log+2"
] | [
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] |
what is the least-complicated shape required to contain 4d space? | i understand that, in physics, the 4th dimension is time. this question will focus on spacial dimensions. if you draw three lines on a sheet of paper at 60° angles to each other, you get a triangle, the least-complicated shape required to contain 2d space. moving up, it takes 5 sides to make a prism, the least-complicated shape required to contain 3d space. so, how many sides does it take to form the least-complicated shape required to contain 4d space? my guess is 7. is that right? | it depends on your criterion for 'least complicated'. arguably a 'less complicated' polyhedron would be the (regular) tetrahedron, which is regular, given that it has four faces, all of which are equilateral triangles. generalising to higher dimensions, there exists a [*n*-simplex](_url_2_), which is an *n*-dimensional polytope which contains *n*+1 faces which are themselves *n*-1 dimensional simplices. so [the 4-simplex, the pentachoron](_url_1_), is a 4-dimensional polychoron which is composed of five tetrahedra; it has 10 trianglular 2-dimensional faces. there exists a simplex for any dimension, and it is always a regular polytope. the 2-dimensional faces of all simplices are equilateral triangles and their number is given by the [tetrahedral numbers](_url_0_) t(n) = n(n+1)(n+2)/6 | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://oeis.org/A000292",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-cell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplex"
] | [
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] |
what is the most destructive animal on the planet; other than humans? | it can be a school, flock, pack, etc; or it can be an animal that works alone (breeding partners included). | there's no definite answer here, but i'm going to make a case for **cyanobacteria**. these were the first single-celled oxgyen-producing plants to evolve, billions of years ago, and were far more energy-effficient than previous kinds of plants. the oxygen they created was also a deadly toxic gas to all other forms of life on earth. when they first arrived on the scene, they poisoned the atmosphere with oxygen, causing a huge [mass extinction](_url_1_). they sucked up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, probably triggering a [gigantic ice age](_url_0_) lasting millions of years. and, eventually, the oxygen completely changed the chemistry of the earth's atmosphere, oceans and rocks. cyanobacteria are still around, but they're not so destructive now because life evolved to deal with oxygen, and in fact, the oxygen atmosphere is what allows complex multi-cellular life forms like trees, fish, and humans to exist. that suggests that measuring biological "destructiveness" isn't necessarily a good way to think about evolution. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huronian_glaciation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoproterozoic"
] | [
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why do unfolded proteins have a larger (or more positive) heat capacity than native folded proteins? | more specifically, when looking at differential scanning calorimetry experiments it seems as though the post-transitional baseline always has a higher heat capacity value than the pre-transitional baseline. why is this? shouldn't folded proteins have a larger heat capacity since they are more stable? | based on bakk et al. (2001 in "biophysical journal"; _url_0_ ): the increase in heat capacity for unfolded proteins compared to their folded states is not largely attributed to the protein itself. the increase in heat capacity is instead attributed to the hydration shells (alternatively, "water cages") that form around proteins. in the folded state, the protein has a smaller surface area that is accessible to the solvent it is dissolved in (this is termed aptly as "solvent-accessible surface area"). additionally, many of the non-polar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing") parts of the protein are located in the core of the protein and are inaccessible to the solvent. as a result, a relatively smaller hydration shell forms. the hydration shell is described as a layer of water molecules that rigidly orient themselves around the protein to minimize unfavorable interactions with the protein's non-polar parts, while maximizing the number of favorable hydrogen bonds formed with other water molecules. when the protein unfolds, the solvent-accessible surface area of course increases and so does the size of the hydration shell (i.e. the number of water molecules involved). so, to increase temperature, more heat must be added to also destabilize the now-larger hydration shell. the model predicts that as you increase the temperature further and the hydration shell continues to destabilize, the increase in the heat capacity after unfolding will diminish. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1301547/"
] | [
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what's it called when your senses acclimate to your surroundings? | say, when you walk into a room and smell a candle, but after a few minutes your nose becomes "used" to the smell, what is the name for that? | at the cellular level it's called [adaptation](_url_0_). a neuron gets all excited about a new input and fires a bunch of action potentials. if nothing changes, eventually it sort of shrugs and gives up. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanoreceptor#By_rate_of_adaptation"
] | [
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] |
what's the difference between cjd and vcjd? | cjd is the name given to the form of the disease that arises sporadically, due to genetic mutation, or through transmission via infected grafts. vcjd is the name given specifically to the form acquired through contaminated beef. vcjd usually arises in younger patients and you don't see the "spike wave" eeg that you usually see with classic cjd, but otherwise they're very similar diseases. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
how does a computer handle power cut? | like, when there is sudden power cut, what actually happens inside the computer? can it detect a power cut, fraction of seconds before and save it's state? or it just blanks out completely? what happens inside disk? is there data lost? i recently had frequent power cuts in my area (i don't have a ups) and the computer would blank out. but, it would start normally on next boot without any apparent data loss (purportedly) like nothing happened. | generally a computer simply stops executing in a power failure. any data in memory (not written to a disk) is lost. if the machine is in the middle of writing data to a drive then it will unpredictably stop mid-write, potentially corrupting data. if you're running a computer that handles important or sensitive data then the first-line protection you should be using is an uninterruptable power supply (ups), which is just a battery backup system built for use with computers. this gives your computer enough time to shut down normally, at which point there should be no risk of power outage. however, many people do not have a ups system, and those that do may still fail, so system engineers have developed technologies to prevent damage in this situation. as mentioned above, data that is successfully written to disk is safe, but data that is not written to disk is lost. data that is interrupted while being written to a disk may become corrupted. thus, making a computer resistant to power failures is largely a matter of making your disk drives resistant to failures. the software that manages your disk drives is called a *file system*, so having a robust computer is largely the same as having a robust file system. modern file systems employ techniques to minimize the risk of data corruption during drive failures. one such technique is "journaling" which involves every drive change to be considered twice. first the drive writes down the changes it intends to make in a special area called the journal. then the drive actually makes the change in the disk itself. once it has verified that the change it intended to make was made correctly, then it can get rid of that journal entry. depending exactly on how this is implemented, this will allow the machine to automatically correct many errors, and in other cases to detect that there was a corrupted file and warn you (or the operating system) that corruption occurred. it's still possible for a power outage at *just* the wrong time to cause unrecoverable data corruption, but it reduces the likelihood substantially. step two is writing software and algorithms that are resistant to failures of this kind. many file systems support a "disk check" operation that may take a long time, but allow the computer to scan the entire drive to look for and fix these undetected errors. other critical operating system data structures may be similar in that they can be rebuilt on demand, or they may be stored in duplicate, or the software writers may employ other techniques to avoid unwanted data corruption. these are all general-purpose techniques. if you look in special-purpose systems you can employ even more strategies to make systems resilient to unexpected shutdowns. i talked to someone who designed software for military systems that were designed to be resistant to unexpected shutdown due to nuclear emp fields. the solution they pursued was to put all of the system-critical code in resilient rom chips (read-only memory) which allowed the basic system to boot and function in just a second or two after startup, while the larger system would continue to bootstrap in the background. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.sunpower-uk.com/glossary/what-is-power-good-signal/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_good_signal#ATX_Power_Good"
] | [
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does eating dirt as a child have any proven benefits for your immune system? | sorry if this is the wrong place! anyway, i've always touted that i have such a strong immune system because i was allowed to be a "dirty" kid- i would always go in the backyard and pick fruits and veggies and eat them covered in dirt, fertilizer, and god knows what else. is there any scientific evidence that this contributed to boosted immune system? | not so much a boosted immune system, but polio affected the upper and middle class far worse than the lower class because kids were exposed to the virus early on in low income areas. as a consequence they became immune to it, while the upper class kids were exposed later in life when it had a far more deleterious effect. [source](_url_0_) | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://nrhrehab.org/documents/mpp-chapter1.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene_hypothesis"
] | [
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do wars have an effect on earth's weather or climate? | i was listening to shows about major wars like the world wars and heard a lot of statistics about how many explosives were used. the facts were things like "1.1 million shells were fired over the course of 4 hours", and many statistics like this one. now those are absolutely huge amounts of explosives detonated in a certain area over a short period of time; can this have an immediate effect on the weather of that area, or even an effect on the climate of an area over longer periods of time? if so, are there any documented cases of that? | yes, but probably not as much as you think. allied bombing of germany in the waning days of wwii, especially in places like dresden and other populated area with lots of flammable man-made structures, were reputed to have produced localized environments which would be described as "fire storms", where the intense heat would indeed have produced its own short-lived weather systems due to ability of the massive amounts of energy generated to move large volumes of air. i also remember reading that due to the grounding of air traffic immediately after 9/11, the lack of contrails in the atmosphere actually did change global temperatures by some minuscule amount. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is nowadays real world application of reed-muller codes? | oddly specific. [reed-muller codes](_url_0_), for those wondering, are a type of error correction code. error correction codes being a code that adds redundancy to data to ensure that... errors can be corrected. for example, consider sending a 0 for 0 and a 1 for 1. if there is an error in this scheme (e.g., a 0 was sent but a 1 received) then the receiver is sol. on the other hand if i send 000 for 0 and 111 for 1, a single error (e.g., sent 000 received 010) can be corrected since 000 is the more likely of the two codewords. reed-muller codes found use in [deep space communication (pdf; pg 11)](_url_6_) because of how efficient they were in terms of redundancy and decoder complexity. that being said, they were not in fact [capacity](_url_1_) achieving, and fell out of fashion in favor of [turbo codes](_url_5_), [ldpc codes](_url_3_), and [polar codes](_url_4_). polar codes are the most interesting of these because they can be shown to be capacity achieving. they also share a large amount in common with reed-muller codes, [as discussed in the paper which originally proposed polar codes (pdf; see page 5 section d)](_url_2_). polar codes are currently being used for error correction codes, and [source coding (pdf)](_url_7_). in fact, polar codes have been selected for use in 5g. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Muller_code",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_capacity",
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/0807.3917.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-density_parity-check_code",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/0807.3917",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_code",
"http://www.isiweb.ee.ethz.ch/archive/massey_pub/pdf/BI321.pdf",
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1001.3087.pdf"
] | [
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|
why do i enjoy exercise so much? (weightlifting and "runners high") | i became serious about weightlifting about 5 months ago. the first two months were not enjoyable at all, i just wanted to become bigger and get stronger; i hated working out. after those two months, i began to go to an actual gym. i do heavy squats, deadlifts, benching, etc (general compound lifts). when i finish my set, i have a euphoric feeling all over and i'm a little dazed. i also occasionally get the same feeling from running, most people refer to it as "runners high." what causes this euphoria? i'm not sure if this makes a difference, but i increased my kcals and protein intake a lot. | as many folks have responded (with little explanation), your body releases endorphins, which is the neurotransmitter equivalent of opiates (endorphin = endogenous morphine according to wikipedia). basically, this is part of a negative feed-back loop in your body meant to counteract periods of intense work/pain (you can also get a high after getting tattoos for instance). as for why you didn't feel it in the beginning, chances are it was just doing it's job - ie you were actually in pain and the endorphins were just canceling that out. now, your workouts are likely causing less (relative) stress and pain and you're more efficient, so you end up noticing the high. it's also possible that you now have lots of other positive mental associations with working out, rather than just the suffering. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is hempcrete actually better than concrete? | hempcrete is easier to work with than traditional lime mixes and acts as an insulator and moisture regulator. it lacks the brittleness of concrete and consequently does not need expansion joints. however, the typical compressive strength is around 1 mpa, around 1/20 that of residential grade concrete. hempcrete walls must be used together with a frame of another material that supports the vertical load in building construction, as hempcrete's density is 15% that of traditional concrete. like other plant products, the hemp crop absorbs carbon dioxide gas as it grows, retaining the carbon and releasing the oxygen. 165 kg of carbon can be theoretically absorbed and locked up by 1 qubic meter of hempcrete wall over many decades. edit: i should add that while the hemp homes have far less impact on the environment – they use less energy to build, create less waste and take less fuel to heat – they cost about 10 percent more to build than brick and block houses. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what causes movement in living beings to happen? | [12 steps of muscle contraction](_url_2_) 1. neuron action potential arrives at end of a motor neuron 2. ach (acytylcholine) is released as a result of the action potential 3. ach then binds to the protein receptors on the motor end plate 4. the permeability of sarcolemma changes, an action potential is produced when na (sodium) rushes in 5. muscle action potential sweeps into the t tubules 6. calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum 7. calcium then binds to troponin 8. troponin changes it's shape and shifts to tropomyosin to expose binding sites of actin 9. myosin binds to actin, a cross bridge is formed and adp is released from myosin 10. the myosin head pivots thus pulling in actin 11. myosin then releases from actin, the cross bridge is broken and another atp binds to myosin 12. myosin re-extends into a "ready" position (atp- [wikipedia page on muscle contraction](_url_1_) for further reading. edit: what's pretty cool is that the [same principle is used in different ways by different parts of a cell](_url_0_). you can skip to around 2:50 to get to the good stuff. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dMPXu6GF18M&feature=related",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_contraction",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e3Nq-P1ww5E&feature=related"
] | [
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|
how do things know where to grow? | when an egg of any kind is fertilized and continues to divide into more and more cells, how does this lump of cell know what form to take? what is it that 'guides' the cells to create a specific shape? if i lost an arm, would it theoretically be possible to mimic those processes and regrow it in a bin using stem cells? | what cells do is largely a function of what type of cell they are, where they are, and the type of signalling they receive. for example, vascular endothelial cells receive signalling from signalling molecules like vegf, which are stimulated by hypoxia inducible factors that become up-regulated when there is low oxygen concentration in an area. this directs the creation of new blood vessels to increase oxygen supply. most of the body's processes are regulated in a (broadly) similar fashion. if you're asking about the larger organizational scheme, that is kind of the root of embryology/developmental biology, which is a huge field with lots still to be discovered. at the adult level, differentiated cells have different levels of dna expression - just because the dna is there does not mean it is expressed the same way everywhere. there's a lot of regulation at both the chromosomal level (eg histone methylation, chromatin condensation) and the nucleotide level (eg transcription factors, mrna splicing, etc). this is further mediated by signalling via chemicals (eg cytokines/growth factors/hormones etc), as well as physical parameters (eg the stiffness of the underlying substrate, or contact inhibition when cells become confluent). in the fetus, one of the key players is the hox gene, which regulates development along the anterior-posterior axis. various defects in this signalling pathway may result in things like duplication of structures (eg with synpolydactyly). there are many others (if you're interested, check out shh and wnt-7a), and while we have a general idea of what each one generally regulates, there are many details that are yet to be perfectly described. one overarching principle is the creation of chemical gradients to direct specific types of growth based on location. it is of course theoretically possible to recreate this process, but we are far from being able to manipulate these processes with much control. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/cell-rewind-wins-medicine-nobel-1.11553",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"
] | [
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do bacteria have a meaningful "top" and "bottom"? | that is to say, if i had a tiny spatula and flipped over some bacteria, would it continue about as it was before, or would it reorient itself back to its previous bearings? | well, this is an interesting question. at the size scale of bacteria, gravity has a much less drastic effect on organisms—the fluid that the bacteria is in exerts much more of an effect on the bacteria. so "up" and "down" as we know it, defined by our relation with gravity, isn't really a way that bacteria orient themselves. however, it appears that many bacteria have some form of orienting themselves based on chemical gradients or even magnetism. those known as "magnetotactic bacteria" orient themselves along the lines of earth's magnetic fields, and even commonplace bacteria can exhibit similar effects. for example, the ones that cause ulcers (helicobacter pylori) figure out which way they're going by way of chemical gradients in your stomach, while the bacteria on the roots of plants (rhizobium lupini) tend to form 90-degree angles to the root that they attach themselves to. so, tl;dr, some bacteria have a sense of direction (though it's different from humans'), and they would reorient themselves if you turned them opposite to the way they were going. sources: _url_1_ , _url_0_ , _url_2_ | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://mic.sgmjournals.org/content/journal/micro/10.1099/00221287-91-1-198?crawler=true&mimetype=application/pdf",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/101/14/5024.full",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetotactic_bacteria"
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] |
what studies have been conducted to both strengthen and challenge the milgram experiment? | the milgram experiment is often brought up in terms of the influence authority has. but i want to know how many times similar studies have been conducted. i want to know about results that both back up the milgram studies and offer alternative explanations/results. one study is not enough for me to form an opinion on this matter. call me crazy but maybe i'm just inclined to challenge the authoritative manner in which the milgram experiment is often presented. i'm also interested in what you as redditors have to say about this kind of social commentary. | your skepticism is commendable indeed. strong criticism has come from gina perry, who argued that milgram massaged his data and committed several ethical lapses, notably not telling all the participants afterwards that it had all been fake. conversely, there's concern that many participants suspected something was up. that said, burger (2009) used the same basic setup with more stringent ethical standards, and ensured even gender representation. while the protocol prevented him from going as far as milgram, he found that roughly as many modern participants continued after the learner's protest. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/amp-64-1-1.pdf",
"http://www.radiolab.org/story/180092-the-bad-show/"
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how do i get this plate out of a cooking pot? | i dropped a plate into the pot. at the time i noticed it was a remarkably tight fit. so much so that the plate nearly "floated" down to the bottom of the pot because the air didn't have much room to equalize past the plate. i come back 1-2 days later to do the dishes, and lo and behold, the plate is stuck at the bottom of the pot. it's a plastic plate stuck in a 3 qt pot. it's wet, and the plate has no "handle" to be able to pull up on it. the seal between the plate and the pot is tight enough to hold water. i can turn the pot over and hear water in between the plate and bottom of the pot, but the water doesn't drip. how in the hell do i get this plate out without damaging the pot and plate? | heat the pot. the only reason the plate managed to fit in the pot in the first place was because of heat expansion when you were using the pot; afterwards the pot cooled and shrank, and thus the plate got stuck. solution: heat the pot and re-expand it. the plate will fall right out. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
does g=9.8m/s^2 take into account the centripetal force from the earth's rotation? | does our calculation of gravity take into account the centripetal forces associated with spinning in a circle around the earth's circumference? for instance, the centripetal force i encounter in texas i think should equal f=mv^(2)/r=(70)(360)^(2)/6371000=.142n. of course, this is negligible. would this mean that there is actually less net acceleration downward at the poles of the earth? | if you're using that level of precision then even on the equator it won't change the 8 in 9.8. it amounts to about one part in 300. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblate_spheroid",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth"
] | [
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is there a difference between a prokaryota and prokaryote? | i'm studying for a paleontology test tomorrow and those two are mentioned multiple times. i have the definition of prokaryota, but i don't for the other. is one just the plural of the other or did my professor just make some typos when making the study guide? or are they actually different from each other? thanks! (paleontology) | prokaryotes are single celled organisms which lack membrane bound organelles and a nucleus. the dna is found floating freely in the cytoplasm. prokaryotes are bacteria and the common ancestor of all more modern cells including eukaryotes (multi celled organisms like you and i). prokaryota is another name for the collective biological kingdom of organisms also called monera. hope this helps. source: biology major myself | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do symbiotic relationships begin in nature, and why? | i've always been fascinated with clown fish, and the relationship they share with anemones. how do these relationships begin? what factors will prioritize behavioral adaptation before evolution? what are some other examples of mutualism in nature? | i don't have any papers that point to the origin of this relationship, but you could see it as evidence of natural selection. marine organisms like habitat complexity, because it provides protection, and surfaces to live on/in. an easy way to look at it is, imagine 5 groups of anemonefish. 1 lives in rock crevices, another lives in sea grasses, another under coral, another in an anemone, and another lives in the open. whichever group is most successful at not being eaten, will survive to reproduce. i do have sources for this (not currently with me), but anemonefish that aren't with a host have very high mortality rates due to predation. they have no real means of protection, and rely on the anemone for deterrence of predators. as for behavorial/physiological, i also don't know of sources that point to when they possibly arose, but i would argue that behavior arose after they were living in symbiosis with their host anemone, at least in terms of social structure. the size of the anemone determines how many fish can live there. in terms of physiology, the ability of sequential hermaphraditism, may have existed before the symbiosis. it's beneficial for organisms that don't live in dense numbers. it might be possible to find out if you can locate genes and "date" the fish relative to the anemone with a molecular clock. _________________ another example of mutualism in the marine world is zooxanthellae and corals, anemones, and jellyfishes. some research points to zooxanthellae as the boom in reef building corals. [evolution of the coral-zooxanthellae symbiosis during the triassic](_url_0_) - **pdf** | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://mgg.rsmas.miami.edu/faculty/pswart/stanley%20and%20swart%201995.pdf"
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are there any examples or parasitism developing into symbiosis? vice versa? | there is an example of this (sort of, maybe without the outright parasitism) within all eukaryotic cells. mitochondria are theorised (with good evidence) to have originated as a result of an early eukaryote engulfing, or being invaded by, an aerobic prokaryote. gradually this evolved into a symbiotic relationship (and really an obligate relationship in most cases). i'm not sure if the initial relationship was really parasitic in the strictest sense, seeing as it probably provided benefit for both parties. reading: _url_0_ _url_1_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/the-origin-of-mitochondria-14232356",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC138944/",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/343/6177/1350.short",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis"
] | [
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|
how do physicists define energy? | for example, in laymen explanations of string theory, physicists say particles are composed of "vibrating strings of energy". roughly speaking, what does this mean exactly, and how does it translate into "macro" level forms of energy, like kinetic energy or chemical energy? finally, how does the concept of "potential energy" fit into the picture? is this just an abstraction, or is there some kind of physical analogue? or am i just looking at the whole thing wrong, and the word energy is used to describe different things in different contexts? edit: probably should've searched before i posted, since this seems to have come up a few times before. none of the other questions touch on string theory and energy though, so could someone explain that part of the question to me? | basically, energy is something that is conserved in systems that look the same if you move them forward or backward in time. this is a consequence of something called noether's theorem, that associates conserved quantities with symmetries. another example is momentum, which is conserved when something is the same if you move it around. without understanding noether's theorem, there are only circular definitions like "energy is the capacity to do work." | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"
] | [
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] |
do residential electricity meters measure your power factor? if so, do the power companies charge you more for a low power factor? | i've been wondering for a long time if there's any advantage for the average consumer to buy electronics with a higher power factor. for example, this is advertised on a lot of computer power supplies nowadays. i know that for industrial customers, power companies will reward a high power factor with lower electricity rates. for those who don't know what power factor is: [_url_0_](_url_0_) essentially, it costs the power company less money to transport electricity to a load with a high power factor. | as far as i know from my electrical bill, they charge purely based on your kilowatt hour consumption. if your power factor has any influence on that measurement then that would lower your bill. | 2 | [] | [
"http://http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_factor"
] | [] | [
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time dilation - when do watches catch up? | i'm not sure how to understand it. let's say there is a ship moving very very fast around an asteroid. there is an observer on asteroid. both ship and observer have got big watches for each other to see. if i understand it right - both of them should see each other watches ticking slower than their own, right? so, let's say we're on the asteroid. what happens if the ship stops? when does his watch kind of... catch up? let's say we're observers on asteroid and we started measuring time when ship was just hovering over us just about to start. time has passed and now our watch is showing 00:30:00 and we see the watch on the ship showing, for example, 00:29:30. suddenly he slows down and stops in 30 seconds... so do both watches show 00:30:30 now? did we actually see the watch on the ship ticking twice as fast as ours during that slowing down? if not, what do we see now? both observers were moving relatively to each other, so which watch would show higher time value? that being said - how could anyone go forward in time just by moving as fast as 0,999 c if he had to slow down and stop at the end anyway? please help me understand it. :) | assuming that all these motions are not due to gravity (which makes the problem more complicated), the person who is accelerating has less elapsed time when they come back together to compare. in special relativity, acceleration is not relative - we know who is accelerating (the one who feels a force). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafele–Keating_experiment"
] | [
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can time dilation be observed using my 10 dollar digital watch? | i know time slows down when we move very fast etc following the theory of relativity. my question is, can i observe this phenomenon if the clocks used are just normal digital watches rather than the fancy scientific clocks? | not unless part of your experiment goes really really fast compared to another. your watch has maybe 10 millisecond precision, so if you took two of them and sent one of them at 10% the speed of light out and back, there would be a detectable difference, but not if you took one on an airplane. you need atomic clocks for stuff like that. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do they know the appendix evolved 30 times? | according to [this article](_url_0_), the appendix evolved 32 times in different mammals. what makes that conclusion more likely than those 32 mammals sharing a common ancestor that had an appendix? | basically because there are interposing, appendixless ancestors between each of the 32 animals, in their phylogeny. at least that is what the sentence "they found that the 50 species are scattered so widely across the tree that the structure must have evolved independently at least 32 times" suggests. it is possible, as you suggest, that a very distant common ancestor of these mammals had an appendix, but that it disappeared at some point in evolutionary time and is merely being resurrected in these cases, rather than created from scratch. maybe the original research article has some mention of that which the huff post article glossed over. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/02/14/appendix-evolved-over-30-times_n_2685499.html"
] | [] | [
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what is the actual scale of cells, cell walls, and surface proteins? | edit: i previously said "cell wall" when i meant "cell membrane." i'm taking a bio class and we look at a lot of diagrams of cells, cell membranes, etc. (like [this](_url_1_)) and it's got me wondering about the actual scale of these things. for example, in this diagram we only see six ach-gated sodium channels in this neuromuscular junction. how many would there actually be in such a junction? are the surface proteins actually about that size compared to the cell membrane? what about the ach vesicles -- is that about the right size compared to the axon terminal, or are they actually much smaller or much larger? also, in this illustration, we see three vesicles releasing ach; is that representative of the amount of ach that would be released for a single contraction? i've also been wondering about the relative sizes and numbers of surface proteins on a cell. are the surface proteins few and far between, or are they really packed in there with little space between them? take a look at [this diagram](_url_0_) -- they always draw individual phospholipids, and then proteins that are about the same size. is that right? wouldn't the proteins be monstrous compared to the phospholipids, to the extent that if you zoomed out far enough to see a surface protein you wouldn't be able to see individual membrane molecules? | achr density of [\ & #x200b; there is no cell wall here -- these are animal cells. if you mean the plasma membrane (7.5-10 nm thick), i think the proteins look too large, maybe up to 10x larger than they should be. the vesicles should be around 50 nm in diameter, and the nerve terminal area is \~100 square micrometers, so i'd guess the vesicles are drawn too large by \~7.5x. maybe every second or so one vesicle randomly fuses and releases its ach. so no, 3 vesicles would not be representative of an actual signal, more like hundreds. i don't think we have a solid answer on this yet, but the consensus as i understand it is that there are some regions that are \*relatively\* sparse and then clusters of proteins into functional regions like signaling clusters or structural clusters. but most cells interface with the extracellular environment a lot, so i think generally there is a lot more 'occupied' cell membrane space than there is empty space. no, proteins are not as large as you're thinking. the plasma membrane, as i mentioned earlier, is about 7.5-10 nm. the mhc-tcr-cd3 complex is about [25 nm long as 45 nm wide](_url_2_) (that's just one example of a protein complex -- technically that is two external transmembrane proteins and a complex of like 6 internal proteins). so while transmembrane proteins are larger than the lipid bilayer (somewhat obviously), they aren't so big they dwarf it to the point of not being able to draw it. | 16 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_edit2.svg",
"https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-ee290e149166c9e6e5c06aa5321ddfab-c"
] | [
"https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/pdf/S2211-1247(17)31628-5.pdf",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3302983/",
"https://www.pnas.org/content/111/49/17576"
] | [
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what do camel humps feel like? | humps are reservoirs of fat, so do they feel soft like human belly fat or breasts? | no, they're very, very firm. almost as firm as a horse's flanks. but they have very thick, coarse fur, so pressing the palm of your hand into one feels just a little bit springy - like a pig wearing two wool sweaters. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it so hard to develop an inexpensive synthetic alternative to down insulation ? | i have been shopping for a sleeping bag and it's well understood that down is the best. it's warmer by weight, packs smaller, and is more durable than all the alternatives. what makes down so hard to replicate? | down keeps you warm because it is a good trapper of air. still, non-moving air is a very good insulator, and the reason why furs keep animals warm (by slowly down the movement of air around their body). moving air will carry heat away via convection. we have, obviously, technologies that are also very good insulators, such as fibreglass or even aerogel. _url_0_ however, down is still by far the cheapest way to obtain a material that is able to efficiently, effectively trap air and prevent it from moving. down feathers are good at trapping air because of its complexity and fibre density. like many things biological, it is extremely difficult to replicate how dense these fibres are packed. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerogel"
] | [
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magnetic pendulum | in an image such as the one here [magnetic fractal](_url_0_) the ultimate position of an iron weight on the end of the pendulum over three magnets placed around the pendulums lowpoint. each magnet is color coded. a friend and i were wondering if in a strictly mathematical sence (ie not accounting for physical behavior as we reach very tiny didstances like quantum physics and such) is there an equilibrium at the very center or is the fractal patterns complexity such that there is no absolutely definate border between the three regions. | while a true fractal would 'zoom in' to infinity, for your question to make any sense, you would need to reduce the magnet you were placing at the center to a single point. the fractal, will, however, have an exact center, and therefore should be able to contain a point magnet at an unstable equilibrium whereby even the tinniest of bumps would set it off into one of its ultimate locations. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.math.hmc.edu/~jacobsen/demolab/magbasin3.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how do things like jello "remember" their shape even after being deformed? | i was watching this gif of jello being dropped and it kept bouncing back toward its original shape even though it seemed to have completely deformed into a puddle. how does that work?_url_0_ | in an analogous example, consider a rubber band. when you stretch it out a little, it'll go back to its original size as soon as you let go (this is known as elastic deformation). if you stretch it out too far, it'll be permanently stretched out (plastic deformation) or you might even break it. (wikipedia article on [deformation](_url_1_)) when you apply force to any material (not just their chemical composition, but also the way they're structured), be it torsional (twisting), compressive (squishing), or tensile (pulling) it'll first undergo elastic deformation, and then eventually plastic deformation as the stress increases. this transition (for a particular mode of stress, and sometimes, even for particular directions) is known as the yield strength. so, the answer to your question is that that particular piece of jello can undergo a tremendous amount of elastic deformation (and deflects a great deal in the process). as an aside, if you dropped a soft rubber eraser, it'd also spring back, it just wouldn't deform as greatly as the jello does in response to the same stress. [as to how jello in particular has such tremendous elastic deformation](_url_0_)... gelatin is composed of collagen (the same stuff in our skin, and extracted from the cow or pig hooves, bones, and hides that jello is made of). gelatin takes the form of really long molecular chains which can randomly bond with neighbouring chains. when they're heated up (say, with hot water) these bonds will break. as the solution cools down, the random bond-making (cross-linking) occurs, and traps large pockets of water. like a sponge, these pockets allow the jello to bend (and bend greatly) but not break. | 4 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/Tr46jTH.gif"
] | [
"http://pubs.acs.org/cen/whatstuff/stuff/8120jello.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deformation_(engineering\\)",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=osFBNLA7woY"
] | [
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] |
how likely is it for the western interior sea to resurface? | with the climate trending towards warming temperatures and the ice caps melting, what is the likely hood of the western interior sea to refill the parts of the north american continent it used to cover and what environmental consequences would that result in? also if the interior sea were to refill for a lack of a better term, how long would that take assuming current trends continue? | for those unfamiliar, the [western interior seaway](_url_6_) was a shallow marine corridor that spanned a good chunk of the western north american continent, connecting the arctic ocean to the gulf of mexico. it reached its peak during the late cretaceous, but [portions of the area later part of the western interior seaway had been marine or lacustrine (i.e. lake) environments since the jurassic](_url_5_). now, the western interior seaway did exist during a time of heightened sea level. during the entire cretaceous, sea level was between 75-250 meters above present day ([e.g. haq 2014](_url_3_)). this high sea level was in part driven by the fact that much of the cretaceous was a 'greenhouse world' ([e.g. sames et al, 2016](_url_7_)), but the extremely high sea level was also a reflection of a variety of decreases in the volume of the ocean basins (which will increase sea level, think same amount of water, smaller cup) as described in the haq paper, for example, because of high mid-ocean ridge spreading rates (which tend to mean hotter, more buoyant oceanic crust, meaning smaller ocean basin) and the emplacement of several large oceanic plateaus. with regards to the late cretaceous western interior seaway, the high eustatic sea level certainly was a factor in forming and maintaining connection with the global ocean, but it is extremely important to realize that the reason the basin (and thus the seaway) was there (i.e. why was that region low enough or subsiding fast enough to be under water) was because of more local tectonics. the western interior seaway formed within the context of the sevier orogenic (i.e. mountain building) event so there was some local subsidence because of this (when mountains build, the lithosphere around them gets depressed from the weight, forming basins next to the mountains that we call forelands or foreland basins). more importantly, there was negative [dynamic topography](_url_8_) in this region driven by subduction of the former [farallon plate](_url_1_), which at the time was subducting beneath the west coast of north america. this genesis of the western interior seaway by a mixture of flexural and dynamic subsidence has been discussed in a lot of papers, (e.g. [cross & pilger, 1978](_url_4_), [pag & nummedal, 1998](_url_2_), and [liu et al, 2014](_url_0_)). this means that the tectonic conditions that were necessary for the western interior seaway to exist no longer do, so the reformation of it (even with significantly higher sea levels) is extremely unlikely, nigh impossible. **tl;dr:** while the western interior seaway formed within the context of very high eusastic sea level, at least in part because of extreme greenhouse conditions, in detail its formation was fundamentally controlled by local/regional tectonic conditions that no longer exist. so even with rising sea levels in our modern world, the western interior seaway is extremely unlikely to reform. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X14000090",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farallon_Plate",
"https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/23/2/173/198505",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921818113002786",
"https://www.nature.com/articles/274653a0",
"http://www.searchanddiscovery.com/documents/2014/30392blakey/ndx_blakey",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Interior_Seaway",
"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018215006070",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_topography"
] | [
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how are rulers measured? | traceability and calibration. the companies calibrate their machines using either physical length standards (gage blocks, micrometers, etc.) or a laser. in either case these standards are themselves calibrated (with equipment having a lower uncertainty than the standards) if you go far enough up the chain of calibrations you get to an nmi (national metrology institute). at this level master standards (those used to calibrate lower level standards) are calibrated (checked against the nmi's standards...). the nmi's standards are extremely precise. nist (us nmi) can measure a gage block 1 inch in length with an uncertainty of 12 nm. now, your average ruler machine is not calibrated with a master gage block calibrated at an nmi. you have to go down the traceability chain, each step down adds uncertainty. your typical cheap plastic ruler machine is calibrated with something rather far down the chain. in terms of numerical inaccuracy.. cheap plastic rulers are often off by more than half of a millimeter over 100mm. you can easily see this with the naked eye by holding the scale your plastic ruler parallel to the scale of a machinists rule. if you seek accuracy you want to avoid cheap rulers, a machinists rule is far more accurate. why? because the equipment used to make machinists rules is calibrated with standards closer to the top of the traceability pyramid (so the inch+-(uncertainty) has a lower uncertainty). **to answer the question concisely** the ruler makers know that they are not marking an inch, but rather an inch +- (uncertainty). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does water "know" where to go in osmosis? | i understand the basis and concept of osmosis scientifically with regards to osmotic gradients and concentration differences of water and solutes, but what has been bothering me is that when you look at a situation where you have a box with a semi-permeable membrane that allows water between the left half and the right half (like: _url_0_) i get that water will tend to move from the area of low solute to high solute. but what i don't get is, how does a water molecule in the low solute area "know" (for a lack of better word) that the other side has higher solute concentration? thanks in advance! | the individual water molecule is still zipping around randomly. the probability to find a water molecule on either side of the box is a function of temperature, the size of the molecule, size of the pores, inter molecular interactions etc. in your example there is a higher pressure of water on the right side, since the solution is more dilute, this pressure gradient tends to _url_0_ when you observe the bulk behavior of your system you will find a net flow of water to one side of the box, this however is not telling you anything about what each water molecule does, even after the gradient is equalized there will be molecules moving from one side to the other and vice versa. | 6 | [] | [
"http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/thompsonj/Anatomy%20&%20Physiology/2010/2010%20Exam%20Reviews/Exam%201%20Review/osmosis.gif"
] | [
"balance.So"
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what would happen if a coronal mass ejection similar to the size of the one in 1859 happened today? | what would happen to the internet and cellular networks? would it affect solar panels in any way? is there anything countries should be doing to prepare better? it just seems like a huge issue that no one ever talks about. | nothing good. we're not ready to deal with it. mostly electric grids would experience a high voltage rise due to magnetic induction. this could burn the transformers that lower the voltage for domestic use. other devices, such as solar panels, would be affected to a lesser extent due to the smaller loop area, though the sources i have are not conclusive on whether they'd be fine. [this article in nasa's science magazine](_url_0_) focuses precisely on your question if you want more info. quoting from it: > widespread power blackouts, disabling everything that plugs into a wall socket. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2014/23jul_superstorm/"
] | [
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geology- what is this strange stone that turns different colors in incandescent/fluorescent light? | [photos here](_url_0_) what kind of stone is this? it is bright red in incandescent light and brown in fluorescent light. lustrous and smooth. it was discarded by an amateur jeweler, and i found it as a small child. there are what appear to be air bubbles and strange flaking marks. the images should provide more insight. if better/more specific images are needed, i can take more. thanks! | i disagree with geosparker. this material almost looks man-made. the conchoidal fracture (the smooth, sometimes radial curved fracture patterns) makes it look like glass, also that you said it feels smooth like glass. there are many man-made plastics and glass variants that behave this way. also the air pockets suggest this as well, as air pockets are uncommon and hard to explain within a single crystal. | 2 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/a/3Fssk"
] | [] | [
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during the occurrence of glacioeustacy on the earth, the atmosphere evaporates a large amount of seawater from the oceans; in order to restore balance to the atmosphere's water vapour content. why does the earth adapt itself, in order to keep the key environmental conditions for life to thrive? | i was wondering because i'm thinking of basing my dissertation on glacio-eustacy (meteorology). this process leads to a dramatic drop in the sea-level around the globe, due to the increased evaporation rates of seawater from the oceans. this increased evaporation adds to the water vapour content in the atmosphere. if this process didn't occur, the increased moisture locked up as ice and snow in the poles, would mean that the lower latitudes, closer to the equator, would be in a state of perpetual drought. what baffles me most, is why the earth keeps a certain balance; as a system, in order to keep life thriving? | the earth doesn't keep things nice for life.. life keeps adapting to the conditions on earth and once adapted to the conditions life finds those conditions "nice".. if the global climate shifts (which it does) whole swaths of life forms go extinct and are replaced by life forms which can survive here. we (life) are always evolving to best take advantage of the prevailing climate on earth. the earth gives fuck all if life exists here. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis"
] | [
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i am fixing a chain between two poles. it hangs in the middle. to make it look straight i have to tense and tie shorter. but the more tense i want it the more force i have to apply. do i need infinite force to make it perfectly straight? | technically infinite. since for anything less that infinite some deflection would be necessary for the horizontal tension to take on a small vertical component to balance the weight. but this isn't necessary for it to look straight to the human eye. you just need the tension in the chain to much much greater than its weight (so that only a minute deflection occurs). | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a rotational "at rest" w.r.t. centripetal acceleration/force? | i'm pretty sure the answer to this is "no", but i'm failing my own thought experiment: consider a ring shaped space station (ala 2001 a space oddesey) that has tangential thrusters that let it speed up or slow down its rotation. when it is rotating a person on its inner surface will feel artificial 'gravity' due to the circular motion, correct? (actually the effect of centripetal acceleration i know) the question i have is, what is this rotation with respect to? now consider a person sitting on the inner surface as the space station spins. from his point of view the space station is stationary, but he can look outside the windows and see the planet or the stars moving about in a strange way, and quickly deduce that he is in fact the one being accelerated, and not the stars and planets. if he uses the thrusters on the station to stop its rotation then he will no longer be stuck to the inner surface of the station but just float around, and all the planets and stars outside will be sitting still as they should. no problem there. now consider this person in the space station as if they were the only objects in the entire universe. he can fire his tangential thrusters one direction and he'll get stuck to the surface of the station with more and more force as it spins faster. likewise he can fire the thrusters in the opposite direction and the force will be lessened. if he keeps firing those thrusters there will be some point when the space station is at "rest" and he will feel no centrifugal acceleration, shortly before he feels it again as the station begins rotating the other way. however no matter what stage of this experiment he's in and what forces he's feeling, when he looks outside the window he sees the same blackness regardless (since he's the only one in the universe) so can't make any easy deductions that he's in an accelerated reference frame. so what's going on here? either some assumption i made along the way there about the fairly simple physics involved was wrong or there is some type of universal "at rest" (ether?)? i'm fairly certain it's the former case rather than the latter, but i'd like to hear the explanation. | first, let me say there is for sure a "at rest" when ti comes to rotation. i think what is happening is you are taking a relativity concept and applying it incorrectly. one of the bases of relativity is that there is no absolute measure of speed. that is, but someone in an enclosed box. there is no experiment that the person can do which can distinguish between "at rest" and "moving at 100 mph." thus, all inertial (non-accelerating) frames are equivalent, and thus there is not a "right" one or a "wrong" one. thus, you can't define absolute rest. but there are experiments you can do to tell if you are accelerating. and rotation (even rotation at a fixed speed) is an acceleration- so you can definitely tell if you are being rotated. and you give the method right in your question- the space craft is rotating when you feel a centrifugal force. when you are not feeling that force, you are not rotating. you can tell if you are translating (moving with a linear velocity) but you can measure accelerations always. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can repeated lorentz boosts cause rotation? | i'm working on a special relativity game, and i noticed moving around could cause stuff to rotate. i didn't think this was possible, and i'm wondering if it's a bug. does anyone know? | if you consider the boost matrices in the i=x,y,z direction, call them k*_i_*, they satisfy the relation k*_i_*k*_j_* - k*_j_*k*_i_* = - i ε*_ijk_* j*_k_* where ε is the totally antisymmetric (levi-civita) symbol and j*_k_* is the rotation matrix in the kth direction. (wiki tells me this is often called a "wigner rotation" but i've never heard it called that). so yes, the group of lorentz boosts isn't closed, you need rotations as well. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the trick to making a rupert's drop? | i understand the basic technique and the science behind making a rupert's drop but i can't seem to duplicate the results. does anyone know the trick to making one? _url_0_ | when i did it in my materials science lab as an undergrad we used a bunsen burner to melt glass stirring rods and let it drop into a bucket of ice water. how are you doing it? | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Rupert's_Drop"
] | [] | [
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could our minds create a separate person, living in a separate world made from information from the real world? | brains generally don't do this, but i don't want to say you couldn't alter the conscious in such a way that it's not possible. to answer your question, can our brains as we know them do it? no, they don't have the faculties. does it seem implausible? no, not if you have enough imagination. though, really, we don't know enough about consciousness to draw a conclusive answer. edit: re-reading the question, isn't that essentially what dreaming is? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the dunning-kruger have an impact on asessing self-evalutation? | the dunning-kruger effect by definition means the person cannot recognize their own incompetence/competence, and also overestimate their abilities. so, yes, it does affect a person's self-evaluation by making it seem better than it really is. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
gut bacteria linked to weight gain, how could you correct naturally? | so i came across this article in another reddit post recently. _url_0_ tl;dr the lipopolysaccharide endotoxin was linked to fat gain and a volunteer on a special diet eliminated the pathogen from his system and lost 1/3 of his body fat in 23 weeks. the article says it was done with a grain diet and herbs to alter the ph in his digestive track. 1. my question for askreddit is anyone familiar with this endotoxin bacteria and which way would you need to alter your gut ph to effect it. up or down? 2. the second question is what natural diet changes would alter your guy ph up or down in response to the answer to question 1. | i can't answer all your questions, but i'll pull out of my head what i can. lipopolysaccharide (lps) isn't the issue here. it's lps from *enterobacter*. lps is found associated with gram-negative bacteria, which are ubiquitous. second, the last author on that paper? he is the volunteer in that paper. science did a profile on him i believe last year (or maybe earlier this year). i also got to see him speak at the isme meeting this year in copenhagen. what i remember him talking about is that he made very intentional changes to his diet. he didn't just eat less. or only eat certain foods. but he added very particular "medicines" into his diet. and by that, he meant traditional chinese medicine, and foods that could be eaten as medicine. he is replicating this work in a clinic in china, and at least according to him this past august, is having great success. sorry, that's all i've got right now. | 20 | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/ismej/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ismej2012153a.html"
] | [
"http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/91/4/940.abstract?ijkey=f203024f2498169e2d08e48eaa3914b49f18369e&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00114-012-0942-0?LI=true",
"http://lib3.dss.go.th/fulltext/Journal/Journal%20of%20food%20science/2005%20v.70/no.1/23330jfsv70n1pC0093-0097ms20040425%5B1%5D.pdf",
"http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/33/5/991.long"
] | [
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] |
can a magnetic field affect the ph of a solution? | as the title states. could a large enough magnetic field affect the ph of a liquid/solution? | not that i'm aware of. strong magnetic fields can affect the orientation of magnetic dipoles and/or cause energy splittings between the spin states of electrons and nuclei, however these effects would not change the acidity of the molecule. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can timed electrical pulses through a coiled wire cause resonant magnetic pulses and if so what applications might that have? | this [animation](_url_1_) that hit the [front page](_url_0_) got me to thinking. if you had a similar coil of wire and properly timed electrical pulses through this coil, could you end up with an electromagnet with some momentarily near instant stronger fields? if possible would those fields have different shapes depending on how the pulses aligned? i.e in a line or thirds, etc. | so you are essentially asking about pulsing an inductor. correct me if i am wrong, but you seem to be asking 'can an rl circuit have a resonance?' the simple answer is no, however as you increase the frequency of your pulse, everything will eventually show some capacitance. in that case, you can just use the formula for an [rlc circuit](_url_0_), which has tons of applications. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/oddlysatisfying/comments/6eryfy/dots_going_around_rainbow_colored_geometry/",
"https://i.imgur.com/tWq3D7l.gifv"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RLC_circuit"
] | [
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oftentimes we hear "he/she's a fighter" when someone is critically injured or unwell, but still hanging in. how much does willpower of that individual actually matter at such a time? | if a person internally were to think about giving up, do the bodily functions like the immune system or the repair and recovery systems also, in a sense, stop working as hard? | it may help to tell someone they are a fighter. however, it's incredibly hard to quantify the difference it makes due to the subjectivity. on the other hand, there are definitely pragmatic benefits. in the case of critical injury, people are often told to 'fight' to stay awake. staying awake makes it much easier for first responders to accurately assess the situation (i.e. glasgow scale, or just ask the patient). the outcome could be dramatically different. in the case of a person being chronically ill, being told they are a fighter could help their mental state. mental well being often translates to physical well being. for example, a depressed person may not eat or sleep well, thereby adding unnecessary stress to their body and weakening their immune system. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can a beam of light bend if the source rotates or moves in the same way water does from a rotating sprinkler? | i am as far from an expert on this subject as you can get, but i'm pretty sure that once water or a laser beam, or any other sort of "stream" of particles or molecules leaves whatever source releases it, the source no longer has any effect on it. the water stream bends because gravity pulls it down, and it only seems to turn with the sprinkler because more water is constantly being released. the water that already was released remains on the same trajectory as which it started. light beams can be "bent" or redirected by objects in their path, but any motion of their source after they have left it should have no effect on them whatsoever. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
a cone dropped from a height | if i dropped a cone shaped object off a tall tower, if it was a uniform density, which end would land first? would the air resistance force the point to touch first, or would the mass of the "wide" end of the cone hit first? if we did this in a vacuum, how would this differ? | when you drop the cone in **air**, there are 2 forces influencing the behavior of the cone: gravitational and aerodynamic. gravity is pretty straight forward: the force is due to attraction of all the atoms in the cone being attracted to all the atoms in the earth (and also among themselves, the moon, the sun and everything else. however these can be neglected). the sum of all forces acting on the cone is the same as g*mass, and the force is acting on the [centroid of the cone](_url_1_) (located in the middle of the cone, one-third of the way from the flat face). i do not have any available references, but i **recall** that aero drag of the cone is equivalent to a force through the middle of the cone, less than one third of the way from the flat surface. if you drop a cone face down, you get this ([diagram here](_url_0_)). if you look at the forces acting on the cone, you notice that the gravity and aero forces are pushing against each other. this is not a stable configuration (try having two people simultaneously poke at a pool ball from opposite sides using pool cues- you'd soon slip and cause the ball to spin a bit) and will cause the cone to rotate into a stable configuration where the forces pull against each other (if you screw 2 hooks on opposite sides of the ball and pull using some string, this is a very stable arrangement and ugly surprises will not occur). this is illustrated in the [diagram here](_url_3_). once the cone rotates to [pointy-side down](_url_2_), it is stable and will continue its journey in this manner. in a vacuum, there will be no aero force so there is no preferred-configuration (all configurations are equally stable). **tl;dr**: read it all, damn it. you asked a question, i made you diagrams so you better well try to learn. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/kix1G.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centroid#Centroid_of_cone_or_pyramid",
"http://i.imgur.com/obnRa.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/iXbVi.png"
] | [
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electromagnetic pulse duration | emps have 3 stages. e1, likely the most dangerous to a plane, is 1000 ns according to wikipedia. e2 would be dangerous too and it says a second at the longest. _url_0_ that said, proper shielding could likely make the plane's electronics work fine at any time. the bigger danger would be the heat and pressure of the emp. it is just a nuke. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_electromagnetic_pulse"
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|
what actually is a "voltage pulse"? | i'm an undergraduate physicist currently doing a summer job working with electronics. unfortunately, i started out knowing a shocking amount about electronics, and am finding myself getting stuck on the basics. it's not that i can't *work* with electronics, but i think it helps to understand what's going on at a level below resistances and currents, i.e. what they actually *are*. thankfully i know about physics now, and can re-approach the subject from this perspective. my question is this: when my oscilloscope records a spike in voltage every few seconds when single photons impinge on my photomultiplier tube, what actually *is* the pulse? voltage is a measure of the difference in electrical potential between two points. does this mean that the (negative) voltage pulse given off by the pmt is a sort of electrical shockwave? like a pressure wave, but with a propagating excess density of electrons? then the reason the scope measures a small temporary increase in p.d. is because, when the shockwave passes through it, the electric potential at that point is slightly increased (made more negative) by the instantaneous excess density of electrons. please feel free to use jargon. | first of all, the voltage pulse at the output of a pmt is caused by the secondary emission of electrons. the distribution of emission times for these electrons (caused by the different paths taken by various electrons) will be gaussian. if you see a (say) 1ns pulse width, it means that most electrons were emitted within 1ns of each other. second of all, what exactly engenders a voltage pulse depends on the circuit. in your circuit (a pmt hooked up to a dc amp and load resistor), it's caused by a current pulse and a load resistor. in your circuit, the voltage is proportional to the current through the load resistor, which is roughly the same as the photocurrent. at a more fundamental level, the proportional relationship between the voltage and movement of charge carriers (i.e. ohm's law) has an [explanation that is quantum in nature](_url_0_). if you instead placed a diode where the resistor was, you would see a differently shaped pulse because the relationship between the current and voltage is different. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_and_quantum_conductivity#Flaws_in_classical_conductivity"
] | [
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what are the properties of sound waves that allow them to bend around corners? | light waves cannot pass through solid objects, yet sound waves can. how are sound waves so ubiquitous? | they defract, you can see the same behavior in water ripples as they pass by objects. what about glass? also lots of objects are completely transparent to certain wavelengths of light--also many objects are semi-transparent to certain wavelengths of light. how visible light attenuates and scatters in your skin and tissue [is why veins appear blue.](_url_0_) this kind of physics wouldn't happen if your skin was completely opaque to light. also, to add, all objects display wavelike behavior intrinsically, though for most objects this property is greatly suppressed. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.imt.liu.se/edu/courses/TBMT36/pdf/blue.pdf"
] | [
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power consumption & generation | dear fellow redditors, i am be no means a scientist, neither am i sure my question is supposed to be in this sub, but i thought i give it a shot. while looking up some information on power plants and power consumption i got intrigued by some numbers: the jiangxia tidal power plant, china's largest tidal power plant, produces 6,5 gwh annually(according to my ever faithful source, wikipedia). however, according to that same faithful source, china's average power demand is 18,608 kwh/capita. so far, so good. now looking at the closest city to the jiangxia tidal power plant is taizhou (zhejiang province). this city has 5.87 million inhabitants. but while doing my excel stuff, i calculated that the power plant only generates power for about 350,000 people! is there something wrong with my sources, does the world's 4th largest tidal power plant only supply power for a measly 350,000 people or am i just totally not understanding how to calculate poer generation vs consumption? thanks! | assuming you use the european convention of having a comma instead of a decimal point, you would get indeed 350,000 people. i find the idea of a 6.5 gwh plant weirdly low. a nuclear reactor can easily be a 1gw thermal, assuming 35% conversion efficiency, that's 350 mw electrical. assuming 90% uptime , that'll be 365 * 24 * 350 * 0.9=~2800gwh. most nuclear power plants have four or five reactors, so can easily generate 10,000gwh per nuclear plant per year. so a power plant with a total capacity of 6.5gwh per year certainly seems puny by modern energy use. then again tidal is really not much of an energy source, more of a public relation toy , so maybe it is that puny. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiangxia_Tidal_Power_Station",
"http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.USE.ELEC.KH.PC",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_power_stations_in_the_world"
] | [
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are there any anatomical changes in humans living in a poor air quality environment? | do people living in polluted cities develop any anatomical change to adapt to the environment? | are you referring to anatomical changes that allow them to exchange gas equally as effectively as those living in “clean” areas, or are you asking about damage induced from long term exposure to heavily polluted air? there certainly can be visible anatomical changes depending on the pollutant present, specifically on the histological level. edit: i also assumed you were asking about the respiratory system. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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pregnancy in zero g. is it possible? | stumbled onto a submission on an ama about what astronauts do to relieve them selves sexually in space. it got me thinking, is it possible to have a successful pregnancy in space, and if so what issues would there be? | disclaimer: the following has a large amount of conjecture since this has not been observed yet. [this paper suggests](_url_1_): translation: smaller/weaker muscles and bones, as well as heart. this is all assuming that conception and implantation occurs, which may not be the case since spaceflight may have interesting effects on various endocrine functions (including reproductive function). [other concerns include radiation, toxic chemicals, differences in breathing gases, and decompression.](_url_0_) [this (admittedly dated) paper](_url_2_) notes that rat studies demonstrated healthy offspring, though they were notably smaller than controls. [microgravity may also make pregnancy easier on the mother](_url_3_), since the effect of weight is diminished and other effects on exercise tolerance and blood pressure regulation may reduce the burden of childbearing. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8638459",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15607544",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2219104/?page=3",
"http://www.springerlink.com/content/x04587m151506j27/"
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how does xenon work as a general anaesthetic? | xenon is a noble gas, is chemically unreactive, yet surprisingly works as a general anaesthetic. why is this? | "xenon exerts its analgesic and anesthetic effects at a number of receptor systems in the cns. of these, noncompetitive antagonism of the nmda receptor and agonism at the trek channel (a member of the two-pore k+ channel family) are thought to be the central mechanisms of xenon action." this is a quote from a pharmd lecturer at my medical school. she takes most of her sources from goodman and gilman. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the relationship between the human mind and numbers | is there any evidence that the human mind has a natural predisposition towards counting/measurement/numbers or is mathematics and measurement as a fundamental property of science more a result of historical circumstance? | humans have an innate ability to count, that is greater than most animals but worse than a good number of them too. some animals have counting/measurement skills that *far* out-shadow our own. but yes, humans are better are numbers than the vast majority of life forms on this planet - so you could absolutely count that as a 'natural predisposition' if you are talking about strict *ability*. however, if you are interesting in the human *enthusiasm* to pursue mathematics... that is much less clear. it is at least substantially based on cultural and historical circumstance. that being said, the vast collection of cultures that have, in isolated societies (through both space and time), developed some developed form of mathematics *suggests* that it is likely to also be substantially based on innate human nature. however, to the best of my knowledge, no one has found a way to *test* for how innately curious humans are about math/numbers. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acalculia"
] | [
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] |
is transhumanism scientifically possible, or a hoax? | the [2045 initiative](_url_0_) which was featured in popular science, spearheaded by some russian millionaire purports that technology can be used to extend human being's lives longer than what they are now, even towards infinity ("immortality") by cybernetics. is this an attainable goal (as technology advances, some say towards a "technological singularity), would this hypothetical mechanism run against the laws of thermodynamics, or is it all a scam or some sort? | there's nothing in physics that says humans can't live indefinitely... with the exception of heat death. however, the means by which you would need to go to make a human last an indefinite period of time might very well violate our definition of what we think a human to be today. the technology of today is no where near the levels they would need to be though. the jury is out. nothing says it's impossible, but that doesn't mean it is possible. | 2 | [] | [
"http://2045.com/discussion/"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface"
] | [
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when you overwork your body, what triggers it to throw up? | i.e. working out at the gym, causing you to throw up. | quite a few things actually. dehydration can cause nausea by stimulating the production of vasopressin, the hormone that tells your kidneys to conserve fluids which can cause a sudden drop in sodium levels. overhydration can also cause nausea by diluting electrolytes. another cause of nausea is the diverting of blood flow from the digestive system to the muscles being exercised. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about the evidence for adaptation via natural selection | theodosius dobzhansky once said "nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution" (1973) natural scientist here. the evidence/proof exists in four (or five) areas. fossils, the fossil record is the first piece of evidence that one would look for. we find fossils of various species throughout their evolutionary timeline, we can map the change in between each stage and if one 'step' is missing we can make logical assumptions as to what that 'step' will look like. until very recently the whale's fossil record was incomplete, some whale species came up from the sea onto land and then went back into the sea. but we didn't have all the 'steps' so we made predictions as to location, size etc, and based on that we knew what we were looking for and low and behold we found it. the second stream of evidence is homology. for example a homologous structure is the pentadactyl limb. the structure of your arm is found in every single limb. the presence of homologous structures on both anatomical and cellular levels (universal genetic code) are very strong evidences of evolution. convergent evolution is another homology related evidence stream. this is the evolution/development of the same specific adaptation (organ or trait) in two species when the adaptation in question was not shared by the common ancestor. for example the eye in a chicken and the eye in a giant squid. their common ancestor did not have an eye (from the fossil record we know) thus they evolved separately for the same need. vestigial structures are another form of evidence used by evolutionary biologists. the classic example is your appendix. now is it not what many people say an organ used to eat grass and leaves. but it certainly has lost it's primary function, theories describe it as being a 'haven' for bacteria if the gut is purged via a nasty illness or diarrhea. or the whale pelvis, the whale does not have legs or lower limbs in the sense that other mammals do. yet they have a small, vestigial pelvic structure. clear signs of evidence for evolution. other two streams would be biogeography and direct observation (microevolution) but i think i have provided enough evidence. we cannot predict evolution as we do not know what circumstances will occur inducing adaptation. above all else you must understand that fish didn't evolve to go onto land they *had* to adapt, they didn't choose or say 'hey that land is uninhabited! let's go chill in the air.' they adapted to survive, perhaps predators forced them, only those who could live very near the shore could escape them, then only the predators who could hunt very close to the shore would survive and soon you get a self perpetuating event which ends in the first fish coming onto land. in my personal experience the issue which most people struggle to understand is the time frame. we are talking million upon hundreds of millions of years. if the entire history of the earth was condensed into one year and everything adjusted. the dinosaurs would still be roaming the earth on 21st of december and the entire history of *homo sapiens* is confined to 20 minutes. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how will my donated platelets be used? | just a few questions about my platelet donation. most of the materials i could find referred only to whole blood donation. i had a scheduled donation of platelets at my local red cross donor center today. i am a 24 year-old male, 173cm, 70kg, type a+. i was told that i needed a platelet measurement of over 100 to donate at all, and the test on my blood had shown 355. i was hooked up to an apheresis machine for a hour and a half, and they took "three units" of platelets out, which more or less filled a large iv bag (maybe 500ml) and was approximately 1 trillion platelets total. i was told i would "save three lives" with my donation. what are the likely units on that platelet count? my count apparently isn't pathologically high, so how high would it have to be before it's be troublesome? what proportion of my platelets did i just donate, and how much more freely would i bleed if injured now? what sort of patients will receive my platelets (other than hemophiliacs, i guess)? are they usually given via iv, like i conceive of whole blood transfusions? is it likely to actually go to three different patients, or possibly to just one who really needs them? | you actually wouldn't use platelets for hemophiliacs, since their defect is in factor viii of the clotting cascade. platelet transfusions are important for people with thrombocytopenia (literally, platelet deficiency), which can be the result of pathologies like immune thrombopenic purpura, thrombotic thrombopenic purpura, or disseminated intravascular coagulation. all of these processes use up the patient's platelets, leaving them deficient. thrombocytopenia can also occur with defects in production (such as from myelodysplastic disorders where the bone marrow fails to produce platelets). for hemophiliacs, you would actually give them desmopressin to increase endogenous factor viii levels or concentrated factor viii precipitates to directly add to their coagulation factor levels. the range on normal platelet levels is rather large - ~140k-390k/ul. you also don't really get any problems until your levels drop below ~50k/ul. each 'dose' of platelets generally increases the patient's count by 30k/ul. platelets can be given as single-donor infusions by iv, or be mixed with a couple of random donors. i hope this answered your questions, and good for you for donating! | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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to what level can parasympathetic systems 'learn' or be influenced by things like psychological stimuli? (if i only reddit while i go to the bathroom, will my body 'want' to go to the bathroom more often?) | i guess my specific question is: to what level, if any, can an external (psychological?) stimulus affect a parasympathetic system (in this case, bowel movements)? will my body make me want to poop more often so it can get its 'reddit fix'? **the reasoning behind this question:** i'd like to control my use of reddit a little more, and one easy way to seems to be to limit myself to reading my frontpage only during the times i am using the restroom, because i don't control exactly when my body 'needs' to go. but then i got thinking, 'maybe that would cause some issue where my body 'wants' to go more often', kind of like a learned behavior. to what level can parasympathetic systems 'learn' or be influenced by things like psychological stimuli? | from a psychological standpoint, assuming reddit is a significant reward to you (meaning something that you enjoy enough to seek out) then what is likely to happen is that your threshold for deciding when you need to use the bathroom will lower. in other words, if today your bathroom habits are "i only use the bathroom when i *really* have to go," if you attach a reddit reward to it, you might use the bathroom even when you only sort-of have to go because you've conditioned yourself to view using the toilet as being pleasurable and so you will tend to seek out using the toilet more often. this is known as "operant conditioning," and is not just limited to redditing on the toilet. it's one of the fundamentals of behaviorist psychology, and is the basis of a huge number of things we humans do when we try to modify our, or someone else's behavior. parents spank their children because they want the children to associate whatever they just did with pain in the hopes that they will avoid doing it. they praise their children because they want the children to associate whatever they just did with the reward of feeling good about themselves, in the hopes they will do more of it in the future. police give speeding tickets to condition us to drive slow, and they also hold citizen award ceremonies to condition people to help the community. this kind of conditioning works even if there is no intent behind it - i.e. if a child touches a hot stove, he'll be conditioned not to touch the stove again, even though there was no conscious objective to keep the kid from doing that because the parent (hopefully) didn't heat the stove up in order to condition him not to touch it. so from a psychological perspective, this functions independently of your intestines. you'll seek out the toilet in order to reddit. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does terence tao's proof of the erdos discrepancy problem work? | i am interested in how his proof makes sense. i am not a mathematician but i have an engineering background in math. i have looked at the proof and could hardly understand it, if somebody could put into more intuitive terms that would be awesome. i understand this may not be possible, but thanks in advance for any help you can give. | **the problem** if you take any sequence of +1s and -1s, such as s= < -1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,... * in our example, we can take d=4, n= 7 and so we start with the 4th entry in the sequence and add every 4th after it until we've added together 7 numbers. the seven bold numbers are the ones we add: < -1,1,1,**-1**,1,1,-1,**1**,1,-1,1,**1**,-1,1,1,**-1**,1,1,-1,**1**,1,-1,1,**1**,-1,1,1,**-1**,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1... -1+1+1-1+1+1-1 = 1 * if we take d=2 and n=8 then we add together < -1,**1**,1,**-1**,1,**1**,-1,**1**,1,**-1**,1,**1**,-1,**1**,1,**-1**,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1,1,1,-1... 1-1+1+1-1+1+1-1 = 2 the erdos discrepancy problem says that if i choose *any* sequence s of +1s and -1s, and *any* positive integer c, no matter how big, then there will always be some n and some d so that the size of the corresponding sum is bigger than c. if c=50, then you can check that d=2 and n=153 will make it so that our sequence adds up to more than 50. the erdos discrepancy problem says that you can make any such sequence grow however big you like in this way. essentially, you can't always have the +1s and -1s cancel out, you'll always have runaway portions of your sequence that can get arbitrarily large. these kinds of sums, and the more generalized ones that tao works with that allows for any complex number of length 1, are particularly important in number theory. if, say, we want to find a formula for a particular quantity a, then we usually get expressions like a = (growth term) + (error term that approaches zero) + (oscillatory term) we can control the (growth term) and the (error term) relatively easily, but the (oscillatory term) is essentially a bunch of +1s and -1s that we're adding together. knowing how to control the behavior of the (oscillatory term) can be a major barrier in some of these big proof and problems. the [riemann hypothesis](_url_1_) is a question about controlling one of these oscillatory terms. the erdos discrepancy problem is way to understand these kinds of terms. --------------------------------------------------------------------- **the proof** the proof is still relatively new and it's not particularly simple, so i don't really understand all of it yet, but let me say what i can. i'm basically going to outline what tao says he does and explain a little bit on what each ingredient is. 1.) there are a lot of sequences of 1s and -1s. almost all of them aren't particularly nice, in contrast to the one i gave as an example. but there is a class of sequences that work really nicely: [completely multiplicative sequences](_url_3_). these are ones that satisfy s(nm)=s(n)s(m) for any n and m. these pop up a lot in math and are easier to work with because you really only need to know what s(p) for every prime and the rest follow. contrary to this an arbitrary sequence will be pretty random, what s(n) is has no bearing on what any other number is. the first step of tao's proof is to use [fourier analysis](_url_0_), one of number theory's most powerful tools, to show that we only need to be able to find a proof when our sequence is completely multiplicative. so the first step reduces the class of sequences that we need to worry about to a much smaller subcollection of functions that happen to behave really well. 2.) if our sequence in completely multiplicative, then we only need to know what values it takes on the primes. the next step then talks about what happens at the primes. tao uses the "logarithmically averaged elliott-conjecture" to show that these kinds of sequences must behave in a specific way at prime values. this doesn't immediately talk about the erdos discrepancy problem, it just tells us how things grow when we look at the primes. using this, it can be shown that the only possible place that a counterexample of the erdos discrepancy problem can live is in a very tiny corner of the sequence room. this step shows that we only need to concern ourselves with a comparatively small class of sequences that have very specific properties and tools that we can use. 3.) this is the final piece that fills in the gap. it says that even in this tiny corner, there are no counterexamples to the problem. the way this works if by slowly taking apart the terms that the problem deals with. after stripping away all the fluff in the equations what's leftover is something like log(h) < 1, where h you can find the proof [here](_url_2_). (this is also copy/paste of my response in [this](_url_4_) post.) | 22 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_analysis",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemann_hypothesis",
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/1509.05363v1.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplicative_function",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3lwyqx/can_someone_eplain_to_me_the_solution_terrence/"
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is salt water a good antisceptic? if so , how good? | do different concentrations have different effectiveness? is there a certain concentration that is hostile to most life. wikipedia says this. > many micro organisms cannot live in an overly salty environment: water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. i was wondering does it kill a lot of virus and bacteria? | when wikipedia says they can't "live" in an overly salty environment, what they really mean is they can't grow and multiply in such environments. but bacteria don't have to "live", they can go dormant and stay that way for years, only coming back to "life" when conditions are suitable. and viruses even more so. this is why salt is a preservative, not an antiseptic. while in the presence of high salt concentrations, many bacteria will go dormant, they may form spores and stay in their spore state for tens or hundreds of years. but they're not dead, and when you take the material out of its salty environment, those same bacteria will start growing again. | 30 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if you have sleep apnea, does that mean there is something wrong with your pons? | if your pons is responsible for regulating your breathing and making sure it is not sparatic, does that mean that sleep apnea is caused by something being wrong with your pons? sorry if that was worded oddly, i'm new to reddit and not sure how you guys like things done. | there are different possible causes for sleep apnea (i.e., the arrest of breathing during sleep). there are two main types of sleep apnea, with different biological bases. 1. [obstructive sleep apnea (osa)](_url_2_). this is caused by a physical obstruction of the airway. there can be various different causes for this. the reduction in muscle tone during sleep can lead to airway collapse in some individuals, causing osa. 2. [central sleep apnea (csa)](_url_1_). this is caused by dysregulation of the brain's breathing centers during sleep, including a region of the brain called the [pre-botzinger complex](_url_0_). it is possible for an individual to have both conditions. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Botzinger_complex",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_sleep_apnea",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstructive_sleep_apnea"
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why can't i apply kirchhoff's second rule when analyzing lr circuits? | i am in the process of watching professor walter lewin's mit lectures on electricity and magnetism. in [lecture 20](_url_0_), during the first fifteen minutes, prof. lewin criticized many textbook authors for misapplying kirchhoff's rule when analyzing lr circuits, and clarified that faraday's law should be used instead. my study partner insisted that prof. lewin was wrong, and that kirchhoff's rule applied in this case because the inductance came from within the circuit itself. i would really appreciate it if anyone here could help me understand whether kirchhoff's rule is applicable here. if not, why? is prof. lewin right, or are those textbook authors right? are there any sources you would recommend to me? thank you in advance for all your help! | kirchhoff's rule somewhat requires us to invent additional notions that aren't necessarily intuitive to the elements in the circuit. namely the voltage rise/drop across an inductor. surely we can define one, as it can absorb or donate energy to the electrons moving through the inductor, but it's a bit more like forcing the element to fit the model. of course two schools of thought always exist. one is that you should do things conceptually correct (seemingly lewin's position, though i can't watch the video). the other is that if the maths give you the right answer, then it's good enough (your study partner). the best answer of course is: use the tool that fits the problem you're trying to solve. if you want to understand the fundamentals of what's happening in a circuit as a learning exercise, i agree with lewin. if you're trying to calculate what a circuit's going to *do*, not caring too much about what is physically going on, then use kirchhoff. (\^my opinions, other physicists/engineers may disagree. i certainly hope i'm not too incorrect here though, it has been some time since i taught this stuff) | 13 | [] | [
"http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/physics/8-02-electricity-and-magnetism-spring-2002/video-lectures/lecture-20-inductance-and-rl-circuit/"
] | [] | [
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why is the the fibonacci sequence shown in bubble chambers all the time? | i always see these pictures of bubble chambers and i noticed the fibonacci sequence shown, what is this? | if by bubble chambers you mean the [fibonacci spiral](_url_0_) then it's just an interesting mathematical play on the sequence. if you start with one square whose side we consider to be equal to 1 (the unit of measurement is irrelevant) and then proceed to attach sqares to the side of the shape in a fibonacci sequence, by connecting the opposite corners of those squares you get a spiral which keeps stretching outwards proportional to the rate at which the fibonacci sequence "spirals" out of proportion (pun intended). the rule of thumb here is to create the new squares by lining up on a previously created side so that the sum of whatever sides makes up that side equals the next term in the fibonacci sequence. however, do keep in mind that this is just a neat visual representation and not an actual strict thing which goes by that rule. for instance, there is no explicit reason as to why the size 5 square should go on top of it, other than the need to preserve the look of the spiral. mathematically speaking, it could be argued that the size 5 square should be placed on the bottom as the term itself is created by the sum of the sequence's previous two members (2+3) and not due to the sum of 1+1+3 as the image might suggest. [here](_url_1_), i've sketched out an idea about what it would truly mean to stick to that rule and to the fibonacci sequence's principle. all in all - it's just a neat aesthetic thing, nothing too mathematical about it. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://thespiritscience.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/fibonacci_spiral.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/uOonv9f.jpg"
] | [
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how do scientists across the world accurately repeat experiments that use very fine weight measurements when the force of gravity isn't consistent across earth? | for the majority of experiments, the variations of the gravitational field are small enough that any affect on the results are minimal, and quite often not relevant. if the experiment relies on a more accurate measurement of the force of gravity then any weights are re-weighed extensively and for very important experiments a local value of g can be calculated. often though, more relevant errors come from other sources which can contribute a lot more heavily to inaccuracies of results. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is the sequential atrial contraction simultaneous with the contraction of the ventricles? or is the ventricle contraction delayed by a moment? | ventricular contraction is delayed. the atrial contractions occur as your mitral/bicuspid valves open thus filling the chambers of both of your ventricles. this filling of the ventricles creates a pre-load and "stretch" of the ventricular walls then the ventricles contract ejecting the blood. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is it that makes the mechanism of a watch slow down in space travel? | really i guess i'm looking for a layman's description of what exactly causes time to pass... would people age differently in different parts of the universe because of a difference of gravitational forces on their bodies? how does this affect the actual ticking mechanism of a clock or watch? tl;dr- i watched interstellar and used to consider myself a kind of smart person... looking to rebound myself. | imagine for a second that your buddy jim can throw a baseball at 60mph, but he wants to throw it faster. so he gets in the back of his buddy's pickup and has the buddy drive at 30mph while you stand off to the side. now jim throws the ball, how fast is it going? 90mph, right? well, it's only 90mph to you, because you're not in the truck. to jim, the ball only looks like it's going 60mph because jim is already moving at 30mph in the back of the truck. the difference in the speed is due to which frame of reference you're in, whether it's relative to being in the truck, or relative to standing there watching the truck. we call the general concept of this difference *relativity*. now let's say you did the same with a flashlight. it shoots out light particles, so maybe if you got in a fancy suped-up ultra fast space shuttle, you could get the light particles to go even faster. well, not to you, because you're on the shuttle, but to your buddy jim standing back on the ground watching you. but it doesn't work! the speed of light doesn't change with the frame of reference like baseballs do. relativity doesn't work the same with light like it does with baseballs. the nature of light is so much different than the nature of a baseball, that it doesn't care what reference frame the viewer is in. it's always the same speed. this phenomenon isn't very natural sounding, but it has been shown many times to be true, and it's even part of the reason that nuclear fission works! well, this whole light not obeying reference frames causes all sorts of problem. like that nothing can go faster than the speed of light! it's kind of like a boundary on how fast things can go. pretty much only light can go the speed of light because it's massless, but most other stuff has mass so it can't even reach the speed of light. but if "massful" stuff gets close to the speed of light, crazy things start to happen. things called *relativistic effects*. things like time slowing down. except it doesn't slow down for anyone on the massful thing. it thinks time is going like normal. the clock on your shuttle ticks a normal beat just like it always did because you're on the shuttle, going the same speed as the shuttle. time instead slows down for everyone not going the speed who's looking up at you, like your buddy jim who's back on earth. he's watching you zip around at maddening speeds, and when he looks at your clock on the shuttle, it seems to be going slower to him than the clock on his wristwatch. time is passing slower on the shuttle than it is back on earth, but only your buddy jim and everyone else on earth can tell. that's what happens in *interstellar* except the situation is switched because of the black hole. on the flip side of massless light is really massive stuff, like black holes. their gravity is so strong, that it literally bends light which can also cause relativistic effects to happen. matthew mcconnaughey and anne hathaway go down to this planet that's in a place near the black hole where relativity is a bit screwy and time moves slower, while the other guy on the ship is aging waiting for them to come back. for him, it takes years for them to return, but to mcconnaughey and hathaway it was just a few hours. all because light has to be the same speed no matter who's looking at it from where. | 28 | [] | [] | [] | [
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evolution vs. survival of the fittest | probably a dumb question but i wasn't sure. are these theories the same, complementary, or opposing? also, do those who believe in evolution always believe in survival of the fittest and vice versa? | survival of the fittest is a somewhat old description of natural selection, that has fallen out of favor for being somewhat inaccurate. natural selection is a proposed mechanism for how evolution occurs, so they are related but not specifically the same thing. evolution refers to the passing on of traits to offspring. natural selection is the mechanism by which those traits become more or less common in a population, resulting in what we see as adaptation. natural selection is by far the most popular theory, and in general i think proponents of one support the other, but it is not the only proposed solution, so there are differing opinions, albeit much more rarely. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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logic question | i'm trying to figure out how to express this problem in mathematical terms so that a program like wolfram alpha could help. it might not work, but i'm curious anyway. the problem is this. say you have 4 rooms and 4 turns and 6 teams. each team must be in one room during each turn. each team must not repeat a room and, therefore, must be in each room at some point. there cannot be more than 2 teams in a room at once. what configurations are there that minimizes the difference between teams in turns being alone. meaning, how can it be arranged so that it works out to be as close to each team is alone twice and with another team twice? any help on how to phrase that question in math terms would be appreciated. | easy remark: you cannot fully satisfy the condition that each team is alone twice and with another team twice. every turn, at most 2 teams can be alone. in 4 turns, it is impossible for 6 teams to be alone twice. you can be a bit more formal if you say you want to find a function f: {1,2,3,4,5,6} * {1,2,3,4} - here is a python backtracking program. it finds an assignment where 2 teams are alone twice and others once. it's hard to be more balanced than that. you can modify the condition to get other assignments. for example, you can have an assignment where no team ever is alone, but at any turn some room is unused. import pprint rooms = 4 teams = 6 turns = 4 # current assignment, dict (turn, team) - a = {} occupancy = {(turn,room):set() for turn in range(turns) for room in range(rooms)} # the procedure calls recusively backtrack for all turns and teams. it starts with # (0,0) - first turn and first team, and calls backtrack(0,1) - first turn and second # team, four times, each call for a possible choice of first room for first team. # then backtrack(0,1) calls backtrack(0,2), which calls backtrack(0,3), ..., # backtrack(0,5), backtrack(1,0), backtrack(1,1), ..., backtrack(3,5), which calls # backtrack(4,0) which checks how many teams are alone and perhaps outputs # the result. def backtrack(turn, team): if turn == turns: # we have completed the search, team_alone will be a vector # that counts how many times each team is alone team_alone = [0 for i in range(teams)] for t in range(turns): for r in range(rooms): if len(occupancy[t,r]) == 1: # if the room r is occupied # in turn t by a single team, for x in occupancy[t,r]: team_alone[x] += 1 # add to its statistics # we now get a vector like [1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2], if it satisfies our # conditions print it, and exit if sum(team_alone) == 8 and min(team_alone) == 1 and max(team_alone) == 2: print team_alone pprint.pprint(occupancy) # print the schedule # you could do print(occupancy) as well, # but it will be less readable exit() return # next team = team+1, we wrap around to 0 next_team = (team+1) % teams next_turn = turn+1 if next_team == 0 else turn for r in range(rooms): # check all possible rooms # if the team occupied room r previously, # or the room is already occupied by 2 teams, reject it if any(a[j,team] == r for j in range(turn)) or \ len(occupancy[turn,r]) == 2: continue # update the schedule - team now takes the room a[turn,team] = r occupancy[turn,r].add(team) # assign other teams backtrack(next_turn, next_team) # if we get here, the search was unsuccesful, we need to check another room # so we undo the changes done above del a[turn,team] occupancy[turn,r].remove(team) # start backtracking with first turn and first team backtrack(0,0) | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are extraordinarily high temperatures contained/dissipated ? | take the [z-machine](_url_0_) for example. how do you contain 6.6 billion degree temperatures? i feel like it would melt nearly anything in an instant. what materials would be needed to create a heatsink that could deal with those incredible temperatures? | these things are generally confined by magnetic fields in vacuum. heat doesn't transfer through a vacuum, so the interior of the chamber doesn't get melted by the heat of the plasma. in collisions at cern and brookhaven national lab, temperatures have reached the trillions of degrees, but it's only in the volume of an atom that things get that hot. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z_machine"
] | [] | [
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serious question, when you look at an object or anything really, why is your view not obstructed by particles that surround us? | if there are enough of the particles, it can be. that's why mountains that are far away look hazy and blue. but even most solid matter is empty space, and that holds even more true for gaseous matter like air. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
a question about water, boiling, and lowering of oxygen content. | i am a fan of home brewing beer. part of the process requires that we boil substantial amounts of water and in a later step, add yeast (which requires oxygen to thrive at first) however since the water was boiled it is suggested to aerate the beer wort (the water plus hops and malted grains) since boiling is said to deplete the o2 content. so here are my questions: 1) when i bring water up to boiling temperatures, what is exactly causing the "boiling" or the bubbles coming from the bottom of the aluminum pot and floating to the surface? 2) when you boil water, how much of the dissolved oxygen in the solution is actually forced out? (typical boil lasts for around 60 minutes) 3) by taking 5 gallons of boiled water, and shaking it in a container with about a gallon of air (not sure if that is the right measurement for volume of a gas) will it be substantial enough to "re-aerate" the liquid? or if i use a "air stone" like those used to aerate fish aquariums, how long would i need to run it to bring the liquid back up to a "normal" oxygen content. **i realize i have asked a bunch of questions that are highly dependent on numerous variables so i can work with something less than hard numbers here, i'd just like to see what guesstimates you science minded redditors have to say.** | 1. boiling is caused by raising the vapor pressure of the water to equal that of the atmospheric pressure. more heat [aka energy] allows the water to be able to easily break intermolecular bonds and escape as gas. 2. more than likely nearly all the o2 is depleted. 3. the solubility of water is 7.6 mg·l^−1 @ room temp so you have about 19l of water. this means that will hold about 0.14 grams of o2 or roughly 0.1l of o2. since atmosphere is 21% o2 you would need a total atmospheric volume of about 0.5 l. the problem now is there is going to be an equilibrium so you really need a fair deal more than that. now just shaking will replenish most of the o2 in the system and will probably likely be enough for your purposes but if you really wanted to go all out the small aerator for maybe 10min would be more than enough. additionally shaking and just letting the water sit for a bit will naturally replenish the o2 if the container is not sealed. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a fundamental evolutionary explanation for why almost every tract in the cns crosses to the opposite side? | the answer to this has eluded me for a long time. why does sensory information from the right half of the body travel to the left half of the brain? why do motor nerves from the primary motor cortex on the right side of the brain innervate muscles on the left side of the body? i haven't heard a good explanation, and i can't think of one myself. anybody got any ideas? | one hypothesis looks to the ancestors that first had this feature, the worms. the usefulness of crossing nerves is that an impulse on the left side causes the right to contract, which pulls away from the thing that touched it. since switching back would be improbable, we appear to be stuck with it. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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the australian cricket scandal: how does rubbing tape against the ball make it move unpredictably? | so lately there has been this huge controversy in cricket where the australian team was caught ball tampering. the bowler apparently rubbed the ball with yellow tape and "roughed up the ball on one side," making it more challenging for the batsmen to hit. how does a). rubbing a ball with tape rough it up? is tape really that damaging to the surface of a cricket ball what does tape do to the surface of cricket ball. b). how much of a difference does that actually make? how does the trajectory of the ball change when one side is more rough? how uneven does the surface of the ball have to be to make a noticeable difference? _url_0_ | a cricket ball is made of leather, and generally has a smooth surface [when it's new](_url_0_), which gets [progressively rougher](_url_3_) during the game, due to natural abrasion as the ball comes into contact with the bat, the ground, etc. when a cricket ball is bowled to the batsman (think of it as throwing a pitch at the batter, in baseball terms), it's beneficial to get the ball to 'swing' (i.e. curve in the air). the trajectory of a swinging ball is very difficult for the batsman to predict, so this naturally gives the bowler a huge advantage. one way to achieve swing is to keep one half of the cricket ball shiny and smooth, while making the other side as rough as possible. when such a ball travels through the air when it's bowled, the surrounding air flows smoothly on one side of the ball, and turbulently on the other side. this causes an air pressure differential between the two sides of the ball, causing the ball to be pushed to one side by the air around it, in an attempt to equalize the pressure. in other words, the air flow is laminar on one side of the ball, and turbulent on the other side. here's a more detailed [explanation](_url_2_): this is why you'll often see cricketers rubbing the game ball on their pants or other parts of their clothing (which happens to be legal) - they're trying to roughen one side of it. you might also see cricketers rub their saliva on the other side of the ball (yeah, i know, gross) - this is to clean it, and keep it smooth and shiny. [here's an example](_url_1_) of a ball that will probably swing well - notice how shiny it is one one side and not on the other. (note: 'inswing' and 'outswing' in the above image refer to the direction in which the ball will swing, which can be controlled by the orientation in which the bowler chooses to hold the ball.) here are [some examples](_url_4_) of the kind of swing a skilled bowler can generate with such a ball, and why it's so effective. notice how the ball moves in a curved trajectory in the air - this makes it extremely difficult for the batsman to pick where it's going to land. now, why were the actions of the australian team controversial? it wasn't the tape itself that caused the controversy - in this incident, an australian cricketer used a piece of tape to pick up dirt from the field, effectively turning the tape into an abrasive, sandpaper-like object. this object was then used (or was intended to be used) to roughen one side of the ball. this is technically illegal in cricket, since it's using a foreign object to alter the state of the ball, rather than using 'natural' means like normal wear and tear due to play, or rubbing the ball with your hands or on your clothing. some people also feel that the premeditated nature of the action makes it much worse, since it contravenes the spirit of fair play that the game endorses. hopefully this explains why the scandal grew as large as it did. | 16 | [] | [
"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/26/sports/cricket/australia-cricket-scandal.html"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cricket_ball#/media/File:A_Cricket_Ball.jpg",
"http://www.dangermouse.net/cricket/swing.jpg",
"http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/258645.html",
"https://kids.kiddle.co/images/thumb/e/e6/Used_cricket_ball.jpg/800px-Used_cricket_ball.jpg",
"https://youtu.be/cBByM6-TI6E?t=1m58s"
] | [
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is there a evolutionary reason why my idiot cat keeps putting his toy mouse in his water bowl? | i've never known a cat to do this, but behavior like this is often seen in captive raccoons, where it is called dousing. _url_0_ we call it a "vacuum" behavior, a behavior that exists as a result of captivity. cats are very picky/keen on the texture of their food, so it may be related to that, although the idea of wetting food before eating is not particularly well supported in behavioral literature. unfortunately, that is the best i can offer you aside from "cats are weird" (source: i work with cats in a professional capacity). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raccoon#Dousing"
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|
do all medical experiments still use a control group? | it seems like we would already know what happens to a person with untreated pancreatic cancer. it seems like not giving someone with a terminal illness in a drug trial a possible life saving treatment would be unethical if we already know without any treatment what will happen. | that's correct! that would be unethical! there's another way though: instead of comparing to no treatment, compare the new treatment to the "good standard" treatment. this has two benefits: 1: everybody still gets treated, 2: it shows whether or not the new treatment is a suitable replacement to the common treatment. edit: i'm an idiot, should be "gold standard" not "good standard" | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19782876"
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what are the advantages of a bilayer membrane? | in class today we were told that archaea had membranes that contained ether rather than ester linkages, and that "ether bonds are chemically more resistant than ester bonds. this stability might help archaea to survive extreme temperatures and very acidic or alkaline environments." (from wiki). i asked the lecturer then what the advantage of having a bilayer with ester-linkages was, presuming they'd evolved from these early membranes, but he wasn't too sure. | are you asking for the advantages of a bilayer over a monolayer membrane? or the advantages of an ester over an ether for the membrane? | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the genuine cause of the shrinkage of schizophrenic brain? | [deleted] | there have been several studies with different outcomes concerning the shrinkage of gray matter, but no definite explanation yet. but i stumbled across a paper which tried to falsify the hypothesis of the shrinkage being due to medication. “because this differential rate of tissue loss was observed among subjects who had never been exposed to psychiatric drugs, we can conclude that the brain changes are part of the natural course of the disorder rather than being a consequence of treatment,” (cannon et al. 2014) they conclude that “(...) neuroinflammation may be a process that in some cases ‘tips people over’ from the at-risk state into psychosis.” (ibid.) source: [progressive reduction in cortical thickness as psychosis develops: a multisite longitudinal neuroimaging study of youth at elevated clinical risk](_url_0_) i suppose that we'll be seeing more neuropsychological studies concerning this topic in the future, seeing that fmri-studies are becoming more and more sophisticated, objective and valid. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://campuspress.yale.edu/cannonlab/files/2014/12/NAPLS-1n6q5pf.pdf"
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